TECHNICAL ENGLISH 1

Pallavi T. S
Asst.prof. ENGLISH
DEPARTMENT
SAPTHAGIRI COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
BANGALORE

Communication;

The term communication is derived from the Latin word “Communis” which means to share.
Effective communication is when the message conveyed by the sender is understood by the
receiver in exactly the same way as it was intended.

Communication may be defined as a process concerning exchange of facts or ideas between

persons holding different positions in an organisation to achieve mutual harmony. The
communication process is dynamic in nature rather than a static phenomenon.

The process of communication

The communication is a dynamic process that begins with the conceptualizing of ideas by the
sender who then transmits the message through a channel to the receiver, who in turn gives the
feedback in the form of some message or signal within the given time frame. Thus, there are
Seven major elements of communication process; Seven major elements of communication
process are: (1) sender (2) ideas (3) encoding (4) communication channel (5) receiver (6)
decoding and (7) feedback.

1. Sender(source):

The process of communication begins with a sender, the person who transmits a message. The
branch manager explaining new product lines to the sales force, a computer programmer
explaining a new program to a coworker, accountant giving financial report to its superior are
all senders of communication.
2. Message: A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver. Messages could be
verbal (written or spoken) or non-verbal (such as appearance, body language, silence, sounds,
yawns, sighs etc.)

3. Encoding: The sender must choose certain words or non-verbal methods to send an
international message. This activity is called encoding. While encoding a message, one needs to
consider what contents to include, how the receiver will interpret it and how it may affect one’s
relationship.

A simple “thankful” message will be relatively easy. In contrast, to inform 200 employees of a
bad news about salary cut or bid on engineering plans to construct a Rs. 50 crore industrial
building will require much more complicated, carefully planned messages.

4. Channel:

How will you send your message?

Should it be sent via an electronic word processing system to be read on the receiver’s screen
or through the printed word or through graphic symbol on paper, or via the medium of sound?

The choice of channel or medium (written or oral) is influenced by the interrelationships

between the sender and the receiver. It also depends upon the urgency of the message being
sent. Besides, one may consider factors such as importance, number of receivers, costs and
amount of information.

Generally, it has been observed that if the message requires an immediate answer, an oral
channel may be the better choice. But if the message contains complicated details and figures or
if its subject requires filing for future reference, a written communication is necessary.
Furthermore, whether your message receiver is inside or outside your organisation affects your
choice of the medium.

For internal communication, written media may be memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions,
posters, employee manuals or even electronic bulletin boards. Oral communication may be staff
meeting reports, face to face discussions, speeches, audio tapes, telephone chats,
teleconferences or even video tapes. Another oral channel, though unplanned by the sender, is
the ‘grapevine’ through which news and rumors often travel quickly.

External written communication media may be letters, reports, proposals, telegrams, faxes,
electronic mails, telexes, postcards, contracts, ads, brochures, catalogues, news releases etc. You
may communicate orally-face-to-face, by telephone, or by speeches in solo or in panel situations
personally before groups or via teleconferences, video conferences or TV.

5. Receiver:

A receiver is any person who notices and attaches some meaning to a message. In the best
circumstances, a message reaches its intended receiver with no problems. In the confusing and
imperfect world of business, however, several problems can occur. The message may never get
to the receiver.
It might be sent but buried under a mountain of files on the recipient’s desk. If the message is
oral, the listener might forget it. Even worse, a message intended for one receiver might be
intercepted by someone else or your colleague may take your friendly joke in an offensive
manner. Similarly, your boss’ suggestion may be taken to be an order by you for example, a
competitor might see a copy of your correspondence to a customer.

6. Decoding: Even if the message reaches intact to its intended receiver, there is no guarantee
that it will be understood as the sender intended it to be. The receiver must still decode it
attaching meaning to the words or symbols. It may be noted that decoding is not always
accurate. It depends upon individual experiences.

Barriers to effective communication

Many companies develop difficulties within their organization due to communication issues.
There are five key barriers that can occur within a company: language, cultural diversity, gender
differences, status differences and physical separation. These barriers to communication are
specific items that can distort or prevent communication within an organization.

Some of the important barriers to communication have been discussed below:

1. Physical Barriers:

A communication is a two-way process, distance between the sender and the receiver of the
message is an important barrier to communication. Noise and environmental factors also block
communication.

2. Personal Barriers: Personal factors like difference in judgment, social values, inferiority
complex, bias, attitude, pressure of time, inability to communicate, etc. widen the psychological
distance between the communicator and the communicate. Credibility gap i.e., inconsistency
between what one says and what one does, also, acts as a barrier to communication.

3. Semantic or Language Barriers: Semantic is the science of meaning. The same words and
symbols carry different meanings to different people. Difficulties in communication arise when
the sender and the receiver of the message use words or symbols in different senses. The
meaning intended by the sender may be quite different from the meaning followed by the
receiver. People interpret the message in terms of their own behaviour and experience.
Sometimes, the language used by the sender may not at all be followed by the receiver.

4. Status Barriers (Superior-Subordinate Relationship):

Status or position in the hierarchy of an organization is one of the fundamental barriers that
obstruct free flow of information. A superior may give only selected information to his
subordinates so as to maintain status differences. Subordinates, usually, tend to convey only
those things which the superiors would appreciate.

