1/1/2020

E7: Flow over Bluff Bodies

 Experiment Objective:
 To find the Drag co-efficient of aerofoil
 To find the Lift of aerofoil
 Apparatus
 Wind Tunnel
 Aerofoil specimen
 A symmetrical aerofoil with a profile NACA 0015

Wind Tunnel

 Wind tunnels are experimental setups producing an air or gas stream for
investigation of flow around models representing, for instance, vehicles or
buildings.
 Wind tunnels are used
 To determine aerodynamic resistance forces of bodies
 To investigate their stability and controllability
 To determine vehicle and building dynamic loads due to explosion waves and
gusts.
 Computational simulations improved cannot replace the need for
experimental data in development projects.

1
 1/1/2020

Principle

 Experiments in wind tunnels are based on the principle of motion

reciprocity according to which displacement of a body relative to gas or
liquid can be replaced by gas or liquid flow around the body at rest.
 In mechanics, this is known as the Galileo principle.
 Example:
 Car moving = Wind moving over car

2
 1/1/2020

Application

 A well-designed wind tunnel could supply technical information for a large

number of engineering applications such as
 External aerodynamics (flow over terrestrial and aerial vehicles)
 Civil engineering (flow over bridges, buildings, cables, etc.)
 Sport activities (flow over cyclists, design of volley and basket balls, wind sails
etc.)
 Fundamental fluid dynamics (laminar and turbulent flow over simple and
complex geometries)
 An extensive frame of other options in industry and research centers at
universities around the world.

Types of wind tunnel

 Open circuit Close circuit

 Advantages of open-circuit
 Less construction cost (less than closed-circuit)
 Can use smoke for flow visualization without the
need to purge.
 Disadvantages
 Harder to obtain high-quality flow
 Wind and cold weather might affect operation
 Requires more energy to run if the tunnel has a
high utilization rate
 It tends to be noisy
 Advantages
 Use corner turning vanes and screens the quality of
the flow can be well-controlled;
 Independent of other activities in the building and
weather conditions;
 Less energy required for high utilization rates;
 Less environmental noise when operating.
 Disadvantages
 Higher initial costs (due to return ducts and corner
turning vanes)
 The necessity to purge the tunnel if smoke is
extensively used
 Method of cooling for high utilization of the tunnel

3
 1/1/2020

Closed Circuit Wind Tunnel

Open Circuit Wind Tunnel

Nozzle
 Create a uniform flow with minimal turbulence.
 Pressure distribution along nozzle walls directly affects the boundary layer
thickness, pressure losses and non-uniformity of flow velocity through the
test section
 The purpose of a supersonic wind tunnel nozzle is to provide test section air
flow at a desired.

4
 1/1/2020

Purpose of nozzle

 It accelerates the flow

 It makes the velocity distribution over the cross section of the flow more
uniform
 It reduces the intensity of the turbulence in the airstream
 It serves to measure the wind speed in the test section

Diffuser

 Smoothly slows the air's velocity without causing turbulence in the test
section.

5
 1/1/2020

Settling Chamber

 Settling chamber consists of honeycombs

and mesh screen to reduce the flow
turbulence before it enters the nozzle

Test Section
• The model is placed in the test section of the tunnel and is instrumented to provide the
engineer with test data.

6
 1/1/2020

NACA Airfoil

 NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics)

 NACA 2412 airfoil.
 NACA 4-digit airfoil series

 The first digit expresses the camber in the percentage of chord.

 The second digit gives the location of the maximum camber point in tenths of a chord.
 The last two digits give the thickness in the percentage of arc.

