Lecture Notes

Introduction
Welcome to Health, Part 2! In the first part of this course, you briefly reviewed the different systems of the human Helpful Resources
body. In this course, you’ll take a much closer look at each of these systems. Some medical terms are
In this course, you’ll work through six lessons, as follows: difficult to pronounce,
especially if you’ve never
Integumentary and Musculoskeletal Systems heard them before. If you’re
Digestive, Cardiovascular, and Lymphatic Systems unsure how to pronounce a
Respiratory and Endocrine Systems term, or just want to know
Nervous and Urinary Systems more about it, visit these
Reproductive System resources:
Medical Specialties and Special Senses
Merriam-Webster
As you work through this course, you’ll come across a number of different medical terms. Although this may seem a
little daunting at first, don’t be discouraged! As you’ll see, many medical terms are constructed of smaller word parts. howjsay.com
Each word is made up of a root word and/or prefixes or suffixes. Once you gain an understanding of how the word Check them often so that
parts work, you’ll be able to understand a number of new terms very quickly. you have a better
If you need help with the meaning of any word part in this course, visit this website: understanding of medical
terminology pronunciation!
http://www.globalrph.com/medterm.htm
Make sure you bookmark it for easy access later in the course.

Integumentary System
The integumentary system is made up of the skin, nails, and glands. The skin includes three different layers—
the epidermis, or outer skin, and the dermis, or “true” skin, as the inner layer. Below the dermis is a subcutaneous
“fatty” layer of tissue, sometimes called the hypodermis.

Are you a visual learner?

Click here to learn more
about the different parts of
the skin: Video
Note: If you’re prompted to
download QuickTime to view
the video, follow the steps
onscreen to do so.

