A method for deriving sub-permafrost groundwater

salinity and total dissolved solids

Juliana M. Martin, Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
Cameron J. Clayton, Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
Brent Murphy, Seabridge Gold Inc., Canada

Abstract
The groundwater chemistry of sub-permafrost aquifers in the north is characterized by saline waters.
Mining activities in the north may intersect this deep regional groundwater system. In such cases, the
water inflows to the mine need to be managed, monitored and, if necessary, treated prior to discharge.
Characterizing the groundwater chemistry beneath permafrost is important for evaluating project
feasibility as the costs associated with water treatment options can be prohibitively expensive; it is also an
essential part of successful project permitting and water licensing requirements.
Low-risk and low-cost methods to collect physical groundwater samples from beneath the
permafrost are currently not available. Sample collection methods often involve a conventional
monitoring well system that requires the use of heat trace cable to maintain the open well through frozen
ground. More sophisticated methods involve specialized multi-port sampling systems which rely on
propylene glycol to maintain access to sampling ports. The installation of these systems through deep
permafrost carries a high degree of uncertainty and a high cost.
This paper presents a practical and cost-effective approach for collecting data to derive sub-
permafrost groundwater salinity and total dissolved solids (TDS). The method involves the installation of
an electrical conductivity probe with data logging capability below permafrost in a borehole. The installed
probe measures conductivity and temperature. Other parameters, such as specific conductivity, salinity,
TDS, resistivity, and water density, can then be derived. The equipment costs associated with this
instrumentation are significantly less than those of conventional or multi-port monitoring well systems.
A case study of an unsuccessful installation is presented. The physical environment associated with
the installation is described and the possible causes for instrument failure are discussed. A second case
study is presented describing the successful installation of two electrical conductivity probes through
permafrost. The measured and derived data collected over a period of two years are presented, showing
the re-establishment of equilibrium conditions. One probe is installed in the basal cryopeg, providing data
within cryotic (sub-zero) but non-frozen ground. The derived TDS data are presented with historical data
describing trends of TDS with depth in the Canadian Shield. The data are compared to analyses of
recently collected groundwater samples from the project.

Introduction
This paper describes the methodology used to install electrical conductivity (EC) probes through
permafrost into the aquifer below. The data collected from these probes can be used to estimate
groundwater salinity and total dissolved solids (TDS). The data are compared with analytical results from
groundwater samples collected at a given site and with documented trends in TDS with depth. Knowledge
of the TDS and salinity can guide decision making during environmental studies and infrastructure design
for mining projects. EC probes installed below the permafrost can be used as an alternative to other more
costly methods used to obtain TDS and salinity.

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The data can be used to estimate freezing point depression in the deep groundwater aquifer resulting
from high TDS. The degree to which freezing point is depressed can have a significant impact on
predicted inflows to mining developments that penetrate the base of permafrost; groundwater inflows may
be encountered at significantly shallower depth than predicted by the geothermal profile. This can also
affect mining as unexpected groundwater pressures may contribute to ground destabilization.

Background
Mining projects in northern environments face unique and significant challenges, many of which are
imposed by the harsh climate in which mining activities are undertaken. The projects are often underlain
by permafrost. A map showing the permafrost distribution throughout Canada and the locations of the
two projects discussed in this paper is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Permafrost map of Canada (adapted from National Resources Canada, 1993)

Permafrost is the state in which the terrain, or terrain material, continuously exists at a temperature
below 0°C for two or more years. In continuous permafrost regions the thickness of permafrost may range
from less than 200 m to greater than 600 m. A schematic cross section showing typical permafrost terrain
features and groundwater flow conditions is shown in Figure 2.
Beneath the permafrost is a hydrogeological system characterized by brines showing increasing
salinity and TDS with depth. The largest contributors to salinity in the sub-permafrost groundwater are

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 MINEWATER SOLUTIONS IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS  LIMA, PERU, 2013

typically chloride, calcium, and sodium as documented in other northern and arctic locations (Frape and
Fritz, 1987; Stotler et al., 2009).

Figure 2: Schematic cross section showing permafrost terrain and groundwater flow regime

Significant water inflows may be encountered when mining activities extend below permafrost. The
inflows must be managed and in many cases treated prior to release to the receiving environment. Plans
and procedures to monitor, control, and treat these elevated salinity and TDS concentrations may be
necessary for project compliance with water license requirements. As part of this general process, the
characterization of the sub-permafrost groundwater quality and predictions of groundwater inflow
chemistry to the mine are commonly included in the environmental assessment of a project.
One of the greatest challenges with characterizing these waters is the presence and substantial
thickness of permafrost which hinders the ability to sample them.

