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Antidifferentiation Techniques
Thus F (x) = |x|. Then F is not an antiderivative for f , since we know that
F is not differentiable at 0. R
I will always try to make it clear whether f represents an antiderivative
or an indefinite integral in cases where it makes a difference.
328
17.1. THE ANTIDIFFERENTIATION PROBLEM 329
and Z b
int(f(x) , x = a..b); = f (x)dx.
a
> int(1/ln(x),x);
−Ei( 1, −ln( x ) )
> int(sin(x)/x,x);
Si( x )
> int( ((1-x)^(3/5))/ (x^(12/5)),x);
Z
5 2 − 5 x + 3 x2 1
− q − −3/14 q dx
14 x 5 (−1 + x)2 x2 5
(−1 + x)2 x2
In the first four cases, an answer has been given involving names of func-
tions we have not seen before, (and which we will not see again in this course).
The definitions of these functions are:
Z x
sin(t)
Si(x) = dt, (17.4)
0 t
Z N −xt
e
Ei(n, x) = lim dt, (n ∈ Z+ ) (17.5)
N →∞ 1 tn
2 Z x −t2
erf(x) = √ e dt. (17.6)
π 0
sin(t)
In equation (17.4), we assume that = 1 when t = 0. The function Si is
t
called the sine integral. In equation (17.5), Ei(n, x) makes sense only when
x is positive. The definition of Ei(n, x) for x < 0 involves ideas we have not
discussed. The function Ei is called the exponential integral.
The
R x2
function erf is called the error function. The answer given√by Maple
for e dx involves the symbol I. This is Maple’s notation for −1. The
definition of erf(Ix) makes no sense in terms of concepts we have studied.
However you can use Maple to calculate integrals even Zif you do not know
1
what the symbols mean. The following instructions find exp(x2 )dx:
0
17.2. BASIC FORMULAS 331
and
d³ ´
ln(| csc(f (x)) + cot(f (x))|) = − csc(f (x))f 0 (x).
dx
and Z
csc(f (x))f 0 (x)dx = − ln(| csc(f (x)) + cot(f (x))|).
You should add these two formulas to the list of antiderivatives to be memo-
rized.
and Z Z
cf = c f. (17.9)
F 0 = f and G0 = g
(F ± G)0 = F 0 ± G0 = f ± g
It appears reasonable to take f (x) = (x3 + 1), and then f 0 (x) = 3x2 . The
3x2 doesn’t quite appear in the integral, but I can get it where I need it by
multiplying by a constant, and using (17.9):
Z
2 3 3 1Z 1 (x3 + 1)4 (x3 + 1)4
x (x + 1) dx = (3x2 )(x3 + 1)3 dx = = .
3 3 4 12
Z
17.11 Example. We will calculate x(x3 + 1)3 dx.
This problem is more complicated than the last one. Here I still want to take
f (x) = (x3 + 1), but I cannot get the “f 0 (x)” that I need. I will multiply out
(x3 + 1)3
Z Z
x(x3 + 1)3 dx = x((x3 )3 + 3(x3 )2 + 3(x3 ) + 1)dx
Z
= (x10 + 3x7 + 3x4 + x)dx
x11 x8 x5 x2
= +3 +3 + .
11 8 5 2
Z
2
17.12 Example. We will calculate tet dt.
Z
t2 1Z 2
te dt = (2t)et dt.
2
d 2
Since (t ) = 2t we get
dt Z
2 1 2
tet dt = et .
2
334 CHAPTER 17. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES
Z
2
17.13 Example. We will consider et dt.
Although this problem looks similar to the one we just did, it can be shown
that no function built up from the functions we have studied by algebraic
operations is an antiderivative for exp(t2 ). So we will not find the desired
antiderivative. (But by the fundamental theorem of the calculus we know that
2
et has an antiderivative.)
Z
17.14 Example. We will calculate tan.
Z Z Z
sin cos0
tan = =− = − ln(| cos |).
cos cos
Z a
1
17.15 Example. We will calculate dx.
0 a + x2
2
1 1
The integrand 2 looks enough like that I will try to get an arctan
a + x2 1 + x2
from this integral.
