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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Product-service systems in the electric car industry: critical success

factors in marketing
Sergio Cherubini a, Gennaro Iasevoli b, Laura Michelini c, *
a
Tor Vergata University, Via Columbia, 2, 00133 Rome, Italy
b
LUMSA University, Borgo Sant’Angelo, 13, 00193 Rome, Italy
c
LUMSA University, Borgo Sant’Angelo, 13, 00193 Rome, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the electric car industry the service component assumes considerable importance and it is a relevant
Received 19 March 2013 factor in purchasing decisions. Therefore, proper management of the “Product-Service System” (PSS) is
Received in revised form essential. This article aims to 1) identify the main sub-systems of the PSS in the electric car industry and
27 December 2013
2) identify the critical success factors (CSFs) in marketing. The review of the literature led to the defi-
Accepted 10 February 2014
Available online xxx
nition of four sub-systems: vehicle, infrastructure, on-board electronics, and energy. Based on these PSS
sub-systems, organisations belonging to each sub-system were selected, and five managers were
interviewed. The data were analysed using a cognitive mapping technique.
Keywords:
Product-service systems
Ten CSFs were identified, of which two belong to the vehicle sub-system (value proposition and
Critical success factors product-service system bundle); one relates to the electronic on-board sub-system (advanced navigation
Electric car systems); three relate to infrastructure sub-system (incentives, alternative transport systems and
advocacy campaigns) and three belong to infrastructure and energy sub-systems (ease of use, proximity
of charging point and standardisation). Finally, partnerships among players involve all the four sub-
systems. Moreover, the relevance/manageability matrix offers evidence that partnerships represent a
priority factor that requires immediate action from companies. The research offers a new means to
identify CSFs by using a PSS analysis rather than taking an industry sector perspective.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The marketing of electric vehicles is not a recent development.
By the end of the nineteenth century, they were already available
on the market. In the early twentieth century, Thomas Edison and
Henry Ford, who were friends, worked together on plans to build
and market an electric car.1 After World War I, however, electric
vehicles were gradually abandoned in favour of those powered by
the internal combustion engine (Beaume and Midler, 2009, Frery,
2000). Only in the 1970s, thanks to growing concern about envi-
ronmental issues, did public institutions and private companies
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: cherubini@economia.uniroma2.it (S. Cherubini), iasevoli@
lumsa.it (G. Iasevoli), l.michelini@lumsa.it (L. Michelini).
1
Henry Ford said in an interview: “Within a year, I hope, we shall begin the
manufacture of an electric automobile . The fact is that Mr. Edison and I have been
working for some years on an electric automobile which would be cheap and
practicable. Cars have been built for experimental purposes, and we are satisfied
now that the way is clear to success. . Mr. Edison has been experimenting with
such a battery for some time.” The New York Times, January 1914.
begin to look again at the potential of electric vehicles. Despite the
crisis of 1973, however, the oil market remained too strong for the
idea to take off. With the beginning of the new millennium, the
issue was addressed more seriously and the dilemma of whether it
was time to launch an electric car onto the market had to be faced.
From a consumer perspective, the electric car is substantially
different from the traditional car. Although it meets a similar need,
the electric car has a number of innovative features. The service
component is particularly important, and the literature suggests
that this component is a relevant factor in decisions to purchase
electric cars (Rogers, 1962 and 2003; Godlevskaja et al., 2011).
Therefore, proper management of the “Product-Service System”
(PSS) is essential.
The need to follow an approach based on PSS management is
clear, especially in new or evolving markets such as the electric car
industry, and this means that companies must develop new
product-service systems for the market. Despite the growing
importance of the PSS approach, the academic literature has
remained sparse, especially in the field of electric vehicles. This
research therefore aims to achieve the following objectives: to
identify the main sub-systems of the PSS in the electric car industry

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.042
0959-6526/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Cherubini, S., et al., Product-service systems in the electric car industry: critical success factors in marketing,
Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.042
2 S. Cherubini et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e10
(RQ1) and to identify the critical success factors in marketing that
may increase the diffusion of electric cars (RQ2).
To that end, the research begins with a broad survey of the
existing academic and managerial literature to define a theoretical
framework that describes the main characteristics of the PSS of the
electric car industry. To address the second question, a trial quali-
tative analysis is developed to examine the organisations belonging
to four sub-systems. The main research results are subsequently
explained. In the final section, conclusions are drawn, including
several important implications for management, as well as the
limitations of this study, and future directions.
2. The role of services in the electric car industry
Although electric cars meet the same needs as traditional cars
from a marketing perspective, they should be considered a new
market rather than the evolution of a mature product. This novelty
is perceived by consumers due to the many innovative and unique
features of electric cars. Consumers of these types of products are
willing to accept the challenge of novelty, and they share the
particular quality of “venturesomeness” (i.e. accepting hazard or
risk). Their perception of novelty predisposes them to see electric
cars as an opportunity for psychological gratification, which, in
turn, leads them to make a primarily emotional and status-seeking
purchase (Rogers, 1962 and 2003).