FIGURE 1—Diagram of the Skin

This system includes skin, hair, subcutaneous fat, and nails. Its function is to offer protection from the environment,
such as preventing the entry of bacteria and viruses. Skin is the body’s largest organ. It detects temperature as well
as pain and pressure, so that you can respond. For instance, if the temperature is cold, you might put on additional
clothing to restore heat. Likewise, if you touch a hot stove, the perception of pain will cause you to pull your hand
away, preventing further damage. Through perspiration, skin also helps eliminate wastes from the body. An average
adult has about six pounds of skin that covers about 18 square feet.
Skin includes hair follicles and glands. Nails begin in the epidermis, while hair comes from follicles that start in the
dermis. The sweat glands (also called sudoriferous glands) secrete the sweat from your skin. The sebaceous glands
are the oil glands that secrete sebum, or oil, into the hair shafts.
Here are the functions of the skin:
Forms a protective covering for the body
Prevents bacteria and viruses from entering the body
Protects the body from the sun and water loss
Regulates body temperature
Integumentary System Issues
The skin can be affected by any number of conditions. In fact, there are more than 3,000 different kinds of skin Learn about different skin
disorders. These can cause symptoms such as redness, hives, swelling, burning, and itching. Some skin disorders conditions by visiting the
are temporary and easily treated. Others can affect a person for the entire life cycle. A few of the most common skin following website:
disorders are discussed here.
Skin Condition Finder
Acne
Click Adult, select any
Acne is a common skin disease. Acne causes pimples, or raised red spots on the skin. Pimples form when hair portion of the body, and then
follicles under the skin become plugged up with oil (called sebum) and dead skin cells. This blockage causes click Go.
inflammation that erupts as pimples. Although pimples can form anywhere on the body, they’re most commonly
found on the face, neck, back, chest, and shoulders. Anyone can suffer from acne, but this condition is most
commonly seen in teenagers and young adults.
Most doctors believe that acne is caused by the hormonal changes that occur during the teenage years and in
pregnancy. These hormones may cause acne to erupt, or they may worsen an existing condition. Additionally, drugs
that contain certain corticosteroids, androgens, or lithium are known to cause acne. Finally, although stress doesn’t
cause acne, it can make it worse.
There are many myths about acne. Some people mistakenly believe that it is caused by eating too much chocolate
or too many greasy foods. Experts say this is incorrect. Others believe that acne is caused by dirt, but there is little
scientific evidence to support this. In fact, dermatologists say that excessive scrubbing or over-exfoliation of the skin
during cleansing may actually cause acne.
Most cases of acne aren’t serious and can be treated using over-the-counter creams. However, some cases of acne
are serious and can cause permanent scarring. Individuals who experience excessive acne should be treated by a
dermatologist, who can prescribe appropriate medications and creams that can help.
Psoriasis
Psoriasis is a common, chronic skin condition. (Chronic means long-lasting.) Psoriasis changes the life cycle of
skin cells by causing them to build up rapidly on the skin’s surface. These cells form thick, silvery scales and dry red
patches that can be itchy and painful. Psoriasis patches can appear anywhere on the body. However, they’re most
common on the elbows, knees, scalp, back, face, palms, and feet. Psoriasis patches can erupt as a few spots on
different locations, or as massive eruptions that cover large areas of the body.
Psoriasis is a chronic condition, which means it is persistent and can last a long time—sometimes a lifetime.
Psoriasis usually erupts in cycles. The psoriasis patches may flare for a period of time, such as a few weeks or
months, and then subside for an extended period.
Psoriasis usually occurs in adults, but anyone can develop it. Psoriasis isn’t a contagious condition, which means it
can’t be spread from person to person or from one part of the body to another. Although the cause of psoriasis isn't
fully understood, experts believe it’s related to an immune system problem with cells in the body. It may be a
hereditary condition, as it often runs in families.
Psoriasis can be triggered or worsened by infections, stress, dry skin, and certain medications, such as those used
to treat high blood pressure or prevent malaria. Unfortunately, there is no cure for this condition. Instead, the primary
goal of treatment is to provide relief to the person and to stop the skin cells from growing so rapidly. Treatments vary
by individual and may include topical creams, oral medicines, and light therapy.
Topical creams are substances that are applied directly to the skin. These substances may include
corticosteroids, which are drugs used to treat inflammation. Special shampoos may be used to give relief to the
scalp.
Oral medicines include antibiotics and steroids. Oral medicines are usually only prescribed when an outbreak is
severe, because these drugs can have serious side effects.
During light therapy, the affected skin is exposed to a controlled form of artificial sunlight. This treatment can
alleviate the symptoms of psoriasis. However, this option must be used with care, as overexposure to real and
artificial sunlight can make psoriasis worse.
Scleroderma
The word scleroderma means “hard skin.” Scleroderma is a group of rare diseases that cause abnormal growth of
the body’s connective tissue. Connective tissue is material inside the body that gives tissues shape and helps keep
them strong. In scleroderma, these tissues harden or thicken, causing pain and swelling in the muscles and joints.
Some people experience scleroderma only as a skin condition, but others develop additional problems, such as
arthritis, acid reflux, and even heart and lung problems.
Scleroderma is more common in women than in men and usually occurs between the ages of 30 and 50. Like many
other skin conditions, scleroderma has no cure. It isn’t contagious and can’t be spread from person to person.
Experts are unsure what triggers scleroderma, but they believe it may be a hereditary condition related to the
immune system.
One of the main symptoms of scleroderma is a hardening and tightening of the skin in patches. These patches may
be shaped like straight lines or ovals. Because the skin becomes so tight, the patches may have a shiny appearance
with limited movement. The number, location, and size of the patches on the body can vary a lot.
Depending on the type and severity of scleroderma, other body systems may be affected, causing a host of
problems. For example, some people experience numbness in the fingers and toes; stiff, painful joints; problems
with tooth decay; digestive issues such as acid reflux; heart and lung problems; and kidney disease.
The treatment for scleroderma varies, based on each individual case. Many people with scleroderma are first treated
by a rheumatologist, or a doctor who specializes in the treatment of arthritis and other diseases that cause joint
swelling. This doctor will then refer to the patient to other specialists.
Although there is no drug to stop the underlying process of scleroderma, a variety of medications have been
developed to control the symptoms or prevent complications. Additionally, physical therapy may be prescribed to
manage pain and improve strength and mobility.
Melanoma
Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer in the United States. Each year, more than 68,000 Americans are
diagnosed with melanoma, which is the most serious type of skin cancer. Melanoma develops in the cells that
produce melanin, or the pigment that gives skin its color. Although the exact cause of all melanomas isn’t clear,
exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight or tanning beds seems to significantly increase the risk of
developing melanoma.
The first sign of melanoma is often a new mole, or growth on the skin, or a change to the size, shape, color, or feel
of an existing mole. Oncologists, or doctors who specialize in cancer, use the “ABCDE” rule to help people learn
how to detect potential melanoma and other forms of skin cancer:
Asymmetry. Do the two halves of the mole match? If they’re asymmetrical, or different, the mole could be
cancerous.
Border. Are the borders of the mole irregular? The edges of melanoma growths are often ragged, notched, or
blurred.
Color. Is the color uneven? Shades of black, brown, and tan may be present in melanomas. Also, areas of white,
gray, red, pink, or blue may also be present. The pigment, or color, may be spreading into the surrounding skin.
Diameter. Has the size of the mole changed? Melanomas often change in size, usually by growing larger.
Evolving. Has the mole changed over the past few weeks or months?
Treatment for melanoma varies based on the type and stage of the disease, the size and placement of growth, and
the patient’s general health and medical history. In most cases, the goal of treatment is to remove or destroy the
cancer completely, so surgery is usually the first option. Other treatments include chemotherapy, radiation, and other
therapies that boost the body’s ability to fight cancer or attack cancer cells without harming normal cells.
Most melanomas and other skin cancers can be cured completely if they’re found and treated early.