Z
1 1 Z 1
2 2
= 2 ³ ´2 dx
a +x a 1 + xa
µ ¶
d x 1
Now = , so
dx a a
Z µ ¶ µ ¶
1 1Z 1 d x 1 x
= ³ ´ 2 dx = arctan .
a 2 + x2 a 1 + x dx a a a
a
1
Thus we have found an antiderivative for . Hence
a2 + x2
Z a ¯
1 1 x ¯¯a 1 π
2 2
dx = arctan( )¯ = arctan(1) = .
0 a +x a a 0 a 4a
17.16 Exercise. Find the following antiderivatives:
Z
a) ex sin(ex )dx.
Z
ex
b) dx.
sin(ex )
17.3. INTEGRATION BY PARTS 335
Z
c) (3w4 + w)2 (12w3 + 1)dw.
Z
d) cos(4x)dx.
Z
2x
e) dx.
1 + x2
Z
f) cot(2x)dx.
Z
2
g) dw.
1 + w2
Z
2w
h) dw.
1 + w2
Z
i) sin3 (x)dx.
Z
j) sin4 (x)dx.
Proof: This theorem is just a restatement of the product rule for differ-
entiation. If f and g are differentiable on (a, b) then the product rule says
that
(f g)0 = f 0 g + g 0 f
so that
g 0 f = (f g)0 − f 0 g
336 CHAPTER 17. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES
R R
on (a, b). If f 0 g is an antiderivative for f 0 g on [a, b], then f g − f 0 g is
continuous on [a, b], and
Z
(f g − f 0 g)0 = (f g)0 − f 0 g = g 0 f
R
on (a, b). We have shown that f g − f 0 g is an antiderivative for g 0 f on [a, b]. |||
Z π
17.19 Example. We will calculate x sin(3x)dx. We begin by searching
0
for an antiderivative for x sin(3x). Let
f (x) = x,
g 0 (x) = sin(3x),
f 0 (x) = 1,
1
g(x) = − cos(3x).
3
Then by the formula for integration by parts
Z Z
x sin(3x)dx = f (x)g 0 (x)dx
Z
= f (x)g(x) − f 0 (x)g(x)dx
x 1Z
= − cos(3x) + cos(3x)dx
3 3
x 1
= − cos(3x) + sin(3x).
3 9
(17.20)
Hence
Z π ¯
x 1 ¯π
x sin(3x)dx = ( − cos(3x) + sin(3x))¯¯
0 3 9 0
π π
= − cos(3π) = .
3 3
R
Suppose I had tried to find x sin(3x) in the following way: Let
f (x) = sin(3x),
g 0 (x) = x,
f 0 (x) = 3 cos(3x),
1 2
g(x) = x.
2
17.3. INTEGRATION BY PARTS 337
Z Integration by
Z parts is used to evaluate
Z antiderivatives of the forms
n n n x
x sin(ax)dx, x cos(ax)dx, and x e dx when n is a positive integer.
Z
These can be reduced to antiderivatives of the forms xn−1 sin(ax)dx,
Z Z
xn−1 cos(ax)dx, and xn−1 ex dx, so by applying the process n times we get
the power of x down to x0 , which gives us antiderivatives we can easily find.
R
17.22 Example. We will calculate sin(ln(x)).
Let
f (x) = sin(ln(x)),
g 0 (x) = 1,
g(x) = x,
cos(ln(x))
f 0 (x) = .
x
Then
Z Z Z
0
sin(ln(x))dx = f (x)g (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − f 0 (x)g(x)dx
Z
= x sin(ln(x)) − cos(ln(x))dx (17.23)
G0 (x) = 1,
G(x) = x,
sin(ln(x))
F 0 (x) = − .
x
Then
Z Z Z
0
cos(ln(x))dx = F (x)G (x) = F (x)G(x) − F 0 (x)G(x)dx
Z
= x cos(ln(x)) + sin(ln(x))dx (17.24)
Thus Z
2 sin(ln(x))dx = x sin(ln(x)) − x cos(ln(x)),
and Z
x
sin(ln(x))dx = (sin(ln(x)) − cos(ln(x))).