Much of the research on consumers of electric cars was con-
ducted to achieve a better understanding of the purchasing
process. According to BCG research (2011), for most consumers,
environmental concerns and the opportunity to save costs are the
primary reasons for considering an alternative to the internal
combustion engine. Moreover, that study showed that there is a
strongly motivated sector of “green” consumers who are willing
to pay more for a green car, even if the total cost of ownership
compares unfavourably with conventional vehicles. This sector
represents approximately 6% of the car buyers in Europe. A
higher percentage of consumers (44%) could be convinced to pay
more up front if they were able to recoup the initial investment
back over time.
Research conducted in Germany and France by Berger, (2010;
2011a,b) found that the accessibility of charging stations is still
seen by consumers as their main priority, followed (with equally
significant importance) by the availability of specific navigation
systems. The research indicates that the functional attributes of the
electric car (engine performance) are less important, and additional
benefits that enhance its overall effectiveness are required. It is in
this context that the service component emerges as a relevant
factor in purchasing behaviour (Godlevskaja et al. 2011).
These findings are confirmed from a management perspective.
Research by KPMG (2011) on a sample of 200 managers from the
automobile industry suggested that future consumers will continue
to place high importance on the cost reduction from fuel (fuel ef-
ficiency). In addition, the value of “security” and “styling” is
confirmed, and features such as “built-in navigation technologies”
and “telematic personal assistant” have increased in importance
the most when compared with data from 2009 to 2010. In this
context, price becomes less important. Indeed, setting a higher than
average price may represent an opportunity for cultural elitism.
These findings highlight the central role of the intangible
component (which is typical of services) in creating an innovative
automotive style in which functional and tangible benefits are in-
tegrated with symbolic and cultural status meanings. Based on
these considerations, many scholars argue that a significant in-
crease in the number of electric cars will occur solely through the
evolution “from [a] product to [a] PSS approach” (Cherubini and
Iasevoli, 2012).
Please cite this article in press as: Cherubini, S., et al., Product-service systems in the electric car industry: critical success factors in marketing,
Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.042
3. The sub-systems of the electric car PSS
To increase competitiveness, companies from various industries
have begun to enrich their products by adding services (known as
the product augmentation approach, Levitt, 1980). Currently, the
addition of value in many industries occurs through “co-creation”
(Normann and Ramirez, 1998) by a constellation of actors, such as
suppliers, business partners, customers, community and even
competitors.
The “Product-Service System” (PSS) field of study has recently
emerged, based on studies on the value constellation and
considering theoretical models that focus on service-dominant
logic (Vargo and Lusch, 2004, 2008). PSS can be defined as “a
system of products, services, supporting networks, and in-
frastructures that is designed to be competitive, to satisfy
customer needs, and to have a lower environmental impact than
traditional business models” (Mont, 2002, p. 239). The literature
on PSS in recent years has analysed a variety of issues, treating PSS
as a new business model: types and key elements (Goedkoop
et al., 1999; Tukker, 2004); methods for development (Manzini
et al., 2004); and benefits, risks and barriers (Kuo et al., 2010).
Nevertheless, the underlying issue which emerges from all these
studies is sustainability.
This link between PSS and sustainability has been widely
explored and has led to many studies focusing on particular cate-
gories of sustainable products (Manzini and Vezzoli, 2003).
Although it has been demonstrated that PSS is not the equivalent of
sustainability (Tukker and Tischner, 2006) and the development of
PSS does not create sustainability (Pigosso et al., 2010) it appears
that the two concepts are closely related because “the PSS concept
tries to solve sustainability problems (almost) entirely by changes
in a businesseclient interaction along a value chain, in an existing
market context” (Tukker and Tischner, 2006, p. 1554). Therefore,
the PSS proposition changes the relationship between companies
and their customers, and it incentivises a shift in business thinking
from selling products to providing service solutions to customers
(Pigosso et al., 2010). As a result many companies have started to
change their business model to PSS, through the improvement of
product design and increasing the supply of services. This can
provide environmental benefits e such as reduced consumption,
dematerialisation, more efficient products with longer lifecycles,
reuse, reduced waste and recycling (Manzini and Vezzoli, 2003;
Mont, 2002) e promoting sustainable development (Mont, 2002).
Consistent with the trends of the triple bottom line and
corporate sustainability, Sempels and Hoffmann recently argued
that “sustainable service systems (3S) may be defined as the
conjunction of an innovation strategy developed by an organization
interacting with other organizations and the institutional envi-
ronment” (Sempels and Hoffmann, 2011, p. 4) and the approach can
be used to achieve the following goals:
- to move the focus of business from the design and sale of
products to the provision of integrated solutions that can meet
the particular needs of the customer;
- to promote more sustainable consumption patterns and new
relationships aimed at reducing the negative social and envi-
ronmental impacts of manufacturing.
Although PSS is commonly defined as a business model, it
permits a generic approach which can then be applied to inves-
tigate the wider economic and environmental aspects of business.
For example, Goedkoop et al. (1999) assess the economic and
environmental relevance of Product-Service Systems and their
suitability and value in the context of national environmental
policy.
