OFFSHORE TECHNOLOGY CONFERENCE PAPER

6200 North Central Expressway :NUMBER OTC 2081

Dallas, Texas 75206

THIS IS A PREPRINT --- SUBJECT TO CORRECTION

Capacity of

By

L. M. Kraft, Jr., McC~elland Engineers, Inc., and C. G. Lyons, Esso Production

- Research Co. -

©Copyright 1974-
OffBhore Technology Conference on Denalf of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and
Petroleum Engineers, Tnc.- (Society of Mining Engineers, The Metallurgical Society and Society of
Petroleum Engineers), Americ~_Association of Petroleum Geologists, American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,-Marine Technology Society, Society of Exploration
Geophysicists, and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Sixth Annual Offshore Technology Conference
to be held in Houston,-Tex., May 6~8, 1974. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of
not more than 300words.III1.istrations may not be copied. Such use of an abstract should contain
conspicuous acknowledgmehtof where and by whom the paper is presented.

ABSTRACT installation technique for attaining typical

A state-of-the-art review is presented
of information on design, installation and
performance of grouted piles. Grouted piles
are finding increasing use as foundation
elements for offshore structures where hard
soil conditions, calcareous sands and/or deep
embedments for high axial capacity preclude
installation by conventional pile driving
methods. Purposes of this study were to
consolidate performance data on axially loaded
grouted piles and to interpret the data in view
of predetermining ultimate axial capacity.
Design procedures are given that are used
by some in the offshore industry to predetermine
axial capacity of grouted piles.
The influence of stress relief, moisture
migration, Illechanical disturbance, and drilling
mud on the development of skin friction is -
discussed. Research studies are discussed
which have potential for making significant
improvements in the state-of-the-art.
INTRODUCTION
Axial load pile requirements for offshore
drilling/production platforms (typically 1000
to 4000 tons) and/or difficult soil conditions
(dense sand, hard clay, reefs, etc.) may
preclude conventional pile driving as a viable
References at end of paper
design pile penetrations of 200 to 400 ft. When
a design embedment cannot be attained, a
supplemental installation method is required (31) .
A supplemental installation method may also be
required for sites where calcareous sand
deposits predominate. This is because pile
driving disturbance can result in low lateral
soil pressures which will reduce developable
frictional resistance.
Methods of grouting a pile into an
oversized hole or drilling and underreaming
for a cast-in-place pile (Fig. 1) recently
have received increased attention by offshore
operators. Current technology for computing
ultimate capacities of these types of foundation
elements is based primarily on experience
with drilled-and-underreamed shafts used
for land installations. Typical measured
ultimate capacities and penetrations of drilled
shafts from land installations from which .
empirical design parameters are derived
are compared in Fig. 2 with typical design
ultimate capacities and penetrations required
for offshore installations. It shows that
as much as a ten-fold extrapolation of the
regime of these data must be made for typical
offshore design applications.
Objectives of thIS paper are to present
a state-of-the-art review of information on
design, installation and performance of
grouted piles and underreamed footings and
486 STATE-OF-THE-ART: ULTIMATE AXIAL CAPACITY OF GROUTED PILES
to suggest research studies which have poten-
tial for making significant improvements
in the design and installation of these founda-
tion types for offshore applications.
ULTIMATE AXIAL CAPACITY
Mathematical Model
Ultimate pile capacity is derived from
end bearing and from shear stresses developed
along the pile shaft. The conventional mathe-
matical expression for ultimate capacity of
a cylindrical pile with radius R and penetration
L is (regardless of installation method)
2 of the prediction depends on proper selection
q = (cN c + q'N ) nR +
q of such factors as the lateral earth pressures,
JL (c a + K y' z tan 0 )2 TIRdz _. _. . . 0)_
o shaft of the pile. However, these methods
where c is the soil cohesion and q' is the
effeetive overburden pressure at the pile
tip, Nc and Nq are bearing capacity coefficients
varying with the angle of internal friction cjl of
the soil; ca is the apparent adhesion between
the soil and pile material related to soil
cohesion through a strength factor ex; K is
a lateral earth pressure coefficient related
to soil angle of internal friction; 0 is the
apparent angle of friction between the soil and
pile material which is related to the soil angle
of internal friction; z is the vertical coordinate
measured from the seafloor and y' is the sub-
merged unit weight of the soil. For driven
piles q'N q and K ylztan 0 have limiting values
which depend on ¢ (1,28,56). Bored piles
may have similar limiting values.
Mobilization of Skin Friction and End Bearing
Eq. 1 assumes ultimate end bearing
and ultimate friction are developed simultan-
eously. Field observations indicate, however,
that ultimate skin friction for bored piles
in both clay and sand (42,55,57) is developed
at a pile settlement equal to a fraction of
a percent of the shaft diameter. Depending on
the soil stiffness, settlements equal to several
percent of the shaft diameter (base diameter
for underreamed footings) may be required
to develop ultimate endbearing(55,56,57).
Once skin friction has reached its ultimate,
subsequent pile deformation may result in
a decrease in frictional capacity. Thus,
the ultimate pile capacity may be less than
the sum of the two components.
Empirical procedures have been sug-
gested(42,57) to account for inequalities
between end bearing and skin friction safety
OTC 2081
factors. In addition, several semi-empirical
procedures based on theory of elasticity
have been proposed (21,24,38,41,52,53) . Since
these solutions are based on elasticity they
are limited to working loads, and not ultimate
loads unless an iterative procedure is used
to approximate the nonlinear load-deformation
response by a series of straight lines. Another
procedure, referred to as a t-z analysis (11, 12) ,
uses a correlation of the ratio of load-transfer
to soil shear strength as a function of pile
movement and includes the elastic properties
of the pile. The finite element method can
be used also for computing pile load-deformation
characteristics (14). In any case, accuracy
modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio
of the soil, elastic-plastic tip movements,
and load-transfer characteristics along the
do provide a vehicle for establishing the
relative influence of the key parameters
on the mobilization of ultimate capacity.
Settlement of underreamed footings
supported on clay can be estimated by combining
elastic theory with stress-strain characteristics
obtained from laboratory tests (50). Although
this method does consider the nonlinear
stress-strain behavior of the soil, results
from finite element analyses using nonlinear
stress-strain soil properties indicate that
the procedure can overestimate the settlement
by a factor of two for certain soils. This
is also evidenced by field measurements;
at a safety factor of two (end bearing only)
O'Neill (42) measured settlement to diameter
ratios approximately 60 percent of that calculated
from Skempton's procedure (50). Further
consideration in the design of underreamed
footings must be given to the influence of
the underream on load-transfer along the
shaft just above the underream. According
to Tomlinson (54), the length of shaft above
the top of the bell equal to the bell diameter
should be disregarded in calculating skin
friction.
INFLUENCE OF INSTALLATION
The method of pile installation can
significantly influence ultimate capacity
through alterations in soil strength and devel-
opable skin friction. For bored piles the
installation influence is manifested as changes
in moisture content of the soil adjacent to
the shaft, the influence of drilling mud on
the grout-soil and pile-grout interfaces,
and mechanical disturbance to the soil during
drilling. For underreams the effective soil
cohesion required to maintain the bell excava-
tion may be reduced by planes of weakness
OTC 2081 L. M. KRAFT, JR. AND C. G. LYONS
caused by natural fissures and slickensides.
In an attempt to account quantitatively
for the influence of the above factors on the
strength reduction factor, O'Neill (42) and
others have proposed dividing a into several
multiplicative components each of which is
determined empirically. However, in following
paragraphs, the application of stress path
concepts and fundamentals of thermodynamics
are suggested for obtaining a more fundamental
understanding of factors affecting a and to pro-
vide guidance for estimating a values indepen-
dent of load tests. Drilling procedures which
influence K tan 0 are discussed also.
Stress Release Due to DrilHng
Migration of pore water from the soil
mass towards less highly stressed zones around
the borehole can lead to a soil strength reduction
(water content increase) at the borehole wall (51),
The magnitude of water content increase and
the thickness of the affected zone is influenced
by the earth pressure coefficient "at rest",
soil unit weight, weight of drilling mud, pore
water pressure parameters, soil permeability,
and time. Because these parameters assume
a wide range of values in nature, a correspond'-
ingly wide variation in installation related
strength changes may occur at different sites.
Knowledge of factors affecting strength changes
may lead to more proficient control of installa -
tion procedures towards minimization of poten-
tial strength reduction.
The stress path approach can be used
to determine the interaction between the method
of installation, the soil and its properties which
affect the developable shear stress at the grout-
soil interface. By way of example, the initial
stress state, the stress state at the completion
of drilling, and the stress state assuming
the induced pore water pressures have dissi-
pated have been computed for a soil profile
typical of conditions tested by O'Neil1(42).
Fig. 3 illustrates the range in induced pore
water pressure for pore pressure parameter A
ranging from zero to 1/3. Total stress changes
were estimated with a linear elastic finite . --
element technique, although approximate
solutions for elastic and plastic conditions
have been developed by Westergaard (5 8). It
was found that the maximum shear stress
is increased and the pore water pressure
is decreased immediately after drilling. With
the passing of time the pore water pressure
equalizes which results in soil swelling.
Associated with the swelling (increased water
content) is a strength decrease. Potential
volume change is indicated by the change in
pore water pressure; the larger the negative
487
induced pore water pressure the greater
the potential swell. Results of this analysis
indicate that swell potential increases with
depth. Field observations support the qualita-
tive validity of this theoretical observation (35,42).,
The magnitude of swell depends on
the time the excavation for the piling remains
open, the soil permeability, magnitude of
stress release and availability of water.
For fissured clays the equivalent permeability
may be increased as a result of the fissures
opening due to the stress release. Futhermore,
stability of the excavation is reduced as
the fissures open. According to O'Neill (42)
a 3-ft-diameter, 30-ft-deep borehole in stiff
clay usually can be excavated in less than
30 minutes and with proper scheduling concret-
ing can be completed within another 30 minutes,
yielding a total time lapse of less than 60 min·-
utes. For offshore construction, experience
indicates that the time required to complete
installation of deeply embedded grouted
piles can be several days. This' increases
the likelihood of low a values,
Migration of Soil, Water, and Cement
Concrete or grout is generally placed
at high water-cement ratios to provide for
workability. The water is more than required
for cement hydration and may serve as a
moisture source for materials having a tendency
to swell. Additionally, in a multiphase system
of soil particles, water, and cement there
is a tendency for each phase to diffuse into
the other. Differences between the ions
and ion concentrations in the soil water com-
pared to the water in the concrete will result
in a tendency toward water movement due
to difference in chemical potential(39). For
similar reasons, cement can diffuse into
the soil, or vice versa, or the clay particles
in a drilling mud can diffuse into the unexca-
vated soil mass.
Ideally, the diffusion process can
be explained using concepts of irreversible
thermodynamics. However, a reliable quantita-
tive thermodynamic model for predicting
the diffusion process in soil mechanics is
not available at this time (1974). Thermodynam-
ic concepts are sufficiently developed,
however, to be useful for identifying significant
parameters and to assist in design and interpre-
tation of laboratory and field testing.
Laboratory Test Results. Tests which
are representative of expected field conditions
may provide quantitative estimates of soil
moisture changes which could be used for
estimating potential soil strength reductions.
WI STATE-OF-THE-ART: ULTIIVLATE AXIAL CAPACITY OF GROUTED PILES OTC 208

