UNIT-5

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Types of open channel flows, Specific Energy, Specific force,

Critical flow, Hydraulic jumps/Surges and gradually varying flow
concepts, Measurement of discharge in open channels

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

 Definition
Open channel flow also called free gravity flow, is the flow of water
induced by the effect of gravity. The surface of the flowing liquid is at
atmospheric pressure and free to air.
Example: flow in canal, river etc.
However, open channel flow example also includes half-closed pipe flow
under the influence of gravity and flow at atmospheric pressure.

Flow in pipes is driven by a pressure difference, whereas flow in open

channels is driven naturally by gravity. In open channels, the flow is
driven by the slope of the channel rather than the pressure

 Open channel flow, the liquid has free surface.

 Open channel flow is subjected to gravity and atmospheric pressure

 Open channel flow is always under the action of gravity.

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

 Types of open channel

Open Channel

Natural Channel Artificial Channel

Irregular shape Regular shape
Ex: rivers, floods Ex : drains, culverts, tunnels

Velocity is zero on bottom and sides of channel due to no-slip

condition. Velocity is maximum at the mid-plane of the free
surface. In most cases, velocity also varies in the stream-wise
direction
Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan
 Types of open channel Flows

1. Steady and Unsteady Flow

2. Uniform and Non-uniform Flow

3. Laminar and Turbulent Flow

4. Sub-critical, Critical and Super-critical

Flow

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

 Steady and Unsteady Flow
If the flow characteristics do not change over time at any
point, the flow is called steady flow whereas if the flow
characteristics are changed with time, the flow is called
unsteady flow. Mathematically, for steady flow the
conditions ∂v/∂t and ∂v/∂x should be equal to zero and vice-
versa for unsteady flow.

The representative quantity in open-channel flows is the

flow depth and average velocity which may vary along the
channel. Flood flows in rivers and rapidly varying surges in
canals are some examples of unsteady flow

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
The flows are classified under these classes when space is considered as the
criteria. When the depth of flow is unchanged over different section of the
channel, the flow called as uniform flow. Whereas the depth of flow changes
with section, the flow classified as varied flow or non-uniform flow.

y (depth of water) and v (velocity) remain constant along the channel for a
uniform flow. Uniform flow encountered in long straight sections where head
loss due to friction is balanced by elevation drop. In non-uniform flow, the
friction and gravity force are not in balance

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

 Types of Non-uniform Flow

1. Gradually Varied Flow (GVF)

If the depth of the flow in a channel changes gradually over a
length of the channel. In GVF, the loss energy is essentially
due to boundary friction. Therefore, the distribution of
pressure in the vertical direction may be taken as hydrostatic.

2. Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF)

If the depth of the flow in a channel changes abruptly over a
small length of channel

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

The Reynolds number (Re) is used to characterize the flow as

laminar, turbulent or in transition state. The Reynolds
number is defined as the ratio of viscous force to inertia force.

R ==(cross-section area Ac / wetted perimeter P)

Note that hydraulic diameter was defined in pipe flows as Dh = 4Rh

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

Hydraulic Radius of the Channel

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

 Sub-critical, Critical and Super-critical Flow
The regimes of flow which may be present in an open channel
are subcritical flow, critical flow and supercritical flow. This flow
regime which exists under a given set of conditions may be
determined by calculation of the Froude Number.

g is the gravitational acceleration, V is the average liquid

velocity at a cross section, Lc is the characteristic length or
hydraulic depth

Fr = 1 : Critical Flow
Fr < 1 : Subcritical Flow
Fr > 1 : Supercritical Flow
Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan
Subcritical flow

exists when the Froude Number is less than 1.0. Subcritical flow is
characterized by low velocities and large depths. When a channel is operating
in the subcritical flow regime, the formation of a hydraulic jump is not
possible. If the channel cross-section and the discharge are constant, then the
regime of flow becomes a function of the slope of the channel. In this case, the
slope of the channel defines the flow regime and the slope may be referred to as
either subcritical slope, critical slope, or supercritical slope. In order for
subcritical flow to occur, the channel slope must also be subcritical. Critical
flow will occur when the Froude Number is equal to 1.0.