Current methods used to collect sub-permafrost groundwater samples

Collecting a water sample from beneath the permafrost is challenging, particularly in areas of deep
permafrost. Some of the methods for sampling connate water have been described by Black et al. (2012).
These may involve one of the following:
1. Conventional monitoring and sampling well installation with heat trace cable;
2. Groundwater sample collection from open borehole with packers; and,
3. Westbay well installation.

All of these methods are technically challenging to design, physically challenging to implement,
costly, and carry no guarantee of success, particularly in areas of deep continuous permafrost. Some of
the details of these methods are described in the following sections.

Conventional sampling well installation with heat trace cable

The conventional monitoring well installation includes a poly vinyl chloride (PVC) or stainless steel
standpipe placed into a borehole to the depth of the desired sampling interval. The bottom section of the
pipe is screened and the interval is isolated from the upper part of the borehole. In permafrost conditions,
conventional well installations require that the length of pipe within the permafrost be equipped with a
heat trace cable to prevent freezing.
A challenge associated with this design is supplying the power to the heat trace cable required to
keep the well thawed for well development and sampling to be carried out. On remote sites electrical
power is provided by generators. The number of generators required is based on the number and length of
heat trace cables installed. The generators must be operated continuously, requiring constant supervision

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for refueling and maintenance. The frozen portion of the well must be thawed prior to each sampling
event, which can take many days. There is also a risk of damage to the well after power has been removed
and the well freezes back.

Groundwater sample collection from open borehole with packers

Groundwater samples can also be collected in open boreholes through shallow permafrost. The interval to
be sampled is temporarily sealed off with packers installed on dedicated test rods. A down-hole pump or a
swabbing tool is used to remove slugs of water from the interval. This purges the drilling water to allow
sampling of the formation water.
A challenge associated with this method is preventing the water in the borehole and test rods from
freezing. To overcome this, heated water is circulated in the annulus between the borehole and the test
rods above the packer using small diameter line(s) attached to the outside of the test rods. This method is
limited by the thickness of permafrost. In deep permafrost, it is difficult to keep the circulated water warm
enough while the drill rods are stationary to prevent freezing. There is also a significant cost associated
with this method because a drill rig is required during purging and sampling. Another limitation of this
method is that there is no opportunity for resampling from the same well.

Westbay well installation

The Westbay system is a monitoring well system designed by Schlumberger Ltd. that allows for long-
term groundwater monitoring of multiple discreet intervals within a single borehole (Schlumberger Ltd.,
2012). The intervals are isolated using fluid-inflated packers that remain inflated until the well is
decommissioned. Small sampling ports exist within each interval that remain closed and can only be
opened using a Westbay probe, a sampling tool that locates and opens the port valve. The installation of
Westbay systems through permafrost requires the use of propylene glycol inside the casing and in the
annulus between the casing and the borehole wall to prevent the well from freezing.
A challenge associated with the installation of a Westbay well in permafrost is the length of time
required for well installation and the associated risk of freezing the casing in the hole before target depths
are reached. Furthermore, the integrity of each joint cannot be tested during installation. A significant
disadvantage of this method is the amount of time required for sampling interval development.
In 2011, one Westbay well was installed through permafrost at the Meliadine Project and two
Westbay wells were installed through permafrost at the Courageous Lake Project. The Meliadine well
was installed to a depth of 663 m with six sampling intervals below the base of the permafrost. Currently
one interval in this well has been fully developed and sampled. The first well installed at Courageous
Lake (Westbay 1) was to a depth of 624.5 m with five sampling intervals situated below permafrost. The
second well (Westbay 2) was installed to a depth of 624.3 m with four sampling intervals situated below
permafrost. Currently, two intervals within the second well have been fully developed and sampled.