 S. Cherubini et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e10
Some authors have used the concept of the Industrial producte
service system (IPS2), a specific type of PSS which focuses on the
provision of services for a core product that has a high net value and
involves transactions in a B2B context (Aurich et al., 2006). Authors
have considered a competitive model for successful businesses in
this type of system. Durugbo et al. (2010) analysed characteristics
and variations in PSS delivery across ten different business sectors.
In summary, we can conclude that the PSS concept is particu-
larly suitable for the analysis of critical success factors in the electric
car industry because it is a sector in which the role of services is
dominant. Secondly, it is a sustainable sector (PSS and sustainability
are strongly linked), and finally the PSS general approach can be
used at individual firm level as well as for the growth of an industry
in general. Analysis of a business sector through the PSS approach
offers specific benefits. In particular it gives an overall view of the
players who are involved and who interact in the system and
permits thorough analysis of their individual roles. Furthermore
the analysis makes it possible to highlight the contribution that
each player can make to the growth of the sector, both through its
own contribution and by creating synergies with other players in
the system. In the specific business sector of electric cars few
studies have nevertheless used PPS for analysis at firm and industry
level.
Beella et al. (2010) and Sempels and Hoffmann (2011) note that
PSS usually have four main components: 1) products and tech-
nologies, 2) services (both primary and secondary), 3) in-
frastructures (collective, spatial, etc.), and 4) actors and networks.
Another important contribution comes from Kley et al. (2011), who
describe possible business models for the electric car based on PSS
studies and state that there are three elements that constitute this
industry:
- cars and batteries, which involve electric car suppliers, the chain
of rechargeable batteries, and all firms that provide customer
services before, during, and after sale;
- private, semi-public and public infrastructures for charging;
- services that encourage car use in the transport network,
including services that enhance both powering the electric car
and its integration into the network (car sharing systems,
sharing of recharging spaces).
The theoretical overview has led to the definition of four sub-
systems for the electric car PSS (Fig. 1), (Cherubini and Iasevoli,
2012). The first sub-system is the vehicle sub-system. This sub-
2
In particular the following companies were interviewed:
- Vehicle sub-system: Toyota Motor Italia S.p.A (Toyota is a Japanese multinational
company that operates in the Motor Vehicle Production and Sales sector),
interviewee position PR Coordinator; Mercedes-Benz Italia S.p.A. (Mercedes-
Benz is a multinational division of the German manufacturer Daimler AG, and
the brand is used for automobiles, buses, coaches and trucks), interviewee job
position Head of Product Marketing.
- Electronics on-board sub-system: Magneti Marelli S.p.A (Magneti Marelli is an
international group committed to the design and production of hi-tech systems
and components for the automotive sector), interviewee position Director of
Telematics and Consumer Electronics Product Line;
- Infrastructure sub-system: Automobile Club d’Italia (The Automobile Club of
Italy, ACI, is a public non-profit organisation of the Italian Republic with re-
sponsibility for promoting, monitoring and legal redress in the automotive in-
dustry), interviewee position Institutional Relationship Manager.
- Energy sub-system: ENEL S.p.A. (Enel is the leading company in Italy and the
second in Europe in the field of electricity to end-users through power pro-
duction and distribution network), interviewee position Communication Man-
ager Italy and Headquarters.
Please cite this article in press as: Cherubini, S., et al., Product-service systems in the electric car industry: critical success factors in marketing,
Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.042
3
system is directly connected to the electric car itself and is similar
to the traditional car sub-system in terms of the firms and pro-
fessionals who support the consumer in purchasing and using the
products and their components (with particular attention to
assistance for rechargeable batteries). This sub-system involves car
dealers, driving schools, aftermarket parts and services, roadside
assistance centres, and even companies that directly or indirectly
help market dynamics, such as used car dealers. Within this sub-
system, close relationships have been developed between car and
the battery manufacturers to identify a better battery solution ac-
cording to six criteria: safety, endurance, performance, stored en-
ergy, specific power, and costs (BCG, 2010). Organisations
belonging to the other electric car PPS sub-systems may also be
involved in these agreements (e.g., local transport companies, en-
ergy utilities and public bodies). An example is the business model
of Better Place, which has close relationships with carmakers and
with public infrastructures (Wolfson et al., 2011).
The second sub-system (energy sub-system) is connected to the
cars’ charging mode. In recent years, thanks to sustainability and
environmental concerns, this sub-system has been highly devel-
oped, and it now encompasses utility companies that provide
electricity as well as new businesses that offer more efficient and
sustainable charging systems. Four charging offers have been
identified: regular (home), workplace (convenience), a widespread
network of territories (retail), and emergency (mobile). In this area,
intra sub-system agreements (e.g., the agreement between ENEL
and ACEA, the two major Italian energy providers, for joint service
development in the Rome area) and extra sub-system agreements
(e.g., the agreement between ENEL and Smart) are in place.