Supercritical Flow

Supercritical flow will occur when the Froude Number is greater than 1.0.
Supercritical flow is characterized by high velocities and shallow depths. When
a channel is operating in the supercritical regime, the formation of a hydraulic
jump is possible. A hydraulic jump will occur when the flow regime changes
from supercritical to subcritical in a short distance

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

Therefore, the flow in an open channel is dominated by
inertial forces in rapid (supercritical) flow and by gravity
forces in tranquil (subcritical) flow

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

In Non-uniform flow, velocity varies at each section of the
channel and the Energy Line is not parallel to the bed of the
channel.

This can be caused by

 Differences in depth of channel and Differences in width

of channel

 Differences in the nature of bed

 Obstruction in the direction of flow

 Differences in slope of channel

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

 Specific Energy
It is defined as the energy per unit weight of fluid with respect to the bottom of
the channel
Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan
Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan
Critical depth (hc) or alternate depth

It is defined as the depth of flow of water at which the specific energy is

minimum.
hc = (q2/g)1/3

Critical velocity (VC)

The velocity of flow at the critical depth is known as critical velocity
VC = √(ghc)

Minimum specific energy in terms of critical depth (Emin)

Emin = 3hc/2

Hydraulic jump or standing wave

Sudden increase of depth of water is called a hydraulic jump or standing wave.

The rise of water level, which takes place due to the transformation of the
unstable shooting flow to the stable flow. Depth = d2 – d1
Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan
Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan
Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan
A rectangular channel 2.50 m wide has a specific energy of 1.50 m when
carrying a discharge of 6.48 m3 /sec. Calculate the alternate depths and
corresponding Froude numbers.

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

Find the critical water depth for a specific energy head of E1 = 1.5 m in
the following channels:
a) Rectangular channel, B = 2.0 m.
b) b) Triangular channel, m = 1.5.
c) c) Trapezoidal channel, B = 2.0 m and m = 1.0.

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

A 3-m wide channel carries a total discharge of 12 m 3 s –1 . Calculate:
(a) the critical depth;
(b) the minimum specific energy;
(c) the alternate depths when E = 4 m.

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan
 Hydraulic Jump

The hydraulic jump is defined as the rise of water level, which takes place
due to the transformation of the unstable shooting flow (super critical) to
the stable streaming flow (sub-critical). When hydraulic jump ocuurs, a loss
of energy due to eddy formation and the turbulent flow occurs.

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

 Discharge through Open Channels

In uniform flow, the flow depth y, the average flow velocity V, and the bottom slope S0
remain constant, and the head loss equals the elevation loss. When the bottom slope is
increased, the flow velocity increases and the flow depth decreases. Therefore, a new
uniform flow will be established with a new (lower) flow depth.

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

 Chezy coefficient is not dimensionless but has
the dimensions of length1/2 per time [L1/2 T-1],
the square root of the units of acceleration)

or
Where C is Chezy coefficient V = mean velocity (m/s)
C = Chezy’s factor of flow resistance (m1/2/s)
R = hydraulic radius So = slope of energy line
Q = Discharge (m3 /s)
Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan
Manning’s Formula
Chezy’s formula can also be used with Manning's Roughness Coefficient

C = (1/n) R^(1/6)
where R = Hydraulic Radius n = Manning’s Roughness Coefficient
Bazin’s Formula

where k = Bazin’s constant m = Hydraulic Radius

Kutter’s Formula

where N = Kutter’s constant m = Hydraulic Radius, i = Slope of the bed

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan
Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan
Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow of water through a
rectangular channel of 5 m wide and 2.5 m deep when it is running
full. The channel has a bed slope of 1 in 1250. Take chezy’s
constant as 50.

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow of water through a
rectangular channel of 5 m wide and 2.5 m deep when it is running
full. The channel has a bed slope of 1 in 1250. Take chezy’s
constant as 50.

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

 Most Economical Sections

1. Cost of construction should be minimum

2. Discharge should be maximum

Types of channels based on shape:

1. Rectangular 2. Trapezoidal 3. Circular

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

Notches and Weirs

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Discharge over Rectangualar Notch

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

A rectangular notch 2m wide has a constant head of 500mm.
Find the discharge over the notch if coefficient of discharge for
the notch is 0.62.

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

Discharge over Triangular Notch (V-Notch)

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan

Prof. Sreeja Sadasivan