 AOAC international

-AOAC International is a 501(c) non-profit scientific association with headquarters in Rockville, Maryland.

It was founded in 1884 as the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) and became AOAC

International in 1991. It publishes standardized, chemical analysis methods designed to increase

confidence in the results of chemical and microbiologic analyses. Government agencies and civil

organizations often require that laboratories use official AOAC methods.

 Why 3mm and 5mm?

-Since no studies have previously been reported, preliminary studies were carried out to establish basic

processing methods prior to commencing the main study, from the Science Asia’s Research article

“Preservation of Fiber-Rich Banana Blossom as a Dehydrated Vegetable” (Citation by 20). Outcomes of

these methods were selected for later testing and processing.

-Four sizes of thickness of slices (viz. 1, 2, 3 and 5 mm) were tested to determine the most appropriate

thickness that gives an attractive product after processing. Among the four thicknesses of the banana

blossom, 3mm and 5mm are two of thse options. The researches decided to incorporate these two sizes

for the determination of drying rate of banana blossom slices.

 Why it needs to be submerged into an acid (enzymatic browning)? Why 0.2

% citric acid?

-When many types of fruits and vegetables are cut or bruised their injured surfaces brown rapidly. This

deterioration also provides a means of ingress for postharvest pathogens, which may further reduce the

shelf life of fresh-cut produce. Enzymatic browning is one of the most important reactions that occur in

fruits and vegetables, usually resulting in negative effects on color, taste, flavor, and nutritional value. The

reaction is a consequence of phenolic compounds' oxidation by polyphenol oxidase (PPO), which triggers
the generation of dark pigments. Enzymatic browning is detrimental to quality, particularly in post-harvest

storage of fresh fruits, juices and some shellfish. Enzymatic browning may be responsible for up to 50% of

all losses during fruit and vegetables production. The enzyme activity is pH dependent. Lowering of the

pH to 4.0 by the addition of citric, ascorbic or other acids inhibits the enzyme activity. During home-

preparation of vegetables or fruits lemon juice or vinegar is often sprinkled on the fruit to prevent

browning.

- From the Science Asia’s Research article “Preservation of Fiber-Rich Banana Blossom as a Dehydrated

Vegetable” (Citation by 20). Out of the concentrations used in the range of 0.1 % - 0.3%,20 a 0.2 % citric

acid solution was found effective in minimizing browning, and hence used foregoing experiments.

Furthermore, the optimum temperature for the activity of 0.2 % citric acid solution was also determined

using four temperatures (viz. 25 o, 65o, 75o and 85 oC) for about 3-4 minutes and assessing color changes

and rehydration ratio of the dehydrated product. It was found that the activity of citric acid was better at

25 o C. However, as longer immersion times are generally adopted for pretreatment at room temperature,

a longer immersion time of 30 minutes was compared against 3-4 minutes. Immersion time of 30 minutes

was found to be effective in lowering browning.

 Why 50 and 60 degrees Celsius?

- From the Science Asia’s Research article “Preservation of Fiber-Rich Banana Blossom as a Dehydrated

Vegetable” (Citation by 20), three drying temperatures (viz. 45o, 50o and 55o C) were tested to determine

the most suitable temperaturetime combination to reduce water activity below 0.6 and moisture content

below 5 % in slices. The water activity value below 0.6 was reported as water activity minima for most

microorganisms. The time taken to reduce water activity below 0.6 at 45, 50, and 55oC was 8 hr, 6 hr and

5 hr 30 min, respectively. The best temperature-time combination for dehydration was 50 oC for 6 hrs.
(But here, we are going to determine our own drying time from drying curves. We are just incorporating

this temperature with our own study)

-From AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH COMMUNICATION CENTRE “Effect of drying methods on consumer

acceptability of banana powder”, 60oC was used using cabinet and solar dryer for 7hr and 5hr respectively

to bring the moisture below 10%. (Just like above, we are going to determine our own drying time from

drying curves)

 Storing of the flour (why food grade polyethylene bag)

- Composite flour shall be packaged in food grade material which will safeguard the hygienic, physical,

nutritional and organoleptic qualities of the product. (it is from African Standard CD-ARS 841:2014)