2
R
17.25 Example. We will calculate ln(t)dt. Let
f (t) = ln(t),
g 0 (t) = 1,
g(t) = t,
1
f 0 (t) = .
t
Then
Z Z Z
0
ln(t)dt = f (t)g (t)dt = f (t)g(t) − f 0 (t)g(t)dt
Z
= t ln(t) − 1dt
= t ln(t) − t.
Then
Z Z Z
1
dx = f (x)g (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − f 0 (x)g(x)dx
0
x Z
1
= 1+ dx.
x
Z
1
If we subtract dx from both sides we obtain
x
0 = 1.
In the first equality of (17.34) we replace g(t) by u and g 0 (t)dt by du, and in
the last step we replace u by g(t). Since we have never assigned any meaning
to “du” or “dt”, we should think of (17.34) just as a mnemonic device for
remembering (17.33).
Z √
sin( x)
17.35 Example. Find √ dx.
x
√ 1
Let u = x. Then du = √ dx, so
2 x
Z √ Z
sin( x) √ 1
√ dx = 2 sin( x) √ dx
x 2 x
Z
= 2 sin(u)du = −2 cos(u)
√
= −2 cos( x). |||
R √ √
Suppose we want to find sin( x)dx. If we had a x in the denominator, this
would be a simple problem. (In fact we just considered this problem in the
previous example.) We will now discuss a method of introducing the missing
√
x.
Suppose g is a function on an interval J such that g 0 (t) is never zero on
the interior of J, and suppose that h is an inverse function for g. Then
à ! à !
³ ´ ³ ´
0 0
h g(x) = x =⇒ h g(x) · g (x) = 1
342 CHAPTER 17. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES
Then
Z Z
u sin(u)du = f (u)g 0 (u)du
Z
= f (u)g(u) − f 0 (u)g(u)du
Z
= −u cos(u) + cos(u)du
= −u cos(u) + sin(u).
Hence
Z √ Z
sin( x)dx = 2 u sin u du
= −2u cos(u) + 2 sin(u)
√ √ √
= −2 x cos( x) + 2 sin( x).
Z
1
17.39 Example. To find dx.
ex
+ e−x
1
Let u = ex . Then x = ln(u) so dx = du.
u
Z Z Z
1 1 1 1
x −x
dx = 1 · du = 2
du
e +e (u + u ) u u +1
= arctan(u) = arctan(ex ).
R √
17.40 Example. To find t t + 1 dt.
Let u = t + 1. Then t = u − 1 so dt = du.
Hence
Z √ Z √ Z
t t + 1 dt = (u − 1) u du = u3/2 − u1/2 du
2 5/2 2 3/2 2 2
= u − u = (t + 1)5/2 − (t + 1)3/2 .
5 3 5 3
344 CHAPTER 17. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES
Z 2
(1 − x) 5
17.41 Example. To find 12 dx.
x5
Z 2 Z µ ¶2
(1 − x) 5 1−x 5 1
12 dx = · dx.
x 5 x x2
1−x 1 1
Let u = = − 1. Then du = − 2 dx, and
x x x
Z 2 Z µ ¶7
(1 − x) 5 2 5 7 5 1−x 5
12 dx = − u du = − u 5 = −
5 .
x 5 7 7 x
Thus
Z 2 µ ¶7
(1 − x) 5 5 1−x 5
12 dx = − .
x 5 7 x
applications. There is a special trick for dealing with such integrals. Since
x
x = a tan(arctan( )) for all x ∈ R,
a
we can write
Z Z s
√ ³ x ´2
F ( a2 + x2 )dx = F ( a2 + a tan(arctan( )) )dx.
a
Now ³ ´2 ³ ´
a2 + a tan(u) = a2 1 + tan2 (u) = a2 sec2 (u)
so r
³ ´2
a2 + a tan(u) = a sec(u).
