Perfume (UK: /ˈpɜːrfjuːm/, US: /pərˈfjuːm/; French: parfum) is a mixture of fragrant essential

oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents, used to give the human body, animals, food,
objects, and living-spaces an agreeable scent.[1] It is usually in liquid form and used to give a
pleasant scent to a person's body. Ancient texts and archaeological excavations show the use of
perfumes in some of the earliest human civilizations. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th
century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin, which
allowed for the composition of perfumes with smells previously unattainable solely from natural
aromatics alone.

Contents

 1History
 2Dilution classes
o 2.1Imprecise terminology
o 2.2Solvent types
o 2.3Applying fragrances
 3Describing a perfume
o 3.1Fragrance notes
o 3.2Olfactive families
 3.2.1Traditional
 3.2.2Modern
 3.2.3Fragrance wheel
 4Aromatics sources
o 4.1Plant sources
o 4.2Animal sources
o 4.3Other natural sources
o 4.4Synthetic sources
o 4.5Characteristics
 5Obtaining natural odorants
 6Fragrant extracts
 7Composing perfumes
o 7.1The perfumer
o 7.2Technique
 7.2.1Basic framework
 7.2.2Fragrance bases
o 7.3Reverse engineering
o 7.4Copyright
 8Health and environmental issues
o 8.1Health
 8.1.1Immunological; asthma and allergy
 8.1.2Carcinogenicity
 8.1.3Toxicity
o 8.2Environmental
 8.2.1Pollution
  8.2.2Species endangerment
o 8.3Safety regulations
 9Preserving perfume
 10Lists of perfumes
 11See also
 12References
 13Further reading
 14External links

History[edit]

Main article: History of perfume

Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of lily perfume, 4th century BC

The word perfume derives from the Latin perfumare, meaning "to smoke through". Perfumery, as the
art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization and
maybe Ancient China. It was further refined by the Romans and the Arabs.
The world's first-recorded chemist is considered a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker
mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia.[2] She distilled flowers,
oil, and calamus with other aromatics, then filtered and put them back in the still several times.[3]
In India, perfume and perfumery existed in the Indus civilization (3300 BC – 1300 BC).[4]

A Byzantine alembic used to distill perfumes

Ancient Egyptian perfume vessel in shape of a monkey; 1550-1295 BC; faience; height: 6.5 cm, width: 3.3 cm,
depth: 3.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

In 2003,[5] archaeologists uncovered what are believed[by whom?] to be the world's oldest surviving
perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years. They were discovered
in an ancient perfumery, a 300-square-meter (3,230 sq ft) factory[5] housing at least 60 stills, mixing
bowls, funnels, and perfume bottles. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, such
as almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, and bergamot, as well as flowers.[6] In May 2018, an
ancient perfume “Rodo” (Rose) was recreated for the Greek National Archaeological Museum's
anniversary show “Countless Aspects of Beauty”, allowing visitors to approach antiquity through their
olfaction receptors.[7]
In the 9th century the Arab chemist Al-Kindi (Alkindus) wrote the Book of the Chemistry of Perfume
and Distillations, which contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic
waters, and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described 107 methods and
recipes for perfume-making and perfume-making equipment, such as the alembic (which still bears
its Arabic name.[8][9] [from Greek ἄμβιξ, "cup", "beaker"][10][11] described by Synesius in the 4th
century[12]).
The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) introduced the process of extracting oils
from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today. He first
experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and
crushed herbs or petals, which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and
immediately became popular. Both the raw ingredients and the distillation technology significantly
influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.
The art of perfumery was known in western Europe from 1221, taking into account the monks'
recipes of Santa Maria delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence, Italy.[citation needed] In the east,
the Hungarians produced in 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution –
best known as Hungary Water – at the behest of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary. The art of perfumery
prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century the personal perfumer to Catherine de'
Medici (1519–1589), Rene the Florentine (Renato il fiorentino), took Italian refinements to France.
His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae
could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of
perfume and cosmetics manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had
begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France.
Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask body
odors resulting from infrequent bathing. In 1693, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a
perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis,[13] today best known as eau de cologne; his nephew Johann
Maria Farina (Giovanni Maria Farina) took over the business in 1732.[14][need quotation to verify]
By the 18th century the Grasse region of France, Sicily, and Calabria (in Italy) were growing
aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and
France remain the center of European perfume design and trade.

Ancient Egyptian perfume vase in shape of an amphoriskos; 664–630 BC; glass: 8 × 4 cm (3.1 ×
1.5 in); Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

Ancient Greek perfume bootle in shape of an athlete binding a victory ribbon around his head; circa 540s
BC; Ancient Agora Museum (Athens)


Etruscan perfume vase, which is inscripted the word "suthina" ("for the tomb"); early 2nd century BC;
bronze; height: 16 cm; Louvre

Roman perfume bottle; 1st century AD; glass; 5.2 x 3.8cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Partially broken perfume amphora; 2nd century AD; glass; from Ephesus; Ephesus Archaeological
Museum (Selçuk, Turkey)

British Rococo perfume vase; circa 1761; soft-paste porcelain; overall: 43.2 × 29.2 × 17.8 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

British Neoclassical pair of perfume burners; probably circa 1770; derbyshire spar, tortoiseshell, and
wood, Carrara marble base, gilded brass mounts, gilded copper liner; 33 × 14.3 × 14.3 cm; Metropolitan
Museum of Art

Art Nouveau perfume bottle; circa 1900; glass with gilt metal cover; overall: 13.4 cm; Cleveland Museum
of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, USA)

Dilution classes[edit]

Original Eau de Cologne flacon 1811, from Johann Maria Farina, Farina gegenüber
Vintage atomizer perfume bottle

Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance
is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the
definitions of perfume types. The intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the concentration,
intensity, and longevity of the aromatic compounds, or perfume oils, used. As the percentage of
aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent. Specific terms are
used to describe a fragrance's approximate concentration by the percent of perfume oil in the
volume of the final product. The most widespread terms[15] are:

 parfum or extrait, in English known as perfume extract, pure perfume, or simply perfume: 15–
40% aromatic compounds (IFRA: typically ~20%);
 esprit de parfum (ESdP): 15–30% aromatic compounds, a seldom used strength concentration
in between EdP and perfume;
 eau de parfum (EdP) or parfum de toilette (PdT) (The strength usually sold as "perfume"[15]):
10–20% aromatic compounds (typically ~15%); sometimes called "eau de perfume" or
"millésime"; parfum de toilette is a less common term, most popular in the 1980s, that is
generally analogous to eau de parfum;
 eau de toilette (EdT): 5–15% aromatic compounds (typically ~10%); This is the staple for most
masculine perfumes.
 eau de Cologne (EdC): often simply called cologne: 3–8% aromatic compounds (typically ~5%);
see below for more information on the confusing nature of the term "cologne";
 eau fraiche: products sold as "splashes", "mists", "veils" and other imprecise terms. Generally
these products contain 3% or less aromatic compounds and are diluted with water rather than oil
or alcohol.[15]
There is much confusion over the term "cologne", which has three meanings. The first and oldest
definition refers to a family of fresh, citrus-based fragrances distilled using extracts from citrus, floral,
and woody ingredients. Supposedly these were first developed in the early 18th century in Cologne,
Germany, hence the name. This type of "classical cologne" describes unisex compositions "which
are basically citrus blends and do not have a perfume parent."[16] Examples include Mäurer &
Wirtz's 4711 (created in 1799), and Guerlain's Eau de Cologne Impériale (1853).
In the 20th century, the term took on a second meaning. Fragrance companies began to offer lighter,
less concentrated interpretations of their existing perfumes, making their products available to a
wider range of customers. Guerlain, for example, offered an Eau de Cologne version of its flagship
perfume Shalimar. In contrast to classical colognes, this type of modern cologne is a lighter, diluted,
less concentrated interpretation of a more concentrated product, typically a pure parfum. The
cologne version is often the lightest concentration from a line of fragrance products.[16]
Finally, the term "cologne" has entered the English language as a generic, overarching term to
denote a fragrance worn by a man, regardless of its concentration. The actual product worn by a
man may technically be an eau de toilette, but he may still say that he "wears cologne". A similar
problem surrounds the term "perfume", which can be used in a generic sense to refer to fragrances
marketed to women, whether or not the fragrance is actually an extrait.
Classical colognes first appeared in Europe in the 17th century. The first fragrance labeled a
"parfum" extract with a high concentration of aromatic compounds was Guerlain's Jicky in 1889. Eau
de Toilette appeared alongside parfum around the turn of the century. The EdP concentration and
terminology is the most recent. Parfum de toilette and EdP began to appear in the 1970s and gained
popularity in the 1980s.

Imprecise terminology[edit]

J.B. Filz in Vienna. Perfumeries with long traditions, such as J.B. Filz, created their own scents.[17]

The wide range in the percentages of aromatic compounds that may be present in each
concentration means that the terminology of extrait, EdP, EdT, and EdC is quite imprecise. Although
an EdP will often be more concentrated than an EdT and in turn an EdC, this is not always the case.
Different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes.
Therefore, although the oil concentration of a perfume in EdP dilution will necessarily be higher than
the same perfume in EdT from within a company's same range, the actual amounts vary among
perfume houses. An EdT from one house may have a higher concentration of aromatic compounds
than an EdP from another.
Furthermore, some fragrances with the same product name but having a different concentration may
not only differ in their dilutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether. For
instance, in order to make the EdT version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EdP, the EdT
oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or fewer base notes. Chanel No. 5 is a good
example: its parfum, EdP, EdT, and now-discontinued EdC concentrations are in fact different
compositions (the parfum dates to 1921, whereas the EdP was not developed until the 1980s). In
some cases, words such as extrême, intense, or concentrée that might indicate a higher aromatic
concentration are actually completely different fragrances, related only because of a similar
perfume accord. An example of this is Chanel's Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentrée.
Historically, women's fragrances tended to have higher levels of aromatic compounds than men's
fragrances. Fragrances marketed to men were typically sold as EdT or EdC, rarely as EdP or
perfume extracts. This is changing in the modern fragrance world, especially as fragrances are
becoming more unisex. Women's fragrances used to be common in all levels of concentration, but
today are mainly seen in parfum, EdP and EdT concentrations.[citation needed]
 

Flower from Kenzo

No. 5 from Chanel

Tresor from Lancôme

 

L'Ombre dans l'Eau from Diptyque

Acqua di Giò from Armani

Aqua pour homme from Bulgari

 

Infusion d'Iris Cedre from Prada

Intenso from Dolce & Gabbana

Terre d'Hermès from Hermès

Solvent types[edit]
Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent, though this is not always the case, and its necessity is
disputed. By far the most common solvent for perfume-oil dilution is alcohol, typically a mixture of
ethanol and water or a rectified spirit. Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling
oils such as fractionated coconut oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil.

Applying fragrances[edit]
The conventional application of pure perfume (parfum extrait) in Western cultures is at pulse points,
such as behind the ears, the nape of the neck, and the insides of wrists, elbows and knees, so that
the pulse point will warm the perfume and release fragrance continuously. According to
perfumer Sophia Grojsman behind the knees is the ideal point to apply perfume in order that the
scent may rise.[18] The modern perfume industry encourages the practice of layering fragrance so
that it is released in different intensities depending upon the time of the day. Lightly scented products
such as bath oil, shower gel, and body lotion are recommended for the morning; eau de toilette is
suggested for the afternoon; and perfume applied to the pulse points for evening.[19][self-published
source]
Cologne fragrance is released rapidly, lasting around 2 hours. Eau de toilette lasts from 2 to 4
hours, while perfume may last up to six hours.[20]
A variety of factors can influence how fragrance interacts with the wearer's own physiology and
affect the perception of the fragrance. Diet is one factor, as eating spicy and fatty foods can increase
the intensity of a fragrance.[21] The use of medications can also impact the character of a
fragrance.[21] The relative dryness of the wearer's skin is important, since dry skin will not hold
fragrance as long as skin with more oil.[20]

Describing a perfume[edit]

An original bottle of Fougère Royale by Houbigant. Created by Paul Parquet in 1884, it is one of the most
important modern perfumes and inspired the eponymous Fougère class of fragrances.

Fragrance pyramid

The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept secret. Even if they were widely published,
they would be dominated by such complex ingredients and odorants that they would be of little use
in providing a guide to the general consumer in description of the experience of a scent.
Nonetheless, connoisseurs of perfume can become extremely skillful at identifying components and
origins of scents in the same manner as wine experts.[22]
The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements of the fragrance
notes of the scent or the "family" it belongs to, all of which affect the overall impression of a perfume
from first application to the last lingering hint of scent.[23][24]
The trail of scent left behind by a person wearing perfume is called its sillage, after the French word
for "wake", as in the trail left by a boat in water.

Fragrance notes[edit]
Main article: Note (perfumery)

Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of notes, making the harmonious
scent accord. The notes unfold over time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to
the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage. These notes are
created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume.

 Top notes: Also called the head notes. The scents that are perceived immediately on
application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly.
They form a person's initial impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling of
a perfume. Examples of top notes include mint, lavender and coriander.
 Middle notes: Also referred to as heart notes. The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior to
the dissipation of the top note. The middle note compounds form the "heart" or main body of a
perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become
more pleasant with time. Examples of middle notes include seawater, sandalwood and jasmine.
 Base notes: The scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes.
The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth
and solidity to a perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and
are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application. Examples of base notes include
tobacco, amber and musk.
The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base notes; conversely, the scents of
the base notes will be altered by the types of fragrance materials used as middle notes.
Manufacturers who publish perfume notes typically do so with the fragrance components presented
as a fragrance pyramid,[25] using imaginative and abstract terms for the components listed.

Olfactive families[edit]
The grouping perfumes can never be completely objective or definitive. Many fragrances contain
aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as "single flower" will have subtle
undertones of other aromatics. There are hardly any true unitary-scent perfumes consisting of a
single aromatic material.
The family classification is a starting point to describe a perfume, but does not fully characterize it.
Traditional[edit]
Opium by YSL, of amber or oriental fragrance class

A floral bouquet, Joy from Jean Patou

The traditional categories which emerged around 1900:

 Single Floral: Fragrances dominated by a particular flower; in French called a soliflore.

Example: Serge Lutens Sa Majeste La Rose.)
 Floral Bouquet: Compound of several flower scents. Examples: Houbigant Quelques
Fleurs, Jean Patou Joy.
 Amber or "Oriental": Large class featuring sweet, slightly animalic scents
of ambergris or labdanum, often combined with vanilla, tonka bean, flowers and woods. Can be
enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, evoking Victorian era "Oriental" imagery.
Traditional examples: Guerlain Shalimar, Yves Saint Laurent Opium, Chanel Coco
Mademoiselle.[26]
 Woody: Fragrances dominated by woody scents, typically agarwood, sandalwood, cedarwood,
and vetiver. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes.
Traditional examples: Myrurgia Maderas De Oriente, Chanel Bois des
Îles. Modern: Balenciaga Rumba.
 Leather: A family of fragrances featuring honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in the middle or
base notes and a scent that alludes to leather. Traditional examples: Robert
Piguet Bandit, Balmain Jolie Madame.
 Chypre (IPA: [ʃipʁ]): Meaning Cyprus in French, this includes fragrances built
on bergamot, oakmoss, and labdanum. Named after François Coty Chypre (1917). Modern
example: Guerlain Mitsouko.
 Fougère (IPA: [fu.ʒɛʁ]): Meaning fern in French, built on a base
of lavender, coumarin and oakmoss, with a sharp herbaceous and woody scent. Named
for Houbigant's Fougère Royale, many men's fragrances belong to this family. Modern
examples: Fabergé Brut, Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir, Penhaligon's Douro.
Modern[edit]
Since 1945, new categories have emerged to describe modern scents, due to great advances in the
technology of compound design and synthesis, as well as the natural development of styles and
tastes:

 Bright Floral: Combining Single Floral & Floral Bouquet traditional categories. Example: Estée
Lauder Beautiful.
 Green: Lighter, more modern interpretation of the Chypre type, with pronounced cut grass,
crushed green leaf and cucumber-like scents. Examples: Estée Lauder Aliage, Sisley Eau de
Campagne, Calvin Klein Eternity.
 Aquatic, Oceanic, Ozonic: The newest category, first appearing in 1988 Davidoff Cool
Water (1988), Christian Dior Dune (1991). A clean smell reminiscent of the ocean, leading to
many androgynous perfumes. Generally contains calone, a synthetic discovered in 1966, or
more recent synthetics. Also used to accent floral, oriental, and woody fragrances.
 Citrus: An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de
colognes, due to the volatility of citrus scents. Development of newer fragrance compounds has
allowed for the creation of more tenacious citrus fragrances. Example: Penhaligon's Quercus.
 Fruity: Featuring fruits other than citrus, such as peach, cassis (black currant), mango, passion
fruit, and others. Example: Ginestet Botrytis.
 Gourmand (French: [ɡuʁmɑ̃]): Scents with "edible" or "dessert-like" qualities, often containing
vanilla, tonka bean, and coumarin, as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food
flavors. A sweet Example: Thierry Mugler's Angel (sweet).
Fragrance wheel[edit]
Main article: Fragrance wheel

Fragrance Wheel perfume classification chart, ver. 1983

This newer classification method is widely used in retail and the fragrance industry, created in 1983
by the perfume consultant Michael Edwards. The new scheme simplifies classification and naming,
as well as showing the relationships among the classes.[27]
The five main families are Floral, Oriental, Woody, Aromatic Fougère, and Fresh, the first four from
the classic terminology and the last from the modern oceanic category. Each of these are divided
into subgroups and arranged around a wheel. In this scheme, Chanel No.5, traditionally classified as
an aldehydic floral, is placed under the Soft Floral sub-group, while amber scents are within the
Oriental group. Chypre perfumes are more ambiguous, having affinities with both the Oriental and
Woody families. For instance, Guerlain Mitsouko is under Mossy Woods, but Hermès Rouge, a more
floral chypre, is under Floral Oriental.

Aromatics sources[edit]

Plant sources[edit]

Citrus tree blossom

Resins in perfumery include myrrh

Frankincense

Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds.
These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection
against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators. Plants are by far the largest source of
fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from
various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial
portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Orange leaves,
blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petitgrain, neroli, and orange oils.

 Bark: Commonly used barks include cinnamon and cascarilla. The fragrant oil in sassafras root
bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the
synthesis of other fragrant compounds.
 Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest and most common source of perfume
aromatics. Includes the flowers of several species of rose and jasmine, as well
as osmanthus, plumeria, mimosa, tuberose, narcissus, scented geranium, cassie, ambrette as
well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees. Although not traditionally thought of as a
flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also commonly used. Most orchid flowers are
not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of vanilla, an
orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery.
 Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries rarely yield the expected odors when
extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are more likely to be of synthetic
origin. Notable exceptions include blackcurrant leaf, litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry.
The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such
as oranges, lemons, and limes. Although grapefruit rind is still used for aromatics, more and
more commercially used grapefruit aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural
aromatic contains sulfur and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell.
 Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery
are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves are
valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this
include hay and tomato leaf.
 Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery. Highly
fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures
as medicines for a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery
include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, balsam of Peru, benzoin. Pine and fir resins
are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other
synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds. Some of what is called amber and copal in
perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers.
 Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery
include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family.
 Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot
seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise.
 Woods: Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are
indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods
include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine. These are used in the
form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms.
 Rom terpenes. Orchid scents
Animal sources[edit]

A musk pod. Extensive hunting of male musk deer for their pods in recent history has resulted in the detriment
of the species.

Ambergris

 Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled
by the sperm whale. Ambergris should not be confused with yellow amber, which is used in
jewelry. Because the harvesting of ambergris involves no harm to its animal source, it remains
one of the few animalic fragrancing agents around which little controversy now exists.
 Castoreum: Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver.
 Civet: Also called civet musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the
family Viverridae, related to the mongoose. World Animal Protection investigated African civets
caught for this purpose.[28]
 Hyraceum: Commonly known as "Africa stone", is the petrified excrement of the rock hyrax.[29]
 Honeycomb: From the honeycomb of the honeybee. Both beeswax and honey can be solvent
extracted to produce an absolute. Beeswax is extracted with ethanol and the ethanol evaporated
to produce beeswax absolute.
 Musk: Originally derived from a gland (sac or pod) located between the genitals and the
umbilicus of the Himalayan male musk deer Moschus moschiferus, it has now mainly been
replaced by the use of synthetic musks sometimes known as "white musk".
Other natural sources[edit]
 Lichens: Commonly used lichens include oakmoss and treemoss thalli.
 "Seaweed": Distillates are sometimes used as essential oil in perfumes. An example of a
commonly used seaweed is Fucus vesiculosus, which is commonly referred to as bladder wrack.
Natural seaweed fragrances are rarely used due to their higher cost and lower potency than
synthetics.
Synthetic sources[edit]
Main article: Aroma compound

Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are
not found in nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous
metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often
used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For
example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively
synthesized from terpenes. Orchid scents (typically salicylates) are usually not obtained directly from
the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in
various orchids.
One of the most commonly used classes of synthetic aromatics by far are the white musks. These
materials are found in all forms of commercial perfumes as a neutral background to the middle
notes. These musks are added in large quantities to laundry detergents in order to give washed
clothes a lasting "clean" scent.
The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They
include:

 International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF)

 Givaudan
 Firmenich
 Takasago
 Symrise
Each of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics
annually.

Characteristics[edit]
Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery

Naturals Synthetics

Natural scents will vary from each supplier Much more consistent than natural
Variance
based on when and where they are aromatics. However, differences in

harvested, how they are processed, and the organic synthesis may result in
 extraction method itself. This means that a minute differences in concentration

certain flower grown in Morocco and in of impurities. If these impurities

France will smell different, even if the same have low smell (detection)

method is used to grow, harvest, and extract thresholds, the differences in the

the scent. As such, each perfumer will scent of the synthetic aromatic will

prefer flowers grown in one country over be significant.

another, or one extraction method to the

next. However, due to a natural scent's

mixed composition, it is easy for

unscrupulous suppliers to adulterate the

actual raw materials by changing

its source (adding Indian jasmine into

Grasse jasmine) or the contents (adding

linalool to rosewood) to increase their profit

margin.

Depending on purity, consists

Contains many different organic
primarily of one chemical
compounds, each adding a different note to
compound.
the overall scent. Certain naturally derived
Sometimes chiral mixtures of
Components substances have a long history of use, but
isomers, such as in the case of Iso
this cannot always be used as an indicator
E Super.[30] Due to the almost pure
of whether they are safe or not. Possible
composition of one chemical
allergenic or carcinogenic compounds.
compound, the same molecules

found diluted in nature will have a

 different scent and effect on the

body, if used undiluted.

Similar to natural scents yet

different at the same time. Some

Reminiscent of its originating material,
synthetics attempt to mimic natural
although extraction may capture a different
Scent notes, while others explore the
"layer" of the scent, depending on the how
uniqueness entire spectrum of scent. Novel
the extraction method denatures the
scent compounds not found in
odoriferous compounds.
nature will often be unique in their

scent.

Pure and pronounced fragrance

Deep and complex fragrance notes. Soft,
Scent notes. Often monotonous in nature,
with subtle scent nuances. Highly valued for
complexity yet reminiscent of other natural
ideal composition.
scents.

Dependent on extraction method. More

Dependent on synthesis method.
expensive, but not always, as prices are
Generally cheaper, but not
determined by the labor and difficulty of
necessarily. Synthetic aromatics
properly extracting each unit of the natural
are not necessarily cheaper than
Price
materials, as well as its quality. Typically the
naturals, with some synthetics
relationship between, longevity of a
being more costly than most natural
perfume, cost and the concentration of
ingredients due to various factors
essential oils follows the graph below:
such as the long synthesis routes,
 low availability of precursor

chemicals, and low overall yield.

However, due to their low odor

threshold, they should be diluted

when making a perfume.

This chart shows the typical relationship between

price of perfume, its longevity and the
concentration of essential oils.
[31]

Obtaining natural odorants[edit]

Main article: Fragrance extraction

Itar (herbal perfume) vendor on the street of Hyderabad, India, who can compose an original perfume for the
customer

Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be
obtained. Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis and purified. Odorants from
natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials.
The results of the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on
the amount of waxes in the extracted product.[32]
All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained
from the raw materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen
in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their
odor character or renders them odorless.

 Maceration/Solvent extraction: The most used and economically important technique for
extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged in a solvent
that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds. Maceration lasts anywhere from hours to
 months. Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this
manner as are all aromatics from animal sources. The technique can also be used to extract
odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured by heat. Commonly used
solvents for maceration/solvent extraction include ethane, hexane, and dimethyl ether. The
product of this process is called a "concrete."
o Supercritical fluid extraction: A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds
from a raw material, which often employs Supercritical CO2. Due to the low heat of process
and the relatively nonreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived
often closely resemble the original odor of the raw material.
o Ethanol extraction: A type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly
from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from
solvent extraction or enfleurage. Ethanol extraction from fresh plant materials contain large
quantities of water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol.
 Distillation: A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such
as orange blossoms and roses. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-
collected through condensation of the distilled vapor.

An old perfume still on display at Fragonard


o Steam distillation: Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material, which drives
out their volatile fragrant compounds. The condensate from distillation are settled in
a Florentine flask. This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water. The
water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils
from the raw material is called hydrosol and sometimes sold. This is most commonly used
for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems.
o Dry/destructive distillation: The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier
solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the
high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different
fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain
fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an intentional "burned" or
"toasted" odor is desired.
o Fractionation: Through the use of a fractionation column, different fractions distilled from a
material can be selectively excluded to modify the scent of the final product. Although the
product is more expensive, this is sometimes performed to remove unpleasant or
undesirable scents of a material and affords the perfumer more control over their
composition process.
 Expression: Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the essential oils are collected. Of all
raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in
this manner since the oil is present in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method
economically feasible.
 Enfleurage: Absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or wax and then extraction of odorous
oils with ethyl alcohol. Extraction by enfleurage was commonly used when distillation was not
possible because some fragrant compounds denature through high heat. This technique is not
commonly used in the modern industry due to prohibitive costs and the existence of more
efficient and effective extraction methods.[23]

Fragrant extracts[edit]

Indian Patchouli - Tincture

Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "essential oils", a
more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and
technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract. Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential
oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes.

A Junior High School Research

Presented to the
 In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for

Research II

(Science, Technology, and Engineering Program)

January 2020

Table of Contents
Page

TITLE PAGE ............................................................................................................................... i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ ii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ iii

CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................1

Background of the Study .....................................................................................................2

Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................................3

Significance of the Study .....................................................................................................4

Scope and Delimitation ........................................................................................................5

II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...........................................................................6

III METHODOLOGY ..............................................................................................................8

 III

Methodology