 ISO 3588:1977 (Particle size, why 250 micrometer sieve)

Spices and condiments -- Determination of degree of fineness of grinding -- Hand sieving method

(Reference method)

FLOUR ANALYSIS

- The production of uniform bakery products require control over the raw materials used in their

formation. Flour is a biological material and when obtained from different sources can vary considerably

in its protein quality, protein quantity, ash, moisture, enzymatic activity, color, and physical properties. It

is essential for the baker to be aware of any variations in these characteristics from one flour shipment to

the next. The purpose of flour testing is to measure specific properties or characteristics of a flour. Ideally

the results of these tests can be related to the flour’s performance in the bakery.
The American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) publishes approved methods for determining various

properties of flour and bakery products.

 Proximate analysis (why do we need to perform this test?)

-proximate analysis need to be performed as it is one of the compositional requirements for composite

flour as according to the African standard CD-ARS 841:2014 for composite flour-specification. It also

provide the nutritional content of the flour. The particular requirements needed are on the table below:

it provided the values that can support the acceptability of banana blossom flour in composite flour.

-the different analysis of wheat flour are also based on the Codex Standard 152-1985 of wheat flour.
 Proximate analysis preliminary conclusion:

a. Moisture content by moisture analyser

- Moisture content— AKA water content— is a measurement of the total amount of water

contained in a food, usually expressed as a percentage of the total weight (see calculation). It’s a

useful measurement for determining the dry weight of your food and ingredients and it helps
 calculate your total yield. It can also be used to confirm whether the drying process of your foods

is finished.

-according to African standard CD-ARS 841:2014 for composite flour-specification, the required

moisture content % of the flour should 13.5 (max.)

- The moisture content of the flour is important for two reasons. First, the higher the moisture

content, the lower the amount of dry solids in the flour. Flour specifications usually limit the flour

moisture to 14% or less. It is in the miller’s interest to hold the moisture as close to 14% as

possible. Secondly, flour with greater than 14% moisture is not stable at room temperature.

Organisms naturally present in the flour will start to grow at high moistures, producing off odors

and flavors. (From AACC “WHEAT QUALITY & CARBOYHYDRATE RESEARCH”)

b. Ash content determination, using Dry ashing method (AOAC, 2005)

- according to African standard CD-ARS 841:2014 for composite flour-specification, the required

total ash content % of the flour is 4 (max.)

- Ash is the mineral material in flour. The ash content of any given flour is affected primarily by

the ash content of the wheat from which it was milled and its milling extraction. The test for

determining the ash content involves incinerating a known weight of flour under controlled

conditions, weighing the residue, and calculating the percentage of ash based upon the original

sample weight.

The ash content of wheat varies from about 1.50 to about 2.00%. The pure endosperm

contains about 0.35% ash. Considering that the wheat kernel contains about 80% endosperm, it

becomes clear that the non-endosperm parts of the kernel (pericarp, aleurone, and germ) are

very high in ash when compared to the endosperm. Thus, the ash content is a sensitive measure

of the amount of non-endosperm material that is in the flour.

 The goal of milling is to separate the endosperm from the non-endosperm parts of the

wheat kernel. This separating is difficult and never clean. Thus, there is always contamination of

endosperm with non-endosperm and visa versa. As flour yield is increased, the amount of

contamination with non-endosperm increases and the ash content increases. Thus, the ash

content is a good and sensitive measure of the contamination of the endosperm.

Millers will often comment that the ash does not affect the baking performance of flour. This is

probably true. However, the non-endosperm parts of the wheat kernel are known to decrease

baking quality and as the ash content increases so does the level of non-endosperm material.

c. Protein content determination using Micro Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 2005)

- Proteins have a major role in the growth and maintenance of the human body and are, along

with carbohydrates and lipids, the energy giving nutrients in the diet. In addition, proteins also

pose a wide range of other functions in the body, such as enzymatic activity and transport of

nutrients and other biochemical compounds across cellular membranes [1]. In order to maintain

these important functions, it is essential to provide the body with good quality proteins through

diet. Inadequate intake of dietary proteins containing essential amino acids results in increased

turnover of muscular proteins, leading to reduced growth and loss of muscle mass. Impaired

immunity, as well as reduced hormonal and enzymatic activity may subsequently follow [2]. Being

such important constituents of human diet it is crucial to know the protein content in foods and

thus it is important to have reliable analytical methods.