The third sub-system is the infrastructure sub-system. This sub-
system involves public and private organisations. For example,
public institutions can promote electric transport (e.g., with public
buses) and can indirectly promote the use of electric cars through
reserved lanes and parking or through priority access services. In
the Italian context, numerous municipalities allow free access to
restricted traffic zones and/or free parking in pay car-parks. This
sub-system includes parking services, distribution chains, and
battery charging and replacing services.
Finally, the fourth sub-system is the electronics on-board sub-
system. Due to the spread of ICT and wireless technologies, it is
possible to interconnect millions of customers with similar needs
and, more importantly, to offer services, usually information, in real
time. In the electric car industry, this means that customers can
ascertain the real-time availability of the nearest charging centres
and can be informed about routes that are efficient and effective in
terms of electricity consumption and use-related reporting. For
example, in Spain and Holland, Telvent offers the opportunity to
receive all of the information necessary to optimise the use of the
car and to enhance the development of the network on a single
platform. POP-Point has a similar service for the London area in
which software in a device in the car can calculate the fastest route
while considering traffic, available energy, and free charging sites
and can report related costs, even where services are offered by
different providers.
Currently, these sub-systems are becoming increasingly inte-
grated due to the frequency of agreements and partnerships be-
tween companies. Many organisations and new enterprises are
attempting to offer a simple and cost-effective proposition
(compared to other alternatives to the internal combustion engine).
4. Methodology
To understand the strategic elements necessary for the spread of
electric cars, an analysis of Critical Success Factors (CSFs) must be
undertaken. These elements play a key role in determining
4 S. Cherubini et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e10
Fig. 1. Sub-systems of the electric car PSS.
development because they can offer a means of securing a
competitive advantage.
One of the first contributions to development of the CSF concept
came from Daniel (1961), whose discussion on the management
information crisis identified areas in which organisations need to
excel to be successful. This initial definition of CSFs analysed the
concept from a firm-specific perspective. As the concept has
developed, many scholars have focused on the importance of in-
dustries in determining CSF. For example, Leidecker and Bruno
(1984) highlighted the context-dependence of CSF and defined
the industry as a source for potential CSFs. From this perspective,
CSFs are considered elements of the basic structure of an industry
that can significantly affect the performance of any company
operating in that industry.
Thus, CSFs have a conditional nature because they are highly
dependent on industry situations (De Vasconcellos E Sá and
Hambrick, 1989): CSFs differ from one sector to another. Within
each sector, they depend on that particular sector’s economic and
technological characteristics (Hofer and Schendel, 1984). In this
work, CSFs are defined according to Grant’s recent contribution
(2010), in which he identifies CSFs as all factors within a sector that
affect an organisation’s ability to survive and grow.
Cognitive mapping is a methodology that is frequently used in
the literature for the identification of critical factors. For example,
Cossette (1989, 1994) developed a cognitive mapping-based pro-
tocol to aid owners/managers of small businesses in developing a
“strategic vision”. Bana e Costa et al. (1999) used Eden (1988) Kelly-
based version of cognitive mapping to identify critical (or key)
success factors in the textile industry of the Brazilian state of Santa
Catarina. In some cases, authors have used the fuzzy version of
cognitive maps developed by Kosko in 1987 (Ilkay et al., 2012;
Rodriguez-Repisoa et al., 2007).
To identify marketing CSFs capable of improving the spread of
electric vehicles (RQ2), five in-depth interviews were conducted
with professionals working in each sub-system of the PSS. With the
aim of conducting at least one interview for each sub-system, eight
companies (two for each sub-system) were initially selected and
invited to participate in the research. Of these, five responded
positively and joined the study. The companies were selected ac-
cording to the following criteria:
Please cite this article in press as: Cherubini, S., et al., Product-service systems in the electric car industry: critical success factors in marketing,
Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.042
- at least one interview for each sub-system;
- main players in the sub-system;
- companies operating at national or international level; and
- major involvement in electric vehicle projects of national
importance.
In the end, two automobile manufacturers (vehicle sub-system),
one electronic system company (on-board electronics sub-system),
one energy provider (energy sub-system), and one public institu-
tion (infrastructure sub-system)2 were interviewed. To select
managers for the interviews, the “key informant approach” (Robson
and Foster, 1989) was followed. Only those directly involved in
green projects and with high-profile positions were contacted.
The data was analysed using the cognitive mapping technique.
To encourage spontaneous responses and to increase the validity of
the results, the interviews were conducted with the aid of a short
list of “anchors” or “general topics” based on the three objects of the
study:
- the scenario, i.e. the macro environmental analysis. The influ-
ence of external sources of opportunities and risks can be seen
throughout analyses of the macro environment as Leidecker and
Bruno (1984) pointed out: “Environment analysis includes a
variety of approaches that identify the economic, political and
social forces that will be and are impacting an industry and/or
firm’s performance” (pp. 26e27);
- the role of the product-service system (sub-system analysis).
This refers to the role of the companies belonging to each sub-
system in terms of the actions that those companies can take;
and
- the critical success factors (firm-level analysis). The in-
terviewees were asked to identify the factors within a given
sector that affect an organisation’s ability to survive and grow.
