IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 47, NO.
6, DECEMBER 2000
Microcomputer Implementation of Optimal
Algorithms for Closed-Loop Control of
Hybrid Stepper Motor Drives
Petar Crnošija, Member, IEEE, Branislav Kuzmanović, and Stipe Ajduković
Abstract—This paper discusses optimal algorithms for
closed-loop control of hybrid stepper motor drives and their
microprocessor implementation. The torque characteristics and
the optimal control angle of hybrid stepper motor drives with
added series resistance and reluctant stepper motor drives have
been described in detail in the literature. The specific contribution
of the present paper to this field of research consists of the analysis
of the torque characteristics and the optimal control angle of
hybrid stepper motor drives with a chopper amplifier and current
controller. Analytical expressions for the average torque and the
optimal control angle of a two-phase hybrid stepper motor with
chopper amplifier and current controller have been developed. An
actual hybrid stepper motor drive and the microcontroller-based
implementation of the suboptimal and exact optimal control algo-
rithms have been described. The experimental results obtained by
positioning a two-phase hybrid stepper motor drive with chopper
amplifier, phase current controller, and incremental encoder
suggested that the derived optimal control algorithm provided
maximum acceleration and minimum positioning time of the
hybrid stepper motor drive.
Index Terms—Closed-loop control, hybrid stepper motor, micro-
computer implementation of optimal control algorithms, optimal
control algorithms.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HERE ARE THREE types of stepper motors [12]: reluc-
tant, permanent magnet (magnets placed radially to the
rotor), and hybrid (permanent magnets placed axially to the
rotor). Reluctant and hybrid stepper motors are the most com-
monly used types. Stepper motors are designed to allow both
rotation and translation motion [11], [12].
Decreased phase current rise time and increased hybrid
stepper motor torque may be obtained by decreasing the
phase time constant. This is most conveniently achieved by
employing an added series resistance or transistor (chopper)
amplifier with current controller. Since the supply voltage in
these cases substantially exceeds the rated value, the response
of the phase current is forced.
Manuscript received January 19, 2000; revised July 14, 2000. Abstract pub-
lished on the Internet September 6, 2000. This paper was presented at the IEEE
International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, Bled, Slovenia, July 11–16,
1999.
P. Crnošija is with the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, Uni-
versity of Zagreb, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia (e-mail: petar.crnosija@fer.hr).
B. Kuzmanović is with the University of Zagreb, Polytechnic of Zagreb,
HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
S. Ajduković is with Prova plus, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
Publisher Item Identifier S 0278-0046(00)10269-2.
0278–0046/00$10.00 © 2000 IEEE
1319
The effects of the added series resistance, i.e., phase time con-
stant and hybrid stepper motor parameters on the torque char-
acteristics have been extensively described in [10]. A rated ana-
lytical expression was derived for the torque characteristic, uti-
lizing only three motor parameters. This expression is suitable
for use in motor design as well as for calculating the required
added series resistance that would provide the desired torque
characteristics. An analytical expression was derived for the op-
timal control angle of a hybrid stepper motor with added series
resistance [17], which provides the maximum torque and com-
pensates for the effects of the phase time constant. This expres-
sion has the same form as the expression for the optimal lead
angle of a reluctant stepper motor [1].
Substantial loss of power on the series resistance is the basic
shortcoming of this approach to forcing current response and
increasing hybrid stepper motor torque. The development of
transistor (chopper) amplifiers and current controllers using in-
tegrated technology has significantly contributed to improved
torque characteristics and broader utilization of stepper motor
drives.
The basic advantage of stepper motors over other types of
motors is the possibility of digital and open-loop control. A rel-
atively large torque reserve is required to ensure reliable hybrid
stepper motor performance in the open-loop control mode. Con-
sequently, the maximum acceleration and angular speed of a
hybrid stepper motor cannot be achieved with open-loop con-
trol. With closed-loop control, the reliability of hybrid stepper
motor performance is significantly improved and the angular
speed and the acceleration markedly increased in comparison
with open-loop control strategies. Optimal and suboptimal con-
trol angle algorithms for hybrid stepper motors with chopper
amplifiers and phase current controllers have been described in
the literature [3], [5], [14].
Information on position and speed of a stepper motor is usu-
ally obtained from an encoder [4], [12]. Attempts have been
made to obtain information on step position and angular speed
from electric signals generated by a phase current [2], [12], back
EMF [8], [9], [13] or a reconstructed rotor magnetic flux [6].
This paper is concerned with the development of expressions
for the average torque and optimal control angle of a two-phase
hybrid stepper motor drive with chopper amplifier and phase
current controller. The development of the analytical expres-
sion for the average torque of a hybrid stepper motor with
chopper amplifier and phase current controller is presented
in Section II, and that for the suboptimal and optimal control
angle in Section III. The microcomputer implementation of
1320 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 47, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2000