- The amount of protein in a food material is usually determined by measuring the nitrogen

content of the material and multiplying that value by a factor. The nitrogen content of a given

protein varies depending on its source. For milk products a factor of 6.38 is used, for most cereal

grains the factor is 6.25, and in wheat products the factor is 5.70. These factors depend on the

percentage of nitrogen in the respective proteins. The flour protein content is an important
parameter for bread flour. Flours containing higher protein contents are more expensive than

flours of lower protein content. Likewise, flours with very low proteins for cakes are also more

expensive. There is usually, but not always, a good correlation between protein content and

bakery performance of a flour. The classic procedure to determine the nitrogen was the Kjeldahl

procedure. This involved digesting the sample in concentrated sulfuric acid, then neutralizing the

acid with concentrated sodium hydroxide, followed by distillation of the ammonia (derived from

the nitrogen in the protein) into a standard acid. The procedure worked well, however it was an

environmental nightmare. In addition to the strong acid and base, the catalysts used to speed the

digestion included such materials as mercury and selenium. It should surprise no one that the

procedure is seldom used today.

The Kjeldahl procedure has been replaced by the Dumas combustion procedure. In the original

Dumas procedure the sample is mixed with cupric oxide and heated in a stream of carbon dioxide

in a combustion tube packed with cupric oxide and copper metal. The organic material is

converted to carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen. The gas stream is led into 50% potassium

hydroxide. This absorbs the carbon dioxide and any oxides of sulfur, leaving only nitrogen as a

gas. The volume of nitrogen is then determined. Various machines have been developed to carry

out the analysis automatically. The percent nitrogen is then converted to protein using the

appropriate factor. Both the Dumas combustion and the Kjeldahl procedures estimate the

quantity (total amount) of protein and not the protein quality. As discussed elsewhere, the

quantity of protein is extremely important in the baking performance of a flour.

-“ The protein content of the standard bread was reported as 11.23% (Table5) which was observed

to increase significantly (p<0.01) in composite flour breads (13.95–18.58 %). This increase in

protein content in composite flour breads could be attributed to significantly higher protein

content of individual flour components namely soya (Basman et al. 2003) and sprouted mung
 (Mubarak 2005) that were incorporated in composite flour formulation. The difference in

functional properties of composite flour blends when compared to there fined wheat flour could

also be associated with this higher protein content of composite flour blends. The increase in non-

wheat proteins in flour composites due to the presence of above mentioned ingredients could

probably affect the gluten network and thereby the loaf volume, loaf height and the texture of the

bread which could also be deduced from the negative correlation between loaf volume and/or loaf

height with protein content. Thus, the increase in non-wheat protein in the present study could

cause subsequent change in the bread textural characteristics. The utilization of soybeans flour

(Gahlawat and Sehgal 1998), legume flour (Sadowska et al. 1996) as functional ingredients in

breads, biscuits, chapatis, snacks and textured products has been successfully demonstrated to

give extra protein and changes in texture of the product.” (FROM FOOD SCI TECHNOLOGY

“Development and analysis of composite flour bread”)

d. Fat content, using Soxhlet extraction method (AOAC, 2005)

-The level of free fatty acids in flour milled from sound wheat is very low. However, if either the

wheat or the flour is subjected to poor storage conditions (high moisture and/or high

temperature), enzymes will degrade the native grain lipids and produce free fatty acids. Thus, the

level of free fatty acids is a good measure of the storage conditions of either the grain or the flour.

Flours with high levels of free fatty acids will be more subjected to rancidity than will sound flours.