The data contained in the interview transcripts was processed
and illustrated using cognitive mapping, a graphic representation
of reality as perceived by a given individual (Axelrod, 1976; Weick,
1979; Weick and Browning, 1986; Weick and Roberts, 1993;
Vernuccio et al., 2012). The analysis of the text of each interview
was structured according to the “documentary coding” method
 S. Cherubini et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e10
(Wrightson, 1976). We proceeded to identify the “variable con-
cepts” (the nodes of the map) belonging to each general topic:
“scenario”, “sub-system” and “critical success factors”.
Fig. 2 summarises the method used to construct the cognitive
map (Eden, 1992). The different graphics identify the categories for
the concept (scenario, sub-system and CSF), the arrows show the
causal links, and the continuous lines are connotative links e that
is, they identify concepts that are related to one another. The
numbering of the concepts does not reflect the direction in which
the links should be followed but simply allows for the unambigu-
ous identification of individual concepts.
The word “concept” is generally synonymous with “construct”
but is defined differently in the cognitive mapping literature
(Bailey, 1982). For our purposes, the “concepts” and therefore the
“nodes” could range from single words to entire phrases and the
propositions linked to them. All the concepts used by the in-
terviewees and their verbalisations (simple phrases or entire sen-
tences) were listed in an attempt to identify and unify statements
with the same meaning (the procedure for merging). Therefore, a
“relationship card”, a table showing all the relationships between
concepts (causal and connotative), was developed. The design of
the cognitive map was developed with the use of Decision Explorer
software (Eden et al., 1992).
Following the construction and qualitative analysis of the indi-
vidual maps, a collective map was developed (Swan, 1997). To this
end, the concepts were aggregated, taking into account the occur-
rence of concepts and the interrelations. Finally, in order to increase
the external validity of the analysis the results were analysed and
compared with the literature (Yin, 2003).
5. Findings and discussion
As previously shown, the collective map is divided into nodes
(Fig. 3) for the primary topics: “scenario”, “sub-system” and “crit-
ical success factors”. The qualitative analysis of the results begins
with an analysis of these variables and proceeds to investigate,
where appropriate, the specific content features of each interview.
Fig. 2. Scheme of cognitive map building.
Please cite this article in press as: Cherubini, S., et al., Product-service systems in the electric car industry: critical success factors in marketing,
Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.042
5
5.1. Main macro-trends
The analysis of the interviews initially revealed three primary
macro-trends in the environmental scenario that had a strong
impact on the strategies and activities of the actors in each sub-
system. The first macro trend is technological innovation, particu-
larly as regards engine equipment (e.g., battery life and capacity).
The evolution of this technology has been the main factor leading
the actors in the system (especially those in the car industry) to
invest in the electric vehicle market. Today, nearly all car manu-
facturers have at least one electric or hybrid model in their range,
indicating the potential of the market.
With regard to the technology, all managers agree that the
development of the electric car will not depend on further ad-
vances in technology. They argue that the necessary technology
already exists. For development of the market there are other needs
and critical factors to be addressed (“The technology has already
been developed, we are now trying to understand how the technology
can be adapted to the customer”, “The driver of development is not the
technology. many things are still missing around the car”).
Another element that characterises the current macro envi-
ronment, which was cited by all respondents, is the global eco-
nomic crisis, which has led people to seek new transport solutions
to save money. The last emerging phenomenon is the evolution of a
lifestyle that is divided into two main trends: new digital tech-
nology and concerns about environmental issues and the conse-
quent desire to purchase “green”. Both of these trends have led to
the development of new transport paradigms, such as advanced
car-sharing or car-pooling (where apps can be used for coordina-
tion). Therefore, new markets are emerging. Although they may be
niche markets, they have a direct impact on private companies as
well as government institutions. This suggests that governments
should provide concrete responses to the emerging needs of their
citizens (e.g., through car-sharing systems using electric vehicles).
5.2. Identifying critical success factors from the cognitive map
Before analysing each emerging CSF, it is important to note that
the interviews revealed two fundamental and closely interrelated
pre-conditions for the development of a mass market: the reduc-
tion of the total cost of ownership (TCO) and the achievement of
critical mass. The second factor, which would create economies of
scale, has a direct effect on the first. In fact, most of the identified
CSFs have a direct effect on both these prerequisites.
The first success factor refers to definition of value proposition
(CSF1). As one interviewee pointed out, “There is no perfect electric
car that fits all your needs. You need to have a car that can be adapted
to the needs of each user on the basis of expectations and lifestyle”.
Therefore market segmentation (and the consequent definition of
the value proposition) must take into account different variables:
typology of end-users (e.g., private, corporate and public bodies),
behavioural variables (e.g., urban and extra urban driving), and
variables related to lifestyle. “The main target of the electric car is the
Y generation, high spenders who see the electric car as a symbol, a kind
of ship flag that says « I am a person that cares about the
environment»”.