Electrical conductivity probe method to derive groundwater salinity and TDS

The cost associated with the above methods prompted Golder Associates Ltd. (Golder) to consider the use
of EC probes as a cost-effective alternative for estimating groundwater salinity and TDS. Electrical
conductivity is commonly used to provide estimates of water chemistry such as salinity and TDS. EC
probes are widely used in water-related industries such as hydroponics, fisheries, aquaculture, soil
characterization, agriculture, contaminant transport monitoring, and water treatment.
It was theorized that an EC probe installed beneath permafrost could provide TDS and salinity data
at a lower cost than conventional water sampling methods. The probes measure the actual conductivity
and temperature and derive other groundwater parameters such as specific conductivity, salinity, TDS,
resistivity, and water density according to standard methods (In-Situ Inc., 2012).

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Case histories
The Meliadine and Courageous Lake Projects are located within the zone of continuous permafrost, with
intervening taliks and thaw bulbs induced by lakes. The climate is sub-arctic, characterized by long, cold
winters and short, cool summers. The ground ice content in the region is between 0% and 10% (dry
permafrost) based on the regional scale compilation data and the Canada Permafrost Map published by
Natural Resources Canada (1993). The projects are in ‘cold’ permafrost, having an average annual surface
temperature and zero amplitude temperature less than –4°C.
Meliadine Project (Agnico-Eagle Mines Ltd.)
The Meliadine Project site is located approximately 25 km north of the Hamlet of Rankin Inlet near the
western shore of Hudson Bay in the Kivalliq region of Nunavut, Canada (Agnico-Eagle Mines Ltd.,
2012). Average temperatures for January range from approximately –37 to –25°C, and average
temperatures for July range from approximately 7 to 15°C (Environment Canada, 2012). The depth of
zero annual amplitude ranges from 15 to 35 m, with temperatures ranging from –5.0 to –7.5°C. The
permafrost thickness ranges from approximately 360 to 495 m, depending on the proximity to water
bodies.
In 2009, Golder installed an EC probe into an NQ borehole to a depth of 595.5 m. Following
borehole completion, a calcium chloride brine solution was used to flush the borehole to prevent it from
freezing, and hydrogeological testing was conducted. An Aqua TROLL 100 EC probe (manufactured by
In-Situ Inc.) was installed to a downhole depth of 550 m. The probe failed after approximately 18 hours
and provided no useable data to describe the sub-permafrost groundwater quality.
Following the failure of the probe, Aquatic Life Ltd. provided an Aqua TROLL 100 to Golder for
additional testing. The objective of this testing was to better understand the limitations of the probe and
its capabilities in extreme environmental conditions in order to improve on the installation technique.
Golder carried out a series of tests on the probe, including freezing of the probe and assessment of the
probe operation at high salinity and high pressure.
Based on the testing, it was concluded that the main cause of the probe failure was the high salinity
of the brine used to flush the borehole. The installation methodology was subsequently modified to
include flushing of the borehole with fresh water to dilute the brine.
Courageous Lake Project (Seabridge Gold Inc.)
The Courageous Lake Project site is located approximately 240 km north-east of Yellowknife in the
Northwest Territories, Canada. Average temperatures range from approximately –29 to 21°C (Seabridge
Gold Inc., 2011). Based on thermistor data, the thickness of permafrost is between approximately 362 and
422 m. Anecdotal information from an exploration shaft excavated by Noranda Inc. in the late 1980s
indicates water inflows were first noted at a depth of 319 m.
In 2010, Golder installed two EC probes in boreholes CL-119 and CL-121 on the project site. Both
boreholes were drilled with NQ3 drilling equipment with collar inclinations of approximately 70 degrees.
Following borehole completion, a calcium chloride brine solution was used to flush the boreholes to
prevent them from freezing, and hydrogeological testing was conducted. Each borehole was then
instrumented with one Aqua TROLL 100 EC probe. The probe in CL-119 was installed at a downhole
depth of 493.7 m, along with a 500 m, 11 point thermistor cable with a single vibrating wire pressure
transducer. The probe in CL-121 was installed as a single instrument at a downhole depth of 388.3 m.
Both installations were successful and the probes continue to operate, collecting data every 24 hours.