This is of little importance in bread but quite important in dry products (cookies, crackers,

croutons, pretzels, etc.).The procedure for determining free fatty acids is quite simple. The lipids

are extracted with a suitable solvent such as petroleum ether. The petroleum ether is then

evaporated off and the lipid is dispersed in a toluene-alcohol mixture and titrated with standard

potassium hydroxide.
- Fat or acid content: The more fat or acid a food contains, the more slowly it is digested and the

more slowly its sugars are absorbed into the bloodstream. (MSD Manuals , merck manuals in US)

Fats are the slowest source of energy but the most energy-efficient form of food. Each gram of

fat supplies the body with about 9 calories, more than twice that supplied by proteins or

carbohydrates. Because fats are such an efficient form of energy, the body stores any excess

energy as fat. The body deposits excess fat in the abdomen (omental fat) and under the skin

(subcutaneous fat) to use when it needs more energy. The body may also deposit excess fat in

blood vessels and within organs, where it can block blood flow and damage organs, often causing

serious disorders.

-“ The fat content of standard bread was 1.84 % and that of experimental composite flour breads

V-I, V-II and V-III were 3.37,4.75and5.64%respectively(Table5).The difference in numerical values

of fat content of experimental composite bread variations were statistically significant (p<0.01)

when compared to the standard bread. It was observed from the results that the increase in fat

content for the composite flour bread variations was directly correlated with the percentage

incorporation of high fat mango kernel flour and soy flour. Thus, it could probably be stated that

the increase in fat content for composite flour breads occurred due to the presence of mango

kernel flour and full fat soy flour. Mango kernel flour had already been identified as a high fat

source with crude fat content ranging from 8 to 16 % (Legesse and Emire 2012). The high fat nature

of the composite flour formulations would explain the ability to prepare bread from V-III composite

blend without the addition of any shortening. This feature also highlights the possibility of using

high fat seed flours like mango kernels as sources of natural fat replacers.” (FROM FOOD SCI

TECHNOLOGY “Development and analysis of composite flour bread”)

-Fats in the Diet

 Fats are necessary to maintain the body. Dietary fats exist mainly in the form of triglycerides. Fats

are classified as high-energy food. They provide about 9 kilocalorie (kcal) of energy per gram

consumed. In contrast, both carbohydrates and proteins provide about 4 kcal of energy per gram

consumed. As a result, fat is the most efficient way to store energy. If one consumes more calories

than he or she needs, some of the excess calorie source is converted to fat.

It is generally recommended that not more than 30 percent of one's dietary calories should derive

from fat (and of this 30 percent, 10 percent should be monounsaturated, and 10 percent,

polyunsaturated). It appears that consumption of greater amounts of saturated fats (compared

to amounts of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats) is related to higher levels of

cholesterol in the blood and a greater risk of heart disease. In the United States the average diet

is about 34 percent fat and (13 percent saturated fat).

-Fats and closely related oils are mixtures of compounds consisting of fatty acids combined with

glycerol (commonly known as glycerin) via ester linkages. Fatty acids are long, straight chain

carboxylic acids. A fat (or oil) is formed when three fatty acid molecules react with a glycerol

molecule to yield a triglyceride (and three water molecules). (See Figure 1.) Fats in the body are

transported and stored as triglycerides.

Read more: http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Di-Fa/Fats-and-Fatty-

Acids.html#ixzz5TjRDrKPa

Read more: http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Di-Fa/Fats-and-Fatty-Acids.html#ixzz5TjQrblau

e. Carbohydrates content, using by difference method

-
 f. Method of Determining Crude Fibre (AOAC 2005)

-“The crude fibre content of the standard bread was 1.9 % and the same for the three

experimental bread variations (V-I, VII and V-III) was reported to be 2.1, 2.3 and 2.4 %

respectively (Table 5). Though the increase in crude fibre content was not statistically

significant (p<0.01), it might have caused due to the incorporation of high fibre mango

kernel flour. The Pearson’s correlation analysis showed a negative correlation of fibre

content with loaf volume, loaf height and specific volume. Thus, it can probably be stated

that this increase in fibre content also caused the decrease in loaf volume, specific volume

and loaf height.” (FROM FOOD SCI TECHNOLOGY “Development and analysis of composite flour

bread”)

-from ISO 5498:1981 Agricultural food products -- Determination of crude fibre content -- General

method (max. of 3% for edible cassava flour!!!)