³ π π´
(Since u ∈ − , we have sec(u) > 0 and the square root is positive.) Thus
2 2
Z √ Z ³ ´
F ( a2 + x2 )dx = a F a sec(u) · sec2 (u)du.
Z √
The ritual to apply when using this method for finding F ( a2 + x2 )dx
is:
Let x = a tan(u). Then dx = a sec2 (u)du, and
√ q q
a 2 + x2 = a2 + a2 tan2 (u) = a2 sec2 (u) = a sec(u),
so
Z √ Z ³ ´ x
F ( a + x )dx = a F a sec(u) sec2 (u)du = H(u) = H(arctan( )).
2 2
a
Z √
There is a similar ritual for integrals of the form F ( a2 − x2 )dx (Here we
will just describe the ritual).
Let x = a sin(u). Then dx = a cos(u)du and
√ q q
a2 − x2 = a2 − a2 sin(u) = a2 cos2 (u) = a cos(u) (17.43)
so
Z √ Z ³ ´ x
F ( a2 − x2 )dx = a F a cos(u) · cos(u)du = H(u) = H(arcsin( )).
a
x
Observe that in equation (17.43) we are assuming that u = arcsin ( ), so
a
π π
u ∈ (− , ), so cos(u) ≥ 0, and the sign of the square root is correct.
2 2
R√
17.44 Example. Find 4 + x2 dx.
Let x = 2 tan θ. Then dx = 2 sec2 θ dθ, and
√ q q
4 + x = 4(1 + tan2 θ) = 2 sec2 (θ) = 2 sec(θ).
2 (17.45)
Thus Z √ Z Z
2 2
4+ x2 dx = 2 sec θ · sec θ dθ = 4 sec3 (θ) dθ.
R
To find sec3 (θ)dθ, I will integrate by parts. Let
Hence,
Z Z
sec3 (θ)dθ = f (θ)g 0 (θ)dθ
Z
= f (θ)g(θ) − f 0 (θ)g(θ)dθ
Z
= sec(θ) tan(θ) − sec(θ) tan2 (θ)dθ
Z
= sec(θ) tan(θ) − sec(θ)(sec2 (θ) − 1)dθ
Z Z
= sec(θ) tan(θ) − sec3 (θ)dθ + sec(θ)dθ.
Hence
Z Z
3
2 sec (θ)dθ = sec(θ) tan(θ) + sec(θ)dθ
= sec(θ) tan(θ) + ln(| sec(θ) + tan(θ)|);
i.e.,
Z Ã !
1 ³ ´
3
sec (θ)dθ = sec(θ) tan(θ) + ln | sec(θ) + tan(θ)| . (17.46)
2
Hence
Z √ Z
4 + x2 dx = 4 sec3 (θ)dθ
à !
³ ´
= 2 sec(θ) tan(θ) + ln | sec(θ) + tan(θ)| .
x 1√
By (17.45) we have tan(θ) = and sec(θ) = 4 + x2 . Thus
2 2
Z √ Ã √ !
2
1√ 2
x ³¯ 4 + x2
¯ x ¯¯´
4 + x dx = 2 4 + x · + ln ¯ + ¯
2 2 2 2
√ √
x 4 + x2 ³¯ 4 + x2 + x ¯´
¯ ¯
= + 2 ln ¯ ¯ .
2 2
348 CHAPTER 17. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES
R
17.47 Example. In the process of working out the last example we found
sec3 (θ)dθ using integration by parts. Here is a different tricky way of finding
the same integral [32].
Z
1Z
sec3 (θ)dθ = (sec3 (θ) + sec3 (θ))dθ
2Z
1
= (sec(θ)(1 + tan2 (θ)) + sec3 (θ))dθ
2Z
1 ³ ´
= (sec(θ) + (sec(θ) tan(θ)) · tan(θ) + sec(θ) · sec2 (θ) )dθ
2
1Z d
= (sec(θ) + (sec(θ) tan(θ)))dθ
2 dθ
1
= (ln(| sec(θ) + tan(θ)|) + sec(θ) tan(θ)).