Closely related to the value proposition is the second factor: the
definition of product-service bundle price (CSF2). This factor refers to
the ability of car manufacturers to develop price strategies that
include related services as well as the product, and the ability to
reduce the total cost of ownership and the risk for the client (e.g.,
the rental of the battery): “You cannot leave to the customer the cost
of a product prone to the risk of rapid obsolescence and/or malfunc-
tion. By renting, you can pay a small fee, and you are relieved of the
risk”.
6 S. Cherubini et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e10
Fig. 3. The collective cognitive map.
Both these success factors are closely linked to another: the
partnership among main players (CSF3), that is, the capacity to
develop strategic alliances between actors from all sub-systems of
the PSS. In this respect, the result is consistent with the study
conducted by KPMG (2011), which showed that managers in the car
industry believe that alliances (in the form of co-development
agreements with suppliers or joint ventures) are the most impor-
tant source of marketing impetus (as much as 32%) towards
improving the technology of products.
Partnership agreements also play an important role for the
management of the on-board electronics system. The respondents
agree that the electric car is closely associated with its electronics
features. However, it is necessary to distinguish between the pri-
mary navigation system, the advanced navigation system, and the
in-car entertainment (ICE) system. The primary navigation system
is considered by the interviewees as “mandatory” (e.g., information
on the level of battery charge). However, the advanced navigation
system (CSF4) is considered a critical success factor; it provides
added value because it can give important information due to
synergies between the system actors (e.g., the most effective route
according to the topographic configuration or the closest charging
points). From this perspective, all of the interviewees agreed that
the advanced information system can be an important success
factor: “The advanced navigation systems can be an important
contribution”, “Information is crucial because the user belongs to the Y
generation”, and “The electric car must be seen as a smartphone”. In
contrast, in-car entertainment systems, such as the DVD player, are
less significant because the electric car is used for short journeys
and it is not necessary to entertain passengers.
There are also success factors that are closely related to the
companies that provide electricity. In this sector, there are three
important factors that must be managed: the availability of charging
points (CSF5), the ease of use (CSF6), and standardisation (CSF7). All
these factors play important roles in achieving critical mass: “In the
first scenario, it is important that you have a charging network that
can push the spread of electric cars”, “The diffusion of electric cars is
linked to when and where you can recharge it. Otherwise the risk is
that it is considered only an ultra-modern car”.
Please cite this article in press as: Cherubini, S., et al., Product-service systems in the electric car industry: critical success factors in marketing,
Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.042
Ease of use is defined by respondents as “not changing the habits
of use” (“the customer must perceive that they are buying a car, not a
spaceship”). Consequently, it also includes charging times; the
charging process must be fast. In this context, another element
related to ease of use is standardisation (e.g., sockets for recharging).
The latter is strongly dependent on the ability of the players of the
PSS to develop partnerships necessary to achieve standardisation
and on their commitment to its implementation.
Finally, all of the respondents affirmed that the most important
role, especially at this stage, is that played by public institutions.
Only an adequate public policy will allow critical mass to be ach-
ieved and the market to develop. Public intervention may be
limited in this first phase of introducing the technology to the
market until economies of scale are achieved, which will lead to a
reduction in the TCO and the subsequent development of the mass
market. The interviews show that there must be public interven-
tion using multiple policy instruments:
- incentives (CSF8), both direct and indirect;
- the development of alternative transport systems (CSF9) for cit-
izens (e.g., electric car-sharing) and fleets of electric vehicles for
public officials (e.g., municipal police); and
- the use of advocacy campaigns (CSF10), not only to provide in-
formation, but also to raise awareness with the long term aim of
achieving cultural change.
5.3. CSFs and the impact on the PSS of electric cars
In this section analysis of the interviews is integrated with the
PSS approach and with the academic and managerial literature in
the field of the electric car. This integrated analysis permits iden-
tification of the success factors that can be managed by the players
of a single sub-system and those which require the involvement of
players belonging to two or more sub-systems (Fig. 4). Moreover
comparing the data with the main literature reveals the existing
barriers to the development of the industry but also the potential
marketing solutions proposed by main players.
 S. Cherubini et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e10
Fig. 4. Electric car PSS and CSFs.
As regards the vehicle sub-system, an initial key factor e which
firms belonging to this system must deal with e is related to the
definition of the value proposition (CSF1). The first task for com-
panies is to make themselves attractive to identified target cus-
tomers by using unusual segmentation characteristics which typify
trendsetters. Through analysis of the interviews and considering
the main marketing research (BCG, 2011) it becomes apparent that
the market is characterised by two main target groups. The first
segment is made up of high-spending consumers, belonging to the
Y Generation, who consider the electric car a status symbol product.
On the other hand, there are consumers who demonstrate envi-
ronmental awareness but are also concerned with running costs
and seek opportunities to reduce them.
Notwithstanding that the core benefit of the electric car is linked
to environmental impact, companies should work on defining their
Sustainable Value Proposition (Müller, 2012) in line with the ben-
efits expected by potential customers and should be able to
differentiate their offerings from those of competitors. For example,
Porter and Kramer, analysing the Toyota best practice, highlighted
that the company “has built a competitive advantage from the
environmental benefits of its hybrid technology. (.) Toyota has
created a unique position with customers and is well on its way to
establishing its technology as the world standard” (pp. 88e89,
2006).