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 CHAPTER 3  EXTREMELY COLD SETTINGS

Installation methodology
Equipment
The Aqua TROLL 100 EC probe measures and records actual conductivity and temperature (In-Situ Inc.,
2012). Other parameters such as specific conductivity, salinity, TDS, water density, and resistivity can be
calculated and stored by the probe. The probes have 4.0 megabytes of memory and operate on a 3.6 volt
battery having a typical life of five years. The data can be downloaded by connecting to the EC probe
cable and using the program WinSitu 5.0 Plus.
Procedure
Prior to installation, the hole was flushed with saline water to reach a nominal salinity of 30% to prevent
borehole freezing. The probe was calibrated on surface. It was then lowered using PVC pipe as a
downhole guide and to measure instrument depth during installation. Holes drilled in the bottom pieces of
PVC pipe were used to flush with warm fresh water for 10 to 12 hours before the probe was activated.
This was done to dilute the brine concentration in the borehole prior to the probe’s activation. The hole
was not grouted on completion, but rather was allowed to freeze naturally within the permafrost.

Results
The results of the most recent data download from the two EC probes are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Installation details and measured and derived parameters at CL-119 and CL-121

Data CL-119 CL-121

Vertical depth of installation (mbgs) 447.4 351.9
Probe elevation (MASL) −18.8 71.6
Date of installation 31 August 2010 10 September 2010
Date of last reading 06 August 2012 03 August 2012
Formation hydraulic conductivity (m/s) 10-8 10-9 to 10-10
Thermal equilibration time (approximate) 2 weeks 2 months
Chemical equilibration time (approximate) 7 months 20 months*
Temperature (°C) 1.020 −0.458
Actual conductivity (µS/cm) 8108 3250
Specific conductivity (µS/cm) 14960 6325
TDS (ppm) 9724 4111
Salinity (PSU) 8.269 3.261
Resistivity (ohm-cm) 123.3 307.7
Water density (g/cm3) 1.007 1.002
TDS conversion factor (TDS/specific conductivity) 0.65 0.65
* Additional data required to confirm equilibrium has been reached

The data for the probes installed in CL-119 and CL-121 are shown in Figures 3 and 4, respectively.
The thermal and chemical equilibration times have been estimated from time series graphs of the
measured and derived parameters from installation to present.

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 MINEWATER SOLUTIONS IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS  LIMA, PERU, 2013

CL-119
447.4 m Below Ground Surface
31 August 2010 to 06 August 2012
16,000 15
Actual Conductivity, Specific Conductivity and TDS
14,960 µS/cm

14,000 13

Temperature, Salinity and Density

12,000 11

9,724 ppm
10,000 9

8.269 PSU
8,000 7
8,108 mS/cm

6,000 5

4,000 3

1.020 deg C
2,000 1
1.007 g/cm3

0 -1
30-Mar-11
27-Apr-11

29-Feb-12
28-Mar-12
25-Apr-12
18-Aug-10
15-Sep-10

10-Nov-10

5-Jan-11

2-Mar-11

20-Jul-11
17-Aug-11
14-Sep-11

4-Jan-12

18-Jul-12
15-Aug-12
8-Dec-10

2-Feb-11

25-May-11

1-Feb-12

23-May-12
13-Oct-10

22-Jun-11

9-Nov-11
7-Dec-11
12-Oct-11

20-Jun-12
Date
Actual Conductivity (µS/cm) Specific Conductivity (µS/cm) Total Dissolved Solids (ppm)
Temperature (C) Water Density (g/cm³) Salinity (PSU)
Figure 3: Electrical conductivity probe measured and derived parameters for CL-119
CL-121
351.9 m Below Ground Surface
10 September 2010 to 04 August 2012
7,000 6
6,325 mS/cm
Actual Conductivity, Specific Conductivity, and TDS

6,000 5

Temperature, Salinity, and Density

5,000 4
3.261 PSU

4,000 3
4,111 ppm

3,000 3,250 mS/cm 2

1.002 g/cm3
2,000 1

1,000 0
-0.458 deg C

0 -1
30-Mar-11
27-Apr-11

18-Jul-12
18-Aug-10
15-Sep-10

10-Nov-10

29-Feb-12
28-Mar-12
25-Apr-12
5-Jan-11

2-Mar-11

20-Jul-11
17-Aug-11
14-Sep-11

15-Aug-12
8-Dec-10

2-Feb-11

25-May-11

9-Nov-11

4-Jan-12
7-Dec-11

1-Feb-12

23-May-12
13-Oct-10

22-Jun-11

12-Oct-11

20-Jun-12

Date
Actual Conductivity (µS/cm) Specific Conductivity (µS/cm) Total Dissolved Solids (ppm)
Temperature (deg C) Water Density (g/cm³) Salinity (PSU)
Figure 4: Electrical conductivity probe measured and derived parameters for CL-121

