Chapter 9

Insulation Coordination
of UHV Substations

Fei Su, Hao Zhou and Yang Li

With the high-voltage level and large transmission capacity, the UHV power grid
has a very important position in the system. Therefore, compared to the power grid
of low-voltage levels, the insulation coordination of the UHV power grid has its
particularity. First, because of the important position of the UHV power grid in the
power system, the insulation coordination of equipment must ensure a high stability
of the system; second, due to the high requirements on the insulation of the UHV
power grid, the investment on the insulation of the power transmission and trans-
formation equipment accounts for a large proportion in the total investment of
equipment, so the reasonable determination of the insulation level has a huge
economic benefit; finally, due to the increase of voltage level, the overvoltage
having a dominant role in the insulation coordination will differ from the
low-voltage level systems, and the principles of insulation coordination will change
accordingly.
In this chapter, the main method for insulation coordination of the UHV sub-
station is discussed first, and then, the determination of the air clearance of sub-
station and the selection of equipment insulation are discussed in detail.

F. Su (&)
State Grid Jinan Power Supply Company, Jinan, Shandong
People’s Republic of China
e-mail: 285701397@qq.com
H. Zhou
College of Electrical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Xihu District,
Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China
e-mail: zhouhao_ee@zju.edu.cn
Y. Li
State Grid Suzhou Power Supply Company, Suzhou, Jiangsu
People’s Republic of China
e-mail: 1041204573@qq.com

© Zhejiang University Press, Hangzhou and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2018 461
H. Zhou et al. (eds.), Ultra-high Voltage AC/DC Power Transmission,
Advanced Topics in Science and Technology in China,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-54575-1_9
462 F. Su et al.

9.1 Basic Concept and Principles of Insulation

Coordination

The insulation coordination refers to the reasonable determination of the insulation

level of equipment based on a comprehensive consideration of the various voltage
that the electrical equipment in the power system may be subject to (working
voltage and overvoltage) the characteristics of the protection devices and the
characteristics of the equipment insulation to withstand the various voltages
applied, to minimize the equipment costs, maintenance costs, and the accident
losses caused by insulation failure of the equipment, and to achieve the highest
collectivity benefit in the economy and the safe operation.
For insulation coordination, it is necessary not only to well deal with the
coordination relationship among various applied voltages, voltage-limiting mea-
sures, and equipment insulation withstand voltage technically, but also to well
co-ordinate the relationship among the investment costs, maintenance costs, and
accident losses economically. In this way, neither the unnecessary waste be caused
due to the large equipment dimensions and too expensive manufacturing costs
resulting from the too high insulation level being taken, nor is large increase in the
losses incurred by power failures and maintenance costs caused by the increased
accident rate of the equipment during operation resulting from the too low insu-
lation level being taken. To achieve the purpose of optimal comprehensive eco-
nomic benefit in the three aspects of equipment manufacturing costs, operation and
maintenance costs, and accident losses, the impacts of many factors such as voltage
level and system structure must be taken into account for insulation coordination.
The overvoltage to be considered for the insulation coordination mainly includes
lightning overvoltage, switching overvoltage, and power frequency overvoltage. In
the power grids of 220 kV and below, because of the low-voltage level, it is
difficult to limit the lightning overvoltage to the internal overvoltage level.
Therefore, the insulation level of the electrical equipment in these grids is mainly
affected by the lightning overvoltage. For the EHV and UHV power grids above
220 kV, with the increase of voltage level, the amplitudes of switching overvoltage
and power frequency overvoltage increase accordingly, while the hazards of
lightning overvoltage have been greatly weakened due to the limitation by various
lightning protection measures, so the internal overvoltage gradually plays a decisive
role in the insulation coordination gradually. In the EHV insulation coordination,
the switching overvoltage plays a dominant role. In the UHV power grid, the
internal overvoltage is limited to 1.6–1.8 p.u., so the equipment insulation level in
such case is mainly decided by power frequency overvoltage, long-duration
working voltage, or switching overvoltage.
The insulation coordination involves line insulation coordination and substation
insulation coordination, mainly covering the selection of type and number of
insulators, the determination of distance from line to tower, the determination of air
clearance of substation, and the determination of insulation level of equipment in
substation.
9 Insulation Coordination of UHV Substations 463

For the above insulation coordination content, the three kinds of overvoltage
have different effects, which need to be considered separately.
Line insulator: the selection of insulator type is determined mainly with refer-
ence to the pollution and altitude of the area in which the operation is carried out,
and the string length is mainly determined by the maximum operating voltage of the
system.
Line’s air clearances: the impacts of tower type and wind deflection shall be
considered for the determination of the clearances from the conductor to the tower.
For the cat-head-type tower and the cup-type tower, the side-phase insulators
usually use I-type strings, which need to be verified under the power frequency
overvoltage, switching overvoltage, and lightning overvoltage to ensure that no
clearance breakdown happens under the three overvoltages; the intermediate-phase
insulators usually use V-type strings, and, as the clearance distance from the con-
ductors to the tower window has been determined and is far beyond the require-
ments in the power frequency discharge voltage, normally, it only needs to verify if
the clearance meets the required value of the discharge voltage of the switching
overvoltage and lightning overvoltage; for the double-circuit tower’s I-type insu-
lators, the three-phase air clearances also need to be verified under the three types of
overvoltage to ensure that the clearance breakdown does not occur.
Substation’s air clearances: the air clearances not affected by wind deflection are
mainly determined by the switching overvoltage; the air clearances affected by wind
deflection need to be verified for compliance with the requirements in discharge
distance under the three types of overvoltages.
Substation equipment insulation: the electric equipment shall be subject to the
long-duration power frequency live-line test at factory to ensure its reliability under
the continuous operating power frequency voltage. The impulse voltage withstand
level of equipment shall be determined primarily through the selection of a certain
coordination factor by reference to the protection level of arresters and the insu-
lation characteristics of equipment.

