Temperature increase: AT = 75°C = 25°C =$0°C Total resistance increase: AR = 0.630/°C x 50°C =31.50. Maximum resistance at 75°C: REAR = 1.26 kO+31.50 = 1,2915k2 ACCURACY, PRECISION AND RESOLUTION 1. Accuracy and Precision When a voltmeter with an ertor of 41% indicates exactly 100 V, the true level of the measured voltage is somewhere between 99 V and 101 V. Thus, the measurement accuracy of 41% defines how close the measurement is to the actual measured quantity. The precision with which the measurement is made is not the same as the accuracy of measurement, although accuracy and precision are related. Consider the digital voltmeter indication shown in Figure 2-4(a). For the 8.135 V quantity dicated, the last (right-side) numeral refers to millivolts. If the measured quantity increases or decreases by 1 mV, the reading becomes 8.136 V or 8.134 V, respectively. Therefore, the voltage is measured with a precision of 1 mV, For the analog voltmeter in Figure 2-4(b), the pointer position can be read to within (perhaps) one-fourth of the smallest scale division. Since the smallest scale division represents 0.2 V (on the 10 V range), one-fourth of the scale division is 50 mY. So 50 mV is the measurement precision of the analog instrument. Neither of these two ‘measurements (digital or analog) takes account of the measurement accuracy, ‘Thousandths of volts (ailivolts) peat tea 2 % e s ’ ° x % (@) Digital voltmeter display precision 1 mV (©) Analog instrument display precision 50 mV Figure 2-4 Measurement precision depends on the smallest change that can be observed in the measured quantity. A 1 mV change will be indicated on the digital voltmeter display above. For the analog instrument, 50 mV is the smallest change that can be noted. Suppose that the digital voltmeter referred to above has an accuracy of 40.2%. The measured voltage is 8.135 V+ 0.2%, or 8.135V = 16 mV, meaning that the actual voltage somewhere between 8.119 V and 8.151 V. So, although the quantity is measured with a precision of 1 mY, the measurement accuracy is +16 mV. The analog voltmeter in Figure 2-4(b) might have a typical accuracy of +2% of full scale, or +2% of 10 V. Thus, the measured quantity is4.85V +200 mv, that is, 4.65 V to 5.05 V. In this case, the measurement is made to a precision of 50 mY, but the measurement accuracy is +200 mV. ‘The measurement precision for the digital and analog instruments discussed above might seem unimportant given the possible error due to the instrument accuracy. However, the instrument accuracy normally depends on the accuracy of internal components, and any error due (o the measurement precision must be much smaller than that due to the specified accuracy of the instrument. 2. Resolution ‘The measurement precision of an instrument defines the smallest change in measured quantity that can be observed. ‘This (smallest observable change) is the resolution of the instrument. In the case of the 10 V analog instrument scale that can be read to a precision of 50mY, 5Om\ is the smallest voltage change that can observed. Thus, the measurement resolution is 50 mV. Similarly, with the digital instrument, the measurement resolution is 1 mV. Consider the potentiometer illustrated in Figure 2-5. The circuit symbol in Figure 2-S(a) illustrates a resistor with two terminals and a contact that can be moved anywhere between the two. The potentiometer construction shown in Figure 2-5(b) reveals that the movable contact slides over a track on one side of a number of tums of resistance wire. The contact does not slide along the whole length of the wire but jumps from one point on one turn of the wire to a point on the next tum. Assume that the total potentiometer resistance is 100 and that there are 1000 tums of wire. Each turn has a resistance of 1002 _ 910 1000 When the contact moves ftom one turn to the next, the resistance from any end to the moving contact changes by 0.1 Q. It can now be stated that the resistance from one end to the moving contact can be adjusted from 0 to 100 © with a resolution of 0.1 ©, or a resolution of 1 in 1000. In the case of the potentiometer, the resolution defines how precisely the resistance may be set. It also defines how precisely the variable voltage from the potentiometer moving contact may be adjusted when a potential difference is applied across the potentiometer. Moving contact find terminal \ Shaft for adjustment ‘Mo¥ing contact, terminal End terminal Resistance wire (a) Potentiometer circuit symbol (b) Potentiometer construction Figure 2-5 A potentiometer consists of a resistance wire wound around an insulating former.MEASUREMENT ERROR COMBINATIONS When a quantity is calculated from measurements made on two (or more) instruments, it must be assumed that the errors due to instrument inaccuracy combine in the worst possible way. ‘The resulting error is then larger than the error in anyone instrument. 