 Water activity

- Water activity explains how the water in your food will react with microorganisms. The higher the water

activity, the faster microorganisms like bacteria, yeast, and mold will be able to grow – resulting in higher

standards of food storage. Water activity is calculated by finding the ratio of the vapor pressure in food

to the vapor pressure of pure water (see calculation below), and is primarily used to determine the

necessary food storage requirements and shelf life of your products. When you calculate water activity,

you aren’t measuring the amount of water in a food; you’re actually measuring the “excess” amount of

water that’s available for microorganisms to use. Every microorganism has a minimum and optimal water
activity for growth, and it’s important that food manufacturers understand those cutoffs in order to

control the growth of pathogens— thus preventing spoilage.

- The water activity value below 0.6 was reported as water activity minima for microorganisms (from

science asia’a research article “Preservation of Fiber-Rich Banana Blossom as a Dehydrated Vegetable”)

Functional properties of flour

The functional properties to determine the types of flours include water absorption capacity, bulk

density, oil absorption capacity, swelling capacity of the particles as these will also effect the gluten

formation in the flours. These functional properties help in deciding the blends of different flours for

various products. Below is the link for 1 such eg:- (AFRICAN JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE)

www.academicjournals.org/ajfs/pdf/pdf2010/.../Ikpeme%20et%20al.pdf

a. Water holding capacity

-“ The ability of dietary fibre to hold water may be expressed in different ways. The expression

“Water holding capacity” describes the quantity of water that can be bound in fibre without the

application of external force. The Water Holding Capacity (WHC) was lowest in standard refined

wheat flour 1.01gH2O/g (±0.01). The composite flour variation, V-I was reported to have a water

holding capacity of 1.2gH2O/g (±0.02). The WHC of V-II and V-III was found to be 1.3gH2O/g (±0.3)

and 1.42gH2O/g (±0.02) respectively. Thus, according to the results obtained, it can be stated that

the increase in water holding capacity for experimental variations were directly proportional to

the incorporation of high starch mango kernel flour. The ability of flour to bind and hold more
 water was reported to have a significant correlation with its starch content (Mbofung et al. 2006).

According to Hodge and Osman (1976), flours with high WHC contain more hydrophilic

constituents, such as polysaccharides which holds true for the present study due to the high

polysaccharide content of mango kernel flour.” (FROM FOOD SCI TECHNOLOGY “Development

and analysis of composite flour bread”)

b. Oil holding capacity

- “The mechanism of fat or oil absorption is attributed mainly to the physical entrapment of oil

and the binding of fat/oil to the a polar chain of protein(WangandKinsella1976).Absorption of oil

by food products improves mouth feel and flavor retention. The higher oil absorption capacity

suggests the lipophilic nature of flour constituents (Ubbor and Akobundu 2009). In the present

case, oil absorption capacity significantly decreased (p<0.01) in composite flour variants as

compared to the standard flour. Oil absorption was highest (Table3) for the

standardflour2.47gOil/g(±0.036)andlowest,i.e.,1.29gOil/g (±0.02) for the variation V-III. The

increase in oil absorption may also be attributed to the presence of more hydrophobic proteins

which shows superior binding of lipids (Wang and Kinsella 1976). Thus, a larger proportion of

hydrophilic groups or polar amino acids on the surface of protein molecules tend to cause a

decrease in oil absorption capacity of flours (Sathe et al. 1982). Therefore, the lower oil absorption

capacity of composite flours(V-I,V-II and V-III) might be due to the presence of high protein

constituents such as legume flours and the hydrophilic nature of those flours. It was also noted

that the increased ratio of high starch mango kernel flour in composite flour variations led to the

decrease in oil absorption capacity. This result was in accordance with Legesse and Emire (2012)

who has also reported that blending of mango kernel flour with wheat flour significantly reduces

oil absorption capacity.” (FROM FOOD SCI TECHNOLOGY “Development and analysis of composite

flour bread”)
 c. Bulk density

-“Bulk density is generally affected by the particle size and density of the flour and it is very

important in determining the packaging requirement, material handling and application in wet

processing in the food industry (Karuna et al. 1996). In the present study, the bulk density of the

standard refined wheat flour was 0.9259 g/ml which was the lowest amongst all variations. The

bulk density of the three experimental variations were significantly higher (p<0.01) than the

standard refined wheat flour. The higher bulk density may be due to the presence of more crude

fibre in composite flour samples which is in accordance with the observations made by Singh et

al.(1996).Contrary to Peleg and Hollen bach(1983),emphasis of density variation of particulates

was only on moisture content & particle size, it could be inferred that there are some other

parameters affecting the bulk density of flours. The individual flour components used in composite

flour blends had higher bulk density than refined wheat flour, thus causing increase in overall bulk

density.” (FROM FOOD SCI TECHNOLOGY “Development and analysis of composite flour bread”)