2
Z
1
17.48 Example. Find dx. √
− x2 a2
Let x = a sin(θ). Then dx = a cos(θ)dθ and
√ q √
a2 − x2 = a2 − a2 sin2 θ = a cos2 θ = a cos θ.
Thus
Z Z Z
1 a cos(θ)
√ dx = dθ = 1 dθ
a 2 − x2 a cos(θ)
x
= θ = arcsin( ).
a
17.49 Exercise. Find the following antiderivatives:
Z √
a) a2 − x2 dx
Z
1
b) √ dx
a2 + x2
Z
x
c) √ dx
a2− x2
Z √
d) x a2 + x2 dx
17.5. TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION 349
p = (a cos(θ0 ), a sin(θ0 ))
o (a, 0)
a sin(θ0 )
y= x = x tan(θ0 ),
a cos(θ0 )
Hence
area(T (a, θ0 )) = Aa0 (f ),
where ½
x
√tan(θ0 ) if 0 ≤ x ≤ a cos(θ0 ),
f (x) =
a 2 − x2 if a cos(θ0 ) ≤ x ≤ a.
i.e. Z a cos(θ0 ) Z a √
area(T (a, θ0 )) = x tan(θ0 )dx + a2 − x2 dx.
0 a cos(θ0 )
so
¯
a cos(θ0 ) µ ¶¯a
x2 ¯¯ 1 2 x 1 √ 2 ¯
area(T (a, θ0 )) = tan(θ0 ) ¯ + a arcsin( ) + x a − x ¯¯
2
2 0 ¯ 2 a 2 a cos(θ0 )
1 1
= tan(θ0 )a2 cos2 (θ0 ) + a2 arcsin(1)
2 2
1 2 1 q
− a arcsin(cos(θ0 )) − a cos(θ0 ) a2 − a2 cos2 (θ0 )
2 2
a2 πa2
= sin(θ0 ) cos(θ0 ) +
2 4
a2 π a2 q
− arcsin(sin( − θ0 )) − cos(θ0 ) 1 − cos2 (θ0 )
2 2 2
a2 πa2 a2 π a2
= sin(θ0 ) cos(θ0 ) + − ( − θ0 ) − sin(θ0 ) cos(θ0 )
2 4 2 2 2
1 2
= a θ0 .
2
By using symmetry arguments, you can show that this formula actually holds
for 0 ≤ θ0 ≤ 2π.
Z 4π2 √
sin( x)
17.51 Example. To find √ dx.
√ π2 x
Let u = x. When x = π 2 , then u = π, and when x = 4π 2 , then u = 2π.
1
Also du = √ dx, so
2 x
Z 4π2 √ Z 2π ¯2π
sin( x) ¯
√ dx = 2 sin(u)du = −2 cos u¯
π2 x π π
³ ´
= −2 cos(2π) − cos(π) = −2(1 + 1) = −4.
Z b ³ ´
The ritual for finding f g(t) dt in this case is:
a
Let u = g(t). Then t = h(u) and dt = h0 (u)du. When t = a then u = g(a),
and when t = b then u = g(b). Thus
Z b ³ ´ Z g(b) ¯g(b)
¯
f g(t) dt = f (u)h0 (u)du = H(u)¯
a g(a) g(a)
17.54 Exercise. Find the area of the shaded region, bounded by the ellipse
x2
+ y 2 = 1 and the lines x = ±1.
4
−2 2
−1
> int(exp(a*x)*cos(b*x),x);
a e( a x ) cos( b x ) b e( a x ) sin( b x )
+
a 2 + b2 a 2 + b2
Z
R(x)
To find dx where a 6= b and R is a polynomial of degree
(x − a)(x − b)
less than 2.
We will find numbers A and B such that
R(x) A B
= + . (17.57)
(x − a)(x − b) (x − a) (x − b)
Suppose (17.57) were valid. If we multiply both sides by (x − a) we get
R(x) B(x − a)
=A+ .