Review Question: What are the functions of the skin?

ANSWER:
Forms a protective covering for the body
Prevents bacteria and viruses from entering the body
Protects the body from the sun and water loss
Regulates body temperature

Musculoskeletal System
You read about the two major systems that make up the musculoskeletal system in Part 1 of this course—the Are you a visual learner?
muscular system and the skeletal system. These two body systems are often referenced as one body system (a Take a closer look at some
group of organs that works together to perform a task). That’s because they work so closely together and share a images of the different types
common purpose—supporting the body. Although this is true, let’s first look a quick look at each system individually of bones.
to gain a better understanding. Long Bones
Quick Look: Skeletal and Muscular Systems Short Bones
The skeletal system includes 206 bones that support the body through connections with joints, cartilage, ligaments,
and tendons. And, strangely, although teeth aren’t bones, they’re considered part of the skeletal system.
The function of the skeletal system is to provide structural support and an attachment for muscles. This system
protects internal organs and is involved in calcium storage and the production of blood cells. The skeletal system
works with the muscular system to allow for movement. This system also contains minerals, such as calcium,
phosphorus, and magnesium, that are used in different physiological processes.
The muscular system includes approximately 650 muscles of three types: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and
cardiac muscle. The function of the muscular system is to aid in movement, support bodily functions by moving
substances through organs, and pump the blood through the body. Muscles also produce the body’s heat.
Now let’s review each body system in more detail.
Anatomy of the Skeletal System
The skeletal system is, essentially, the bones in the body.
 FIGURE 2—The Skeletal System
The function of the skeletal system is to
Protect internal organs
Provide a framework of support for the body
Store calcium
Produce blood cells
Most bones are classified into one of these types:
Long bones, such as the femur, tibia, and humerus
Short bones, such as the carpals, tarsals, and the patella
Flat bones, such as the skull, scapula, and sternum
Irregular bones, such as the vertebrae and sacrum
Sesamoid bones, such as those found in the big toe
Click here to view a labeled diagram and identify the locations of some of the common bones of the skeletal system.
It’s also important to understand how bones are made, because different diseases and illnesses affect different parts
of bone.
Bone is comprised of the following parts:
Periosteum—Outermost layer of the bone. This is the hard layer that you can see on the bone, and it’s made up
of fibrous tissue.
Compact bone—Found under the periosteum and made up of hard layers of bone tissue.
Cancellous bone, or “spongy bone”—Part of the bone that contains little spaces that resemble a sponge;
found on the inside layers of the compact bone.
Endosteum—Membrane that lines the hollow cavity of a bone.
Bone marrow—Found in the cavities of bones. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red bone
marrow is thick material where blood cells are formed. It’s found in flat bones and the ends of long bones. Yellow
marrow is a softer, fatty material. It’s found in the medullary cavity, or the inner part of long bones.
 FIGURE 3—Diagram of a Long Bone
Bones in the Body
Bones of the human skeleton can be grouped into two divisions: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. Are you interested to see the
Click the links to get a closer look at the bones in different sections of the body. See if you can identify some of the structure of a joint in the
four types of bones (long, short, flat, and irregular). body? Visit this site:

What type of bone? The Structure of a Joint

A. The skull is a(n) _____ bone. Become more familiar with

the different bones in the
B. The ulna is a(n) _____ bone. body! Play the “Whack a
Bone” game at Whack-A-
C. The wrist is a(n) _____ bone. Bone
(Answer: A. flat; B. long; C. short) You’ll have fun while
When two or more bones meet together in the body, their joining place is a called a joint. Joints are also called learning!
articulations. Working together, muscles and bones make the body move.
 FIGURE 4–Ligaments connect bones to each other at a joint, while tendons connect muscle to bones.