7
 1/1/2020

Apparatus

Nozzle Diffuser Fan

Settling Test Section
chamber
Honey Comb

Measurement

8
 1/1/2020

Calculation
Angle ∆ Lift Drag Lift Drag
of Force Force Coefficient Coefficient
 Given
attack
= 0.01 α
= 13545 /
= 1.204 / 00
= 9.81 / 150
300
 Formula
450
Velocity . .∆ 600
from Pitot = 750
Tube
900

= =

9
 1/1/2020

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZuGPcvC4vbw stall
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p5CtDsYUP_k pitot

E8: Flow over Bluff Bodies

(Pressure Distribution Over Cylinder)
 Experiment Objective:
 To find the pressure distribution over cylinder
 Apparatus
 Wind Tunnel
 Cylinder specimen

10
 1/1/2020

Procedure

 The Model enables the determination of pressure distribution on the

circumference of a cylinder in a flow. The cylinder is equipped with a 4mm-
diameter holder and can be fixed into the 2-component force balance of
the Wind Tunnel.
 The cylinder is provided with 13 pressure tapping distributed along the
circumference for pressure tapings are arranged in axial direction to each
other. Making use of the symmetry of the flow, the pressure can be
measured at distance intervals of 15°. The effect of flow homogeneity has
been considered, so the pressure ch pressure tapping is equipped with a
separate hose connection at the bottom of the cylinder.

Data Plot

 Plot a graph between angle and pressure head observed by adjusting

head from wind tunnel control panel.

11
 1/1/2020

Wind Tunnel

 Wind tunnels are experimental setups producing an air or gas stream for
investigation of flow around models representing, for instance, vehicles or
buildings.
 Wind tunnels are used
 To determine aerodynamic resistance forces of bodies
 To investigate their stability and controllability
 To determine vehicle and building dynamic loads due to explosion waves and
gusts.
 Computational simulations improved cannot replace the need for
experimental data in development projects.

Nozzle
 Create a uniform flow with minimal turbulence.
 Pressure distribution along nozzle walls directly affects the boundary layer
thickness, pressure losses and non-uniformity of flow velocity through the
test section
 The purpose of a supersonic wind tunnel nozzle is to provide test section air
flow at a desired.

12
 1/1/2020

Purpose of nozzle

 It accelerates the flow

 It makes the velocity distribution over the cross section of the flow more
uniform
 It reduces the intensity of the turbulence in the airstream
 It serves to measure the wind speed in the test section

Diffuser

 Smoothly slows the air's velocity without causing turbulence in the test
section.

13
 1/1/2020

Settling Chamber

 Settling chamber consists of honeycombs

and mesh screen to reduce the flow
turbulence before it enters the nozzle

Test Section
• The model is placed in the test section of the tunnel and is instrumented to provide the
engineer with test data.

14
 1/1/2020

Apparatus

Nozzle Diffuser Fan

Settling Test Section
chamber
Honey Comb

Measurement

15
 1/1/2020

E9: Performance Characteristics of a

Centrifugal Pump
 Objective
 To obtain performance characteristics for variable speed centrifugal pump
operating at different impeller speeds.
 Apparatus
 Hydraulic bench
 Centrifugal pump

Pump

 A device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by

mechanical action
 Application
 Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications
 In house, pumping water from wells, aquarium filtering and pond filtering.
 In the car industry, for water-cooling and fuel injection.
 In the energy industry, for pumping oil and natural gas or for operating cooling
towers and other components of heating, ventilation and air conditioning
systems.

16
 1/1/2020

Centrifugal Pump
 A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device designed to move a fluid by
means of the transfer of rotational energy from one or more driven rotors,
called impellers.
 Fluid enters the rapidly rotating impeller along its axis and is cast out by
centrifugal force along its circumference through the impeller's vane tips.
 A centrifugal pump works by the conversion of rotational kinetic energy to
an increased static fluid pressure.
 Volute shape pump casing, or the diffuser vanes are responsible for energy
conversion.