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 CHAPTER 3  EXTREMELY COLD SETTINGS

Discussion
Comparison of electrical conductivity probe data and historical TDS data
The TDS derived from the steady-state EC probe data have been compared with the laboratory analytical
test results of two water samples collected from the Westbay 2 well at Courageous Lake. These data are
presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Comparison of EC probe derived TDS data with analytical data

Sample Depth (m) TDS (mg/L)

Westbay 2 – Interval 2 553* 9495

Westbay 2 – Interval 3 493* 8215
EC Probe CL-119 447.4 9724
EC Probe CL-121 351.9 4111
* Approximate midpoint of interval

Figure 5 presents the Courageous Lake data along with groundwater TDS concentrations with depth
from project sites in the Canadian Shield (Frape and Fritz, 1987) and from Diavik and Lupin mines
(Kuchling et al., 2000). The data indicate that TDS and salinity increase with depth. This is consistent
with the general trend of increasing TDS concentration with depth determined from historical studies of
analytical data.
Figure 5 shows that the results of the derived TDS data from the EC probes are consistent with TDS
data from laboratory analyses of groundwater samples. This suggests that the EC probe method can be
used as a reliable predictor of TDS concentrations from beneath thick permafrost and in the absence of
water samples. A disadvantage of the EC probe method is that it does not provide information on the
identity nor the concentration of specific ionic compounds within the deep groundwater. Therefore, where
knowing the specific chemistry of the groundwater is essential for the development of a mining project,
the EC probe method may not preclude the collection of a water sample. However, in cases where only
the TDS concentrations and salinity are required, this method could be an acceptable substitute for the
collection and analysis of a water sample.

Equilibration time
The time series plots shown in Figures 3 and 4 show two distinct trends for thermal and chemical
equilibration. The ground temperatures equilibrate rapidly, whereas the actual conductivity and derived
parameters equilibrates over many months. CL-119 reaches steady state in 7 months whereas CL-121
requires approximately 20 months before reaching steady state.
The length of time for chemical equilibration is related to the hydraulic conductivity of the bedrock
and to the sub-permafrost flow regime. As reported in Table 1, the hydraulic conductivity of the bedrock
in CL-121 is one to two orders of magnitude lower than in CL-119. Consequently, the time for steady-
state chemical conditions to be reached in CL-121 is much greater than for CL-119. It is noteworthy that
the trend to equilibrium conditions of CL-119 is well defined, whereas for CL-121 the trend is less stable.
While the probe in CL-121 appears to have reached equilibrium, additional data over time are still
required to confirm this.

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 MINEWATER SOLUTIONS IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS  LIMA, PERU, 2013

TDS (mg/L)
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
0

100 Courageous Lake

Data

200
EC Probe CL-121

300
EC Probe CL-119

400
WB2 Interval 3
Diavik Data
500 and Trend WB2 Interval 2

600

Range and
Depth (m)

700
General Trend of
Frape and Fritz
800 Data (1987)

900

1000

1100
Lupin Mine Data
and Trend
1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

Figure 5: Courageous Lake TDS data compared with historical TDS data

A contributing factor to the different equilibration trend of the CL-121 probe may be its location
within the geothermal profile. The freezing point of water decreases when pressure and salinity increase.
As a consequence of this, the depth to which perennially frozen ground (frozen ground and frozen water)
extends may be less than the depth of permafrost. The transition zone from perennially frozen ground to
the base of permafrost is unfrozen but cryotic with a temperature below 0°C. This is the basal cryopeg
and contains appreciable amounts of unfrozen water. The depth and thickness of the basal cryopeg is
controlled by the freezing point depression, which is dependent on the pore water salinity and hydrostatic
pressure at a given depth. The equilibrium temperature recorded in CL-121 is –0.46°C at a depth of 352
m. The probe continues to operate, collecting temperature and conductivity data at a temperature below

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 CHAPTER 3  EXTREMELY COLD SETTINGS

0°C. Based on this observation, the recorded data, and the irregular equilibration curve it is theorized that
the probe has been installed in the basal cryopeg. This is shown conceptually in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Conceptual geothermal profile in permafrost (after French, 2007)