Review Question: What are the functions of the skeleton?

Answer: To review the different types
of muscle tissue, visit this
Protect internal organs website:
Provide a framework of support for the body Muscles
Store calcium
Produce blood cells

Anatomy of Muscles
As already mentioned, the bones and muscles work together to help support the body and facilitate movement. The
functions of the muscles include movement, posture, joint stabilization, and heat production.
There are three types of muscles in the body:
Skeletal muscle is connected to bone.
Smooth muscle can be found inside organs.
Cardiac muscle can be found in the heart.

FIGURE 5–Three Types of Muscles in the Body

Skeletal muscles are also called striated muscles. These muscles help us move by attaching bones to tendons.
Skeletal muscles are voluntary because we have control over how and when we move them. For example, we have
to think about walking before we walk.
Smooth muscles are also known as unstriated muscles. These muscles are located inside organs and blood
vessels. These muscles are involuntary because they work without conscious control. For instance, the
gastrointestinal tract, which is lined by smooth muscles, digests food automatically—our thought processes aren’t
involved.
Cardiac muscles are striated and also involuntary. This is specialized muscle that can only be found in the heart, and
is designed to pump blood to the body.
Muscle Actions
People who work with human anatomy use something called anatomical position to make it easier to visualize a
position or movement. In anatomical position, the body is assumed to be erect, with the head, eyes, and toes facing
forward. The upper limbs are located by the sides, with the palms of the hands facing forward.
Muscles can make the body move in different ways. Some examples include
Abduction—movement away from the middle of the body
Adduction—movement toward the middle of the body
Extension—straightening a limb
Flexion—bending a limb
Inversion—turning upward
Rotation—turning around on its axis

Review Question: What are the three types of muscle tissue?

Answer: skeletal, smooth, cardiac Review the rheumatoid
arthritis slideshow at this
Musculoskeletal System Issues website:

Musculoskeletal disorders are conditions that impact the muscles, bones, and joints of the body. Although many A Picture Guide to
musculoskeletal disorders exist, three of the most common are arthritis, tendinitis, and osteoporosis. Rheumatoid Arthritis

Arthritis Then, view the slideshow on

gout here:
Arthritis is one of the most common diseases in the United States. It involves inflammation of one or more joints in
the body. Remember, a joint is a location in the body where two bones meet, such as the elbow or knee. Joints can Guide to Gout
become damaged or inflamed, causing arthritis, which produces pain, stiffness, and difficulty with movement. These
symptoms typically get worse with age.
Warning signs of arthritis include ongoing joint pain, swelling, and stiffness. The joint may feel warm or look red. You
may have difficulty using or moving the joint normally. Most types of arthritis are chronic, which means they can go
Learn more about
on for a long period of time—sometimes for life.
vertebroplasty (the surgical
Although there are many types of arthritis, the two most common types are osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. repair of vertebra) by
reviewing the slides at this
Osteoarthritis, or OA, is the most common type of arthritis. OA can begin when the tissue that pads bones in a website:
joint, known as cartilage, begins to wear away. When the cartilage wears down, the bones that meet at the joint rub
against each other. OA is common in the hands, neck, lower back, knees, and hips. Vertebroplasty