This creates distortion in upward communication. Such selective communication is also known
as filtering. Sometimes, “the superior feels that he cannot fully admit to his subordinates those
problems, conditions or results which may affect adversely on his ability and judgment. To do so
would undermine his position as a superior being in the formal organization.” This causes
distortion in downward communication. A subordinate may also feel reluctant to report his
shortcomings or may not seek clarification on instructions which are subject to different
interpretations for fear of loss of prestige in the eyes of the superior.

5. Organizational Structure Barriers:

Effective communication largely depends upon sound organizational structure. If the structure
is complex involving several layers of management, the breakdown or distortion in
communication wall arise. It is an established fact that every layer cuts off a bit of information.
In the words of W.C. Bennis, “Communication gets distorted particularly as it goes up the
hierarchy.”

Moreover, information travelling through formal structure introduces rigidity and causes-delay
because of long lines of communication. Similarly, lack of instructions for further conveying
information to the subordinates and heavy pressure of work at certain levels of authority also
act as barriers to effective communication.

6. Barriers Due to Inadequate Attention:

Inadequate attention to the message makes communication less effective and the message is
likely to be misunderstood. Inattention may arise because of over business of the communicate
or because of the message being contrary to his expectations and beliefs. The simple failure to
read notices, minutes and reports is also a common feature.

Whatever be the reason, communication remains only a one-way process and there is no
understanding of the message, if the receiver pays little attention to the message. In the words
of Joseph Dooher. “Listening is the most neglected skill of communication.” “half listening is like
racing your engine with the gears in neutral. You use gasoline but you get nowhere.”

7. Premature Evaluation:

Some people have the tendency to form a judgment before listening to the entire message. This
is known as premature evaluation. As discussed in the previous point, “half-listening is like
racing your engine with the gears in neutral. You use gasoline but you get nowhere.” Premature
evaluation distorts understanding and acts as a barrier to effective communication.

8. Emotional Attitude:

Barriers may also arise due to emotional attitude because when emotions are strong, it is
difficult to know the frame of mind of other person or group. Emotional attitudes of both, the
communicator as well as the communicate, obstruct free flow of transmission and
understanding of messages.

9. Resistance to Change:

It is a general tendency of human beings to stick to old and customary patterns of life. They may
resist change to maintain status quo. Thus, when new ideas are being communicated to
introduce a change, it is likely to be overlooked or even opposed. This resistance to change
creates an important obstacle to effective communication.
10. Barriers Due to Lack of Mutual Trust:

Communication means sharing of ideas in common. “When we communicate, we are trying to

establish a commonness.” Thus, one will freely transfer information and understanding with
another only when there is mutual trust between the two. When there is a lack of mutual trust
between the communicator and the communicate, the message is not followed. Credibility gaps,
i.e., inconsistency in saying and doing, also causes lack of mutual trust which acts as a basic
obstacle to effective communication.

11. Other Barriers:

There may be many other barriers, such as un-clarified assumptions, lack of ability to
communicate, mirage of too much knowledge of closed minds, communication overload,
shortage of time, etc., which cause distortion or obstruction in the free flow of communication
and thus make it ineffective. Failure to retain or store information for future use becomes a
barrier to communication when the information is needed in future.

Styles of communication The Four Basic Styles of Communication

1. PASSIVE COMMUNICATION: is a style in which individuals have developed a pattern of

avoiding expressing theiropinions or feelings, protecting their rights, and identifying and
meeting their needs. As a result, passive individuals donot respond overtly to hurtful or anger-
inducing situations. Instead, they allow grievances and annoyances to mount,usually unaware of
the buildup. But once they have reached their high tolerance threshold for unacceptable
behavior,they are prone to explosive outbursts, which are usually out of proportion to the
triggering incident. After the outburst,however, they may feel shame, guilt, and confusion, so
they return to being passive.

Passive communicators will often:

 fail to assert for themselves
 allow others to deliberately or inadvertently infringe on their rights
 fail to express their feelings, needs, or opinions
 tend to speak softly or apologetically
 exhibit poor eye contact and slumped body posture

2. AGGRESSIVE COMMUNICATION: is a style in which individuals express their feelings and

opinions and advocate fortheir needs in a way that violates the rights of others. Thus, aggressive
communicators are verbally and/or physicallyabusive.

Aggressive communicators will often:

 try to dominate others
 use humiliation to control others
 criticize, blame, or attack others
 be very impulsive
 have low frustration tolerance
 speak in a loud, demanding, and overbearing voice
 act threateningly and rudely
 not listen well
 interrupt frequently
 use “you” statements
3. PASSIVE-AGGRESSIVE COMMUNICATION : is a style in which individuals appear passive on
the surface but are really acting out anger in a subtle, indirect, or behind-the-scenes way. People
who develop a pattern of passive-aggressive communication usually feel powerless, stuck, and
resentful – in other words, they feel incapable of dealing directly with the object of their
resentments. Instead, they express their anger by subtly undermining the object (real or
imagined) of their resentments.

Passive-Aggressive communicators will often:

 mutter to themselves rather than confront the person or issue
 have difficulty acknowledging their anger
 use facial expressions that don't match how they feel - i.e., smiling when angry
 use sarcasm
 deny there is a problem
 appear cooperative while purposely doing things to annoy and disrupt
 use subtle sabotage to get even

4. ASSERTIVE COMMUNICATION is a style in which individuals clearly state their opinions and
feelings, and firmly advocate for their rights and needs without violating the rights of others.
These individuals value themselves, their time, and their emotional, spiritual, and physical
needs and are strong advocates for themselves while being very respectful of the rights of
others.