9.2 Insulation Coordination Methods

for UHV Power Grid

The insulation coordination methods can be divided into two categories: one is to
use a series of coordination factors to determine the insulation level based on the
operating experience and in consideration of the impacts of various factors, referred
to as the conventional procedure. The other is to design the equipment insulation
through the probabilistic method based on the condition that the flashover voltage
under which insulation can be self-restored is a random variable, while the over-
voltage applied to the insulation is also a random variable, referred to as the
statistical procedure.
464 F. Su et al.

The conventional procedure is applicable to both the insulation with

self-restoring capability (gas insulation) and the insulation without self-restoring
capability (liquid or solid insulation). The statistical procedure requires a lot of
insulation breakdown data which are difficult to obtain in the practical application,
so it only applies to the self-restoring insulation.
1. Conventional procedure
The conventional procedure realizes the insulation coordination in accordance
with the concepts of the maximum overvoltage acting on the insulation and the
minimum insulating strength of equipment. With this method, the most dangerous
overvoltage that may appear on the insulation of the electrical equipment shall be
first determined and then multiplied by a margin coefficient in consideration of the
impacts of various factors based on the experience, so as to determine the voltage
level that the insulation shall withstand, namely:

Uj ¼ kUgmax ð9:1Þ

where
Uj the insulation level of equipment;
Ugmax the maximum overvoltage amplitude in the system;
k the coordination factor which is usually greater than 1.
The conventional procedure has the advantages of simplicity and intuition, but
also has very obvious shortcomings. When this method is used for the determi-
nation of insulation level, it is normally required to provide a large margin, which
often makes the determined insulation level a little high. For the UHV power grid,
though the conventional procedure can ensure that the system has a high security, it
can substantially increase the manufacturing costs of equipment. In addition, the
use of conventional procedure cannot quantitatively estimate the probability of
accidents that may occur to the equipment. Because of these shortcomings of the
conventional procedure, the statistical procedure and the simplified statistical pro-
cedure have been gradually promoted and applied in the design of external insu-
lation of the UHV power grid.
2. Statistical procedure
The statistical procedure is, based on the condition that the overvoltage ampli-
tude and the insulation withstand strength are both random variables, to calculate
the probability of insulation discharge and the line trip-out rate with the known
probability distribution of overvoltage amplitude and insulation discharge voltage,
and finally reasonably determine the insulation level based on the technical and
economic comparisons.
Assuming that the overvoltage probability density function is f(U), the insulation
breakdown probability distribution function is P(U), and f(U) is unrelated to P(U).
As shown in Fig. 9.1, f(U0)dU is the probability of occurrence of overvoltage
within the range of dU in the vicinity of U0, and P(U0) is the probability of
9 Insulation Coordination of UHV Substations 465

insulation breakdown under the action of overvoltage U0. The probability of

occurrence of such high overvoltage leading to the insulation breakdown can be
obtained as follows:

dR ¼ PðU0 Þf ðU0 ÞdU ð9:2Þ

where
dR the differential of failure rate, which corresponds to the small diagonally
shaded area in Fig. 9.1.

Conventionally, during the overvoltage statistics, normally, the statistics is made

only on the absolute values of the overvoltage, and the polarity is not distinguished
(the positive and negative polarities can be considered as fifty–fifty), so that it can
be obtained that the distribution range of overvoltage amplitude shall be Uxg * ∞
(Uxg refers to the maximum working phase voltage amplitude of the system). The
following equation can be obtained through the integral calculation of the discharge
probability:

Z1
R ¼ Total shaded area = PðUÞf ðUÞdU ð9:3Þ
Uxg

where
R the accident probability of the insulation being broken down under the applied
overvoltage, namely the failure rate.
It can be known from Eq. (9.3) that the failure rate R is the total shaded area in
Fig. 9.1. If the insulating strength is increased, that is, the curve P(U) moves to the

Fig. 9.1 Estimation of

insulation failure rate,
reprinted from Ref. [2],
copyright 2014, with
permission from China
Electric Power Press
466 F. Su et al.

right, the shaded area will be reduced, the insulation failure rate will be reduced,
but, at the same time, the cost of equipment investment will be increased.
Therefore, the adoption of statistical procedure can have some key factors adjusted
according to the needs, coordinate between the insulation cost and the failure rate
through the technical and economic comparisons, and select the reasonable insu-
lation level on the premise that the predetermined failure rate index is satisfied.
Nevertheless, during the application, it shall be noted that the use of statistical
procedure for the insulation coordination must have clear the probability distribu-
tion of the discharge voltage of the equipment insulation, which, however, is dif-
ficult to obtain in practice. Currently, the statistical procedure (including the
simplified statistical procedure) is normally used only in the design of the external
insulation of the UHV power grid.
3. Simplified statistical procedure
When the statistical procedure is used in the practical engineering for the
insulation coordination, the process is relatively cumbersome. For this reason, the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) recommended a “simplified sta-
tistical procedure” to facilitate the practical application. Simply speaking, the
simplified statistical procedure is the simplified calculation method combining the
thoughts of both the statistical procedure and the conventional procedure.
In the simplified statistical procedure, it is assumed that the overvoltage and
insulation discharge probabilities are both subject to the normal distribution, and
that the mathematical expectation and standard deviation of their overvoltage (or
overvoltage multiples) are known. Based on these assumptions, the overall prob-
ability distribution of the overvoltage and the electric insulation strength can be
represented by a point corresponding to a certain reference probability. According
to the IEC insulation coordination standards, the overvoltage value with 2%
probability of occurrence is recommended as the “statistical overvoltage Us”, and
the withstand voltage value with 10% probability of discharge, namely 90%
probability of withstand, is recommended as the “statistical withstand voltage Uw”
of the insulation.
The above “statistical overvoltage Us” and “statistical withstand voltage Uw” are
used to replace the maximum overvoltage Ugmax and the minimum insulation
withstand voltage Uj in the conventional procedure, respectively, and the ratio of
the “statistical withstand voltage Uw” to the “statistical overvoltage Us” is defined
as the “statistical safety factor Ks”, so that the conventional procedure is improved
on the original basis, as shown in the following equation:

UW
KS ¼ : ð9:4Þ
US

Obviously, in case that the overvoltage remains constant, if the insulation level is
raised, the statistical withstand voltage and the statistical safety factor will both
increase accordingly, and the insulation failure rate will reduce.
9 Insulation Coordination of UHV Substations 467

The expression form in Eq. (9.4) is very similar to the conventional procedure. It
can be considered that: the simplified statistical procedure is essentially a combined
insulation coordination method adopting the probabilistic statistical characteristics
of the overvoltage and the electric insulation strength while following the calcu-
lation equation of the conventional procedure.
In summary, in the insulation coordination of the UHV power grid, the external
insulation levels of the overhead transmission lines and the substation equipment
shall be determined primarily by the statistical procedure to reduce the cost of
equipment insulation as far as possible under the premise of the stability guaran-
teed. For the internal insulation of substation equipment, because of the importance
of the UHV equipment, the conventional procedure shall be used to obtain high
operating stability of the substation as far as possible.

9.3 Insulation Coordination of the UHV Substation

The insulation coordination of substation covers the verification of air clearance

distance of substation and the determination of equipment insulation level. For the
former, because the air clearance is of self-restoring insulation, the statistical pro-
cedure can be used for the insulation coordination. For the substation equipment,
the insulating media thereof are mostly solid or liquid, belonging to
non-self-restoring insulation, and because of the importance of the UHV substation
equipment, the conventional procedure is usually used for the insulation
coordination in the practical application to ensure that the equipment has a high
enough safety.
This section will discuss the main design philosophy in insulation coordination
of the UHV substation based on the national standard GB/Z 24842-2009
Overvoltage and Insulation Coordination of 1000 kV Transmission Project.

9.3.1 Determination of Air Clearance

of the UHV Substation

The air clearance of substation consists of the minimum electrical distance from
conductor to framework, the minimum electrical distance from substation equip-
ment to framework, and the minimum phase-to-phase electrical distance of sub-
station. The air clearance shall be able to withstand the actions by the power
frequency overvoltage, switching overvoltage, and lightning overvoltage.
468 F. Su et al.

9.3.1.1 Determination of Air Clearance Under

Power Frequency Overvoltage

1. Phase-to-ground air clearances

Most of the phase-to-ground air clearances of substation are not affected by wind
deflection. In the determination of the air clearance distance, the substation’s max-
imum phase-to-ground power frequency temporary overvoltage Up (1.4 p.u.) shall
be considered as the representative power frequency overvoltage to be verified.
The required value of the 50% power frequency discharge voltage of the sub-
station phase-to-ground air clearance shall meet the requirement in the following
equation:

U50:1:r ¼ ks kc Up ¼ 1:05  1:06  1:4 p.u. ¼ 1399 ðkVÞ

where
ks the safety factor, taken as 1.05;
kc the coordination factor, taken as 1.06.
Hereunder, the air clearance power frequency discharge curve is the power
frequency peak voltage discharge curve, and the 50% discharge voltage is the
power frequency peak voltage.
The atmospheric correction factor ka at the altitude of 1000 m is 1.131. It can be
obtained that the required withstand voltage of the air clearance at the altitude of
1000 m under the reference atmosphere is 1582 kV.
After the required value of the power frequency discharge voltage of the
equipment air clearance is obtained, the air clearance distance can be obtained by
reference to the power frequency discharge voltage curve of the equipment’s
phase-to-ground air clearance.
The phase-to-ground air clearance’s power frequency discharge voltage curve
[1] is as shown in Fig. 9.2:

Fig. 9.2 Power frequency

discharge voltage curve of the
phase-to-ground air clearance
of substation. Note a Power
frequency discharge curve of
the flexible conductor to the
framework column, b power
frequency discharge curve of
the tubular busbar to the
framework column, and
c power frequency discharge
curve of the grading ring to
the framework column
9 Insulation Coordination of UHV Substations 469

According to the requirements on power frequency discharge voltage, by refer to

the related discharge voltage curve mentioned above, the power frequency dis-
charge clearance distance of the phase-to-ground clearance of substation can be
obtained, as shown in Table 9.1.
It is specified in the Standard that, for the substations at the altitude not more
than 1000 m, the phase-to-ground clearance distances under the power frequency
voltage are recommended, as shown in Table 9.2.
The equipment to framework clearance distance obtained according to the dis-
charge voltage curve is 4.6 m, while the equipment to framework clearance dis-
tance recommended in the literature [1] is 4.2 m. There is a certain deviation
between these two values, but it does not affect the final selection of the air
clearance distance, because the switching impulse and lightning impulse also need
to be comprehensively considered for the equipment to framework clearance dis-
tance. According to the analysis in Sect. 9.3.1.2, the equipment to framework air
clearance under the switching impulse is recommended as 7.5 m, which is signif-
icantly higher than the clearance distance required under the power frequency
voltage. Therefore, the certain deviation between the equipment to framework
clearance distances obtained according to the discharge voltage curve in this section
and the recommended values does not affect the final results.
2. Phase-to-phase clearance
When the maximum phase-to-phase voltage occurs at the time of the trouble-free
opening of the double-circuit line, the phase-to-phase voltage Up may be up to 1.3
pffiffiffi
3 p.u. In this case, the 50% discharge voltage of the clearance is as follows:

U50:1:r ¼ ks kc Upp ð9:5Þ

where
ks the safety margin, taken as 1.05;

Table 9.1 Phase-to-ground clearance distances of substation under power frequency voltage
Required value of power frequency discharge voltage (kV) 1582
Clearance distance (m) Conductor to framework column 4.21
Tubular busbar to framework column 4.08
Grading ring to framework column 4.62

Table 9.2 Minimum air clearance distances of substation’s phase-to-ground clearances under
power frequency voltage
Clearance type Conductor to framework Equipment to framework
Clearance distance (m) 4.2 4.2
Note The conductor to framework includes the flexible conductor to framework column and the
tubular busbar to framework column; the equipment to framework includes the grading ring to
framework column
470 F. Su et al.

kc the coordination factor, taken as 1.06 [1];

Upp the maximum phase-to-phase power frequency overvoltage, taken as 1.3
pffiffiffi
3 p.u.
The required value of the power frequency discharge voltage of the
phase-to-phase clearance is as follows:
pffiffiffi
U50:1:r ¼ 1:05  1:06  1:3 3p.u. ¼ 2250 ðkVÞ:

In consideration of the correction factor of 1.131 at the altitude of 1000 m, the

corrected value is 2545 kV.

9.3.1.2 Determination of Air Clearance Under Switching Impulse

1. Phase-to-ground clearance
With the substation’s statistical phase-to-ground switching overvoltage Urp (1.7
p.u.) taken as the typical overvoltage, the phase-to-ground clearance switching
impulse 90% withstand voltage Urw is as follows:

Urw ¼ ks kcs Urp ð9:6Þ

where
Urp the phase-to-ground typical switching overvoltage of substation;
ks the safety factor, taken as 1.05;
kcs the statistical coordination factor, taken as 1.15.
It is converted to the required value of 50% discharge voltage as follows:

Urw ks kcs Urp

U50:1:r ¼ ¼ ð9:7Þ
1  1:28r1 1  1:28r1

where
r1 the variation coefficient of switching impulse discharge voltage distribution,
taken as 0.06. U50:1:r is calculated to be 1997 kV.
Since the front time of the test wave of the switching impulse discharge curve of
the substation in this chapter is 250 ls, while the front time of the switching
overvoltage of the UHV systems is mostly beyond 1000 ls, it is necessary to
conduct a waveform correction, with the correction factor taken as 1.13, and the
required value of 50% discharge voltage after the correction is 1767 kV.
9 Insulation Coordination of UHV Substations 471

The substations at high altitudes shall be subject to the altitude correction. The
altitude correction factor of the switching discharge voltage at the altitude of
1000 m is 1.056, and the value after the correction is 1866 kV.
The standard phase-to-ground clearance switching impulse discharge voltage
curve [1] is as shown in Fig. 9.3.
Based on the requirements on switching impulse 50% discharge voltage, by refer
to the above-related discharge voltage curve, the clearance distance required under
the switching impulse voltage can be obtained, as shown in Table 9.3.
It is specified in the standard that, for the substations at the altitude not more than
1000 m, the phase-to-ground clearance distances under the switching impulse
voltage are recommended, as shown in Table 9.4.
2. Phase-to-phase clearance
With the substation’s statistical phase-to-phase switching overvoltage Urp (not
more than 2.9 p.u.) taken as the typical overvoltage, the phase-to-ground clearance
switching impulse 90% withstand voltage Urw is calculated as follows:

Urw ¼ ks kcs Urp ð9:8Þ

where
Urp the typical phase-to-phase switching overvoltage of substation;
ks the safety factor, taken as 1.05;
kcs the statistical coordination factor, taken as 1.15.
It is converted to the required value of 50% discharge voltage as follows:

Urw ks kcs Urp

U50:1:r ¼ ¼ ð9:9Þ
1  1:28r1 1  1:28r1

Fig. 9.3 Switching

overvoltage discharge voltage
curve of the phase-to-ground
clearance of substation. Note
a Discharge curve of the
tubular busbar to the
framework column,
b discharge curve of the
grading ring to the framework
column, c discharge curve of
the flexible conductor to the
framework beam, and
d discharge curve of flexible
conductor to the framework
column
472 F. Su et al.

Table 9.3 Phase-to-ground clearance distance of substation under the switching impulse voltage
at the altitude of 1000 m
Required value of switching impulse discharge voltage (kV) 1866
Clearance distance (m) Flexible conductor to framework beam 5.82
Flexible conductor to framework column 6.13
Tubular busbar to framework column 6.08
Grading ring to framework column 7.41

Table 9.4 Minimum air clearance distances of the phase-to-ground clearances of the substations
under switching impulse voltage
Clearance type Conductor to framework Equipment to framework
Clearance distance (m) 6.8 7.5
Note The conductor to framework includes the flexible conductor to framework column and the
tubular busbar to framework column; the equipment to framework includes the grading ring to
framework column

Fig. 9.4 Phase-to-phase

clearance switching
overvoltage discharge voltage
curve. Note a Phase-to-phase
discharge voltage of flexible
conductor, b phase-to-phase
discharge voltage of tubular
busbar, and c phase-to-phase
discharge voltage of grading
ring

where
r1 the variation coefficient of switching impulse discharge voltage distribution,
taken as 0.06. U50:1:r is calculated to be 3270 kV.
The waveform correction factor is 1.131, and the required value of discharge
voltage after the correction is 2894 kV.
The substations at high altitudes shall be subject to the altitude correction. The
altitude correction factor of the switching discharge voltage at the altitude of
1000 m is 1.065, and the required value of the discharge voltage after the correction
is 3082 kV.
The substation phase-to-phase clearance switching impulse discharge voltage
curve [1] is as shown in Fig. 9.4.
9 Insulation Coordination of UHV Substations 473

Based on the requirements on substation phase-to-phase switching discharge

voltage, by refer to the above-related discharge voltage curve, the required
phase-to-phase clearance distance of the switching overvoltage can be obtained, as
shown in Table 9.5.
It is specified in the Standard that, for the substations in the areas at altitude not
more than 1000 m, the substation’s minimum phase-to-phase air clearances under
the switching impulse are recommended as shown in Table 9.6.

9.3.1.3 Determination of Air Clearance Under Lightning Impulse

1. Phase-to-ground clearance
The 50% discharge voltage U50 of the positive lightning impulse voltage wave
of the substation’s phase-to-ground air clearance shall meet the requirement in the
following equation:

U50  ka k4 Upl ð9:10Þ

where
Upl the rated residual voltage value of arresters at the nominal lightning current of
20 kA, taken as 1620 kV;
k4 the lightning overvoltage coordination factor of the phase-to-ground air
clearance of substation, taken as 1.45;

Table 9.5 Phase-to-phase air clearance distance corresponding to the required value of switching
impulse discharge voltage of substation
Clearance type Flexible Tubular Grading
conductor to busbar to ring to
flexible conductor tubular busbar grading ring
Clearance distance corresponding to 8.12 10.32 9.49
the required value of discharge
voltage (m)

Table 9.6 Recommended values of substation’s minimum phase-to-phase air clearances under
switching impulse
Clearance type Flexible conductor Tubular busbar Grading ring
to flexible to tubular to grading
conductor busbar ring
Recommended value of the 9.2 11.3 10.1
minimum air clearance
distance (m)
474 F. Su et al.

ka the altitude correction factor, taken as 1.131 at the altitude of 1000 m.

It is obtained through calculation that the required value of the positive (the
positive lightning breakdown voltage is slightly lower than the negative one; based
on a strict consideration, the positive lightning discharge voltage value is selected
for the calculation in this chapter) lightning impulse discharge voltage at the altitude
of 1000 m is 2657 kV.
The substation phase-to-ground clearance lightning impulse discharge curve [1]
is as shown in Fig. 9.5.
Based on the requirements on substation phase-to-ground clearance lightning
impulse discharge voltage, by refer to the above-related discharge voltage curve, the
clearance distances corresponding to the required value of lightning impulse dis-
charge voltage are as shown in Table 9.7.
It is specified in the standard that, for the substations in the areas at altitude not
more than 1000 m, the lightning impulse phase-to-ground clearance distances are
recommended as shown in Table 9.8.

Fig. 9.5 Substation

phase-to-ground clearance
lightning impulse 50%
discharge voltage curve. Note
a Discharge voltage curve of
the conductor to framework
column clearance, b discharge
voltage curve of the conductor
to framework column
clearance, c discharge voltage
curve of the tubular busbar to
framework column clearance,
and d discharge voltage curve
of the grading ring to
framework column clearance

Table 9.7 Substation phase-to-ground clearance distances under lightning impulse voltage
Required value of lightning impulse discharge voltage (kV) 2657
Clearance distance (m) Conductor to framework beam 4.51
Conductor to framework column 4.57
Tubular busbar to framework column 4.66
Grading ring to framework column 4.72

Table 9.8 Minimum air distance of substation phase-to-ground clearance under lightning impulse
voltage
Clearance type Conductor to framework Equipment to framework
Clearance distance (m) 5 5
9 Insulation Coordination of UHV Substations 475

2. Phase-to-phase clearance
For the phase-to-phase air clearance under the lightning impulse, due to the
impact of power frequency voltage, the clearance breakdown voltage may be
decreased, so it is recommended in the literature [1] that the phase-to-phase
clearance distance can be taken as 1.1 times the phase-to-ground clearance.

9.3.1.4 Recommended Values of Substation Minimum Air Clearance

Distance

It is specified in the standard that, for the 1000 kV substations in the areas at
altitude not more than 1000 m, the recommended values of the minimum air
clearance distances are as shown in Table 9.9.

9.3.2 Selection of Insulation for the UHV Equipment

The principle of insulation coordination for the UHV equipment is to determine the
insulation level of other equipment on the basis of the insulation coordination of the
transformer. Under the power frequency voltage, to ensure the operation reliability
of the electrical equipment, the equipment insulation shall be able to withstand the
maximum power frequency operating voltage for a long time (5 min). Under the
switching overvoltage and lightning impulse overvoltage, the protection of equip-
ment in the substation is achieved mainly through the arrangement of arresters to
reduce the steepness and amplitude of the overvoltage impulse wave; therefore, the
levels of switching impulse withstand voltage and lightning impulse withstand
voltage of the electrical equipment are mainly determined based on the protection
level of the arresters. The following gives a discussion on the equipment insulation
coordination under the three types of overvoltages, respectively.

Table 9.9 Minimum air clearances of the UHV substation (m)

Type of applied Conductor to Equipment to Phase to phase
voltage framework framework
Power frequency 4.2 4.2 6.8
Switching 6.8 7.5 Conductor to conductor: 9.2
impulse Ring to ring: 10.1
Tubular busbar to tubular
busbar: 11.3
Lightning 5.0 5.0 5.5
impulse
476 F. Su et al.

9.3.2.1 Insulation Coordination of Electrical Equipment Under Power

Frequency Voltage

The principles of insulation coordination of the equipment under power frequency

voltage are as follows: ① the local pollution conditions shall be considered for the
equipment external insulation; ② the electric equipment shall be subject to
the power frequency withstand voltage test for a long time at factory to ensure the
reliability of equipment insulation under the long-term operating voltage; ③ the
equipment shall be able to withstand the continuous operating voltage and
the transient overvoltage with certain amplitude and duration.
The power frequency voltage withstand value of the electrical equipment is as
follows:
Uw  kc ks Urp ð9:11Þ

where
Urp the representative power frequency overvoltage, taken as the maximum power
frequency overvoltage which is 1.3 p.u. at the substation side;
kc the coordination factor, taken as 1;
ks the safety factor, ks = 1.15 for the equipment internal insulation, ks = 1.05 for
the equipment external insulation.
It is obtained through calculation that the withstand voltage (effective value) of
the internal insulation is 949 kV and that of the external insulation is 867 kV.
For the external insulation of equipment, it is also necessary to consider the
atmospheric correction factor corresponding to the altitude, so as to conduct the
altitude correction for the external insulation withstand voltage of the equipment in
the substations at high altitude.
For the external insulations of electric porcelain material, such as the transformer
bushing, in addition to the verification of the withstand voltage, it shall also ensure
that they can satisfy the specific creepage distance corresponding to the pollution
degree of the local areas.
For the power frequency withstand voltage Uw of the longitudinal insulation of
switchgear (the internal insulation between the open contacts of circuit breakers and
the external insulation between the open contacts of circuit breaker and discon-
nector), the impact of the reverse-polarity continuous operating voltage shall be
considered and shall satisfy the following equation:
pffiffiffi
Uwg  Uw þ Um = 3 ð9:12Þ

where
Uw the rated power frequency withstand voltage of phase-to-ground insulation of
circuit breaker and disconnector, taken as 1100 kV;
Um the maximum operating voltage of system, taken as 1100 kV.
9 Insulation Coordination of UHV Substations 477

Table 9.10 Withstand voltages of factory withstand voltage test on 1000 kV equipment
Equipment Withstand voltage values of voltage withstand test (kV)
Transformer, reactor 1100 (5 min)
GIS 1100 (1 min)
Post-insulator, disconnector 1100 (1 min)
Voltage transformer 1200 (5 min)
Bushing (transformer, reactor) 1200 (5 min)
Bushing (GIS) 1100 (1 min)
Switchgear longitudinal insulation 1100 + 635 (1 min)

To ensure the reliability of equipment insulation under the long-term operating

voltage, the electric equipment shall be subject to the power frequency withstand
voltage test at factory. Compared to the factory withstand voltage test of the EHV
transformer, the duration of the withstand voltage test of the UHV transformer at
factory is extended from 1 to 5 min. This is because that, according to the partial
discharge test of the transformer insulation model, the 5 min withstand voltage test
can better test the strength of the internal insulation of transformer and whether the
partial discharge phenomenon exists. In addition, the operating experience has
shown that the transformer damages mostly occur under the power frequency
voltage, so the test on the transformer insulation withstand capability under the
power frequency voltage is more important. Therefore, to improve the operation
stability of the system in the UHV power grid, it is reasonable to extend the time
duration of the transformer factory withstand voltage test from 1 to 5 min.
The withstand voltage values of the factory withstand voltage test on various
1000 kV equipment recommended in the Standard are as shown in Table 9.10.

9.3.2.2 Insulation Coordination of Electrical Equipment Under

Switching Overvoltage

The calculation methods for the insulation level are given in the national standard
GB/Z 24842-2009 Overvoltage and Insulation Coordination of 1000 kV UHV AC
Transmission Project.
1. Determination of the insulation level of equipment based on the switching
impulse protection level of arresters.
The values of the phase-to-ground switching impulse withstand voltage of the
electrical equipment internal and external insulations shall meet:

Urw:1  1:15Ups ð9:13Þ

where
Ups the switching overvoltage protection level of arresters, taken as 1460 kV. Urw.l
is calculated to be 1679 kV.
The switching impulse withstand voltage of the longitudinal insulation of
switchgear shall meet:
 478 F. Su et al.

rffiffiffi
2
Uw  UwðpgÞ þ Um ð9:14Þ
3

where
Uw(p-g) the rated switching impulse withstand voltage of switchgear, taken as
1675 kV;
qffiffi
2 the power frequency voltage with polarity opposite to that of Uw(p-g);
U m 3
Um the maximum operating voltage of the system, taken as 1100 kV.
The switching impulse withstand voltage Uw of the longitudinal insulation of the
switchgear is 1675 + 900 kV.
2. Determination of the insulation level of equipment based on the maximum
switching overvoltage.
(1) Internal insulation of equipment
The required value of the switching impulse withstand voltage shall be as
follows:

Uw  kcd ks Urp ð9:15Þ

where
Urp the maximum switching overvoltage obtained through statistical calculation,
in kV;
kcd the deterministic coordination factor, taken as 1.05;
ks the safety factor of internal insulation, taken as 1.15.
The maximum phase-to-ground statistical switching overvoltage of substation
shall not be more than 1.6 p.u., with Urp taken as 1.6 p.u. In addition, the rated
phase-to-ground switching impulse withstand voltage of the equipment internal
insulation is calculated to be 1735 kV.
(2) External insulation of equipment
The rated phase-to-ground switching impulse withstand voltage of the equip-
ment insulation shall be as follows:

Uw  ks kcs Urp ð9:16Þ

9 Insulation Coordination of UHV Substations 479

where
Urp the maximum switching overvoltage obtained through statistical calculation,
in kV;
kcs the statistical coordination factor, taken as 1.15;
ks the safety factor of external insulation, taken as 1.05.
With Urp taken as 1.6 p.u., the rated phase-to-ground switching impulse with-
stand voltage of the equipment external insulation is calculated to be 1735 kV.
(3) Phase-to-phase insulation of equipment
The rated phase-to-phase switching impulse withstand voltage of the equipment
insulation shall be as follows:

Uw  ks kcs Urp ð9:17Þ

where
Urp maximum phase-to-phase overvoltage obtained through statistical calculation;
kcs the statistical coordination factor, taken as 1.15;
ks the safety factor of internal insulation, taken as 1.15.
The values of the rated switching impulse withstand voltage of various 1000 kV
equipment insulations recommended in the Standard are as shown in Table 9.11.
To sum up, there is a little difference between the values of phase-to-ground
switching impulse withstand voltage of internal and external insulations of equip-
ment calculated with the two methods, and the required value of the equipment
phase-to-ground switching impulse withstand voltage calculated based on the sta-
tistical switching overvoltage of substation is slightly larger than that calculated
based on the protection level of arresters, but both are lower than the rated
switching impulse withstand voltage value of equipment insulation.

Table 9.11 Rated switching impulse withstand voltage of 1000 kV equipment

Equipment Switching impulse withstand voltage value (kV)
Transformer, reactor 1800
GIS 1800
Post-insulator, disconnector 1800
Voltage transformer 1800
Bushing (transformer, reactor) 1950
Bushing (GIS) 1800
Switchgear longitudinal insulation 1675 + 900
480 F. Su et al.

9.3.2.3 Insulation Coordination of Electrical Equipment Under

Lightning Overvoltage

The arrangement of the arresters in the substation has a great impact on the
lightning overvoltage on equipment. Because of the important position of the
transformer among the substation equipment, the arresters are normally arranged
closely to the transformer, while a certain distance is maintained between the
bushings, current transformers, etc., and the arresters, and hence, the protection
effect of the arresters is impacted to some extent. Therefore, when the insulation
coordination is carried out based on the lightning impulse protection level of
arresters, the impact of the distance factor needs to be considered.
The required value of the full-wave lightning impulse withstand voltage of the
internal and external insulations of transformers and shunt reactors shall meet the
requirement in the following equation:

Urw:1  1:33Upl ð9:18Þ

where
Upl the lightning impulse protection level of arresters, taken as 1620 kV.
The coordination factor is 1.33, which is obtained based on the consideration of
the margin coefficient of 1.15 and equipment aging coefficient of 1.15. Urw.l is
calculated to be 2155 kV. The rated withstand voltage recommended in the
Standard is 2250 kV.
The rated lightning impulse withstand voltage of the chopped wave is taken as
1.1 times that of the full wave of the corresponding equipment. The chopped-wave
lightning impulse withstand voltage is calculated to be 2371 kV. The rated
chopped-wave withstand voltage recommended in the Standard is 2400 kV.
The required value of the full-wave lightning impulse withstand voltage of the
high-voltage electrical appliances and current transformers as well as the bushings,
busbar post-insulators and cables and their accessories, etc. to be tested separately
shall be as follows:

Urw:1  1:45Upl ð9:19Þ

where the coordination factor of 1.45 is obtained based on the consideration of the
margin coefficient of 1.15, equipment aging coefficient of 1.15, and distance
coefficient of 1.1. Urw.l is calculated to be 2349 kV. The rated full-wave withstand
voltage recommended in the Standard is 2400 kV.
The lightning impulse withstand voltage of the longitudinal insulation of
switchgear shall meet:
rffiffiffi
2
Uw  UwðpgÞ þ Um ð9:20Þ
3
9 Insulation Coordination of UHV Substations 481

where
Uw(p-g) the rated lightning impulse withstand voltage of the phase-to-ground
insulation of switchgear, taken as 2400 kV;
qffiffi
2 the power frequency voltage with polarity opposite to that of Uw(p-g);
Um 3
Um the maximum operating voltage of the system. The rated full-wave
withstand voltage of the longitudinal insulation of switchgear is
2400 + 900 kV.
The values of the rated lightning impulse withstand voltage of various 1000 kV
equipment insulations recommended in the Standard are as shown in Table 9.12.

9.3.2.4 Insulation Levels Recommended for 1000 kV UHV Equipment

Based on China’s current manufacturing capability and overvoltage level, the

insulation levels recommended for 1000 kV equipment are as shown in Table 9.13.

Table 9.12 Rated lightning impulse withstand voltage of 1000 kV equipment

Equipment Lightning impulse withstand voltage value (kV)
Transformer, reactor 2250 (2475 for chopped wave)
GIS 2400
Post-insulator, disconnector 2550
Voltage transformer 2400
Bushing (transformer, reactor) 2400
Bushing (GIS) 2400
Switchgear longitudinal insulation 2400 + 900

Table 9.13 Selection of insulation levels for 1000 kV UHV equipment

Equipment Withstand voltage (kV)
Lightning impulse Switching Short-duration power
impulse frequency
Transformer, reactor 2250 (2475 for 1800 1100 (5 min)
chopped wave)
GIS (circuit breakers, 2400 1800 1100 (1 min)
disconnectors)
Post-insulators, disconnectors 2400 1800 1100 (1 min)
(open type)
Voltage transformer 2400 1800 1200 (5 min)
Bushing (transformer, reactor) 2400 1950 1200 (5 min)
Bushing (GIS) 2400 1800 1100 (1 min)
Switchgear longitudinal 2400 + 900 1675 + 900 1100 + 635 (1 min)
insulation
482 F. Su et al.

9.3.2.5 Comparison of Main UHV Electrical Equipment in Different

Countries

The insulation levels of the UHV transformers in different countries are as shown in
Table 9.14 [2–4].
It can be found through the comparison of the transformer insulation levels in
different countries that the former Soviet Union has the highest transformer insu-
lation levels. This is first because that the former Soviet Union has the maximum
operating voltage of 1200 kV, which is higher than that of other countries; it is then
because that the former Soviet Union reserves a large margin for the transformer
insulation to ensure the stable operation of the lines due to its low-manufacturing
level of arresters and the poor protection effect thereof.
Japan has significantly lower UHV transformer insulation levels than other
countries. This is first because that the maximum operating voltage in Japan is
1100 kV, which is lower than that in the former Soviet Union; it is then because
that the MOAs used in Japan have excellent performance and low residual voltage,
and, besides, Japan tends to use many MOAs in the arrangement mode, making the
overall overvoltage level throughout the substation lower. For example: Japan once
carried out research on the impacts of the adoption of different arrangement
schemes for the arresters of the 1100 kV UHV substation on the lightning with-
stand levels and costs of the electrical equipment [2], as shown in Table 9.15.
It can be seen from Table 9.15 that, under the condition that the extremely strict
lightning invasion wave is selected, Scheme F is the most economic. When many
arresters are adopted, the requirement on the withstand voltage of the in-substation
equipment is lowered, so a great economic efficiency can be achieved [5]. Such
design method and idea of the lightning protection scheme for the UHV substations
of Japan are worthy of reference by China. China can refer to Japan’s treatments,
and comprehensively balances the selection of in-substation equipment insulation
level and the application of overvoltage limiting measures (mainly the number of
MOAs), considering both the safety and economy in lightning protection of sub-
station, to determine a reasonable insulation coordination scheme for the UHV
substation.

Table 9.14 Selection of insulation levels of the UHV transformers in different countries (kV)
Country Lightning impulse Switching impulse Short-duration power
withstand withstand frequency withstand
voltage (ULWP) voltage (USWP) voltage (UW)a
Japan 1950 1425 1100 (5 min)
Former Soviet 2400 1950 1100 (1 min)
Union
China 2250 1800 1100 (5 min)
(recommended)
a
Phase-to-ground power frequency voltage
Table 9.15 Relationship among MOA arrangement schemes, equipment insulation levels, and costs of Japan’s UHV substation
Scheme A Scheme B Scheme C Scheme D Scheme E Scheme F
Number of arresters At incoming line 1 1 1 2 2 2
Busbar 0 1 2 0 1 2
Transformer 1 1 1 1 1 1
9 Insulation Coordination of UHV Substations

Transformer Required withstand voltage (kV) 1950 1943 1895 1943 1938 1896
Adopted withstand voltage (kV) 1950 1950 1950 1950 1950 1950
GIS Required withstand voltage (kV) 2898 2854 2703 2628 2506 2208
Adopted withstand voltage (kV) 2900 2900 2900 2700 2550 2250
Costs (assuming 100 for Scheme F) 102 105 109 103 103 100
483
484 F. Su et al.

Table 9.16 Selection of insulation levels of the UHV reactors in different countries (kV)
Country Lightning impulse withstand Switching impulse withstand
voltage voltage
Japan (early) 2100 1425 (or 1550)
Former Soviet 2550 2100
Union
China 2250 1800
(recommended)

Through the comparison with the former Soviet Union and Japan, China adopts
the MOAs with excellent performance. And considering its current manufacturing
level, China reserves an appropriate insulation margin, so its selected insulation
levels are between those of Japan and the former Soviet Union.
The selection of the insulation levels of reactors [2] is as shown in Table 9.16.
Due to the limitation by the manufacturing process, plus the poor performance of
arresters, the former Soviet Union adopts high withstand voltage values, while
China, because of the improved manufacturing performance of MOAs, has reactor
insulation levels lower than those of the former Soviet Union, but higher than those
of Japan.

References

1. GB/Z 24842-2009. Overvoltage and insulation coordination of 1000 kV UHV AC transmission

project; 2009.
2. Liu Z. Overvoltage and insulation coordination of UHV AC system. Beijing: China Electric
Power Press; 2008. p. 106.
3. Guangfan L, Xiaoning W, Peng L, Lin S, Bo L, Jinzhong L. Insulation level and test
technology of 1000 kV power transformers. Power Syst Technol. 2008;32(3):1–6.
4. Guangfan L, Cuixia Z, Jinzhong L, Bo L, Wang Xiaoning D, Shuchun GD. Discussion on
insulation level of 1000 kV transformer. Power Syst Technol. 2009;33(18):1–4.
5. Dingxie G, Peihong Z, Min D, Muhong X, Huiwen H. Comparison and analyses on
over-voltage and insulation coordination of UHV AC transmission system between China and
Japan. High Volt Eng. 2009;35(6):1248–53.