Centrifugal
Pump
(Axial Flow)

Centrifugal Pump
(Radial Flow)

17
 1/1/2020

Calculation

E9B: Performance study of centrifugal

pumps connected in series and parallel

 Objective:
 To investigate the performance of centrifugal pumps connected in series and
parallel
 To draw the resultant head-discharge curves
 Apparatus:
 Series and parallel centrifugal pump apparatus
 Hydraulic bench

18
 1/1/2020

Pump in series and parallel

19
 1/1/2020

Rotameter

Pressure
Storage Gauges
Tank

20
 1/1/2020

E10:Performance of Pelton Wheel

Turbine
 Objective
 To investigate the performance of Pelton wheel turbine at varying flow rates
 Apparatus
 Pelton wheel apparatus
 Hydraulic bench
 Stop watch
 Rope
 Force gauge
 Tachometer
 Stroboscope (an instrument for determining speeds of rotation by shining a bright light at
intervals so that a moving or rotating object appears stationary.)

Hydraulic Turbines

 Turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid

moving at a very high speed and converts that energy into useful work.
 Hydraulic turbines extract energy from moving water.

Lakes and Rivers

 70% of the world uses hydroelectric Dams (To store water)

power to produce electricity.
 They are preferred over steam and Hydraulic Turbine
gas turbines with zero reliance on the
fossil fuels and zero emissions. Generator

Electricity

21
 1/1/2020

Hydraulic Turbines (Principle)

Water
Reservoir

Potential Energy Mechanical

Energy

Hydraulic AC/DC
Nozzle Electricity
Turbine Generator

Kinetic Energy

22
 1/1/2020

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

Basis Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
Energy Drive through kinetic energy Drive through pressure and kinetic energy
Mechanism Example: Pelton Wheel Example: Kaplan/Francis Turbine
Elevation Head High head turbine: Head greater than Medium head turbine: 30-300m
300m Example: Francis Turbine
Example: Pelton wheel turbine Low head turbine: 3-30m
Example: Kaplan Turbine
Entrance of Tangential flow: Axial Flow: Water flows in the direction parallel
Flow Water impinges the wheel tangentially to the axis of the wheel
Example: Pelton wheel Example: Kaplan Turbine
Mixed Flow
Water flows radially into the wheel and leaves
axially
Example: Francis turbine
Discharge Small flow rate Medium flow rate
Example: Pelton Wheel Example: Francis Turbine
High flow rate
Example: Kaplan Turbine

Francis Turbine
Pelton Wheel Kaplan Turbine

23
 1/1/2020

Parts of Pelton Wheel Turbine

 Spear Controls flow rate.

 Brake Nozzle stops wheel.

24
 1/1/2020

Procedure

1. Place the complete apparatus over 9 (Hydraulic Bench) and

connect 1 (Pump) with 2 (Pressure Gauge) and 2 (Pressure
Gauge) with 5 (Jet Nozzle).
2. Close the drain valves of 9 (Hydraulic Bench).
3. Open the discharge and loosen the rope, therefore no friction is
applied on the shaft.
4. After the water level in the basin has become steady, measure
the head on 8 (Weir).
5. Use 7 (Flow meter) to measure the flow rate.
6. Measure the rotational speed of the shaft with 3 (Tachometer).
7. Tighten slightly the friction hand-wheels and record the torque
displayed on 4 (Force Gauge) as well as the rotational speed of
the shaft with 3 (Tachometer). Repeat this step until
approximately 10 different settings are obtained with the last
setting when the turbine is completely stopped.
8. Increase the discharge and take readings.
9. Allow the water to drain from 9 (Hydraulic Bench).

25
 1/1/2020

Observation Table

Sr. Discharge Head Available Torque Rotational Power Efficiency

no. Q H Water T Speed P η
(Lit/min) (m) Power (Nm) n (watt)
Pav (rpm)
(watt)
1
2
3
4

T = F.r
Pav=ρgQH

E11-E12:Performance of Francis/Kaplan
Turbine
 Objective
 To investigate the performance of Francis/Kaplan turbine at varying flow rates
 Apparatus
 Francis/Kaplan Turbine apparatus
 Hydraulic bench
 Stop watch
 Rope
 Force gauge
 Tachometer
 Stroboscope (an instrument for determining speeds of rotation by shining a bright light at
intervals so that a moving or rotating object appears stationary.)

26
 1/1/2020

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

Basis Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
Energy Drive through kinetic energy Drive through pressure and kinetic energy
Mechanism Example: Pelton Wheel Example: Kaplan/Francis Turbine
Elevation Head High head turbine: Head greater than Medium head turbine: 30-300m
300m Example: Francis Turbine
Example: Pelton wheel turbine Low head turbine: 3-30m
Example: Kaplan Turbine
Entrance of Tangential flow: Axial Flow: Water flows in the direction parallel
Flow Water impinges the wheel tangentially to the axis of the wheel
Example: Pelton wheel Example: Kaplan Turbine
Mixed Flow
Water flows radially into the wheel and leaves
axially
Example: Francis turbine
Discharge Small flow rate Medium flow rate
Example: Pelton Wheel Example: Francis Turbine
High flow rate
Example: Kaplan Turbine

Flow Direction

27
 1/1/2020

Francis Turbine

 Francis turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine that combines the

radial and axial fluid flows.
 Water enters the runner in the radial direction while leaves at a
direction perpendicular to the runner. Francis turbines are the most
common water turbine in use today.
 They operate in a head range of ten meters to several hundred
meters and are primarily used for electrical power production.
 A casing is required to contain the water flow.
 The guide vanes are often adjustable to allow efficient operation of
Francis Turbine the turbine over the range of flow conditions.
 As the water flows through the runner its spinning radius decreases,
thus increases it action on the runner.
 This property, in addition to the water’s pressure, helps the turbine
harness energy.

Turbine Parts

 Guide or stay vanes

 Convert a part of pressure energy of the fluid at its entrance to
the kinetic energy and then to direct the fluid on to the runner
blades at the angle appropriate to its design.
 Guide vanes are pivoted and can be turned by a suitable
governing mechanism to regulate the flow.

28
 1/1/2020

Turbine Parts

 Scroll casing
 The fluid enters the spiral casing through a pipe leading from the water
reservoir having the potential energy. Generally, the pipeline leading to
turbine from the reservoir at altitude is called penstock.
 The spiral casing that completely surrounds the runner is known as scroll
casing or volute.
 The cross-sectional area of this casing decreases uniformly along the
circumference to keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude along
its path towards the guide vane.

Turbine Parts

 Runner
 The runner is the part of the turbine connected directly to the
shaft of the turbine.
 The runner consists of several small blades that enhance the
energy transfer from moving water to the shaft.
 The height of the runner depends upon the specific speed. The
height increases with the increase in the specific speed.
 The main direction of flow change as water passes through the
runner.
 Draft tube
 The draft tube is a conduit connecting the runner exit to the tail
race.
 Tail race is the place where the water is finally discharged.
 It reduces the velocity of the discharged water to minimize the

29
 1/1/2020

Kaplan Turbine

 The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type

inward flow reaction turbine with
adjustable blades.
 The variation in pressure of working fluid
while moving through the turbine changes
in to energy.
 Output power is recovered from the
hydrostatic head as well as from the
kinetic energy of the flowing water.

Observation Table

Sr. Discharge Head Available Torque Rotational Power Efficiency

no. Q H Water T Speed P η
(Lit/min) (m) Power (Nm) n (watt)
Pav (rpm)
(watt)
1
2
3
4

T = F.r

Pav=ρgQH

30
 1/1/2020

E13: Vortex

 A vortex is a spinning, often turbulent (violent),

flow of fluid. Any spiral motion with closed
streamlines is vortex flow where the motion of the
fluid swirling rapidly around a center is known as
vortex.
 The speed and rate of rotation of the fluid in a free
(irrotational) vortex are greatest at the center,
and decrease progressively (little by little) with
distance from the center.
 The speed of a forced (rotational) vortex is zero at
the center and increases proportional to the
distance from the center (“Theory of a Vortex”).
 There are two types of vortex flow
 Free vortex flow
 Forced vortex flow