To determine moisture movement between drilling mud affects the carrying capacity
soil and wet cement mortar, Chuang and of the pile. Displacement of the mud by
Reese(9) placed 3 inches of soil in a 2. 83-in, the grout may result in scouring of the wall
diameter tube, and 2 inches of cement mortar of the shaft and thus remove the mud film.
was poured on top of the soil sample, The Extent of mud removal depends on rate of
composite sample was placed in a triaxial chain- displacement, viscosity of both the mud and
ber for application of pressure, and at the grout and variations in the annulus size,
end of 7 days, moisture contents were deter– More is said about drilling mud in Appendix A,
mined for each 1/4-in. slice of the soil sample.
Four soils were used in the testing: sandy Laboratory Test Results. Barker and
loam, sand–clay loam, sandy clay, and a Reese~) performed tests using a direct shear
clay, The test showed moisture content apparatus which indicated that a film of benton–
of the soil inc~eased as (a) the clay content ite drilling mud on a clay surface may drastically
increased; (b) the pressure on the concrete reduce (compared to no drilling mud) the maxi -
increased; (c) the initial moisture content mum shear stress that can be developed between
decreased; (d) the water-cement ratio increased; the grout and soil, In sand and silt the bentonite
(e) the rate of hydration of the cement decreased; mud did not reduce the maximum developable
and (f) the soil-mortar interface was approached. shear stress, No comments can be made on
Further, it was found that cement penetrated the quantitative influence of drilling mud on
about 1/4 inch into the coarser grained soil skin friction because of the wide s tatter in
and no penetration was observed in the clay their data.
soil.
In granular soil the bentonite mud pene -
Field Test Results , Some results trates the soil (8, 27, 33), thus providing a
of measured changes in soil adj scent to the cohesive component which may explain, at
shaft of bored piles are tabulated in Table 1, least in part, the beneficial effects of using
Moisture increases ranged from 1,5 to 9 percent drilling mud in cohesionless soils.
and the thickness of the affected zone ranged
from 1.0 to 2.0 in. Only part of these changes Results by Becker and Peterson(5),
are due to migration of water from concrete, which are shown on Fig. 4, provide some
the remaining part is due to: (a) stress measure of possible reductions in shear bond
release due to drilling; (b) drilling fluid .. between a grout and sandstone foundation.
used for hole stability; and (c) free water
flowing out of the soil mass through cracks, Field Test Results . Tests in marine
fissures, or permeable seams during boring clay soils by Eide, Aas and Josang(16) showed
operations. that a stabilized layer of stiff clay 1 to 5 cm
thick was formed in the borehole walls for
Lateral expansion of the grout during piles cast in water, clay, or mikrosil* slurries.
curing may tend to retard moisture migration This stabilized layer, attributed to lime stabiliza-
to the soil because of reconsolidation of tion from the concrete, was not observed for
the soil along the shaft. For a grout annulus piles cast in bentonite (with barytes ) slurries .
only a few inches thick, the expansion will The thickness of the stabilized layer was mess -
be negligible (expansions of 100 to 150 micro- ured from extruded piles. The ultimate tensile
inches per inch are possible (40) ) and little resistance of the piles cast in bentonite was
retardation can be expected. However, 75-80 percent of the capacity of the piles cast
the expansion in a large diameter underream in the other slurries.
may be sufficient to partially retard the moisture
migration. Field tests of trench walls constructed
in London clay both with and without the use
Drilling Mud (Grout-Soil Interface) of bentonite drilling mud indicate that drilling
mud has no significant influence on ultimat
As already discussed, drilling mud capacity (7) . Results by Reese and Touma~49)
affects the extent of changes in soil stresses and Farmer, Buckley, and Sliwinski (18) also
during a boring operation, and tius, affects indicate that a bentonite drilling mud can be
changes in moisture content in the shaft used in stratified stiff clays and sands without
wall. In addition, it can influence ultimate being detrimental to the pile performance.
pile capacity by increasing or decreasing
. .
the developable skin friction as a result
of mudcake formation on the walls of the and K$~%~~ ~~?~~~~~~~~~~~~?~?~~les
borehole. in sand indicate that the use of drilling mud