Symptoms of OA range from stiffness and mild pain to a pain that never stops, even during sleep. Sometimes OA
causes the joints to feel stiff after they haven’t been moved in a while, such as when sleeping or sitting for long
periods. This stiffness may go away as you move your joints. Over time, OA can make it difficult to move the joints at
all.
Aging is the most common cause of OA. However, this condition may also be caused by excessive weight, injuries,
or overuse.
Rheumatoid arthritis, or RA, is a form of arthritis that causes pain, swelling, stiffness, and loss of function in the
joints. It can affect any joint but is most common in the wrist and fingers. RA is an autoimmune disease, which is a
type of illness that makes your body attack itself. RA can happen in many different joints at the same time. It often
happens in the same joint on both sides of the body. RA can also cause problems with the heart, muscles, blood
vessels, nervous system, and eyes. People with RA often feel very fatigued and run a fever. RA is more common in
women than men.
Arthritis treatment varies by type of arthritis and other factors. Treatment often includes medicines that can help
control pain and swelling. For example, the over-the counter pain reliever, acetaminophen, is often used to ease
pain. Additionally, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen and naproxen can relieve the
inflammation associated with arthritis. Some NSAIDs are sold without a prescription, while others are prescribed by
a doctor.
Lifestyle factors can also help ease arthritis pain and symptoms. These factors include getting enough rest each day,
eating a well-balanced diet, and exercising in moderation. Daily exercise should include cardiovascular activities that
keep the joints in motion, such as walking, biking, or swimming; range-of-motion exercises that promote flexibility;
and strength exercises that promote muscle growth and strength, such as weight lifting.
Tendinitis
Tendinitis involves the swelling of a tendon and produces pain and soreness that can be severe. Tendons are cord-
like bands of tissue that connect muscles to bones. Tendons help the muscles to move the bones. Tendinitis can
result from either a sudden, intense injury, or from repeated minor injury to a tendon. (This latter condition is referred
to as repetitive stress or an overuse injury.)
Many common forms of tendinitis are named for the sports that increase their risk, such as tennis elbow and
pitcher’s shoulder. Other forms of tendinitis are named for the area of the body they affect, such as Achilles
tendinitis, which causes swelling and pain at the Achilles tendon near the ankle.
Tendinitis treatment depends on the cause of the injury. The first step in treatment is usually rest. Resting stops the
movement that is causing stress on the tendon and helps to relieve the inflammation. For example, an individual with
tennis elbow may need to stop the activity that is causing the problem for a short period of time.
If pain persists, a doctor may prescribe nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin, ibuprofen, or
naproxen. Some NSAIDs can even be applied topically (directly to the skin). Severe pain may require corticosteroid
injections into the tendon. Physical therapy may be prescribed, and supports such as splints or braces may need to
be used.
Tendinitis can often be relieved by following these measures, but the best approach is to prevent it by following
appropriate precautions, such as stretching sufficiently before exercise, maintaining proper body positioning, and
avoiding repetitive movements when possible.
Osteoporosis
In the United States, more than 40 million people either already have osteoporosis or are at high risk of developing
it. Osteoporosis is a disease in which bones become weak and likely to break due to low bone density. People with
osteoporosis often break bones in the hip, spine, and wrist.
Many risk factors lead to osteoporosis. Some of these are things you can change. For example, eating a diet rich in
calcium and vitamin D can keep the bones healthy and strong. Engaging in regular exercise, particularly exercises
that promote strength, can build denser bones. You should also avoid smoking and drinking alcohol to excess.
Osteoporosis can occur in both men and women and at any age. However, it is most common in thin, older women,
and for those whose immediate family members have developed the disease.
For more information about osteoporosis, review this website:
http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Bone/Osteoporosis/osteoporosis_ff.asp

Hands-on Activity
At the end of each lesson in this course, you’ll have the opportunity to solidify your learning by completing a hands-
on activity. This activity is designed to help you remember the important parts of the body system being studied.
During this lesson, you studied three systems of the human body, the integumentary and musculoskeletal systems.
The first refers to the skin; the second two refer to your internal bone and muscle structures. To complete this
activity, follow these steps:
1. Go to these websites and work through the entire review of the body systems in question.
Integumentary system: http://www.innerbody.com/anatomy/integumentary
Muscular system: http://www.innerbody.com/image/musfov.html
Skeletal system: http://www.innerbody.com/image/skelfov.html
2. Use Google or another search engine to search for “common disorders” of each system you studied and select
one that interests you. After you choose the disease or disorder, research its causes and effects.
3. In your Health journal, write several paragraphs about what you’ve learned. Is the disease or disorder one that is
related to the environment, or is it something that is inherited from the parents (genetic)? Do lifestyle factors play
a role? What can you do to protect yourself from this condition, if anything?
4. Apply what you’ve learned to your everyday life, especially if someone in your family is experiencing the disease
or disorder.
These hands-on activities are not for a grade but rather for your own personal enrichment to help you apply what
you have learned to your every day life..

Exam
After completing the reading assignment, you should complete the Check Your Learning activity. These are designed
to test your knowledge of the material in the lesson. You can check your answers and go back to the lesson to
review anything that seems confusing.
Once you feel comfortable with your knowledge of the material, you’ll take an achievement examination for each
lesson.
Lesson 1 is now complete! Complete the Check Your Learning for this lesson. When you feel comfortable with your
knowledge of the material, take the Lesson Exam.