Assertive communicators will:

 state needs and wants clearly, appropriately, and respectfully
 express feelings clearly, appropriately, and respectfully
 use “I” statements
 communicate respect for others ‘listen well without interrupting
 feel in control of self, have good eye contact
 speak in a calm and clear tone of voice
 have a relaxed body posture, feel connected to others
 not allow others to abuse or manipulate them
 stand up for their rights
The impact of a pattern of assertive communication is that these individuals:
 feel connected to others
 feel in control of their lives
 are able to mature because they address issues and problems as they arise
 create a respectful environment for others to grow and mature.

Interpersonal Communication Skills

Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information, feelings,

and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face communication.

Interpersonal communication is not just about what is actually said - the language used - but
how it is said and the non-verbal messages sent through tone of voice, facial expressions,
gestures and body language.

When two or more people are in the same place and are aware of each other's presence, then
communication is taking place, no matter how subtle or unintentional.

Without speech, an observer may be using cues of posture, facial expression, and dress to form
an impression of the other's role, emotional state, personality and/or intentions. Although no
communication may be intended, people receive messages through such forms of non-verbal
behaviour.

 Emotional intelligence
We all have different personalities, different wants and needs, and different ways of showing
our emotions. Navigating through this all takes tact and cleverness – especially if we hope to
succeed in life. This is where emotional intelligence becomes important.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize your emotions, understand what they're telling
you, and realize how your emotions affect people around you. It also involves your perception of
others: when you understand how they feel, this allows you to manage relationships more
effectively.

People with high emotional intelligence are usually successful in most things they do. Why?
Because they're the ones that others want on their team. When people with high emotional
intelligence send an email, it gets answered. When they need help, they get it. Because they
make others feel good, they go through life much more easily than people who are easily
angered or upset.

 Active listening
Active listening is listening beyond the words being spoken - understanding the message being
communicated. During conversations, a lot of the time the "listener" is thinking about how
they're going to respond rather than concentrating on what the speaker is saying.

By really listening you can provide a more thoughtful answer that takes the speaker's thoughts
and opinions into account. This will help people around you understand that you value and
appreciate them.

 Be Open to Receiving Feedback

Sometimes it is good to step back and be receptive to feedback.Communication is a two-way
process and should remain like that. You should be able to open up to feedback from the other
person and give honest feedback whenever you feel it is needed.

 Negotiation skills
Negotiation is important in a variety of situations, for example, you may need it to resolve a conflict
or create a contract. You must be able to come to mutual agreements that keep everyone satisfied
even if there is compromise. Being able to negotiate leads to respect and people will trust you as
they know you look out for everyone's best interests.

 Decision making and problem-solving skills

Most jobs have elements of problem-solving - this is where you think of solutions to deal with a
problem. This type of creative thinking can help maintain harmony within a team. The general
structure to problem-solving is:

 Identifying the problem

 Exploring all of the solutions
 Deciding on which solution to implement
 Implementing the solution
 Reviewing the outcome

  Assertiveness

Assertiveness is when you confidently express your needs and opinions in a fair, honest and calm
way whilst considering the needs and views of other people. People are more likely to like and
respect you if you're assertive in your communication rather than passive or aggressive.

Tips:

 Tell the other person how you feel.

 Listen to what the other person says and empathise.
 Speak at a normal conversational volume.
 Maintain eye contact.
 Avoid words that exaggerate, such as, "always" and never".
 Use facts rather than judgements.

 Positive attitude

People want to be around others that are friendly and have a positive outlook even when the
company may be in a difficult situation. You don't have to be incredibly sociable but you must
develop some type of positive rapport with your team so that the workplace is pleasant for
everybody.

 Teamwork
For a business to function effectively people must work well together in order to achieve a common
goal. Some people struggle with teamwork because they believe that they know how to do the job
better than anyone else and they do not trust others to do their roles. This can create conflict and
hurt the overall effectiveness of the team.

If this is something you find difficult assist your colleagues whenever you can and ask your
colleagues for their opinions and ideas - be enthusiastic when colleagues offer their own ideas.

 Empathy

To be empathetic means that you are able to identify and understand others' emotions i.e. imagining
yourself in someone else's position. Being empathetic shows your team that you care. For example, if
a manager reacts angrily after finding out that an employee has been arriving to work late because
their child is unwell, the team is likely to react negatively towards the manager.

It would be more favourable for the manager to be understanding and agree on a plan of action with
the employee, such as, the employee starting work earlier and finishing later. Employees and
colleagues will respect and trust you more if you empathise with them and express compassion.

Also, understanding how people feel will help you communicate your thoughts and ideas in a way
that makes sense to others and it helps you understand others when they communicate.

 Use the Right Communication Method

Communication may not necessarily always be verbal and you should understand that different
types of situations ask for different methods.
  Shake Hands Firmly!
The last but not the least important tip is how you shake hands when you introduce
yourself.Give a firm handshake but do not make it a tight one and also do not squeeze. A weak
handshake may indicate lower self-confidence.

Fundamentals of Technical Communication

1. WHAT IS TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION?

Technical communication is a broad field and includes any form of communication that exhibits
one or more of the following characteristics:

 Communicating about technical or specialized topics, such as computer applications,

medical procedures, or environmental regulations.
 Communicating by using technology, such as web pages, help files, or social media sites.
Providing instructions about how to do something, regardless of how technical the task is or
even if technology is used to create or distribute that communication.