The success factor product-service bundle price (CSF2) is related
to the definition of the offer and the consequent pricing strategies.
A major difficulty in the management of this factor arises from the
complexity of the product-service mix (Cherubini and Iasevoli,
2012). Market research is needed to develop product and price
strategies. In this context, one objective for companies is to reduce
the total cost of ownership and mitigate the potential risks to
customers (e.g., rapid obsolescence and malfunction of the battery).
The answer to these problems is that companies need to propose
innovative solutions e based on a combination of product-services
e by developing pricing strategies that meet specific needs. For
example, in response to consumer uncertainty about battery per-
formance and longevity, Smart Fortwo Electric Drive offers the al-
ternatives of buying or leasing the battery.
Regarding the electronics on-board sub-system, the main factor
that companies belonging to this sub-system must deal with is
related to the development of advanced navigation systems (CSF4).
Please cite this article in press as: Cherubini, S., et al., Product-service systems in the electric car industry: critical success factors in marketing,
Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.042
7
These systems must be able to add value to the product-service,
both in terms of information and improvement of the driving
experience from the perspective of experiential marketing. Re-
spondents pointed out that the main obstacle encountered in this
field is the need to integrate information from multiple sources
(e.g., data on road gradients and related electricity consumption or
the location of charging stations). This factor depends strongly on
the ability to develop successful alliances.
In the infrastructure sub-system public institutions play an
important role in encouraging electric transport. Their role has also
been highlighted by Wee et al. (2012) who argue that governments
should ensure that electrical vehicles (given their disadvantages)
can compete with conventional cars and should ensure that the
necessary infrastructure is available, in particular charging
facilities.
The conclusions of Wee et al. are consistent with results from
the cognitive map, particularly concerning the issues of incentives
(CSF8) and proximity of the charging points (CSF8) (the latter will be
discussed below). The kinds of incentives can be classified as:
- direct, e.g. economic incentives for the purchase of new electric
cars;
- indirect, e.g. through tax advantages or vice versa through
policies that penalise possession of traditional cars (increase the
tax in relation to the type of vehicle and level of pollution); and
- related to restricted road use or road pricing zone decisions (e.g.,
ensure free access to restricted areas).
One of the main obstacles to the implementation of policies is
the lack of available funds. In this regard, policy makers should
work on the development of a mix of policies (at regional and na-
tional level) introduced over time. Moreover, there is value in
developing an innovative mix of incentives which may impact less
on public spending.
The second factor linked to the infrastructure sub-system is the
development and implementation of alternative transport systems
(CSF9) (e.g. electric car sharing and the use of fleets of electric cars
for public officials). However interviewees highlight two main
factors that hinder the development of new paradigms of mobility:
first, the lack of funds available to local government and secondly,
the particular characteristics of different regions which make it
difficult to apply a standard paradigm. Application requires adap-
tation based on the particular characteristics of a given city and the
mobility habits of its citizens.
Another key factor linked with the infrastructure sub-system is
the development of advocacy campaigns to inform and acquaint
citizens with the use of electric cars or new transport systems. In
particular, the latter requires a strong cultural change that takes
some time before results are seen in the area of consumer
behaviour.
Three main success factors are linked to the energy sub-system
that are all shared with the infrastructure sub-system: the location
and availability of charging points (CSF5), the ease of use (CSF6) and
the standardisation (CSF7). The availability of charging points is
frequently mentioned in the literature as an obstacle to develop-
ment: “The limited availability of recharging stations is a major
impediment to the wider adoption of electric vehicles” (Tsang et al.,
2012). However, to this factor must be added the need for charging
systems that are easy to use and standardised. Both require the
commitment and involvement of institutions and companies not
only nationally but also internationally. The objective is to produce
a standard common to all electric car manufacturers and energy
suppliers. However, despite the efforts of public bodies and the
European Union, the achievement of a single global standard is still
a distant prospect. The complexity of these three factors is apparent
8 S. Cherubini et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e10
from the fact that they are all shared between two sub-systems of
the PSS. Their future development is closely connected to the
relationship with the actors in the other sub-systems.
Finally, the relationship between the actors of the PSS is the
main topic mentioned by all respondents. In fact, all four sub-
systems are linked to the partnership among main players (CSF 3).
This factor requires the coordinated action of multiple actors
among the sub-systems, but this is unlikely to occur spontaneously.
Consequently, it is essential for the marketing department of a
leading company to act as a network coordinator by managing the
CSF (thus generating a benefit for the entire PSS). For example, Tesla
has engaged in more than ten strategic partnerships with different
partners that can be classified as: supplier partnerships (e.g. in
order to reduce the vehicle’s weight, the body was made of carbon
fibre by Sotira in France); R&D partnerships (Tesla and Panasonic
are working together on developing nickel-based, lithium-ion
battery cells for electric vehicles); and OEM partnerships with other
automobile manufacturers (e.g. in 2010 T and Toyota formed a
partnership that involved Tesla assisting Toyota in producing a
plug-in electric version of Toyota’s Rav4 small SUV) (Holmberg,
2011).