Vortex Flow

1. Vortex flow (radial component of velocity is zero)

2. Streamlines are curved
3. Whole fluid mass rotate about an axis

31

Free VS Forced Vortex
Free
No external force applied
Vertical Movement of liquid
Irrotational flow
(Particle rotate about center of axis
but not rotate about its own axis)
Free and Forced Vortex
1/1/2020
Forced
External force applied
No vertical movement of liquid
(Fluid is rotated about vertical axis)
Rotational flow
(Particle rotate about center of axis
and rotate about its own axis)
32
 1/1/2020

Free Vortex (Draw Vortex Profile)

Orifice Radius (r) Head (H)

Diameter m m
m

33
 1/1/2020

Forced Vortex
Calculated

Distance Number of Time Angular H H measured

from cente revolutions t Velocity calculated (m)
r N (s) (m)
(m) (Rad/s)

E13: CFD of Converging Diverging

Nozzle

34
 1/1/2020

CFD of Converging Diverging Nozzle

35
 1/1/2020

CFD of Converging Diverging Nozzle

Discretization

36
 1/1/2020

Procedure for Solving Problem

Elements Defined by Node Location

37
 1/1/2020

Boundary Condition

 A condition that is required to be satisfied at all or part of the boundary of a

region in which a set of differential conditions is to be solved.

Visualizing Symmetric and Anti-

Symmetry in 2d
 Geometrically Symmetric (along 1 axis and 2 axis)
 Symmetric load
 Value
 Direction

38
 1/1/2020

Exercise

Mesh Quality
Othoganali
 Orthoganality ty
 Angular deviation of the vector S (located at the face center
f ) from the vector d connecting the two cell centers P and N.
 Range (0-1)
 0 is worse and 1 is best
 Skewness Skewness
 Deviation of the vector d that connects the two cells P and N,
from the face center f. The deviation vector is represented
with Δ and fi is the point where the vector d intersects the
face f.
 Range (0-1)
 0 is best and 1 is worst
 Aspect Ratio
Smoothnes
 Acceptable range (1-15) Aspect s
 Smoothness Ratio
∆
≥1
∆

39
 1/1/2020

Elements Consideration

Brick

Element Examples

40
 1/1/2020

Contact Consideration

Meshing

41
 1/1/2020

Sources of Error in Results

1. Wrong input data, such as physical properties and dimensions

 Simply list and verify physical properties and coordinates of nodes or key-points
before proceeding any further with the analysis.
2. Selecting inappropriate types of elements
 Grasp the limitations of a given type of element and understand to which type of
problems it applies.
3. Poor element shape and size after meshing
 Inappropriate element shape and size will influence the accuracy of your results.
 Understand limitation between free meshing (using mixed-area element shapes
no pattern) and mapped meshing (using all quadrilateral/triangle area elements
or all hexahedral volume elements, pattern) and the limitations associated with
them.
4. Applying wrong boundary conditions and loads
 This step is usually the most difficult aspect of modeling. It involves taking an
actual problem and estimating the loading and the appropriate boundary

Classification of Mesh

 Structured mesh: all interior nodes and elements have identical connectivity.
 Higher numerical accuracy,
 Less data storage
 Easier implementation of high-order finite
volume and finite difference schemes
 Hard to generate for complex 3D domains
 Unstructured mesh: nodes and elements with arbitrary connectivity
 Complex 3D geometry handing
 Easier mesh adaptation
 Lower numerical accuracy
 More data storage

42
 1/1/2020

Classification of Mesh

 Hybrid Mesh: consist of mixture of structure and unstructured mesh

 Regular parts of body can have structured mesh
 Irregular/Complex parts can have unstructured mesh

43