The value that technical communicators deliver is twofold: They make information more
useable and accessible to those who need that information, and in doing so, they advance the
goals of the companies or organizations that employ them. The following examples illustrate the
value of the products technical communicators produce or the services they provide.

 Software instructions help users be more successful on their own, improving how easily
those products gain acceptance into the marketplace and reducing costs to support
them.

 Medical instructions help patients and care-providers manage a patient’s treatment,

improving the health of the patient while reducing costs and risks associated with
incorrect care.

 Functional specifications and proposals help one group of technical experts

communicate effectively with other technical experts, speeding up development cycles,
reducing rework caused by misunderstandings, and eliminating risks associated with
miscommunication.

 Training programs provide people with new or improved skills, making them more
employable and their organizations and products more efficient and safe.
 Well-designed websites make it easier for users to find information, increasing user
traffic to and satisfaction with those websites.

 Technical illustrations clarify steps or identify the parts of a product, letting users focus
on getting their task done quickly or more accurately.

 Usability studies uncover problems with how products present themselves to users,
helping those products become more user friendly.
The following is a partial list of the different jobs within technical communication:

Technical Writers & Editors

 Indexers
 Information Architects
 Instructional Designers
 Technical Illustrators
 Globalization & Localization Specialists
 Usability & Human Factors Professionals
 Visual Designers
 Web Designers & Developers
 Teachers & Researchers of Technical Communication
 Trainers and E-Learning Developers
 What all technical communicators have in common is a user-centered approach to
providing the right information, in the right way, at the right time to make someone’s
life easier and more productive.

Types of Communication

Communication is a very basic and fundamental process for human beings. However, when
a brand wants to communicate with their customers, then the communication takes another
form. Similarly, there is communication involved between teams as well. There are various
types of communication between people as well as between teams.

1) Verbal Communication

Verbal communication can also be called as Oral communication. In very simple terms, any
communication that happens orally between people is known as verbal communication. The
objective of such communications is to ensure that people understand whatever you want to
convey. Because of its very nature, verbal communications is more quick and precise then email
communication.

In the era of messaging via Whatsapp or using email, people still prefer personal meetings or
phone calls (or face to face skype calls) because they are effective and much more convenient in
conveying the message.

Nowadays, Verbal communication is an important aspect and is looked as a key strength in an

individual.

A manager or an executive needs to have good verbal communication skills. A manager has to
handle a team of people and he needs to be skilled to convince the team of people in acting like
he wants them to. Executives meet many customers who are each different in terms of their
understanding and talking skills. Thus, Executives need excellent verbal communication skills.

The higher up an organization you go, the better should be the verbal skills that you have. This
is because you need to ensure that your speech is precise and to the point and does not leave
any scope for any misunderstanding.

An M.D or a C.E.O may be giving a television interview which is being watched by 100’s of
stakeholders of the company. Their speech and verbal communication need to be precise so that
they don’t mess up or are not misunderstood. Even in tough times, the verbal communication
skills of these leaders play a major part in consoling the crowd.

Example of people who were great at the verbal type of communications

Mahatma Gandhi ,Nelson Mandela ,Martin Luther,- King ,John .F. Kennedy

2) Non-verbal

How do you make people feel when you enter the room? Is your body language strong and are
you standing straight and erect or are you slouched and tired? Are you clean shaven, looking
your immaculate best for a team meeting or are you shabby with shirts that are not ironed?
When you shake hands, do you do so strongly or do you just brush your hand against others?

The above were some examples of Non-verbal communications or interpersonal

communications. One of the HR requirements for new joiners in an organization is for them to
have good interpersonal skills. This basically means that the employees should brush up on
their non-verbal skills.

If you were in a sales meeting and you have not achieved your target, how will you react? Will
you be steady and calm or will you panic and stutter? These are important non-verbal skills and
your growth might depend on them.

A manager who panics and who is not good at non-verbal communication will generally not be a
favourite with his team members. This is because his team members do not look up to him. A
manager who stutters, who is not well dressed, who has the wrong body language or someone
who is not a strong personality will not gather a huge following behind him.

However, people with good personalities go a long way in motivating the employees below
them. If an employee is demotivated, just keeping a hand on their shoulder and saying a few
motivating words is enough for the employee. Taunting them or making faces when talking to
them, ignoring them completely or imitating them will demotivate the employee even further.
Thus, non-verbal skills play a major role in office culture.

As employees grow into managers and as managers grow into leaders they become better and
better in non-verbal type of communication, they know that their own calm behaviour at times
of panic is what will keep the team in check. Similarly, they don’t let their teams get complacent
when the going is good.

3) Written Communications

There are many many ways that written communications can be used. The number of ways is
ever increasing with the penetration of smartphones and the internet. One of the most common
forms of written communications used till date is Email. But slowly, written type of
communications is becoming more informal with Whatsapp and other online messaging apps
being used regularly.

All different forms of written communication can be formal or informal. If today, we visit a court
of law, you will find that even Whatsapp messages are considered to be legal in nature. In fact,
there have been so many cases of celebrities brought under the scanner because of wrong
written communications on their social media account.

Thus, the above example is further proof that written communication needs to be used safely
and effectively. In fact, written communication between friends can be informal but this type of
communication between working professionals should always be formal so that any misquoted
words are not misused with ill intent.