suboptimal and optimal control algorithms of a hybrid stepper the following expression for the Fourier, coefficient of the
motor with chopper amplifier and phase current controller is fundamental current harmonic:
described in Section IV. The experimental results obtained by
microcomputer implementation of startup and positioning of a (6)
two-phase hybrid stepper motor drive with chopper amplifier,
current controller, incremental encoder, and microcomputer where
position controller, using suboptimal and optimal control frequency of the back EMF (rad/s);
algorithms, are presented in Section V. angular speed (steps/s);
phase time constant (s);
II. DETERMINATION OF AVERAGE TORQUE OF A HYBRID Fourier coefficients of the fundamental har-
STEPPER MOTOR WITH CHOPPER AMPLIFIER AND PHASE monic of the phase voltage.
CURRENT CONTROLLER When phase current control is absent or nonoperative, the
voltage of the phase with bipolar supply is a square wave, the
The instantaneous torque value of a two-phase hybrid stepper
Fourier coefficients of the fundamental voltage harmonic being
motor is given by [12]
(7)
(1)
where is the voltage of a supplied phase (V), and is the
where control angle (rad).
current in phase (A); Inserting (6) and (7) into (4) yields the expression for the
icurrent in phase (A); average torque of a two-phase hybrid stepper motor with bipolar
motor constant (N m/A); supply and no current control
number of rotor teeth;
mechanical rotor angle (rad).
(8)
Since angular speed is constant under steady-state conditions,
phase currents and voltages are periodic values expandable into
Fourier series where .
When phase current control is operative, phase voltage and
(2) current assume the form shown in Fig. 1. In that case, the Fourier
coefficients of the fundamental voltage harmonic may be ex-
pressed as [14]
(3)

where is the electrical rotor angle (rad), and

and are the Fourier coefficients of
current and voltage waveforms. (9)
Assuming identical phase resistances and inductances, phase
currents and voltages exhibit identical waveforms. Observing where
the orthogonal nature of trigonometrical functions, (1)–(3) yield
the following expression for the average torque [12]:

(4)

where is the Fourier coefficient of the fundamental phase

current harmonic.
The value may be derived from the phase voltage equa-
tion

(5)

where
phase resistance ( );
phase inductance (H); is the number of periods when the current controller is
motor constant (Wb). switched on and off, is the current rise time (s), is the
In the steady state, the angular speed is constant time of current switch-off (s), and is the time of current
( ) and relations (2), (3) and (5) yield switch-on (s) (Fig. 1).
CRNOŠIJA et al.: CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL OF HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR DRIVE 1321

optimal control angle is a complex procedure requiring nu-

merical solution of differential equation (5), which exceeds the
scope of this paper.
The critical angular speed at which the current controller
ceases to operate is obtained under the condition that the current
rise range is half of the signal period (Fig. 1) .
Considering that the signal frequency is only one-fourth of the
angular speed [12] , the
critical frequency is given by

(12)
Fig. 1. Phase voltage and current waveforms with chopper amplifier and phase
current control. where is in units steps/s.

The relation for average motor torque and optimal control III. DETERMINATION OF OPTIMAL CONTROL ANGLE OF A
angle algorithm of a hybrid stepper motor with chopper ampli- HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR WITH CHOPPER AMPLIFIER AND
fier and phase current controller was derived under the assump- PHASE CURRENT CONTROLLER
tion that it compensates for the effects of the phase time con- The optimal control angle of a hybrid stepper motor is ob-
stant on the phase current increase range (Fig. 1). tained by equating the average torque derivative with respect to
Consequently, the current rise time and the voltage switch-on the control angle to zero ( ).
time (Fig. 1), which are essential for the calculation of the The optimal control angle expression is derived from the av-
average motor torque using (4), (6) and (9), may be obtained by erage motor torque expression in the absence of current control
neglecting the back EMF in (5) (the last member). Observing (8)
this fact, the current raise time and the time of voltage switch-on
(Fig. 1) can be obtained from (5) arctg (13)

Equation (13) is used for calculating the optimal control angle

(10)
(11)
where
phase current value at the end of switch-off interval of
supply voltage;
rated current value;
rated voltage value (Fig. 1).
Calculation of current rise time and voltage switch-on time
according to (10) and (11) will yield relatively accurate
values at low angular speeds when the back EMF is small and
its impact on rise and switch-on times is negligible. Besides, it
must be noted that, in the stationary state, the back EMF passes
through zero in the points of intersection of static torque char-
acteristics (in relation to which the control angle is measured)
[6], [8], [13] and that the control angle assumes a small neg-
ative value in the low speed region. Consequently, at low an-
gular speeds, the back EMF will assume a very small value at
the instant of phase switching and its impact on current rise time
and voltage switch-on time will, therefore, be negligible. In that
case, the range where phase current control is operative ( ) of phase current control is derived from (4), (6), and (9), and has
will exceed the range of current rise (Fig. 1). At medium an-
gular speeds, the signal frequency and the back-EMF amplitude
tend to increase and, consequently, the range of current rise
relative to the range where current control is operative ( )
will also increase. As a result of the neglected back EMF, (10)
and (11) will, in that case, yield only approximate values for
times and . An accurate calculation of the impact of back
EMF on times and , the average motor torque , and the
of a hybrid stepper motor with added series resistance . In
this case, the phase time constant with added series resistance
defined by the forcing coefficient :
should be introduced into (13).
In the case of phase current control, the suboptimal control
angle may be determined by substituting the equivalent response
of a first-order system for the current response. Equating the
phase current response integral (Fig. 1), which is obtained from
the differential equation (5) by neglecting the back EMF (the
last member), with the integral of a first-order system response
with a time constant and a gain coefficient at a
voltage change of yields the following expression for the
equivalent time constant:
(14)
In that case, the suboptimal control angle is obtained by in-
serting the equivalent time constant (14) into (13)
arctg (15)
The exact expression for the optimal control angle in the case
the following form [12]:
arctg (16)
At frequencies exceeding the critical frequency (12), the cur-
rent controller ceases to operate, and insertion of condition
into (16) yields (13). Hence, (16) pro-
vides the exact optimal control angle value for both the low-
1322 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 47, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2000
speed range, where the phase current control is operative, and
the high-speed range, where the phase current control is no
longer operative.
IV. IMPLEMENTATION OF OPTIMAL CONTROL ALGORITHMS
The proposed optimal control algorithms have been realized
and tested for feasibility in a motor drive containing a hybrid
stepper motor with incremental encoder by Phytron, a power
supply (chopper amplifier) and current controller by Phytron, a
microcontroller card by Intel, and a PC.
A. Hybrid Stepper Motor Drive
A two-phase hybrid stepper motor RSH 100-200-10
with the following parameter values was utilized [16]:
V A mH
Nm and kg m . A two-phase
incremental encoder with 500 pulses/rev was mounted on the
motor shaft. The power supply and controller unit SLS-MSO
[15] of the two-phase hybrid stepper motor contained a tran-
sistor amplifier with phase current controller which provides
the chopper amplifier of both hybrid stepper motor phases. The
output amplifier voltage was V and the chopper’s
frequency approximately 20 kHz.
For the implementation of the proposed optimal hybrid
stepper motor control algorithms, the Intel EV80C196KB
microcontroller card was utilized [7]. This card contains the
16-bit 80C196KB microcontroller, which is an improved ver-
sion of the former 8097BH microcontroller. Signals generated
by the microcontroller are compatible with those required by
the Phytron hybrid stepper motor power supply and controller.
A PC was utilized for designing and testing an optimal hybrid
stepper motor control program. The program was tested on the
PC using a simulator (SIM196KB), which greatly facilitated the
design procedure.
B. Control Algorithm Implementation
The program was designed for hybrid stepper motor control
and positioning with constant and optimal control angles.
During motor positioning, the angular speed profile contains
the following five ranges [12]: 1) acceleration; 2) high-speed
running; 3) deceleration; 4) low-speed running; and 5) stop
within one step. Thus, the total number of steps performed by
the stepper motor is obtained as follows
(17)
where
number of acceleration steps;
number of high-speed running steps;
number of deceleration steps;
number of low-speed running steps;
1 one step for stop.
The number of low-speed running steps is specified under
the assumption that the load torque equals zero ( ), and
it is . The number of deceleration steps is likewise
specified under the assumption that the load torque equals zero,
and it is . The number of high-speed running steps
( ) is obtained from (17)
(18)
When the total number of steps is not large, the accelera-
tion response need not finish, and deceleration will commence
before the maximum angular speed is achieved ( ). In
that case, the number of deceleration steps is as follows:
(19)
Deceleration is accomplished by the maximum deceleration
torque if the control angle is
(20)
where is an optimal control angle obtained from (13), (15),
and (16).
The optimal control angle values calculated according to (13),
(15), and (16) were stored in microcontroller memory in tabu-
lated form with a discrete step of 9 . Moreover, the time of one
step, i.e., the number of pulses counted by the timer within
one step was measured instead of the angular speed. The time
of one step is defined by ten pulses obtained by processing the
signals of the two encoder phases. The angular speed is deter-
mined by the timer frequency ( kHz) and the number
of pulses counted by the timer within one step
(21)
The frequency of the back EMF , which is utilized in the
optimal control angle equations (13), (15), and (16), is obtained
from the number of timer pulses using (21). To avoid the op-
eration of division, the dependence of the optimal control angle
on the number of timer pulses was computed and stored
in tabulated form in microcontroller memory, instead of calcu-
lating the dependence of the control angle on back-EMF fre-
quency
(22)
As a result, it was possible to minimize the microcomputer
time required for computing and adjusting the optimal control
angle and, thus, allow the recording of angular speed responses
up to steps/s.
V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The responses of the angular speed and control angle for
a hybrid stepper motor rotation of steps at constant
control angles of different values are shown in Fig. 2. As is ev-
ident, with increasing negative control angle values, maximum
angular speed increases and total positioning time decreases.
With further increases in the negative control angle value, ac-
celeration may decrease while total positioning time needs no
decrease.
It must be stressed that the acceleration is initially (0–2000
step/s) equal for all control angles of constant value (Fig. 2) be-
cause a high current response forcing is applied
. At the beginning of the response, the angular speed
and the back EMF are small, so that the back EMF has little or
no impact on the current response. As a result, the range of phase
current rise (Fig. 1) is considerably smaller than the range of
CRNOŠIJA et al.: CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL OF HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR DRIVE
Fig. 2. (a) Angular speed and (b) control angle responses for a hybrid stepper
motor rotation of N = 400 steps at a phase current I = 8 A and constant
0
control angles. 1:  = 0 ; 2:  = 18 ; 3:  = 36 . 0 different optimal control algorithms. 1:  (13); 2:  (15); 3:  (16).
phase current control ( ), i.e., the phase current equals its
rated value practically over the entire range and has a rect-
angular waveform. Consequently, at lower angular speeds, the
average motor torque is more or less constant and equal to the
holding torque , i.e., independent of the control angle. At an-
gular speeds higher than steps/s, the response accel-
eration decreases because of the effect of the back EMF. At the
same time, the response acceleration is higher for higher abso-
lute control angle values, i.e., increasing the control angle par-
tially compensates for the effects of the phase time constant and
the back EMF on the current response rate and the average motor
torque.
The responses of the angular speed and control angle for
a hybrid stepper motor rotation of steps obtained
with different optimal control algorithms are shown in Fig. 3.
As is evident, the optimal control algorithm (13) which utilizes
the phase time constant , (curve 1, Fig. 3) provides the max-
imum negative control angle ( ) already at low angular
speeds, resulting in decreasing acceleration and maximum hy-
brid stepper motor positioning time.
The suboptimal control algorithm (15) utilizing the equiva-
lent time constant for the case of operative phase current control
(curve 2, Fig. 3) provides the maximum acceleration at low
and medium angular speeds at which the phase current control is
operative. At higher angular speeds at which the phase current
1323
Fig. 3. (a) Angular speed and (b) control angle responses for a hybrid stepper
motor rotation of N = 400 steps at a phase current I = 8 A obtained with
controller ceases to operate, the suboptimal control algorithm
(15) no longer provides the optimal control angle value, and the
acceleration decreases. With the suboptimal control algorithm
(15), the total hybrid stepper motor positioning time is shorter
than that provided by the optimal control algorithm (13).
The exact optimal control angle expression (16), which was
developed for the case of operative phase current control, pro-
vides the highest acceleration at all angular speed levels, i.e., in
both low-speed range where the phase current control is opera-
tive and high-speed range in which the phase current control is
no longer operative (curve 3, Fig. 3). This algorithm provides
maximum angular speed and minimum hybrid stepper motor
positioning time.
The comparison between Figs. 2 and 3 indicated that optimal
control algorithms provide higher maximum angular speeds and
lower total positioning times than control algorithms with con-
stant control angles do. Up to angular speeds of
steps/s, the response acceleration with an optimal control angle
(16) [curve 3 in Fig. 3(a)] equals the response acceleration with
constant control angle [curve 3 in Fig. 2(a)]. At
higher angular speeds, the optimal control angle (16) [curve
3 in Fig. 3(b)] assumes values in excess of the constant control
angle [curve 3 in Fig. 2(b)] so that the acceleration
with an optimal control angle (16) [curve 3 in Fig. 3(a)] exceeds
the acceleration with constant control angle [curve
1324
3 in Fig. 2(a)]. The optimal control algorithm (16) is capable of
compensating the influence of the phase time constant, but has
no effect on the impact of the back EMF on the rate of a phase
current rise and the average motor torque. Therefore, the back
EMF tends to decrease the response acceleration at higher an-
gular speeds. Since a large forcing coefficient has been applied
, there is only a slight decrease in response
acceleration.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Optimal control algorithms for closed-loop control of hy-
brid stepper motors which provide better performance, relia-
bility, and improved torque characteristics in comparison with
open-loop control strategies have been discussed. The analytical
expression for the average torque of a two-phase hybrid stepper
motor with chopper amplifier and current controller has been
developed. Using this expression, the analytical expression for
the optimal control angle, which provides the maximum average
torque of a hybrid stepper motor, was obtained. Likewise, the
analytical expression for the suboptimal control angle was elab-
orated.
The proposed optimal and suboptimal control algorithms
have been realized and tested for feasibility in a motor drive
containing a hybrid stepper motor with incremental encoder
by Phytron, a power supply (chopper amplifier) and current
controller by Phytron, an Intel EV80C196KB microcontroller
card, and a PC.
The microcontroller-based implementations of the proposed
optimal control algorithms and positioning of the hybrid stepper
motor with incremental encoder have been described. The
dependence of the optimal control angle on angular speed was
calculated from the known parameter values of the presented
stepper motor drive using the analytical expressions provided.
The number of pulses counted by the timer within one
step was measured instead of measuring the angular speed.
Furthermore, the dependence of the optimal control angle on
the number of timer pulses was computed and stored in
tabulated form in microcontroller memory, thus minimizing the
microcomputer time required for computing and adjusting the
optimal control angle.
The experimental results of the hybrid stepper motor
positioning using different optimal control algorithms are pre-
sented. As indicated by the oscillogram showing angular speed
responses, the proposed optimal control algorithm provides the
highest acceleration at all angular speed levels and minimum
positioning time of the hybrid stepper motor drive with chopper
amplifier and phase current control.
Oscillograms showing angular speed responses obtained
during hybrid stepper motor positioning at constant control
angles were also presented. A comparison of these oscillograms
indicated that optimal control algorithms provide lower total
positioning times than do control algorithms with constant
control angles.
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Petar Crnošija (M’95) was born in Zadar, Croatia,
in 1938. He received the B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D.
degrees from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia, in 1962,
1973, and 1977, respectively.
Between 1962–1969, he was with the Rade
Končar Institute of Electrical Engineering, Zagreb,
Croatia. In 1969, he joined the Faculty of Electrical
Engineering, University of Zagreb, as an Assistant
Professor. In 1973, he was appointed as a Lecturer.
He became an Associate Professor in 1979 and a
Full Professor in 1984. In 1999, he obtained tenure as a Full Professor in the
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing. He has taught a number of
undergraduate and graduate courses. He is the author of two student training
manuals, a set of instructions for laboratory exercises, and three lecture
protocols. He has tutored and provided scientific and educational guidance
in 81 graduate theses, 11 M.Sc. theses, and six doctoral theses. His scientific
and research activities have covered modeling and simulation of thyristor
converters and electrical drives, analysis and synthesis of continuous and
digital servosystems, synthesis of conventional and deadbeat servo system
controllers using sensitivity functions, methods of adaptive and fuzzy adaptive
control based on model reference, self-tuning dead beat controllers based on
reference and sensitivity models, closed-loop control strategies for hybrid
stepper motor drives using electric signals, and optimal control algorithms.
He is the author of 95 scientific and research papers published in journals
and presented at conferences. He was Chief Researcher of several scientific
projects supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic
of Croatia, several international projects, and a number of applied industrial
projects. He is currently Chief Researcher of the project entitled “Intelligent
and Adaptive System Control.”
CRNOŠIJA et al.: CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL OF HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR DRIVE 1325

Branislav Kuzmanović was born in Croatia in 1937. Stipe Ajduković was born in Sinj, Croatia, in 1971.
He received the B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees from He received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering
the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of from the University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia, in
Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia, in 1962, 1972, and 1978, re- 1998.
spectively. He is currently an Engineer with Prova plus, Za-
He has taught at the Rade Končar Electrical greb, Croatia, a company involved in process visual-
Engineering Institute and the Military Engineering ization and automation.
Academy, both in Zagreb, Croatia. He is currently
with the University of Zagreb, Polytechnic of Za-
greb, Zagreb, Croatia. He was appointed a Lecturer
in 1973, an Associate Professor in 1978, and a Full
Professor in 1983. His research work has included theory of electromagnetic
fields, theory of electric networks, and power electronics. He has taught
basics of electrical engineering, theoretical electrical engineering, theory of
electromagnetic fields, theory of electrical networks, and power electronics.
He is the author of one book and several papers published in journals and
presented at conferences.