Bread sample analysis

 Sensory evaluation (major attributes for good quality bread)

a. Taste

- Taste is an important sensory attribute of any food. Intake of bread is often enhanced by

taste.

b. Color- Colour of bread crust is an important sensory attribute, which can enhance

acceptability. The local population thinks that pale coloured bread crust is indicative

of improper baking. Besides it is assumed that the brown colour is what imparts
 nutrients, especially iron on the product. Browning of bread crust is an origin of

Millard reactions during baking in the presence of amino acids, reducing sugars,

temperature, time of baking and moisture levels of the fermented dough (from

African Journal of Food Science “Sensory evaluation of wheat-cassava-soybean

composite flour (WCS) bread by the mixture experiment design”).

c. Aroma

- Aroma is an important parameter of food (Iwe, 2002). ‘Good’ aroma from food

excites the taste buds, making the system ready to accept the product. ‘Poor’ aroma

may cause outright rejection of food before they are tasted. “Consumers attitudes

may be tuned to accept new product if health claim, or social status is attached. In

fact, there was the tendency for composite bread samples with high supplementation

of wheat flour to consistency show high sensory scores.” (from African Journal of Food

Science “Sensory evaluation of wheat-cassava-soybean composite flour (WCS) bread

by the mixture experiment design”).

d. Texture

-Food texture sometime embraces appearance (Eduordo et al. 2013). Texture of

composite bread samples were rated on a scale from 1 (heavy) to 9 (light). “High

supplementation reduces elastic property of wheat flour dough rendering the dough

incapable of retaining the gas emanating from fermentations (Giami et al., 2004).”

(from African Journal of Food Science “Sensory evaluation of wheat-cassava-soybean

composite flour (WCS) bread by the mixture experiment design”).

 e. Preference and acceptability

-Both acceptance and preference are primarily economic concept. Acceptance of food

varies with standards of living and cultural background, whereas preference refers to

selection when presented with choice (Huguo, 2002). Preference is often influenced

by prejudices, religious principles, group conformance, ‘status value’ and snobbery,

in addition to the quality of the food. People have preferences, no matter how illogical

they may appear. Therefore, the parameters are difficult parameters to determine in

a new product development (Sim and Tam, 2001). (from African Journal of Food

Science “Sensory evaluation of wheat-cassava-soybean composite flour (WCS) bread

by the mixture experiment design”).

Physico-chemical properties
a. Loaf weight

-“ Loaf weight is determined by quantity of dough baked and the amount of

moisture and carbon dioxide diffused out of the loaf during baking.A reduction in

carbon dioxide retention capacity in composite flour dough causes a subsequent

increase in loaf weight. Approximately 450g of dough(Fig.1)was baked

inabreadmouldat200°Cfor40minandtheresultantweight of the baked dough was

considered as the loaf weight. The loaf weight was lowest for the standard refined

wheat flour bread 390g(±5)as described in the following figure and increased

gradually in composite flour bread variants but the increment was not statistically

significant (p<0.01). The loaf weight of V-I was found to be 392 g (±5) which was
 lower than the variations V-II and V-III composite bread. The highest value of loaf

weight was observed for the experimental variation V-III. Thus it can probably be

stated that the reduction of refined wheat flour content and incorporation of high

starch mango kernel flour and protein rich soy and germinated mung flour

contributed to the bulkiness of the flour resulting in high loaf weight of the bread.”

.” (FROM FOOD SCI TECHNOLOGY “Development and analysis of composite flour bread”)

b. Loaf Volume

-“Loaf volume was decreased significantly (p<0.01) in composite flour breads as

compared to the standard bread having loaf volume of 1,244.66 cm3 (±2.51). The

loaf volume of V-I bread was 3.8 % higher than V-II, and 16 % higher than V-III

respectively. Thus, it was observed that higher level of composite flour substitution

had a negative effect on the volume of bread. This finding is in agreement with

that reported by Aluko and Olugbemi (1990), who found lower volumes associated

with composite flour in baked products as opposed to pure wheat flour products.