The technique of grout placement * Mikrasil is a dust from a gas cleaning plant
may influence whether or not the use of that consists mainly of silica.
OTC 2081 L. M, KRAFT, JR ND C . G . LYONS h8Q

in cohesionless soil may be beneficial for ultimate to 2400 psi from a value of 70 psi for mill
capacity, Reese and Touma(49) and Barker varnish surface. Shear lugs may also be
and Reese (3) found that the failure surface attached to the pile to assure that the weakest
was in the soil aud not at the rout-soil ‘- point of the adhesion is not at the pile-grout
interface. Reese and Touma!_?)$“-” suggest interface.
that coarser aggregate penetrates the mud
cake, thus forming a rou h surface alo-ng Expansion of the pile due to heat
the shaft. de Cazenove ( ~3) attributes some of hydration of the grout and subsequent
of the beneficial effect of drilling mud to contraction upon completion of hydration
the stabilization of the mud cake caused by can cause the piIe to pull away from the
its chemical reaction with the grout. surrounding grout. This effect and the
attendant reduction in bond shear strength
Limited experience with grouted piles can be partially offset through the use of
in calcareous sand(2) indicates that drilling grout mix additives which cause the grout
mud may significantly reduce developable to expand. Expansive additives can result
side friction shear stresses, It was recom- in unrestrained expansions up to six percent
mended that drilling mud not be used if compared to about one percent for a salt
a stable hole can be maintained without mud. saturated grout(44) . Another method to
minimize the contraction involves removal
Drilling Mud (Grout-Pile Bond) of heat generated by circulating heat exchanging
fluid inside of the pile. The normal pressure
Ultimate bond shear stress between between grout and pile caused by the surround-
grout and pipe pile depends on (a) extent ing soil or rock formation also tends to reduce
to which grout “wets jr the pile surface, (b) this effect.
roughness of the pile surface, (c) pile contrac–
tion upon cooling, and (d) grout mix design. Bond shear strength has been correlated
In addition, the average ultimate bond shear to the compressive strength of the grout
stress that is developed along the pile length which in turn depends on the grout mix design.
may be less than the maximum bond shear Grout mix design includes proportioning
stress due to load-transfer char? ct eris ti cs the water, cement, sand, aggregate (if used) ,
between materials of different stiffness and and additives. Strength and bond data for
strength, A_common design practice is to typical mix designs are given by Mur hy
use a grout-pile bond value ‘of 20 to 35 psi and Smith (37) , Becker and Peterson( F ),
to account for possibility of poor bond develop- Evans and Carter (17) and Bearden and Lane(4).
ment. Higher values may be warranted based
on utilization of stringent quality control An acoustic logging tool has been
procedures and/or test data for specific used in the oil industry to measure the com e-
site conditions. tence of casing-cement bond in the field(43 7 .
With a similar tool, Carter and Evans (8)
Grout-pile shear bond results from investigated the influence of pile surface
adhesive forces on the boundary interface finish and time on grout-pile bond. Their
which in turn develops only if the grout findings were corroborated by laboratory
is able to “wet” the pile(5) . Contamination test results that simulated the field conditions .
of the grout by drilling mud and the presence
of a mud film on the pile reduces nettability Mechanical Disturbance
and correspondingly reduces bond shear
strength. Evans and Carter(17) suggest The influence of mechanical disturbance
shear bond for a pipe with a thin film of on the load-transfer ability of the soil is
water-based mud should be reduced to one- not readily amenable to quantitative determina-
third of the shear bond value for a similar tion. However, knowledge of the causes
pipe grouted into a shaft constructed without and their qualitative effects can be useful
drilling mud. in the design of drilling programs to minimize
the detrimental effects of mechanical disturb -
Bond shear strength increases with antes,
an increase in surface roughness (5) . Surface
roughness of a pile can be increased by Insertion and removal of drilling
allowing the pile to rust, by sandblasting tools and ins erting the pile after drilling
the pile, by perforating the shaft, or by trowels the soil along the length of the borehole.
applying a rough coating sue-h as a sand- The degree of disturb ante to the soil fabric,
resin coating. As an example, Carter and which affects the reduction in load–transfer
Evans (8) found the use of ~ commercial ability from the grouted pile to the soil,
surface coating increased the shear bond is influenced by the type of drilling tool.
490 STATE-OF-THE-ART: ULTIMATE AXIAL CAPACITY OF GROUTED PILES OTC 2081

Formation stress relief or partial borehole is assumed**; the grout-pile shear

collapse of the borehole can occur if proper bond is sufficiently strong to transfer loads
drilling fluid pressures are not maintained, to the soil);
Severe underpressures can occur when drilling
tools are removed from the borehole so rapidly (3) sufficient relative movement
that the drilling fluid cannot displace around has occurred between the pile and soil at
the drill bit fast enough to fill the void left the interface to mobilize the maximum skin
by the drilling tools, In addition, excessive friction (the ultimate capacity has been reached);
velocity of the drilling fluid and excessive (4) the shaft friction contribution
pumping rate relative to borehole advancement of each stratum of stratified soil desposits
rate can result in washouts which could can be added to determine the total (no inter-
lead to progressive collapse of the borehole, ference between strata***) .
reduction in effective lateral earth pressure
or variation in the shaft diameter, Therefore, use of load test derived a and
Experience
has shown that the amount and rate of fluid K tan IS values to predict ultimate skin friction
circulation to drill a proper hole must be capacity will reflect through field performance
determined by field experimentation for the gross effects of installation influences
each condition, and the assumptions that are made concerning
mobilization of skin friction.
ANALYSIS OF LOAD TEST DATA
Tests in Cohesive Soils
Inte@retation of Test Data
A statistical analysis of a-values
Pile head load test data are used empiri- for 65 bored piles in clay, based cm data summ-
cally to calibrate simple ultimate capacity arized by Golder and Leonard (22), Skernpton
(51]
mathematical models (Eq. 1) to match field Mohan and Chandra (36), Fleming and Salter(20) ,
performance, It is usual to estimate the Whitaker and Cooke(57) , and O’Neill(42) ,
shaft friction by assuming the end bearing yielded an average a-value of about O .45
component can be accurately predicted by and a standard deviati~n of O. 12. The histogram
the first term in Eq. 1 (end bearing is normally for this data is shown m Fig. 6. The data
a small percentage of total pile capacity except represents London clays, Black Cotton clays,
for large underreams and for dense sands) . and Beaumont clays, penetrations in clay
Given the estimated shaft friction, an average ranging from 6 to about 70 ft, diameters
shear stress along the pile length can be ranging from O. 7 to 3 ft, shear strengths
computed. For clay the ratio of this shear ranging from O, 73 to 2.5 tsf, and ultimate
stress to the average undisturbed soil shear axial loads ranging from 7 to 700 tons (Fig, 2) .
strength is called the strength reduction
factor a. Thus, the adhesion term in Eq, 1 Skempton(51, suggested that a value
would be expressed as Ca . a c, For sand of O, 45 be used for a, with a limiting value
the ratio of the average shear stress to the * ~ Underreamed footing affects the load
average value of y ‘z tan $ along the shaft transfer and interpretation of a-values ,
can be used to compute an average value especially in the shaft just above the under-
of Ktan6. ream(54) .
** Data b Reese and Touma(49) and
Scatter in the a and K tan 6 values
O’Neill (4 z ) on six bored piles in stiff clay
derived from different load tests result from
showed the constructed average diameter
the varying effect of installation influences
was 1, 2 inches greater than the design diameter
(stress relief, drilling mud, moisture migration
which ranged from 30 to 36 inches , The
and mechanical disturbance) and the as sump –
constructed diameter ranged from minus
tions inherent in calculating the average
five to plus three inches relative to the design
shaft friction shear stress. These assumptions
diameter. Variations in the shaft diameter
are that:
also affect the load transfer characteristics (49) .
(1) Eq. 1 is a valid mathematical model *** Soil stratification affects the development
(maximum skin friction is mobilized simultane- of shear stresses along the shaft length.
ously along the pile length, end bearing can Fig. 5 illustrates the influence that a soft layer
be accurately predicted and the expressions between two stiff layers can have on the
for the cohesive/cohesionless shaft friction development of shear stresses (42) .
are correctly formulated *);