The advantage of written communication is that it acts as the final word once a decision has
been taken. When you quote your prices to the customer, when you rank a dealer on top, when
you promote an employee or when you launch a new product, you use written communication
to communicate the update to your team and your employees.
A problem with written communication is that it becomes too formal and might incite ego or
various political problems when written communication is used. Newspapers are perfect
examples of written words which create controversy.

There is a very apt quotation “Words are mightier than swords”. A wrong email delivered in the
wrong hands can cause the world to turn upside down. The many emails and documents
released by Edward Snowden which brought the US government under the scanner, are perfect
examples of how to use written documents safely and privately otherwise they can bring a
whole organization tumbling down (whether justified or not is a different discussion)

4) Formal &Informal

There are two types of communication when considering the formality of the communication.
One is the formal and official type of communication which can be emails, letterheads, memos,
reports and other such kinds of written material. These are considered as documentary
evidence and certain formality is associated with them. You cannot submit such formal
documents and later deny them.

Informal communication is one where there is nothing official about the communication that is
happening. It can be known as Grapevine communication. There is no specific channel of
informal communication because there is Social media, Whatsapp, SMS which are all vehicles of
informal communication which can be used by people.

Advantages of formal communication

 When you want to finalize policy and want to decide a course to adopt, then formal
communication is more effective
 Formal communication can help in establishing procedures and ensuring that the steps
are followed.
 Any promises or any official plans need to be formally documented so that they can be
referred to later.

Advantages of informal communication

 informal communication helps the “Open door policy” and makes people more confident
and forthcoming with their ideas and creativity.
 Informal communication does not incite fear into peoples mind
 Informal talks encourage people to share their problems.
 The problem with formal communication is that it is not personal and a distance is
maintained if you use only formal communications. Whereas on the other hand, informal
conversations can get out of hand and there can be negative grapevine generated.

5) Visual Communication

One of the industries which most prominently uses Visual communication is the medical
industry. New medicines which come into the market have to be shown to doctors and the
advantages have to be explained. At such times, the medical representatives carry informative
pamphlets which are shown to the doctors and dropped with the doctors.

These informative pamphlets have all the information about the medicine so that doctors can
feel confident in suggesting the medicine to their patients. Similarly, many different industries
are using visual communication to help interaction with their customers so that they can
communicate their ideas better. Explainer videos as a concept is rising and is becoming as one
of the best types of communication observed on websites.

There are many elements in visual communication that can be used by marketers or companies.

Colors (such as brand colors), Design, (logo and brand design) , Advertising, Animations,
Illustrations,Typography,Presentations,Video resume’s

In person to person communication too visual communication plays a role. Consider the
diagrams made by teachers on blackboards when explaining a concept to a class of students. Or
we can also take the example of graphs made in power points by managers when doing a power
point presentation to a team of executives or seniors.

Flow of Communication in an Organization

In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions-

1. Downward
2. Upward
3. Horizontal/Lateral
4. vertical
5. Diagonal
6. grapvine

Downward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows from a higher level in an

organization to a lower level is a downward communication. In other words, communication
from superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is a downward communication. This
communication flow is used by the managers to transmit work-related information to the
employees at lower levels. Employees require this information for performing their jobs and for
meeting the expectations of their managers. Downward communication is used by the managers
for the following purposes

 Providing feedback on employees performance

 Giving job instructions
 Providing a complete understanding of the employee’s job as well as to communicate
them how their job is related to other jobs in the organization.
 Communicating the organization’s mission and vision to the employees
 Highlighting the areas of attention

Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all
examples of downward communication. In order to have effective and error-free downward
communication, managers must:

Specify communication objective

Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and unambiguous.
Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to the receiver in right
form.

Upward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows to a higher level in an

organization is called upward communication. It provides feedback on how well the
organization is functioning. The subordinates use upward communication to convey their
problems and performances to their superiors.

The subordinates also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood the
downward communication. It can also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas
and to participate in the decision-making process.

Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal workforce in an organization

because the employees are given a chance to raise and speak dissatisfaction issues to the higher
levels. The managers get to know about the employees feelings towards their jobs, peers,
supervisor and organization in general. Managers can thus accordingly take actions for
improving things.

Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys etc all help
in improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are -
performance reports made by low level management for reviewing by higher level
management, employee attitude surveys, letters from employees, employee-manager
discussions etc.

Lateral / Horizontal Communication: Communication that takes place at same levels of

hierarchy in an organization is called lateral communication, i.e., communication between peers,
between managers at same levels or between any horizontally equivalent organizational
member. The advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:

 It is time saving.
 It facilitates co-ordination of the task.
 It facilitates co-operation among team members.
 It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.
 It helps in solving various organizational problems.
 It is a means of information sharing
 It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department
or conflicts within a department.

Diagonal Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and employees
of other workgroups is called diagonal communication. It generally does not appear on
organizational chart. For instance - To design a training module a training manager interacts
with Operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform their task.

5. Grapevine Communication (Informal Business Communication)

Grapevine is an informal channel of business communication. It is called so because it stretches

throughout the organization in all directions irrespective of the authority levels. Man as we
know is a social animal. Despite existence of formal channels in an organization, the informal
channels tend to develop when he interacts with other people in organization. It exists more at
lower levels of organization.