This was in accordance with the report of Akobundu et al. (1988) that said the

reduction in the wheat structure forming proteins and a lower ability of the dough

to enclose air during proofing might have a volume depressing effect on bread.”

(FROM FOOD SCI TECHNOLOGY “Development and analysis of composite flour bread”)

c. Specific volume

-“The specific volume, which is the ratio of the two properties, namely, loaf volume

to loaf weight, has been generally adopted in the literature as a more reliable
 measure of loaf size (Shittu et al. 2007). The specific volume of the standard bread

was 4.3 ml/g (±0.6) and the same for the experimental variation V-I was 2.37 ml/g

(±0.4), V-II was 2.0 ml/g (±0.4), and V-III was 1.0 ml/g (±0.4). Since loaf volume and

weight both got decreased in the present study, thus their ratio ,i.e., the specific

volume also decreased significantly(p<0.01) incomposite flour breads when

compared to the standard bread. Pearson’s correlation study also reported

significant (p<0.01) positive association between specific volume and swelling

index/foaming capacity. Thus the reduction in specific volume in the experimental

composite flour breads could probably be attributed to the reduction in swelling

index and/ or foaming capacity. Abdel-Aal et al. (1993) also studied that loaf

volume and specific volume of pan breads prepared from composite flours

(fababean, cottonseed and sesame flour) were 25–60 % less than the standard

bread.” (FROM FOOD SCI TECHNOLOGY “Development and analysis of composite flour

bread”)

d. Baking Loss

-“The baking loss percentage decreased significantly (p<0.01) in composite flour

breads as compared to the standard bread as observed from(Table4).The baking

loss of the standard bread was 31.81 % which was found to decrease significantly

(p<0.01) in the composite bread variations. Thus, it was observed that loss of

moisture content on baking, which is called baking loss decreased with increased

proportion of composite flour. This could be due to the compactness of crumb and

increased starch content of the composite flour breads which led to greater water
 holding capacity. Berton et al. (2002) reported that flour hydration depended on

starch damage during milling. The increased amount of damaged starch could be

have resulted in a higher water holding capacity of composite flour samples

compared to that of the standard (Lee et al. 2001).” (FROM FOOD SCI TECHNOLOGY

“Development and analysis of composite flour bread”)

 Statistical analysis

Ex. Proximate Composition, Physical and Sensory Properties of Cake Prepared from Wheat and

Cocoyam Flour Blends

-Data obtained was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Steel & Torrie, 1980).

Significance difference was accepted at 5 % probability levelS

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.905.2719&re

p=rep1&type=pdf

-3.3 Proximate Composition of Cakes There were no significant differences (p>0.05) in

moisture, protein, fat, ash, fibre, carbohydrate and energy contents between 80: 20 (wheat:

cocoyam) cake and control (Table 3). It was observed that protein and fat contents decreased (p)

(NEED MORE RESEARCH!! DON IKAW ANI :D)

 Banana blossom flour : wheat flour (why 90:10 and 80:20)

-Since there is no prior studies done for the production of banana blossom flour as non-wheat

flour in composite flour, the researchers incorporates the different studies done regarding
banana and banana pseudostem flour. For the WF:BBF = 90:10, the decision level of substitution

(at 10% level) of BBF for wheat flour is according to the preliminary studies done from the Journal

for Agrobiotech vol.8, 2017, p1-12 entitled “Physical and Functional Properties of Banana

Pseudostem Flour and its Effect on the Quality (Texture and Microstructure) of Formulated

Bread”. According from this study, a good dough formation and bread structures can be achieved

through substitution level not more than 10%. For WF:BBF = 80:20, on the other hand, it is from

the International Food Research Journal “Applications of composite flour in development of food

products”, according to this, the acceptable formulation for development of composite bread in

terms of sensory quality with the strengths and weaknesses characteristics in rheological

properties and nutritional values is 20:80 for banana-wheat. It is because, from this ratio, highest

phenolic content will be achieved and there is an increased the compactness and hardness of the

bread.