The temperature recorded by the probe in CL-121 was compared to data from the thermistor
installed in CL-119. There is no thermistor node on the CL-119 thermistor string at the same depth as the
EC probe in CL-121, so the geothermal profile was used to estimate the temperature at this depth. The
geothermal profile in CL-119 suggests a temperature of –0.34°C at a depth of 352 m below ground
surface. This is consistent with the temperature recorded by the EC probe in CL-121. The temperature
data collected from the thermistor in CL-119 and corresponding geothermal gradient are shown in Figure
7. Also shown in Figure 7 are the temperature recorded by the EC probes in CL-119 and CL-121, the base
of permafrost at 371 m, and the inferred thickness of the basal cryopeg. The inferred thickness of the

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 MINEWATER SOLUTIONS IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS  LIMA, PERU, 2013

basal cryopeg is based on the anecdotal data from the Noranda Inc. shaft and on the geothermal profile
from the CL-119 thermistor.
Temperature (degrees C)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0

25 CL-121 Probe
Temperature
50

75 CL-119 Probe
Temperature
100

125 CL-119 Thermistor

Freezing point depression
Geothermal Gradient
due to hydrostatic pressure
150

175

200
Vertical Depth (m below ground surface)

225

250 Depth of water in

Noranda Inc. shaft
275

300
319
325
Inferred thickness of
350 basal cryopeg
375 371

400

425 Base of permafrost from

CL-119 thermistor
450

475

500

525

550

575

Figure 7: Measured geothermal profile in CL-119 with EC probe temperature data

Conclusion
The presence of connate waters below the permafrost presents challenges for many northern mines where
mining activities extend below the permafrost. Groundwater characterization is required for water
management infrastructure design and for licensing and permitting such that a project operates in
compliance with governing regulatory bodies. Groundwater characterization is commonly done using
analytical data from water samples. Methods of collecting water samples from below deep permafrost are
both challenging and costly. An alternative method for estimating TDS and salinity of the sub-permafrost

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 CHAPTER 3  EXTREMELY COLD SETTINGS

aquifer has been proposed and involves the installation of EC probes below the permafrost as a means of
deriving these parameters.
Two EC probes were successfully installed below deep permafrost at the Courageous Lake Project.
The derived TDS and salinity from the EC probes were compared with analytical data from water samples
taken from a Westbay well installed at the project site. The data were also compared with the historical
database of groundwater samples collected from various projects in the Canadian Shield, as documented
by Frape and Fritz (1987), and with data from Diavik and Lupin. The derived salinity and TDS
parameters are consistent with the general trend of historical data, and with the site-specific trends.
It has been demonstrated that EC probes can be used as reliable predictors of salinity and TDS
concentrations in groundwater beneath thick permafrost. For projects where knowing the specific water
chemistry of the sub-permafrost aquifer is not essential, or projects where water chemistry is already
understood, the EC probe method may be an acceptable substitute for the collection and analysis of a
water sample. For projects where detailed water chemistry is required and where no other data are
available, the EC probe method may not preclude the collection of a water sample.
A limitation of the EC probe method is that it measures temperature and actual conductivity and
therefore cannot provide information on specific ionic concentrations. Another significant limitation is the
length of time required for equilibration to occur. There is no groundwater extraction involved in this
method and, as a result, there is no efficient method of purging the meteoric water in order to achieve
background conditions. The elapsed time from installation to steady state is therefore dependent on the
hydraulic conductivity of the rock and regional groundwater flow. The resulting equilibration period can
be considerably long.
Despite these limitations, the installation of EC probes at an early project stage can provide an
indication of TDS and salinity and can assist project proponents to make early informed project decisions.
Advantages of the EC probe method relative to water sample collection methods include the relative ease
of installation and relatively low cost. However, the success rate of this method is not yet proven as only
three probes have been installed for the purpose described in this paper. Additional probe installations
during future project work, and the reporting of the results, will help to validate this method.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the support received from Seabridge Gold Inc. and Agnico-Eagle Mines
Ltd. Mike Dobr of Golder Associates Ltd. first suggested the deep installation of an electrical
conductivity probe to derive TDS and salinity parameters. Valérie Bertrand and Don Chorley of Golder
Associates Ltd. provided technical review of this paper, and guidance on hydrogeological and
geochemical aspects. We thank Denis Vachon of Golder Associates Ltd. for his experimental work with
the Aqua TROLL 100 following the failure of the first probe installation.

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