Grapevine generally develops due to various reasons. One of them is that when an organization
is facing recession, the employees sense uncertainty. Also, at times employees do not have self-
confidence due to which they form unions. Sometimes the managers show preferential
treatment and favour some employees giving a segregated feeling to other employees. Thus,
when employees sense a need to exchange their views, they go for grapevine network as they
cannot use the formal channel of communication in that case. Generally during breaks in
cafeteria,the subordinates talk about their superior’s attitude and behaviour and exchange
views with their peers. They discuss rumours about promotion and transfer of other employees.
Thus, grapevine spreads like fire and it is not easy to trace the cause of such communication at
times.

Advantages of Grapevine Communication

1. Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to know

some confidential information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details then to his
closest friend who in turn passes it to other. Thus, it spreads hastily.
2. The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies. Thus, the
feedback obtained is quick compared to formal channel of communication.
3. The grapevine creates a sense of unity among the employees who share and discuss
their views with each other. Thus, grapevine helps in developing group cohesiveness.
4. The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value.
5. The grapevine is a supplement in those cases where formal communication does not
work.

Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication

1. The grapevine carries partial information at times as it is more based on rumours. Thus,
it does not clearly depicts the complete state of affairs.
2. The grapevine is not trustworthy always as it does not follows official path of
communication and is spread more by gossips and unconfirmed report.
3. The productivity of employees may be hampered as they spend more time talking rather
than working.
4. The grapevine leads to making hostility against the executives.
5. The grapevine may hamper the goodwill of the organization as it may carry false
negative information about the high level people of the organization.

A smart manager should take care of all the disadvantages of the grapevine and try to minimize
them. At the same time, he should make best possible use of advantages of grapevine
 Introduction to Phonetics

The Speech Sounds of English

English, like any other language, has a number of speech sounds which function as basic
building blocks of the spoken language. In (Standard British) English there are 44 such speech
sounds, divided into different categories, the most basic categories being VOWELS and
CONSONANTS.

Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that examines sounds in a language. Phonetics describes
these sounds using the symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

The IPA uses a single symbol to describe each sound in a language. If a letter in a word is
silent, there will be no IPA symbol used in the transcription.

The IPA can be helpful for studying a language, especially languages that use letters that are
silent or have multiple pronunciations. Languages like Arabic and Spanish are consistant in
their spelling and pronunciation – each letter represents a single sound which rarely varies.
English is different. It has many letters with two or more sounds and many letters that are
silent.

vowels
IPA examples listen
ʌ CUP, LUCK AM
ɑ: ARM, FATHER AM BR
æ CAT, BLACK AM
e MET, BED AM 1
ə AWAY, CINEMA AM 2
ɜ:ʳ TURN, LEARN AM BR 2
ɪ HIT, SITTING AM
i: SEE, HEAT AM
ɒ HOT, ROCK AM BR 3
ɔ: CALL, FOUR AM BR 4 5
ʊ PUT, COULD AM
u: BLUE, FOOD AM
aɪ FIVE, EYE AM
aʊ NOW, OUT AM
eɪ SAY, EIGHT AM
oʊ GO, HOME AM 6
ɔɪ BOY, JOIN AM
eəʳ WHERE, AIR AM BR 1 7
ɪəʳ NEAR, HERE AM BR 7
ʊəʳ PURE, TOURIST AM BR 7
Consonants

IPA examples

b BAD, LAB
d DID, LADY
f FIND, IF
g GIVE, FLAG
h HOW, HELLO
j YES, YELLOW
k CAT, BACK
l LEG, LITTLE
m MAN, LEMON
n NO, TEN
ŋ SING, FINGER
p PET, MAP
r RED, TRY
s SUN, MISS
ʃ SHE, CRASH
t TEA, GETTING
tʃ CHECK, CHURCH
θ THINK, BOTH
ð THIS, MOTHER
v VOICE, FIVE
w WET, WINDOW
z ZOO, LAZY
ʒ PLEASURE, VISION
dʒ JUST, LARGE

Syllable

 A syllable is one unit of sound in English. Syllables join consonants and vowels to form
words.
 Syllables can have more than one letter; however, a syllable cannot have more than one
sound.
 Syllables can have more than one consonant and more than one vowel, as well. However,
the consonant(s) and vowel(s) that create the syllable cannot make more than one
sound.
 A syllable is only one sound.
 A syllable starts with a vowel sound. That vowel most often joins with a consonant, or
consonants, to create a syllable. Syllables will sometimes consist of more than one vowel
but never more than one vowel sound.
 Syllables create meaning in language. When vowels and consonants join to create sound,
words are formed.
 A single syllable makes a single sound. Some words have one unit of sound, which
means they have one syllable. More than one sound means the word has more than one
syllable.
Words with one syllable (monosyllabic)

Act, Base Bid Blame Bomb Break Bus Cat Cord Count Door Drop One Dumb Faith Fear Few
Glove Head Heat Knees Love Month Moon Mourn Plot Pole Rage Raid Path Pause Red Scene
School Snake Soul Steep Step Tongue Sun Week Yard.