5.4. The relevance-manageability matrix in the PSS
The analysis of the interviews and the use of cognitive maps also
allows classification of the critical success factors according to two
variables: relevance, namely the importance and urgency of the
issue as perceived by the players in the industry (Perrott, 2011), and
manageability (Sullivan and Adcock, 2002), defined as the ability of
players in the industry to directly control and manage the factor.
The level of relevance has been assessed by reference to the number
of links to the concept (in input) and the frequency with which it
was cited during the interviews. In particular, it is possible to
distinguish low relevance (the factors characterised by few links
and few quotes), medium relevance (the factors characterised by a
medium number of links and quotes), and high relevance (factors
characterised by multiple links and a high number of citations).
With reference to manageability it is possible to classify the CSFs
into three main groups based on the level of control: high-level
manageability (factors that involve a specific sector and that can
be easily managed by a single firm or institution); mid-level
manageability (factors that involve more than one player in the
system); and low-level manageability (factors that cannot be
Fig. 5. The relevance/manageability matrix.
Please cite this article in press as: Cherubini, S., et al., Product-service systems in the electric car industry: critical success factors in marketing,
Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.042
directly controlled by a single player within the sub-systems and
require forceful coordination of multiple actors.
Fig. 5 shows the matrix relevance/manageability and the posi-
tioning of the CSFs. The area characterised by a medium/high
relevance and a medium/high manageability is highlighted (area of
priorities). The factors that fall into this area, by virtue of their
characteristics, require an immediate response by companies and
should be considered as priorities by the PSS players. The factors
characterised by medium relevance and high manageability are
value proposition and product-service bundle price (both
belonging to the vehicle sub-system). These factors can be easily
managed by the companies and they can respond immediately.
In the same area, the factors considered of high/medium rele-
vance are the proximity of charging points, the ease of use, the
advanced navigation systems and the partnership among players.
The first three factors are characterised by medium manageability
because they require the involvement of multiple actors, who may
have conflicting interests and objectives. Conversely, the manage-
ment of a partnership, even if it involves multiple players, may be
the responsibility of a single company (Iasevoli, 2004) that can
identify the actors with whom to develop successful agreements
(e.g., Tesla). Among all CSFs, the management of alliances, through
the definition of common and shared objectives, is the biggest
challenge that all players must face.
The factors characterised by low level of manageability (and
medium/high level of relevance) are incentives and stand-
ardisation. These factors need the involvement of multiple players
within and between the sub-systems. In their case, it would be
appropriate to manage the CSFs strategically to achieve results in
the long term. Finally, alternative transport systems and advocacy
campaigns are characterised by low level of relevance and low/
medium manageability. In this case, players should monitor any
increase in importance and develop strategies that will shape the
future.
6. Conclusions, limitations, and future directions
This study has several important implications for research
development as well as for improvement in managerial practice. It
began with the analysis of two primary areas of study: one con-
cerning product-service systems and one related to the electric
vehicle market. The integration of these fields of study has gener-
ated a new approach to identifying CSFs (to increase the spread of
 S. Cherubini et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e10
electric cars). This approach is characterised by the identification of
these factors within the PSS rather than within a specific sector.
While traditionally studies aimed at identifying CSFs have focused
on an industry or on specific companies in the associated market,
this research offers a new perspective based on a PSS analysis
instead of an industry-sector perspective.
This approach may be particularly useful for the analysis of an
innovative product-service that is in the introduction phase of its
life cycle. The approach is appropriate for these products because
the achievement of critical mass is a prerequisite for market
development and requires the involvement of a number of different
actors. At this stage, even competing companies can act in part-
nership to achieve a common goal: critical mass. As one manager
stated, “The more we are, the more we communicate, the more the
user receives the message, the more the customer acquires awareness
of this new product”.
On the basis of research findings, we can conclude that the
analysis of the electric car industry cannot ignore the multiple
players in the business eco-system. This confirms the need to use
the PSS approach in this sector. In fact, the development of the
market depends on multiple actors working to create synergies.
In the future, the number of players will increase, as well as
integration among them, and other sub-systems could become
relevant. A further development in the analysis of the sector could
be to integrate the analysis of the industry with the phenomenon of
smart cities. In this respect, some future scenarios will have a direct
impact on the sector such as using ICT in urban sustainability
planning (Spinak and Casalegno, 2012), the spread of mobile
Internet, the combination of electric vehicles with energy-efficient
buildings and smart utility grids to create well distributed,
responsive energy systems (Mitchell, 2010).
Despite these important findings, this research has some limi-
tations. First, it is an exploratory study that highlights important
critical success factors that need to be tested on larger samples
(composed of actors belonging to other industry sectors) and
extended to other European countries. In this respect, we recom-
mend the development of similar research interviewing managers
in different sectors of the PSS and in different countries. Further
analysis could include a comparative analysis between firms from
the PSS and policy makers to identify any gaps in knowledge,
attitude, behaviour, or future expectations.
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