(2) failure occurs along the grout-

soil interface (the design diameter of the
OTC 2081 - ‘= _L , M., KRAFT~__JR , _AND C . G. LYONS 491

of friction shear resistance equal to 1,0 tsf, A summary of the procedures is

Similar recommendations were made by Reese given in Fig, 7. The following paragraphs
and O’Neill (48) and O‘ Neill(42), who attempted offer some comment on the selection of design
to account for the influence of shaft length values for determination of skin friction. The
and method of installation on ct. scope of this paper does not allow for discussion
of design procedures for end bearing.
Load test results by Matich and Kozicki(34)
were not included in the statistical analysis
because the piles were not loaded to failure.
This test of a 24-in. pile in a shale with Grouted piles in normally consolidated
a mean shear strength of 5 .tsf indicated clays are designed with a-values typically
an a-value close to 1.0. ranging from about O. 5 to occasionally as
large as 1,0, Clays with low plasticity exhibit
Test data reported above are restricted smaller stress release from drilling due
to drilled shafts in over consolidated clays, to lower initial geos tatic lateral stresses
Very limited data are available on drilled and have lower swell potential. Therefore,
shafts in normally consolidated clays. Pull the higher a-values tend to be associated
tests conducted on O, 8-ft diameter, 20-ft with the less plastic clays. However, soil
long shafts cast in the depth range of about properties in addition to plasticity must
40 to 60 ft, suggest that a can be as high be considered also when selecting a-values .
as 1,0(16)$ The clay was a normally consoli- For example, the more friable low plastic
dated marine clay with a shear strength clays may be subject to greater mechanical
on the order of 850 psf, measured with an disturbance and the more permeable low
in situ vane. The shafts were drilled and plastic clays may experience a greater amount
cast within one day; it was observed that of swell.
if 10 days lapsed after drilling with the
hole filled with drilling fluid a-values may Grouted piles in heavily overconsolidated
be 1/2 to 2/3, depending on the drilling clays are designed with a-values typically
fluid, It was also observed in these tests ranging from O. 3 to O. 5. Generally, heavily
that when the pulling rate was reduced from overconsolidated clays have higher swell
1 mm/min to 0.01 mm/min only about 80 percent potential and higher earth pressure “at
of the a-value could be mobilized, independent rest” coefficients than normally consolidated
of the type of drilling fluid used during inst4la- clays of equal plasticity.
tion.
When selecting a-values, deterioration
Tests in Granular Soils of strength with swelling is often evaluated
with laboratory soak or swell tests. Evaluation
Suggested design value, of the earth of the reliability of shear strength due to
pressure coefficient K for drilled shafts “” sample disturbance with offshore sampling
in sand varies etween the active and “at techniques also plays a significant role in
rest,, values (59? . Load test data on four
selecting a-values.
instrument d drilled shafts 25 to about 80 ft
in length and terminating in sand layers Sand
10 to 30 ft thick, yielded K values varyin
from 0.65 to about 1.0 using 6 equal to 0 f 55), K values are assumed by some to
The larger values correspond to shafts with range between the active and “at rest” values.
less exposure to the sand. The results suggest For normally consolidated sands K. is approxi-
that shafts having penetrations of 25 ft or mately l-sino; & increases with overconsoli-
more in sand may yield K values of O. 65 dation ratio and for soils which have been
or possibly smaller. In addition, load test subjected to cyclic action (25) , Values of 8
results on grouted piling in calcareous sands are often assumed to range between 2$/3 and
indicate that there is a limiting skin friction @(45). Variations in K tan 6 with $ are shown
value for deep piling (2) . . on Fig, 8 for K. tan @ and Katan (2$/3).
Also shown on Fig. 8 is the range in K tan 6
DESIGN PRACTICE obtained from load tests by Touma and Reese(55)
and the curve now used for grouted piles
Design procedures outlined below offshore (0.7 tan ($ - 50)) .
are currently being used by some in the
offshore industry for predetermining axial Variations in the theoretical curves
capacity of grouted piling. These procedures shown on Fig. 8 can be attributed primarily
are subject to periodic revisions as more to the K value, Insufficient data exist on
experience is gained and thus must be used initial lateral geostatic stresses, but it is
with caution * likely that they are larger than predicted
 STATE-OF-THE-ART: ULTI~-TE AXI& CAPACITY OF GROUTED PILES OTC 2081
4W

using K. = l-sin$. Experience offshore include: (1) soil stratification, (2) soil strength
indicates that loose deposits of uncemented and other properties, (3) length and stiffness
cohesionless soils, even on the seafloor, of pile, (4) borehole diameter control, and
may be rare. It is hypothesized(6) that wave (5) presence of a large underream. Through
action results in a dense packing of offshore knowledge of the factors that influence the I

cohesionless deposits . This in turn co~d ultimate capacity of grouted piles, quality
result in larger & values than redicted by control, guidelines can be established which
l-sin$, based on Hendron fs (25 Y data. Since will tend to decrease the detrimental effects
@, overconsolidation ratio, and stress history of installation procedures , These may include:
influence &, predictions of & are not likely
(1) minimization of the time between
to be highly reliable. Based on
excavation of the borehole and completion
test data by Touma and Reese (55~,e&~$ledge
of grouting;
of depositional mode of soil deposits , -an d
the factors which influence &, the use of (2) weighing the benefit of using drilling
0.7 tan (~ - 5°) appears to be reasonable mud to reduce stress release as compared
for offshore conditions . to its contamination of the potential bonding;

(3) utilization of grout placement

At this time limiting fricticm values
techniques which minimize drilling fluid
used for driven piles are applied in design
contamination of bonding surfaces;
of grouted piles, tempered by judgment
and knowledge of construction details. (4) control of drilling procedures
If grout is placed under pressures in excess which could influence borehole stability and
of hydrostatic stress it is possible that larger developable skin friction through mechanical
limiting friction values can be developed. disturbance;

SUMMARY (5) design of grout mixes to promote

water migration from the soil to the grout.
Design procedures have been identified
Load tests provide data which can
for single grouted piles which, when applied
with engineering judgment, can give conserva– be used to empirically calibrate simple mathe-
matical models of ultimate capacity, Data
tive designs. Uncertainties in the prediction
for piles grouted to clay are sparse (compared
of ultimate capacity of grouted piles, which
to data for driven piles) but do provide a
are accommodated in the design procedures,
reasonable basis for estimating a strength
can be attributed to:
reduction factor for stiff clays (a = O.45) ,
(1) uncertainty on the influence of Data for grouted piles in quartz sand for
the installation process on soil strength and estimating a lateral earth pressure coefficient
develop able skin friction; are very limited, Correspondingly, the
extent of limiting skin friction (similar to
(2) uncertainty on distribution and
that observed for a pile driven in sand)
magnitude of shear stresses mobilized along
cannot be determined from existing pile
the shaft length.
tests in sand, For grouted piles in calcareous
sands data are available for only one 10cation
Factors which characterize the influence
and should not be extrapolated to other widely
of the installation process include:
removed areas because of possible differences
(1) stress release due to drilling relative in physical properties of the soil.
to initial stresses, soil swell potential, and
time lapse between completion of borehole Analytical, laboratory and field research
and grout placement; studies have been suggested which have
potential for making improvements in the
(2) mechanical disturbance to the
state-of-the-art (Appendix B ) . The analytical
soil fabric and borehole stability due to the
studies would consist of pile-soil interaction
drilling operation and insertion of the pile.
analysis through finite element methods
(3) formation of a mudcake on the and development of a reliable flow model
borehole wall; for grout placement. Laboratory studies
could encompass grout–pile bond tests, grout–
(4) interference of drilling mud with
soil tests, migration tests (soil, water, grout
development of grout-pile shear bond;
and drilling fluid) and development of a
(5) migration of soil, water and cement technique for reliable measurement of grout-
due to chemical potential gradients. pile bond integrity. Field research would
be directed at improving installation techniques
Factors which influence the distribution
and developing additional data to support
and magnitude of shear stresses on the pile
design of grouted piles,
nTf! 7fl~l ----L. M. KRAFT, JR, AND C, G. LYONS 49=+

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Mortar and Soil, tr Research Report 89– 3‘

Center for Highway Research, The
University of Texas at Austin (May,
We would like to acknowledge our 1969) .
appreciation to Esso Production Research
Company for permission to publish this paper. 10. Clough, G.W. and Duncan, J. M.:
Special thanks go to John A. Focht, Jr. llF~i~e Element Analyses of Retaining
and Carl W. Fenske of McClelland Engineers, wall Beha~or, II Soil Mech . Found .
Inc. for reviewing the manuscript. D&, ASCE , Vol~,~Sm971)
1657-1673.
REFERENCES
11. Coyle, H.M. and Reese, L. C.: “Load
Transfer for Axially Loaded Piles
1. American Petroleum Institute: Recorn - in Clay, !! Soil Mech. Found. Div. ,
mended Practice for Planning, Designing ASCE, Vol~2=M2 (1966) 1-26.
and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms
API RP 2A (January, 1971). 12. Coyle, H.M. and Sulaiman, 1.H .:
IISkin Friction for Steel piles in Sand, “
2. Angemeer, J. ,” Carlson”, E. , and Klick, Soil Mech. Found. Div, , ASCE, Vol.
J. H.: I!Techniques and Results ‘of
KNaM6 (1967) 261-278.
Offshore Pile Load Testing in Calcareous
Soils, ” Preprints, Fifth Annual Offshore 13. deCazenove, E.: “Pieux et paroid
Technology Conference, Houston, fores a la boue (Piling and Walls Drilled
Vol. II (1973) 677-692. with Mud), ” Construction. VO1. 24)
No, 7-8 (July-August, 1969) 231-236.
3. Barker, W. R. and Reese, L. C.:
!1Load–carrying Characteristics of
14. Desai, C .S . and Holloway, D .M. :
Drilled Shafts Constructed with the [lLoad-Deformation Analysis of Deep
Aid of Drilling Fluids, ” Research II pro=. symposium ~
Pile Foundations,
Report 89-9, Center for Highway Research Appl. Finite Element Method i~ Geotech-
The University of Texas at Austin nical Eng. , Soil Mechanics Information
(August, 1970) . Analysis Center, U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
4, Bearden, W .G, and Lane, R. D.: “Engi- Miss. (1972) 629-656.
neered Cementing Operations to Eliminate
WOC Time, 1’ API ‘Dr~lling and Production 15, Ehlers, C.J. and Bowles, W .R, : “Under-
Practice (196r reamed Footings Support Offshore
Platforms in the North Sea, “ Preprints,
5. Becker, H. , and Peterson, G. : “Bond Fifth Annual Offshore Technology
of Cement Compositions for Cementing Conference, Houston, Vol. 2 (1973)
Wells, ” Proc. Sixth World Pet. Cong. 693-700.
(1963) . —
16. Ei~e, O., Aas, G., and Josang, T.:
6. Bj errum, L.: [lGeotechnical Problem-s ITS ecial Application of Cast-in-place
P
Involved in Foundations of Structures Walls for Tunnels in Soft Clay in Oslo, “
in the North Sea, “ Geotechnique, Proc, , Fifth European Conf. Soil Mech.
Vol. 23, No. 3 (1973) 319-358, Found. Eng. , Madrid, VO1. 1 (1972)
485-498. -
7. Burland, J .B .: Discussion, Proceedings,
Grouts and Drilling Muds in Engineering 17, Evans, G .W, and Carter, L .G.: “Bonding
P~ce7ritish Nati= society Studies of Cementing Compositions
of the International Society of Soil to Pipe and Formations, ” API Drilling
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, and Production Practice (1962) 72-79.
London (1963) 223-225. 79,
18, Farmer, I.W. , Buckley, P. J. C., and
8. Carter, L.G, and Evans, G. W.: “A Sliwinski, Z.: IIThe Effect of Bentonite
Study of Cement-Pipe Bonding, ” Journal on the Skin Friction of Cast in Place
of Petroleum Technology (February, Piles, ” Proceedings, Behavior of
~64) 157-160, Piles, Institution of Civil Engin~rs,
London (Sept. 1970) 115-120.
9. Chuang, J. W. and Reese, L. C.: “Studies
of Shearing Resistance Between Cement
494 STATE-OF-THE-ART: ULTIMATE AXIAL CAPACITY OF GROUTED PILES OTC 2081

19, Fernandez-Renau, L.: Discussion, 30. Kondner, R .L.: “Hyperbolic Stress-

Proc. , Sixth Inter, Conf. Soil Mech. Strain Response: Cohesive Soils, ‘1
Found, Eng. , Montreal, Vol. 3 (1965) J,
.— Soil Mech.
— Found,
— DA, ASCE ,
495. Vol. 89, No. SM 1, Part 1 (1963) 115-143.

20, Fleming, W,G. K, and Salter, T. H.: 31. McClelland, B. , Focht, J .A. ,Jr. ,
t!Reports on Loading Tests on a Large and Emrich, W. J.: llproblems in Design
Diameter Underreamed Bored Pile, “ and Ins t allation of Offshore Piles, “
Civil En ineerin and Public Works J,
——— Soil Mech. Found, Div, ASCE j
Renew,
-+ London 1~)~1~ Vol. 94, No. SM 6 (196~1491-1514.

21. Geddes, J. D.: llBoussinesq-Bwed 32. McLean, R .H. , Manry, C. W., and
Approximations to the Vertical Stresses Whitaker, W. W.: llDis~lacement Mechan -
Caused by Pile-Type Subsurface Load- ics in Primary Cementing, “ Journal
ings, u Geotec~iq~e, London, VO1, (February,
of Petroleum Technology
19, No. 4 (1969) 509-514. ~67) 251-260,

22, Golder, H .Q, and Leonard, M. W.: 33, McKinney, J.R. and Gray, G. R.:
ltsome Tests on Bored Piles in ~ndon llThe use of Drilling Mud in Large
Clay, II Geote chni ue, London, VO1. 4 Diameter Construction Borings, E Proc,. ,
No, 1 (1954) 32 -43, Grouts and Drilling Muds in Engineemn g
P~ce~ritish )!?at~ ~ocietv
23, Gray, D, H,: llThermo-osmOtiC and of the International Society of So~l
Thermoelectric Coupling in Saturated Mechanics. and Foundation Engineering,
Soils, ” Proc, , Effe&s o~ Temperature London (1963) 218-221,
and Heat
—— on Eng. Beha~or of Soils
— -$
H~hway Research Board, Special 34. Matich, M.A. J. and Kozicki, P .: “Some
R@ort 103 (l_969) 66-77, - Load Tests on Drilled Cast-in-Place
Concrete Caissons, ” Canadian Geotechni-
24. Hanna, T, H.: lll’he Mechanics of cal Journal, Ottowa ,Vol. 4, No. 4
Load Mobilization in Friction Piles, II ~67) 367-375.
Journal of Materials, ASTM (December,
1969) 92=937. 35. Meyerhof, G .G. and Murdock, L ,J.:
11
An ~vestigation of the Bearing Capacity
25, Hendron. A. J. , Jr. : “The Behavior of Some Bored and Driven Piles in
of Sand in One-Dimensional Compression, II London Clay, I! Geotechnique, London,
Ph. D , Dissertation, University of Vol. 3, No. 7 (1953) 267-282.
Illinois (1963) ,
36. Mohan, D . and Chandra, S.: “Frictional
26, Hoeg, K.: I]Finite Element Analysis Resistance of Bored Piles in Expansive
of S train- Softenin~ Clav. ” J. S oil Clays, u Geotechnique London, VO1. 11
Mech, Found, Div~ , ASCE, Vol. 98, No. 4 (1961) 294-301.
No. SM 1 (1972) 43-58.
37. Murphy, W.C. and Smith, D. K.: “A
27, I.coo-!s.: ItTests on the Behavior Critique of Filler Cements, ” ——
J. of
of Bentonite Muds Adherent to a Vertical Pet.
—— Tech. (August, 1967) 1011-1016.
Surface Formed on Incoherent Material, “
The I. C. O.S. Company in —— the Under- 38, Nair, K.: !!Load Settlement and Load
*4 w!!’ ‘ilano J ItalY (1968) Transfer Characteristics of a Friction
Pile Subject to a Vertical Load, ” Proceed-
1~, Third Panamerican Conf. Soil
28. Kerisel, J. L.: ItDeep Foundations Mech. Found. Eng. , Caracas, Vol. 1
Basic Experimental Facts, II Proc, , (1967) 565-589. -
Conference on D- Foundat~
Mexican Soc=ty of Soil Mechanics, 39. Nash, J. K.T. L. and Jones, G. K.:
Mexico City, Vol. 1 (1964).5-44, IIThe Su~Dort of Trenches Usin~ Fluid
Mud, “ P~oceedings, Grouts and” Drillin~
29, Komornik, A. and Wiseman, G.: “Experi- Muds in En~ineerin~ =c~British
ence with Large Diameter Cast-in- =-3 Society of Soil Mechanics
Situ Piling, II procee~n s, Third Asian and Foundation Engineering, London
Regional Con ~ . on Sod Mech, Found. (1963) 177-180.
Eng. , Haifa, Vol. 1 (1967) 200-204.
OTC 2081 L. M. KRAFT,. JR. ANDC. G. LYONS 495

40. Neville, A. M.: Properties of Concrete, 52. Thurman, A .G.: “Computed Load
John Wiley & Sons, New Yo~k~ Capacity and Movement of Friction
and End-Bearing Piles Embedded
41. Nishida, Y .: IiThe Elastic Settlement in Uniform and Stratified Soils, ”
of a Pile in the Ground, “ Soils and Ph, D. Dissertation, Carnegie Institute
Foundations, Japan, Vol. 5, No. 1 of Technology, Pittsburgh (1964) .
(1964) 31-40.
53, Thurman, A. G. and D‘ Appolonia,
42. O’NeiII, M.: llgeha~or of AxiaIly E ,: llGomPuted Movement of Friction
Loaded Drilled Shafts in Beaumont and End-Bearing Piles Embedded
Clay, II Thesis presented to the University in Uniform and Stratified Soils, ”
of Texas at Austin, Texas, in partial Proceedings, Sixth Internat. Conf.
fulfillment of the requirements for Soil Mech. Found. Eng. , Montreal,
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Vol. 2 (1965) 323-327.
(1970) .
54, Tomlinson, M .J. , Discussion, Proc. ,
43. Pardue, G .H. , et al, “Cement Bond Large Bored Piles, Institution of
Log – A study of Cement and Casing Civil E~n~ers and Reinforced
Vwiables, ‘f Journal of petrOleum Concrete Association, London (1966) 86.
Technology (May, 19~3) 545-555.
55, Touma, F.T. and Reese, L. C.:
44. Parker, P.N. and Wahl, W. W.: “Expand- I)The Behavior of Axially Loaded
ing Cement — A New Development Drilled Shafts in Sand. ” Res earth
in Well Cementing, “ J. Report 176-1, Parts 1 and 2, Center
.— Pet. —
Tech.
(May, 1966) 559-564. for Highway Research, The University
of Texas at Austin (December, 1972) .
45. Potyondy, J .G.: t!Skin Friction Between
Various Soils and Construction Materials, ” 56, Vesic, A. S.: “A Studv of Bearing
Geotechni ue, London, VOI, 11, No. 4 Capacity of Deep Fou~dations, ” ~ina.1
(1961
~- 339-353. Report, Project B-189, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta
46. Power Engineerin~ “Pressure Grout (March, 1967) .
P~Support 230-KV Towers in Boggy
Soil” (January, 1964) 47-48, 57. Whitaker, T. and Cooke, R. W.:
“Bored Piles with Enlarged Bases
47, Raymond International, Inc, : Personal in London Clay, ” Proce~dings,
communication (19 73) . Sixth Inter. Conf. Soil Mech. Found.
Eng. , Montreal, Vol. 2 (1965) 342-346.
48. Reese, L.C. and O’IVTeill, M. W.: “Criteria
for the Design of Axially Loaded Drilled 58. Westergaard, H. M.: “Plastic States
Shafts!’ , Research Report 89-llF, of Stress Around a Deep Well, ”
Center for Highway Research, The J. Boston Soc. Civil E=, Vol. 27,
University of Texas at Austin (August, No, 1, Con=u= to Soil Mech. ,
1971) , Boston Soc. Civil Eng. , Boston
(1940) ,
49, Reese, L.C. and Touma, F. T.: “Load
Tests of Instrumented Drilled Shafts 59. Woodward, R .J. , Gardner, W .S .,
Constructed by the Slurry Displacement and Greer, D .M.: Drilled Pier
Method, “ Research Report, Interagency Foundations, McGraw-Hill Book
Contract 108, Conducted for the Texas Co. j New York (1972) ,
Highway Dept. , Center for Highway
Research, The University of Texas
at Austin (1972) .

50. Skempton, A. W,: ItThe Bearing CapacitY

II proceedings, Building
of Clays,
Research Congress, Division 1, histitu-
tion of Civil Engineers, London (1951)
180-189.

51. Skempton, A. W.: !Icast In-Situ Bored

Piles in London Clay, ” Geotechnique,
London, Vol. 9, No. 4 (1959) 153-173.
L96 STATE-OF-THE-ART : ULTIMATE AXIAL CAPACITY OF GROUTED PILES OT.C 2081

APPENDIXA in hard formations to lubricate and cool the

bit and drill string. Depending upon the nature
INSTALLATION OF GROUTED PILES and strength of the formation and the hole
size, water alone may serve as a suitable drilling
Installation of grouted piles for offshore fluid. Sea water has been used successfully
structures is typified by the following sequence as a drilling fluid to drill holes for offshore
of operations: grouted piling installations. When drilling
in clay using sea water a drilling mud may
1. A pipe pile having a larger diameter
be created by the natural clays,
than the insert pile is driven to a selected
depth.
As the penetration and diameter of grouted
2. The soil plug within the driven piles increase, difficulty may be experienced
piling is removed by airlifting, jetting, in drilling if only a sea water drilling fluid
pumping or drilling. is used. Hence, the use of drilling muds,
chemical muds and fiber muds is likely to
3. A hole for an insert pile is advanced
increase for offshore application, A common
below the driven pile by drilling to the required
drilling mud is a mixture of bentonite clay
depth.
and water. The unit weight and viscosity
4. The insert pile with centralizers of the drilling mud is controlled by the propor -
is lowered into position in the drilled hole. tion of clay used and by the use of additives;
the addition of heavy minerals, for example,
5. Grout is place-d in the annulus will increase the unit weight of the mud.-
between the insert pile and borehole,
Bentonites with sodium as the principal ex-
The resultant product is a composite pile, changeable ion swell 10 to 15 times the original
Since the performance of the grouted portion volume when mixed in fresh water and yield
of the pile can be significantly affected by higher viscosities at lower clay content when
the drilling process, the drilling fluid and contrasted to calcium bentonite which display
the grout placement_, _ti_e following paragraphs comparatively little swelling. Dissolved salts
are devloted to these top-its. An-installati~ in the water repress the swelling of bentonite
procedure of grouting while driving offers and allow flocculation. The clay mineral attapul -
promise but is beyond the scope of this gite, which hydrates and forms a stable suspen -
work (46, 47.) . sion in the presence of dissolved salts, is
used with very hard or salty waters .
Method of Drilling
An increase in clay content results in
Rotary drilling procedures are used an increase both in density and viscosity of
to advance the hole. Depending on hole the drilling fluid, The stability of the borehole
size, a combination of tricone drilling bit, is usually increased with an increase in density;
hole opener and underreamer may be used. however, the effort required in drilling in-
For alignment control, stabilizers are used creases .
on the drill string. However, alignment
control can be difficult when drilling inclined Comments on chemical muds and fiber
(battered) shafts. Gravitational pull on the muds are beyond the scope of this paper.
drill tools results in a downward curvature
of the drilled hole, which can restrict placement Thickness of Pile-to-Formation Annulus.
of the insert pile and can result in an eccentric The shear ca~acitv of the ~ile- swout-formation
placement of the insert pile in the borehole, bonding is in’ dire’ct prop~rtion-to the diameter
To provide greate~ stiffness in bending, of each interface. The shear bond between
the insert pile with an attached drill bit grout and soil is usually less than the potential
can be used as the drill string. bond between grout and pile. Therefore,
for grouted piles in sands and clays, the shear
Grouted piles having batters up to failure is likely to occur at the grout-soil inter.
1:6 have been installed without apparent face, For grouted piles founded in rock forma-
difficulty in 250+ ft of water to embedments tions, however, the shear bond between the
of 300+ ft below the mudline, grout and formation can be greater than the
bond between the grout and pile, as evidenced
Drilling Fluid bv data from Evans and Carter(17) s Conse-
q~ently, the shear failure for grouted piles
Drilling fluid is used to transport in rock formations may be along the insert
cuttings to the surface, to maintain cuttings pile.
in suspension when circulation is stopped,
to increase stability of the borehole, and
 —
OTC 2081 L, M, KRAFT, JR, ANDC, G, LYONS 497

The thickness of the pile-to-formation Procedures for removing the filter

annulus must be sufficient to (1) receive cake include chemical wash, mechanical
extended shear lugs and pile centralizers; scratching, and s touring of the filter cake
(2) to allow for out-of-roundness of the drilled by a low density grout fluid injected just
hole and eccentric placement to give reasonable ahead of the permanent grout in the pile-
assurance that the pile will-not be in contact to-formation annulus.
with the soil; and (3) to allow full removal
of the drilling mud by the placement of the Prior to placing the insert pile, a
grout, With increasing annulus thickness, pipe with a capped bottom and perforated
however, expansion of the pile with heat sides may be lowered into the primary pile
of hydration followed by contraction on subse– to circulate seawater. By simultaneously
quent cooling could promote low bond values. circulating water and raising and lowering
Although selection of an optimum thickness the pipe, soil and mud are removed from
is subject to question, most grouted piles the inside surface of the primary pile. After
have a grout annulus that is about 3 inches. retrieving the drill string, a diver can b e
used to insure that the soil plug has been
Centralizers. Two types of pile central- removed and that the inside of the primary
izers are illustrated in Fig. 9. Type A pile is clean.
centralizers are generally used on the deeper
insert pile sections where the centralizers Schematic outlines of some procedures
would be in contact with the soil, The rounded used to grout piles for offshore installations
edges of the centralizers of Type A tend are given in Fig, 10. The volume of grout
to not penetrate the soil in contrast to the pumped into the annulus region should exceed
sharper edges of the Type B centralizers. the calculated annulus volume by 25 to 50
The length of the Type A centralizers are percent to account for grout loss through
typically in the order of 10 ft. The Type B grout seals, into the formation and at the
centralizers are generally used on the insert mudline. Extension of the insert pile up
pile sections within the driven pile. The to the platform deck provides for convenient
length of. the Type B centralizers are typically monitoring of the mud and grout return.
about 2 ft. Although the extension is not necessary,
visual observation of the grout return does
Grout Installation provide means for evaluating the success
of mud displacement.
In placing the grout, the drilling mud
must be displaced and the film of mud adhering Underreaming
to the pile and formation must be removed
for a continuous and firm grout bond to the Underreamed footings are usually
pile and the formation. Several procedures constructed in cohesive soils but have been
for minimizing channeling of grout slurry constructed successfully in granular soils .
through the mud and for removal of the mud A dense granular soil above the groundwater
film have been summarized by McLean, Manry, level may possess sufficient apparent cohesion
and Whitaker (32) and include(*): (1) central– due to capillarity for support of the bell;
izing the pipe within the borehole; (2) rotating below the groundwater level a drilling fluid
the pile during displacement; _(3) thinning would be required to support the bell.
the mud; (4) isolating the grout by plugs Conditions most favorable to underreamed
while it is circulated down the ,casing; (5) footings are (1) stiff to hard clays or dense
establishing turbulence in the grout; and sands capable of high end bearing capacity
(6) maintaining the grout slurry at least to keep bell diameters within a reasonable
2 lb per gallon heavier than the mud and size (for reasons of economy and construction
circulating the grout slurry at a very low feasibility ) and (2) the presence of the support-
rate of flow. Although the above recommendi- ng soil near to the mudline (100 to 200 ft)
tions were developed for oil well casing, they to take full advantage of the end bearing
should apply to routed piles. McLean, Manry capacity (for deeper underreams the skin
and Whitaker( 177 also describe an analytical friction cap ability reduces the efficiency
model useful for studying the influence of of the end bearing because of the difference
different factors on the mud displacement. between the load-displacement characteristics
of end bearing and skin friction).

(*) Construction experience of underreamed

This statement reports individual proce-
footings offshore in deep water is limited.
dures that have been reportedly used with
The only known use of underreamed footings
success. Combining these procedures does
for the support of offshore platforms is in
not necessarily result in a successful operation.
 .

STATE-OF-THE-ART: ULTIMATE AXIAL CAPACITY OF GROUTED PILES OTC 2081

498

the North Sea. A complete description of properties and borehole dimensions; (2)
the construction procedure used is given determination of the influence on load-deforma-
by Ehlers and Bowles ( 15) and is not reported tion response of soil strati graphy, soil stress
here. history, soil stress-strain-strength properties,
pile length and stiffness, and interface response;
(3) determination of optimum pile diameter
APPENDIXB
and wall thickness for a given load, allowable
deformation, and given soil condition; and
SUGGESTED RESEARCH STUDIES ... (4) determination of load-transfer characteristics
of shear stress along the shaft and of end
Through this state-of-the-art review,
bearing capacity, as influenced by pile dimen-
analytical, laboratory and field research
sions, relative stiffness of pile and soil,
studies have been identified which hold potential
soil stratigraphy, and soil strength.
for improving confidence in ultimate pile
cap acity predictions. Grout Placement. Improvements in
methods of grout placement that result in
Analytical Studies increased reliability of grout completely
displacing drilling fluid are likely to be
Pile-Soil Interaction, A judicious. accelerated if a reliable quantitative analytical
coupling of finite element. analysis and labora– flow model is available to- provide
. szuidance
tory soil testing simulating the anticipated in development of ideas and execut~on of
stress path will in all probability lead to these ideas to field practice. Extensions
the most reliable prediction of load-deformation and refinements of the works by McLean,
beha~r and ultimate capacity of grouted Manry, and Whitaker (32) and Touma and
piles short of full scale load tests. Preliminary Reese (55) may serve as a useful starting
results usin f” ite elements for piling are point.
en~ouraging?l~. However, a finite e~ement
solution will be only as good as the constitutive Laboratory Studies
relations for the soil and the load-transfer
constitutive relation along the shaft of the Bond Tests . Parameter studies should
pile. include surface finish of the pipe, drilling
fluid properties, grout mix, normal stress,
Nonlinearity and inelasticity of the temperature, and loading rate. The influence
soil stress-strain response can be modeled of repeated loading on grout-pile bond strength
with a hyperbolic model(3° ) o It is likely has not been studied in detail. Since offshore
that soil anisotropy could be incorporated piling are subject to large cyclic compression,
into the hyperbolic model. Constitutive tension and bending loads the influence
relations representative of strain-softening of repeated loading on the shear bond is
materials can also be utilized . of concern.

Clough and Dun can(lO) successfully Migration Tests . Soil properties

used a hyperbolic expression for quantitatively in the immediate vicinity of the pile are influ-
describing the development of skin friction enced by migration of drilling fluid into
along the interface between a retaining wall the soil, migration of grout into the soil,
and backfill. The boundary condition along migration of. soil into the grout, and migration
the pile-soil interface (and possibly the of water between the grout and soil. Laboratory
interface between different soil layers ) could studies could be performed to establish empiri-
be represented by line elements having non- cal guidelines to assist in the optimum selection
linear, inelastic shear stress-deformation of drilling fluids and grouts. These studies
responses similar to Clough and Duncan’s should be designed and interpreted in terms
mathematical model. of concepts of irreversible thermodynamic cs
as an organized means of digesting and syn–
Finite element analyses can be used thesizing the results, The papers by Chuang
to generate pertinent and useful information and Reese (9) and Gray (23 ) should be consulted
for design of grouted piling, but need careful for the design of laboratory equipment and
interpretation because of inherent assumptions, procedures.
Parametric studies can be used to guide
the modification of design procedures, These Special interest should be devoted
parametric studies could include: (1) determi- to the use of grout or grout additives that
nation of the influence on stress release will penetrate the soil or rock and increase
of drilling fluids, soil strati graphy, soil its strength above that which existed in situ.
stress history, soil stress–strain-strength Temperature and pressure conditions typical
OTC 2081 L, M, KRAFT. JR. iND C , G , LYONS 49!

of field environment should be used in laboratory of bond with the pipe is needed as a means
work. Consideration should be given to of product control. Development of a product
tie influence of expansive grout additives control procedure can be developed most
on moisture migration and additives that economically in the laboratory, Field conditions
would tend to penetrate entrapped pockets of temperature, pressure and moisture condition:
or channels of mud and increase the strength should be simulated in the laboratory, Further
of entrapped mud. development of acoustic soundings for evaluat-
ing bond development is encouraged, and
Nondestructive Measurement of Bond. an effort should be made to establish and
A nondestructive method to be used during develop other methods of indirectly measuring
construction for establishing the degree bond to complement acoustic sounding.
 Table 1 - !Joisture Content Increase

Increase in
At Shaft Thickness of Moisture Content
Natural Increase in Soil Zone in Laboratory under
Soil Comments Moisture, % Moisture, % Affected (in. ) Zero Loa~ (%) Reference

(36)
Black Cotton No mention of 19.5 2,5 1.5 3.0 Mohan and Chandra

Clay drilling mud

1

London Clay No mud 30 3 at top to 2 I 5-8 *Meyerhof and Murdock ’35)

Water/cement = 0.4 7 at bottom

Water/cement = 0.2 o

London Clay No drilling mud 27 ~ 1.5 1.5 to 2 Burland ‘7)

Drilling mud 1.5 to 2,0

Beaumont No drilling mud 20-30 -10 to 6 1- 1!5

Clay No drilling mud 20-30 -2 to 9

less than 1 5-9 Nash and Jones

(39)
London Drilling mud, 6%

Clay bentonite suspension

* Lab tests (unconfined & undrained triaxial) on samples stored in tubes for several days showed a decrease in strength
of 50% of value obtained immediately after sampling, Difference attributed to gradual opening of fissures,

** Decreases in moisture content were more typical above the groundwater table and increases were more typical below
the groundwater table ,
 High Copucity
Due to Large
Diameter

-..--!
Typical
U“derremns
Offshore
..:
Pile Load
L .,.,
:,,.
. t
1030 2CQ0 3LXM 4 ) 5m

Ultimote Axiol Lwd, Kips

40 h

,...,,.,,,.,
,,.
I
t--l I I 1 J
Fig. 1 - Typical grouted pile and un- o
50 1s0 150 200 250
clerreamconfiguration. Pile Penetration intO Clay, Ft

Fig. 2 - “Comparison of bored pile load test

data with offshore load and penetration
requirements.

Stress. ksf
2.0 4.0 (

Full Development !,l

l.”

of Capil
Forces
Iary
Above
Nomml Stress
❑ Red Mud I
Water Level
if Assumed ❑ %l!wafer Bantonite Mud
[

y= 125pcf Magnitude of Induced

KO=l.2 Red.cticm in Pwe Water

O.erconsol idated
Stiff Clay
A = 1/3
x-
After Ccnnpletim

After ——+
Equalization
of Pore Water
Pressure
/
I i \, .
,
Mud Cake MudCake Scraped
(..3) Soil P,ofile (b) lnd..ed Pme Wot.%Preswre ChafWes Scraped Off Off and Surface
Cleaned with Water

Fig. 3 - Induced pore water pressure reduction due to Surfactant

installation. Fig. 4 - Influence of mud cakes on

shear bond strength with ssnd-
stone5.
 Shear Stren@h, tsf
O 1.02.03.0
0

10

20 ;

*L
:
30

40
mZ S!rength Redu. ticm Values

Fig. ,“6- Histogram of values for bozed

bored piles (data based on Ref.
50
22, .51, 36, Y?, 20, and42).
(b) % Versus Depth for S4T I

Fig. 5 - Influen e ‘of soil strati~ication”on

load transfer 52.

I Q= Q,+Qp Cohesive

friction
Soil Cohesicmles

friction
——
Soil

. ,, -
:.,, ,.. f=’=. f = Kpo tan 6
Normally consolidated po= overage effective
C7+0.5 to 1.0, overburden
Canpression:
Q$ = fAs
Heavily Overconsolidate K ta”6=0.7ton@-5°;
L q+13.3 1013.5. Tension:
f = unit friction or
K ton6=0.5 tan ($-5°
soi I-grcut adhesio
f ~ox+2ccc to 41x13 psff
A5= pile surface ore<
f~ax+(see API, (1) I

fmax ‘limiting value

‘typical range in values

end beorirg end bemi”g

—
q=Ncc q=y’LNq

NC=9

q=unit bearing capacity

Ap = pile end area
qmax= limiting value

Fig. 7 - %mmary of design practice.

Type A Type B

In
+, Degr=es
Fig. 8 - Variation in K
h-lb.
The ends are cut cmo
slant fw both types of
centralizers to facilitate
insertion of the pile into
the hole.

Central izers ore equol I y spaced

arcund thepe, iph.eryof th= pile

Fig. 9 - Centralizers.
Technique I

Water
Stri~ Dri[ling mud
:
.?
*
.’
ert
Ie
(
H 1!
% n m

.-3

Flwat
Shoe

i
(a) Pl;celnsert (b) F1.sh with (c) Pump low (d) Pump struc- (e) Continue (f) F1.sh Drive

Pile seawater density grcut t.ral grcut pumping Pile and force

20-40 barrels to provide structural excess grout and

scouring action grout mud to surface

Technique II

Line Valve
I ~Grout Line

(0) Place Insert (b) Attach pres- (c) Di@ace Air (d) Pump low (e) Pump struc- (f) P.mposuffi-

Pile sure head and with Seawater density grout r“rul grcut cient volume of

insert grout line to provide seawater to dis-

scouring ac- place gr,.t trom
ticm hose, 81ines &
leave a small
volume at grout
Ii”e tip

(0) PlOCe Insert (b) Attach pres- (c) ‘Circulate mud (d) Switch direct- (e) Co.ti nue (fJ Water is pumped

Pile sure heed to reduce flow Iy from mud to P“rnpi.g i,, 10 displace
resistance that grwt Grout grout from intet ior
has bui It “p frcm of piles Ieoving
QnllinQ of 5ta- CIldy 0 piUg at the
tiorvary mud bottom

Fig. 10 - Schemat ,ic of three grout placement techniques.