Words with more than one syllable

Absolutely ,Acceptability ,Acceptable ,Associated ,Authority ,Belittling ,Bewilderment, Capacity

Celebration, Circulation ,Comprehensive, Consultations ,Continuously ,Contributed ,Conversation
Definition, Deliberations ,Democratic ,Designated ,Electricity ,Establishment ,Fascinations
Generations ,Immediate ,Institutions, Irrevocably, Legislated

Silent letters are the letters in words that are not pronounced but make a huge difference to
the meaning and sometimes the pronunciation of the whole word.

 silent ‘b' at the end of the word – climb, comb, thumb, lamb, crumb
 silent ‘b' not at the end of the word – doubt, debt
 silent ‘l' – calm, balm, palm, half, calf, almond, salmon
 silent ‘h' – honest, honour, honourable, heir, hour, (american pronunciation only) herb
 silent 'k' before 'n' knee know knuckle knock
 silent 'w' before 'r' write wrist wrong wrap
 silent 'g' before 'n' gnash gnat gnaw gnarl
 silent 'p' before 's' psalm psychic psychology psychiatry
 Some words have silent letters in the middle or at the end.
 'l' is often before 'k' folk
 ‘b’ is often silent after ‘m’ plumber
 ‘n’ is often silent after ‘m’ column
 ‘t’ is often silent after ‘s’ listen

Homophones
Two or more words having the same pronunciation but different meanings, origins, or spelling
are called homophones.
all (The students, the entire class, all miraculously passed their tests) and awl (An awl is a sharp
pointed tool used for piercing holes.)
aid (I will give you all the aid I can to help you with your problem.) and aide (My aide is a great
assistant in helping me get things done on time.)
arc (The circumference of a circle is a continuous arc.) and ark (An ark was the type of boat Noah
built to save his family and animals from the biblical flood.)
allowed (I am not always allowed to do what I would like to do.) and aloud(Sometimes I get
frustrated, but I try to keep silent and seldom complain aloud.)
ascent (The ascent on the upward slope is much more difficult than coming down.) and assent (I like
the terms of the agreement and will not hesitate to give my assent.)
bail (It is easier to use a pump than to bail a leaky boat one cup at a time.) and bale (It’s a lot more
efficient to bale hay than to pitch it into a hayloft.)
bate (A few setbacks did little to bate his enthusiasm.) and bait (Bait is used to lure animals into
traps.)
banned (Smoking is banned in all public buildings across Canada.) and band (The
dance band continued playing until the party ended well after midnight.)
berth (A berth is a bed on a boat.) and birth (A new life begins with the birth of their first child.)
bear (The black bear is the most common species of the family Ursidae in North
America.) and bare (My cupboard is bare so I have to go to the grocery store soon.)
been (Please tell me what you have been doing since I saw you last month.) andbean (A bean is any
of various edible seeds of plants of the family Leguminosae that are used for food.)
berry (We went berry picking as soon as the strawberries were ripe last summer.)and bury (She
tried to bury a lot of unpleasant memories by thinking of some nice things she had experienced.)
brake (I had to brake suddenly when a chicken crossed the road in front of my car.) and break (It
isn’t possible to fry an egg without breaking it first, but don’t break the shell if you want to boil the
egg.)
bridal (She threw the bridal bouquet to the crowd of hopeful young
women.) andbridle (A bridle path is suitable for riding or leading horses, but not for driving cars
along it.)
blew (The wind blew the leaves all over the lawn.) and blue (A white contrail formed in the
clear blue sky behind the airplane’s jet engine.)
bow (To bow the head and the upper part of the body and bend the knee is a gesture of respect
when greeting royalty.) and bough (A bough is a large branch of a tree.)
bread (Bread is something to eat with butter and perhaps a little jam.) and bred (Panda bears are
seldom successfully bred in captivity.)
be (I’ll hurry, but I may be an hour or two late.) and bee (The best known honey producer and crop
pollinator is the Western honey bee.)
brood (A brood hen is a female chicken who sits on her eggs until they hatch) and brewed (People
have brewed tea for thousands of years.)
but (I went to bed early but did not fall asleep until dawn.) and butt (His sister gave him a good kick
in the butt for having teased her.)
To, two, too
To – used in the infinitive form of a verb, such as “to walk”, and also to mean “towards”.
Too – this means “as well” or “also”; for example, “me too”.
Two – this is the number; for example, “two days ago”.
There, their, they’re
There – this refers to a place that is not here; for instance, “over there”. It can also be used to state
something, such as “There is an argument to suggest…”, or (in a slightly old-fashioned way) to
comfort someone: “There there, it will be alright.”
Their – this indicates possession: something belonging to them. For example, “we could use their
boat”.
They’re – this is a shortening of “they are”. For example, “They’re going to be here at 12pm”.
Your/you’re
Your – this is the second person possessive form, indicating something belonging to you. For
example, “This is your decision.”
You’re – short for “you are”, as in “You’re amazing.”
Bonus: Yore – you’re not very likely to come across this one, but it’s an old-fashioned way of
referring to a time long ago. For example, “In the days of yore” means a similar thing to “In olden
times”.
By/buy/bye.
By – this preposition refers to something beside, near or through. For example, “There’s an ice
cream van over there by that tree.”
Buy – this is a verb meaning to purchase something. For instance, “let’s go and buy a car.”
Bye – short for “goodbye”,
Stationary/stationery
Stationary – this word is used to describe something that is motionless (not moving). For example,
“the cars were stationary in the traffic jam.”
Stationery – pens, pencils and other things you write with or on, for use in the office or when
studying.
Compliment/complement
Compliment – this is a nice thing you say to someone to flatter them, for example, “You look nice
today. But just to add to the confusion, “complimentary” can also mean “free of charge”. For
example, “the airline provided complimentary drinks for those delayed”.
Complement – this is something that goes well with something else. For example, “the dress
complemented the colour of her hair
Brake/break
Brake – this spelling refers to the brakes on a car or other vehicle, and in a wider sense to slowing
down. For example, “He applied the brakes to slow the car down.”
Break – confusingly, this spelling this has several meanings.
As a verb, “to break” means to separate something into parts. For example, “I’m going to break this
chocolate bar into three so we can share.”
○ As a noun, it can be used to signify a pause or stop, such as “a break in the schedule”, or you can
“take a break”, meaning have some time off.
○ You can also use the word to describe the consequences of the verb – when you “break”
something, it is “broken” and the site of the separation can be referred to as “the break”. For
instance, “He broke his leg, but the break is mending.”
Coarse/course
If you’ve been browsing our website, you’ll probably know at least one of these meanings! Here are
all the possible definitions.
Course – this has many meanings.
○ A course is what we offer here at Oxford Royale Summer Schools – a programme of educational
study.
○ “Of course” means “naturally”. For example, “Would you like a chocolate?” – “Of course!”
○ It can also mean “direction”; for instance, an “unexpected course of events” describes events
unfolding in an unanticipated direction. You could also say, “I don’t know what course of action to
take”, or “The plane took a northerly course.”
○ In sport, it describes an area of land or water set aside for the purpose of a particular activity, such
as a “golf course”, “water skiing course” or “cross country course”.
○ Another context in which you might hear this word is to describe parts of a meal. For instance, the
“main course” is the most substantial part of the meal.
○ Less often heard is the use of this word to describe hunting with dogs, such as “hare coursing”.
○ As a verb, “to course” refers to the movement of liquid, such as “water coursing through a
channel”.
Coarse – this word is used to describe things that are rough or crude. This could be rough in texture
– as in “sandpaper is very coarse” – or to describe language, such as “His humour was very coarse.”