1. Sum of Quantities Where a quantity is determined as the sum of two measurements, the total error is the sum of the absolute errors in each measurement. As illustrated in Figure 2-6(2), E~ (1, £AVi) + (V2 2AV2) giving B= (V+) (AV i+AF2) 1) Figure 2-6 (a) Error in sum of quantities equal sum of errors Example 2-2 Calculate the maximum percentage error in the sum of two voltage measurements when V=100V + 1% and V2 = 80VI5%, Solution Vy = 100 Vi1% = 100 V41V 80 Vi5% =80 Vid V (2-1) E = (Vit¥s) + (AVitAVA) = (L00V+80V) + (IVH4V) =180Vi5V = 180V#2.8% Vy In Example 2-2, note that the percentage error in the final quantity cannot be calculated directly from the percentage errors in the two measured quantities. Where two or more measured quantities are summed to determine a final quantity, the absolute values of the errors must be summed to find the total possible error.2 + www.globalautomation.info Instrument types and performance characteristics Example 2.1 ‘The following resistance values of 2 platinum resistance thermometer were measured at a range of temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument in ohmsi'C. Resistance (2) Temperature CO) 307 200 Bia 230 321 260 328 290 Solution If these values are plotted on a graph, the straight-line relationship between resistance change and temperature change is obvious. For a change in temperature of 30°C, the change in resistance is 72. Hence the ‘measurement sensitivity = 7/30 = 0.2339/°C. 2.2.7 Threshold If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, the input will have 10 reach a certain minimum level before the change in the instrument output reading is of a large enough magnitude to be detectable. This minimum level of input is known as the threshold of the instrument. Manufacturers vary in the way that they specify threshold for instruments. Some quote absolute values, whereas others quote threshold as a percentage of full-scale readings. As an illustration, a car speedometer typically has a threshold of about 15 km/h, This means that, if the vehicle starts from rest and acceler. ates, no output reading is observed on the speedometer until the speed reaches 15 kmv/h. 2.2.8 Resolution ‘When an instrument is showing a particular output reading, there isa lower limit on the ‘magnitude of the change in the inpat measured quantity that produces an observable change in the instrument output, Like threshold, resolution is sometimes specified as an absolute value and sometimes as a percentage of fs. deflection. One of the major factors influencing the resolution of an instrument is how finely its output scale is divided into subdivisions. Using a car speedometer as an example again, this has subdivisions of typically 20 knvh. This means that when the needle is between the scale markings, ‘we cannot estimate speed more accurately than to the nearest S km/h. This figure of 5 km/h thus represents the resolution of the instrument, 2.2.9 Sensitivity to disturbance All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure etc, These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the instrument specification. As variations occur in the ambient temperaturewww.globalautomation. info etc, certain static instrument characteristics change, and the sensitivity 0 disturbance is @ measure of the magnitude of this change. Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways, known as zero drift and sensitivity drift. Zero drift is sometimes known by the altemative term, bias. Zero drift ot bias describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a change in ambient conditions. This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of measurement of the instrument. The mechanical form of bathroom seale is a common example of an instrument that is prone to bias. It is quite usual to find that there is a reading of perhaps 1 kg with no one stood on the scale, If someone of known weight 70 ke were to get on the scale, the reading would be 71 kg, and if someone of known weight 100 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would be 101 kg. Zero drift is normally removable by calibration. In the case of the bathroom scale just described, a thumbwheel is usually provided that can be turned until the reading is zero with the scales unloaded, thus removing the bias. Zero drift is also commonly found in instruments like voltmeters that are affected by ambient temperature changes. Typical units by which such zero deft is measured are volts"C. This is often called the zero drift coefficient related to temperature changes, If the characteristic of an instrument is sensitive to several environmental parameters, then it will have several zero drift coefficients, one for each environmental parameter. A ypical change in the output characteristic of a pressure gauge subject to zero drift is shown in Figure 2.74). Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift) defines the amount by which an instrument's sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions change. It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that define how much deift there is for & unit change in each environmental parameter that the instrament characteristics are sensitive to, Many components within an instrument are affected by environmental fluctuations, suich as temperature changes: for instance, the modulus of elasticity of 2 spring is temperature dependent. Figure 2.7(b) shows what effect sensitivity drift can have on the output characteristic of an instrument. Sensitivity drift is measured in units of the form (angular degree/bar)/C. If an instrument suffers both zero drift and sensitivity drift at the same time, then the typical modification of the output characteristic is shown in Figure 2,7(c) Example 2.2 A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20°C and has the following deflection/load characteristic. Load (kg) 0 1 2 3 Deflection (mm) 0 20 40. 60 It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30°C and the following deflec- tion/load characteristic is measured. Load (kg) Deflection (mm) 5 2 49 a Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per °C change in ambient temperature, ‘Measurement and Instrumentation Principles 212 www.globalautomation.info Instrument types and performance characteristics Sealo Seale reading reading { chanson win zon | it 277 Nominal characterise Character with sensi drt Nominal characters Proseure Prosaure ) © Scale Characteristic with zero reaing dnt and sensitivity att 7 Nominal characteristic Pressure © Fig. 2.7 Etfects of disturbance: (0) zero di) senstvty it; (zero dit plus sensi dit Solution AL 20°C, deflection/load characteristic isa straight line. Sensitivity = 20 mnvkg. At 30°C, defiection/load characteristic is still a straight line. Sensitivity = 22 mavk. Bias (zero drift) = 5mm (the no-load deflection) Sensitivity drift = 2mmv/kg Zero dtift/"C = $/10 = 0.5 mm°C Sensitivity drift/"C = 2/10 = 0.2 (mm per key°C 2.2.10 Hysteresis effects Figure 2.8 illustrates the output characteristic of an instrument that exhibits hysteresis. If the input measured quantity to the instrument is steadily increased from a negative value, the output reading varies in the manner shown in curve (a). Ifthe input variable is then steadily decreased, the output varies in the manner shown in curve (b). The non-coincidence between these loading and unloeding curves is known as hysteresis. ‘Two quantities are defined, maximum input hysteresis and maximum output hysteresis, as shown in Figure 2.8, These are normally expressed as a percentage of the full-scale input or output reading respectively.www.globalautomation. info 30 Instrument types and performance characteristics at cach point in its output range until its output readings are the same as those of a second standard instrument to which the same inputs are applied. This second instru- ment is one Kept solely for calibration purposes whose specifications are accurately known. Calibration procedures are discussed more fully in Chapter 4. 2.1 Explain what is meant by: (@) active instruments (b) passive instruments Give examples of each and discuss the relative merits of these two classes of instruments 22 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of null and deflection types of ‘measuring instrument. What are null types of instrument mainly used for and why? 2.3 Briefly define and explain all the static characteristics of measuring instruments, 24 Explain the difference between accuracy and precision in an instrument. 2.5 A tungsten/S% thenium—tngsten/26% rhenium thermocouple has an output ‘em. as shown in the following table when its hot (measuring) junction is, at the temperatures shown, Determine the sensitivity of measurement for the thermocouple in m¥°C. mV 437° 87401311748 "C250 500,750 = 1000 nsitivity drift and zero drift. What factors can cause sensitivity drift and instrument characteristics? 2.7 (a) An instrument is calibrated in an environment at a wmperature of 20°C and the Following output readings y are obtained for various input values y 11 262 393 S24 s 5 10 18 20 Determine the measurement sensitivity, expressed as the ratio ys 'b) When the instrument is subsequently used in an environment al a temperstate C. the inpuoutput characteristic changes to the following: v7 A aL RR RS RRA a . SSeS SS SSS —— onsiuviy NOTE BES Determine the new measurement S ‘ith ue Wo the change in ambient temperature of 30°Cwww.globalautomation.info ‘Measurement and Instrumentation Principles 31 2.8 A load cell is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 21°C and has the following deflection/load characteristic: Load (kg) 0 50 100150200 Deflection(mm) 00 10 20 30 40 ‘When used in an environment at 35°C, its characteristic changes tothe following Load kg) 0.) "50100" is0" 200 Deffection(mm) 02 13 24 35 46 (a) Determine the sensitivity at 21°C and 35°C. (b) Calculate the total zero drift and sensitivity drift at 35°C. (©) Hence determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift coefficients (in units of jum/°C and (um per kg)/CC)). 29 An unmanned submarine is equipped with temperature and depth measuring instruments and has radio equipment that can transmit the output readings of these instruments back to the surface. The submarine is initially floating on the surface of the sea with the instrument output readings in steady state. The depth- measuring instrument is approximately zero order and the temperature transducer first order with a time constant of 50 seconds. The water temperature on the sea surface, To, is 20°C and the temperature Ty at a depth of x metres is given by the relation: Ty =To-0.01x () If the submarine starts diving at time zero, and thereafter goes down at a velocity of 0.5 metres/second, draw a table showing the temperature and depth measurements reported at intervals of 100 seconds over the first 500 seconds of travel, Show also in the table the etror in each temperature reading. (b)_ What temperature does the submarine report at a depth of 1000 metres?” 2.10 Write down the general differential equation describing the dynamic response of a second order measuring instrument and state the expressions relating the static sensitivity, undamped natural frequency and damping ratio to the parameters in this differential equation, Sketch the instrument response for the cases of heavy damping, critical damping and light damping, and state which of these is the usual target when a second order instrument is being designed.