(x − b) x−b
354 CHAPTER 17. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES
R(a)
= A.
a−b
The reason I took a limit here, instead of saying “now for x = a we get · · ·” is
that a is not in the domain of the function we are considering. Similarly
R(x) A(x − b)
= + B,
x−a x−a
and if we take the limit as x goes to b, we get
R(b)
= B.
b−a
Thus, " #
R(x) 1 R(a) R(b)
= − . (17.58)
(x − a)(x − b) a−b x−a x−b
I have now shown that if there are numbers A and B such that (17.57) holds,
then (17.58) holds. Since I have not shown that such numbers exist, I will
verify directly that (17.58) is valid. Write R(x) = px + q. Then
" # " #
1 R(a) R(b) 1 pa + q pb + q
− = −
a−b x−a x−b a−b x−a x−b
" #
1 (pa + q)(x − b) − (pb + q)(x − a)
=
(a − b) (x − a)(x − b)
" #
1 x(pa − pb) − q(b − a)
=
(a − b) (x − a)(x − b)
1 (a − b)(px + q)
=
(a − b) (x − a)(x − b)
px + q R(x)
= = . |||
(x − a)(x − b) (x − a)(x − b)
Z
x+1
17.59 Example. To find dx.
(x + 2)(x + 3)
x+1 A B
Let = + .
(x + 2)(x + 3) x+2 x+3
17.7. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 355
Then
x+1 x+2
=A+ B,
x+3 x+3
so
−2 + 1
A= = −1,
−2 + 3
and
x+1 (x + 3)
=A + B,
x+2 x+2
so
−3 + 1
B= = 2.
−3 + 2
Hence
Z Z
x+1 −1 2
dx = + dx
(x + 2)(x + 3) x+2 x+3
= − ln(|x + 2|) + 2 ln(|x + 3|).
In this example I did not use formula (17.58), because I find it easier to re-
member the procedure than the general formula. I do not need to check my
answer, because my proof of (17.58) shows that the procedure always works.
(In practice, I usually do check the result because I am likely to make an
arithmetic error.)
Z
R(x)
To find dx where R is a polynomial of degree < 2, and
x2
+ ax + b
x2 + ax + b does not factor as a product of two first degree polynomials.
Complete the square to write
x2 + ax + b = (x − m)2 + k.
x2 + ax + b = (x − m)2 + q 2 .
356 CHAPTER 17. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES
Now Z Z
R(x) R(x)
dx = dx.
x2 + ax + b (x − m)2 + q 2
Make the substitution u = x − m to get an antiderivative of the form
Z
Au + B AZ 2u Z
1
2 2
du = 2 2
du + B du
u +q 2 u +q u + q2
2
Z
A 2 2 1
= ln(u + q ) + B du.
2 u + q2
2
1Z u
= du
4 u + 2u + 1 + 43
2
1Z u
= du.
4 (u + 1)2 + 34
2 2 ³ 2t ´
= √ θ = √ arctan √
3 3 3
2 ³ 2u + 2 ´
= √ arctan √ .
3 3
Hence,
1 ³ 2 7´ 1 ³ 2u + 2 ´
I= ln u + 2u + − √ arctan √ .
8 4 2 3 3
Z
R(x)
To find dx where R is a polynomial of degree > 1.
x2
+ ax + b
First use long division to write
R(x) P (x)
= Q(x) +
x2 + ax + b x2 + ax + b
where Q is a polynomial, and P is a polynomial of degree ≤ 1. Then use one
of the methods already discussed.
Z
x3 + 1
17.61 Example. To find dx. By using long division, we get
x2 + 1
x
2
x +1 x3 +1
x3 +x
−x +1
x3 + 1 −x + 1
2
=x+ 2 .
x +1 x +1
Hence
Z Z
x3 + 1 x 1
2
dx = x− 2 + 2 dx
x +1 x +1 x +1
1 2 1
= x − ln(x2 + 1) + arctan(x).
2 2
358 CHAPTER 17. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES
³ ´
17.62 Example. In exercise 17.7, you showed that ln | sec(x) + tan(x)| is
³ ´
an antiderivative for sec(x). The function ln | sec(x)+tan(x)| in that exercise
appeared magically with no motivation. I will now derive the formula, using
standard methods:
Z Z Z Z
1 cos(x) cos(x)
sec(x) dx = dx = dx = dx.
cos(x) 2
cos (x) 1 − sin2 (x)
Now let u = sin(x). Then du = cos(x) dx, and
Z Z
du
sec(x) dx = .
1 − u2
1 A B
Suppose = + . Then
1 − u2 1−u 1+u
1 B(1 − u)
=A+ ,
1+u (1 + u)
1
and if we take the limit of both sides as u → 1 we get A = . Also
2
1 A(1 + u)
= + B,
1−u 1−u
1
and if we take the limit as u → −1, we get B = . Thus
2
Z Z
1
sec(x) dx = du
1 − u2
µ ¶
1Z 1 1
= + du
2 1−u 1+u
1
= [− ln (|1 − u|) + ln (|1 + u|)]
2 µ¯ ¯¶
1 ¯1 + u¯
= ln ¯¯ ¯
2 ï 1 − u ¯ ¯!
1 ¯ 1 + sin(x) ¯
¯ ¯
= ln ¯ ¯ .
2 ¯ 1 − sin(x) ¯
Now
³ ´2 ³ ´2
1 + sin(x) 1 + sin(x) 1 + sin(x) 1 + sin(x) 1 + sin(x)
= · = 2 = ,
1 − sin(x) 1 − sin(x) 1 + sin(x) 1 − sin (x) cos2 (x)
17.7. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 359
so
ï ¯! ¯ ¯2 ï ¯!
1 ¯ 1 + sin(x) ¯ 1 ¯¯ 1 + sin(x) ¯¯ ¯ 1 + sin(x) ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
ln ¯ ¯ = ln ¯ ¯ = ln ¯ ¯
2 ¯ 1 − sin(x) ¯ 2 ¯ cos(x) ¯ ¯ cos(x) ¯
³ ´
= ln | sec(x) + tan(x)| ,
and thus Z ³ ´
sec(x) dx = ln | sec(x) + tan(x)| .
x2 A B
= + .
(x − 1)(x + 1) x−1 x+1
Then
x2 (x − 1)B
=A+ .
x+1 x+1
1
If we take the limit of both sides as x → 1, we get = A. Also
2
x2 A(x + 1)
= + B,
x−1 x−1
1
and if we take the limit of both sides as x → −1, we get − = B. Thus
2
x2 1 1 1 1
= − .
x2 − 1 2x−1 2x+1
Hence,
Z
x2 1 1
2
dx = ln(|x − 1|) − ln(|x + 1|).
x −1 2 2
17.64 Exercise. Find the following antiderivatives:
Z
1
a) dx
4x2 −1
Z
1
b) dx
4x2 +1
360 CHAPTER 17. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES
Z
x+1
c) dx
x2 − 6x + 8
Z
x+1
d) dx
x2 − 6x + 9
Z
1
e) dx
9x2 + 6x + 2
Z
x3
f) dx
x2 + 1
Z
1
g) √ dx
x2 + 2x + 2
17.65 Exercise. Find the following antiderivatives:
Z
cos(ax)
a) dx.
sin3 (ax)
Z
sin(t) cos(t)
b) dt.
cos2 (t) + 1
Z
1
c) dt.
(1 − t)3
Z
1
d) dx.
5 + 4x + x2
Z √
e) x3 x2 + 1dx.
Z
1
f) √ .
−3 − 4x − x2
Z
sin(2θ)
g) dθ.
cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ)
Z
h) (1 + tan(u))2 du.
Z
i) Choose a number p, and find xp (x10 − 2)10 dx.
Z
1
j) Choose a number q, and find xq e− x dx.
17.7. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 361
Z
2
k) xe−x dx.
Z
u3
l) du.
1 + u2
Z
m) x2 arctan(x)dx.
Z
1
n) x3 (1 + x) 4 dx.
Z
o) xe2x dx.
Z
p) arcsin(x)dx.