Here/hear
Here – this refers to something being in one’s current location – for example, “There is a strange
smell here”.
Hear – this means to detect a sound. If it helps you remember it, consider the fact that the word
“hear” contains the word “ear”! You can also say “Hear, hear” to indicate that you agree with
someone.
Peace/piece
Peace – this is the absence of war, as referred to by Lennon in 1969.
Piece – spelled this way, the word means a unit or portion of something, such as “a piece of cake”.
Whole/hole
Whole – this means “complete” or “entire” – used as in “the whole story”.
Hole – a “hole” indicates a lack of something,
Stare/stair
Stare – the verb “to stare” refers to the act of gazing intently at something. As a noun, it refers to the
look itself – for example “a long, cold stare”.
Stair – this refers to a single step, or one of a number of steps, used to connect two different levels,
Know/no
Know – “to know” means “to be aware of something”; for example, “I know he is afraid.”
No – the opposite of “yes”, used to indicate the negative. Bizarrely, “no.” – with a full stop after it –
is also used to abbreviate the word “number”. For example, “No. of pages: 150.”

Seven meanings sounding like “raise”

To finish, this is the seven-variant multinym we mentioned earlier. Don’t worry – you’re not likely to
come across many of these, but we thought you might like to see it to give you an idea of just how
complex the English language can be!
Raise – to lift something up
Rays – sunbeams
Rase – to erase something
Raze – to knock something down
Rehs – sodium salt mixtures
Réis – plural of real (the currency of Portugal and Brazil)
Res – plural of re, as in the musical scale (doh re mi, for fans of The Sound of Music)

Homonyms

Homonym is a word that is spelt the same or sounds the same as another word but is different
in meaning.

 Left- to leave
 Left- related to the side of the human body
 E.g.- I left my phone on the left side of the room.
 Pitcher- the player in baseball who throws the baseball from pitcher's mound
 Pitcher- a large jug
 E.g.- The baseball pitcher asked for a pitcher of water.
 Crane- a bird
 Crane- a machine used at construction sites
 E.g.- The crane flew above the construction crane.
 Play- the game
 Play- to play (verb)
 E.g.- While they are at the play, I’m going to play with the dog.
 Park- action of moving vehicle to a place - usually a car park
 Park- a public area close to nature
 E.g.- She will park the car so we can walk in the park.
 address (to speak to) – The Prime Minister is going to address the nation.
 address (location) – This is my address.
 spring (a season) – The flowers are beautiful in spring.
 spring (coiled metal) – The spring inside the clock fell off.
 kind (type) – Sarah does not like these kind of toys.
 kind (caring) - Try and be kind to everyone.
 lie (to recline) – Do not lie down now as it is time to leave.
  lie (to tell a falsehood) – I can easily see through a lie.
 Pitcher- the player in baseball who throws the baseball from pitcher's mound
 Pitcher- a jug
 E.g.- The baseball pitcher asked for a pitcher of water.
 Band- a small group of musicians and vocalists
 Banned- something that is disallowed or illegal
 E.g.- The band is very popular but is banned in that country.

Pair of words and their correct relation

 Patient : Hospital, Teacher : School

 Truck : Cargo, Bus : Passengers
 Entomology : Insects , Oncology : Cancer
 Duck : Drake , Bull : Cow
 Candle : Light ,Fire : Spark
 Head : Cap, Bulb : Light
 Shelf : Books, Pen : Paper
 rhythm : poetry football : sport
 Paper: Ream :: Cloth : Swatch
 Chalk: Blackboard :: Ink : Paper
 Command: Order :: Confusion; Chaos
 Bacteria: illness :: bomb : explosion

LEARN ANTONYMS, SYNONYMS, PREFIX, SUFFIX WHICH HAS BEEN GIVEN IN THE CLASS
WITH PARTS OF SPPECH AND ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR