Composite Structures xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Moisture absorption and mechanical degradation of hybrid Pennisetum

purpureum/glass–epoxy composites
M.J.M. Ridzuan a, M.S. Abdul Majid a,⇑, M. Afendi a, K. Azduwin b, N.A.M. Amin a, J.M. Zahri c, A.G. Gibson d
a
School of Mechatronic Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Pauh Putra Campus, 02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Unicity Alam Campus, 02100 Padang Besar, Perlis, Malaysia
c
Mechanical Engineering Department, Sultan Abdul Halim Mu’adzam Shah Polytechnic (POLIMAS), Bandar Darul Aman, 06000 Jitra Kedah, Malaysia
d
Newcastle University, Stephenson Building, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effect of moisture absorption on the mechanical degradation of hybrid Pennisetum purpureum/glass–
Available online xxxx epoxy composites was investigated. The hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites plates were
manufactured by the vacuum infusion method using epoxy resin as a matrix. Following 50 h of water
Keywords: immersion, the hybrid composite specimens were tested. The moisture content reduced as the glass fibre
Pennisetum purpureum fibre content increased. The wet and dry hybrid composite specimens were subjected to tensile and flexural
Hybrid composite tests. The incorporation of the glass fibre into the P. purpureum–epoxy composites enhanced their tensile
Moisture absorption
and flexural strength, as well as their modulus. The tensile and flexural strengths of the hybrid
Mechanical property
Field emission scanning electron
P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites (24/6–70 vol%) were 43 and 60 MPa, respectively. However, the
microscopy tensile and flexural properties significantly degraded under wet conditions. Using field emission scanning
electron microscopy (FESEM), morphological analysis was performed to observe the fracture behaviour of
the specimens and the effect of water molecules.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction materials are expensive and consist of non-renewable resources

Increased awareness of environmental and sustainability issues
has generated increased interest in the use of natural fibre rein-
forced composites. Natural fibre-reinforced composites exhibit
many advantages compared with conventional synthetic compos-
ites. Their primary advantages include their low density, light
weight with high specific properties, low cost, and recycling
options [1–3]. However, natural fibre composites are hydrophobic
and their mechanical strength is much lower than that of synthetic
fibre composites [4,5]. In addition, natural fibre composites exhibit
poor resistance to moisture absorption and possess lower impact
strength [3,6]. Moisture absorption leads to the degradation of
the fibre–matrix interface region, resulting in poor stress transfer
between the fibre and matrix [7]. Synthetic fibres, such as glass,
nylon, rayon, aramid, and carbon fibres, exhibit good mechanical
performance and high moisture resistance. However, these
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ridzuanjamir@unimap.edu.my (M.J.M. Ridzuan), shukry@
unimap.edu.my (M.S. Abdul Majid), afendirojan@unimap.edu.my (M. Afendi),
azduwin@unimap.edu.my (K. Azduwin), nasrulamri.mohdamin@unimap.edu.my
(N.A.M. Amin), zahri@polimas.edu.my (J.M. Zahri), geoff.gibson@newcastle.ac.uk
(A.G. Gibson).
[8]. A combination of both natural and synthetic fibres within
the same matrix could balance the benefits and limitations associ-
ated with each reinforcement material. Consequently, a balance
between performance and cost could be achieved through proper
material design [9].
The incorporation of two or more types of fibre into a single
matrix has led to the development of hybrid composites. The per-
formance of these hybrid composites are determined by many fac-
tors, such as the matrix, length and shape of individual fibres,
fibre–matrix interface bonding, and volume fraction of the natu-
ral/synthetic fibres [10–12]. Previous studies have studied the
effect of varying the amount of fibre loading on the mechanical
properties of hybrid composites consisting of natural fibres and
glass fibre. These include bamboo/glass [13], sisal/glass [11],
kenaf/glass [14], okra/glass [15] and jute/glass [16] hybrid
composites. Mishra et al. reported that the water uptake of hybrid
composites is lower than that of un-hybridized composites [11].
Moreover, Ahmed and Vijayaragan revealed that the properties of
jute composites can be considerably improved by the incorpora-
tion of glass fibres in the form of extreme glass plies [3]. These
studies concluded that superior properties were exhibited by the
hybrid-reinforced composites, which consisted of natural fibres
and synthetic fibres.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2016.01.030
0263-8223/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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2 M.J.M. Ridzuan et al. / Composite Structures xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Behaviours such as the moisture absorption and mechanical
degradation of polymers and polymeric composites have been
comprehensively investigated [17–21]. The mechanical properties
and moisture absorption of these materials are greatly influenced
by the length of the fibres and the hybridization ratios used for
the reinforcement [15]. Phan Braga and Magalhaes reported that
jute/glass composites that contained a greater proportion of jute
fibre absorbed more water than those that contained a greater pro-
portion of glass [16]. Khalid et al. analysed the effect of hybridisa-
tion on the mechanical and physical properties of oil palm empty
fruit bunch (EFB)/glass–polyester hybrid composites [22]. The
study showed that the hybrid composites exhibited superior prop-
erties to the EFB–polyester composites. Recently, it has been estab-
lished that Pennisetum purpureum grass fibres can potentially be
used as a reinforcement material within polymer composites
[23–27].
In this study, the moisture absorption and mechanical degrada-
tion of hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites were exam-
ined. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time a study
has been conducted on hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy compos-
ites and this study should provide new information to the research
community.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The P. purpureum grass fibre plants used in this study were har-
vested from a local plantation located at Bukit Kayu Hitam, Kedah,
in Northern Peninsular Malaysia. For the fabrication of the hybrid
composite, woven E-glass fibres were supplied by a local supplier,
in the form of mats with dimensions of 300
300
15 mm per
layer. To form the matrix material, EpoxAmite 100 series resin
was mixed with a hardener to a ratio of 3:1. Table 1 shows the
properties of the fibres and epoxy.
2.2. Extraction of fibres
P. purpureum fibres of different lengths were obtained using a
laboratory-scale extraction process. The fibres were manually
extracted from the stem internodes using a water-retting process.
To separate the fibre strands, the stems were initially cleaned and
crushed into small pieces using a mallet. Subsequently, the short
plant stems were immersed under running tap water for
3–4 weeks to facilitate the separation process. The fibres were
cleaned with distilled water and sun-dried remove the moisture
content [29]. Furthermore, the fibres were also dried in an oven
at 50 °C for 6 h [30]. Finally, a unidirectional P. purpureum fibre
mat was prepared with a size of 300
300 mm, which weighed
10 g per layer. This was stored in a plastic bag to avoid atmospheric
moisture absorption prior to the processing of the composite.
2.3. Composite preparation
Laminates, consisting of the hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy
composite, were manufactured by a vacuum infusion process, as
Table 1
Properties of fibres and epoxy resin.
Properties Material
P. purpureum fibre Glass fibre
Density (g/cm3) 0.36 2.5
Strength (MPa) 73 2000
Modulus (GPa) 6 70
Elongation at break (%) 1.4 2.5
Refs. [23] [14]
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shown in Fig. 1. The reinforcement plies were laminated over a
glass mould. The resin was infused into the lamination plies, as
shown in Fig. 2. During the infusion stages, the measured
in-mould pressure was lower than 2000 Pa. Subsequently, the
specimens were left to cure within the mould for 12 h at 25 °C.
Subsequently, post curing was conducted at 80 °C in an oven for
2 h, under air circulation [10]. A high vacuum pump (AST 22 model
AIRSPEC) was used.
The volume fractions of the P. purpureum (vf), glass fibre (vg),
and matrix (v) of the manufactured composites were respectively
estimated using Eq. (1), where V and q represent the volume and
density, respectively, while the subscripted p, g, m, and c denote
the P. purpureum, glass, matrix, and composite, respectively.
qc ¼ qp v p þ qg v g þ qm v m ð1Þ
where v p ¼ V þVV þV , v g ¼ V
p
p
g m
Vg
p þV g þV m
, and v m ¼ V þVV þV
p
m
g m
The volume of each component was determined by V = mass/q.
Five different types of composite samples were based on the
P. purpureum and glass fibres. Their contents are listed in Table 2.
Finally, rectangular 300
300
(3.2 ± 0.4) mm3 plates were
obtained. For the purposes of mechanical characterization, speci-
mens were cut using a Dremel 4000 tool, in accordance with the
related standards.
2.4. Moisture absorption
Specimens with dimensions of 76.2
25.4
(3.2 ± 0.4) mm
were immersed in distilled water at room temperature for up to
50 h, according to the standards provided by ASTM D570-98 (Reap-
proved 2010) [31]. Using an analytical balance, the mass change of
the samples was recorded at intervals of 10 h. The water uptake of
the samples was periodically measured, up to an immersion period
of 50 h. The moisture uptake, expressed as the percentage weight
gain, DMðtÞ, is given as:
Mt  M0
DM ð t Þ ¼
100 ð2Þ
M0
where M0 and Mt denote the mass of the dry sample and the mass
following any specific time, t, respectively. The dog-bone and rect-
angular shaped composite specimens were immersed in distilled
water for up to 50 h (wet samples) prior to tensile and flexural test-
ing, respectively. Subsequently, tensile and flexural tests were per-
formed to determine the residual strength and modulus following
aging. Five specimens were tested for each type of composite and
the average result was recorded.
2.5. Tensile testing
Dog-bone shaped composite specimens with dimensions of
165
19
(3.2 ± 0.4) mm3 were produced from the composite
plates and tested according to ASTM D638-10 [32]. At a cross-
head speed of 1 mm/min, the specimens were tested to failure
under tension using a universal testing machine (Instron) with a
Epoxy
1.1
55
1.75
6
[28]
Fig. 1. Schematic of the vacuum infusion system.
 M.J.M. Ridzuan et al. / Composite Structures xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 3

(a) Mould system (b) Resin infusion

(c) Composite plate

Fig. 2. Vacuum-infusion process used to produce the P. purpureum/glass–reinforced hybrid composites.

2.7. Surface morphology of composites by field emission scanning

Table 2 electron microscopy (FESEM)
Percentage (by volume) of the constituents within the hybrid composite samples.
The fracture surface morphologies of the hybrid P. pur-
Composite Epoxy resin(% P. purpureum fibre Glass fibre content
sample volume) content (% volume) (% volume) pureum/glass–epoxy composites were examined using a field emis-
sion scanning electron microscope ((FESEM (NOVA NANOSEM
S1 70 30 0
S2 70 24 6
450)). The fractured portions of the samples were cut, and plat-
S3 70 18 12 inum was uniformly coated over the surfaces prior to scanning.
S4 70 12 18 The scanning images were obtained with accelerating voltages of
S5 70 6 24 3–5 kV, under magnifications of 110
and 2000
.

3. Results and discussion

load cell of 100 kN. For strain measurement, an extensometer was
attached to the gauge length, which measured 50 mm. During test-
ing, the unidirectional P. purpureum fibres of the samples were par-
allel to the loading direction. For each type of composite, five
specimens were tested and the average result was recorded. The
tensile strength and tensile modulus were recorded.
2.6. Flexural testing
Three-point bend tests were performed on the composite spec-
imens, with dimensions of 125
13
(3.2 ± 0.4) mm3, according
to ASTM D790-10 [33]. Specimens were loaded with a recom-
mended span to depth ratio of 16:1. The tests were conducted
using a universal micro tester (INSTRON 5848), with a load cell
of 2 kN, at a cross-head speed of 2.5 mm/min [34,35]. The flexural
strength and modulus, as well as the strain to failure, were deter-
mined. In a three-point bending test, the flexural stress is given by
rmax = (3PmaxL)/(bd2), where Pmax is the maximum load at failure
(N), L is the span (mm), and b and d denote the width and thickness
of the specimen (mm), respectively. The flexural modulus is given
by E = (mL3)/(4bd3), where m is the initial slope of the load deflec-
tion curve. Five specimens were tested for each type of composite
and the average results were recorded.
3.1. Moisture absorption studies
The moisture absorption percentage of the composites was
determined by calculating the difference between the weight of
the wet sample following immersion in water and that of the dry
sample, using Eq. (2). The percentage moisture absorption as a
function of the immersion period is shown in Table 3. Each data
point represents the average result obtained from five specimens.
It is clear that the moisture absorption increases as the immersion
period is extended. This finding correlates well with previous
reports concerning other types of natural composites [36,37]. The
moisture absorption rate reduced as the glass fibre volume content
increased. The results indicate that sample S1, which was
immersed in water for 50 h, exhibits the greatest moisture content
of 7%. Following an immersion period of 50 h, the moisture content
of the S2 sample was half that of the P. purpureum–epoxy compos-
ite sample (S1).
The moisture content further reduced as the glass fibre content
of the samples increased; the S3 and S4 samples had moisture con-
tents of 3.78 and 3.06%, respectively. Finally, the moisture content
of sample S5, which was immersed in water for 50 h, was 1.51%;
representing a reduction of over 78%. A similar observation was

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4 M.J.M. Ridzuan et al. / Composite Structures xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Table 3
Moisture absorption properties of P. purpureum/glass fibre-reinforced hybrid composites.

Composite sample Moisture absorption (%)/immersion time

10 h 20 h 30 h 40 h 50 h
S1 3.43 4.33 5.31 6.00 7.00
S2 2.21 2.63 2.76 3.16 3.78
S3 1.63 1.89 2.15 2.44 3.06
S4 1.22 1.57 1.65 1.85 2.23
S5 0.76 1.01 1.05 1.19 1.51

also reported by Salleh [38]. This is because the P. purpureum fibre
is hydrophilic in nature, which facilitates the formation of micro
voids within the resin matrix [39]. In the case of the hybrid com-
posite, the fibres are arranged in a closed packed manner, where
the water-impermeable glass fibres act as barriers and prevent
contact between the water and P. purpureum fibre [15]. Conse-
quently, there is a large difference between the moisture absorp-
tion of the P. purpureum–epoxy composites and that of the
hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites. Considering these
results, a fibre/matrix interface of a composite consisting of only
natural fibres would be completely damaged because of moisture
absorption effects [40]. Meanwhile, the natural/synthetic hybrid
composites are only partially damaged, since the synthetic fibre
is resistant to water uptake [41]. Moreover, the amount of mois-
ture absorbed by the epoxy resin is almost negligible because of
its hydrophobic nature [7].
3.2. Effect of glass fibre loading and moisture absorption on the tensile
behaviour of hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites
The tensile strength results of the dry and water-immersed
hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites are shown in Fig. 3.
The figure clearly indicates that the tensile strength of the P. pur-
pureum–epoxy composite is significantly improved with the incor-
poration of the glass fibre. The tensile strengths of the S1, S2, S3, S4
and S5 samples were 21, 43, 73, 109 and 131 MPa, respectively.
This shows that hybridization with glass fibre content of 6 vol%
increased the tensile strength of the composites by 105%.
Following 50 h of immersion, the extensive matrix/interface
cracking associated with the moisture absorption of the compos-
ites was found to have a direct influence on the tensile strength
of the hybrid P. purpureum /glass–epoxy composites under axial
loading. The tensile strength of the P. purpureum-epoxy composites
(S1) decreased from 21 MPa under dry conditions to 11 MPa under
wet conditions; representing a decrease of over 50%. Furthermore,
under wet conditions, the tensile strength of the hybrid P. pur-
pureum/glass–epoxy composites decreased by 24, 30, 31, and 8%
for the S2, S3, S4, and S5 samples, respectively. Under wet condi-
tions, the absorbed water molecules within the composites impair
the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between the cellulose mole-
cules in the fibre and the water molecules [7]. Thus, the interfacial
adhesion between the fibre and the matrix was weakened, result-
ing in the reduced strength.
The effect of the glass fibre loading on the tensile modulus of
the hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites is shown in
Fig. 4. Under dry and wet conditions, the experimental values show
that the reinforcing glass fibres resulted in higher stiffness of the
hybrid composites. Under dry conditions, the tensile modulus of
the P. purpureum–reinforced composite (S1) increased from 1.7 to
3.2 GPa with a glass fibre content of 6 vol% (S2); representing an
increase of 88%. Furthermore, the tensile modulus of the hybrid
P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites also increased by 5.3, 7.6,
and 9.1 GPa for the S3, S4 and S5 samples, respectively.
Following 50 h of immersion, the tensile modulus of the P.
purpureum-epoxy composites (S1) decreased by over 45%, from
1.7 to 1.0 GPa. Under wet conditions, the tensile modulus of the
hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy hybrid composites decreased by
19, 23, 8, and 8% for the S2, S3, S4, and S5 samples, respectively.
This shows that the degradation due to moisture absorption is
reduced as the synthetic fibre content of the composite is
increased, which indicates that hybridization plays an important
role in reducing the mechanical degradation of the hybrid fibre
composites.
In the molecular construction of polymers, the behaviour of the
polymer chains, as well as the hydrogen and van der Waals bond-
ing, significantly influence the ability of the material to bear exter-
nal stress [42]. As water molecules penetrate the composites,
hydrolysis and plasticization of the matrix will occur and impair
the polymer chains and their bonding [43]. Subsequently, the
interfacial bonding becomes weaker and the adhesion between

140
S5
Dry S5
Wet S4 9
120 Dry
Wet S4
8
Tensile Strength (MPa)

100
Tensile Modulus (GPa)

7
S3 S3
80 6

5
60
S2 4 S2

40 3
S1 S1
2
20
1

0 0
30/0 24/6 18/12 12/18 24/6 30/0 24/6 18/12 12/18 6/24
Pennisetum purpureum/glass volume content (%) Pennisetum purpureum/glass volume content (%)

Fig. 3. Tensile strength of dry and wet samples. Fig. 4. Tensile modulus of dry and wet samples.

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the polymer chains is impaired, which can potentially reduce the

tensile modulus [44].

3.3. Effect of glass fibre loading and moisture absorption on the

flexural behaviour of hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites

The effect of glass fibre loading on the flexural strength of the

hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites under dry and wet
conditions is shown in Fig. 5. Under dry conditions, the flexural
strength of the P. purpureum–epoxy composite (S1) was deter-
mined to be 47 MPa. The flexural strength of the hybrid P. pur-
pureum/glass–epoxy composite (S2) was 60 MPa; representing an
increase of 28%. As the glass fibre content increased, the flexural
strength of the P. purpureum/glass-reinforced hybrid composites
steadily increased to 73, 100, and 125 MPa for the S3, S4, and S5
samples, respectively.
However, under wet conditions, the flexural strength of the
hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composite was observed to be
lower than that under dry conditions, for all samples. Under wet (a) Tensile fracture specimen
conditions, the flexural strength of the P. purpureum–epoxy com-
posite (S1) was 25 MPa; representing a reduction of over 47%. Fur-
thermore, under wet conditions, the flexural strength of the hybrid
P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites decreased by 29, 25, 18, and
10% for the S2, S3, S4, and S5 samples, respectively. From this
result, it can be concluded that the flexural strength of the hybrid
composites decreased because of the moisture absorption. How-
ever, the level of degradation reduces as the glass fibre content is
increased, because the glass fibre is more resistant to moisture
absorption than the P. purpureum fibres.

140
S5
Dry
120 Wet
S4
Flexural Strength (MPa)

100

S3
80
S2
(b) Flexural fracture specimen
60
S1
Fig. 7. Field emission scanning electron microscope images of the tensile and
40 flexural fracture specimens under dry conditions.

20
30/0 24/6 18/12 12/18 6/24 Fig. 6 shows the effect of the fibre content on the flexural
Pennisetum purpureum/glass volume content (%) modulus of the P. purpureum/glass-reinforced hybrid composites,
under dry and wet conditions. The flexural modulus of the
Fig. 5. Flexural strength of dry and wet samples.
composites under dry conditions was greater than that under
wet conditions. The figure shows that the flexural modulus of the
14 P. purpureum-epoxy composite (S1) increased from 2.8 to 6.8 GPa
S4 with an addition of glass fibre at 6 vol% (S2). The flexural modulus
Dry
12 Wet S5 of the hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composite increased as the
volume content of the glass fibres increased. The flexural modulus
Flexural Modulus (GPa)

10 S3
values were 6.8, 9.1, 12.2, and 13.2 GPa for the S2, S3, S4, and S5
samples, respectively. Under wet conditions, the flexural
8 S2
modulus of the P. purpureum–epoxy composites (S1) decreased
6 by over 44%. However, the flexural modulus of the hybrid
P. purpureum/glass–epoxy composites decreased by 3–15%.
4
S1
3.4. SEM micrograph analysis of fractured tensile and flexural
2 specimens
0
30/0 24/6 18/12 12/18 6/24
Following tensile and flexural testing, FESEM was used to study
the fracture surfaces of the hybrid P. purpureum/glass–epoxy com-
Pennisetum purpureum/glass volume content (%)
posites. The fibre/matrix adhesion within the hybrid composite
Fig. 6. Flexural modulus of dry and wet samples. was examined to determine the failure mode of the samples.

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6 M.J.M. Ridzuan et al. / Composite Structures xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

surface shown in Fig. 7(a). The image analysis also shows the for-
mation of voids due to fibre pull-outs within the tensile fracture
surfaces. Crack deflection and fibre debonding, as well as damage
to the ends of the fibres, were observed. This indicates that inter-
action occurred between the fibres and the polymer matrix.
Furthermore, under wet conditions, poor interfacial bonding
between the fibre/matrix interfaces of the hybrid composites could
be clearly observed in Fig. 8(a–b). Compared with the images of the
composites under dry conditions, a greater number of voids and
matrix cracks can be observed in the FESEM images of the tensile
and flexural fracture surfaces of the hybrid P. purpureum /glass–
epoxy composites under wet conditions. The effect of water mole-
cules can be clearly observed in Fig. 8(c). This can result in the
degradation of the tensile and flexural strength of the hybrid com-
posites under wet conditions.
+
4. Conclusions
(a) Tensile fracture specimen
The conclusions obtained from this study are as follows:

1. The moisture absorption of the hybrid P. purpureum/glass–

epoxy composites increased with the water-immersion period
of the samples, and reduced as the glass fibre content of the
samples increased.
2. The tensile and flexural strength improved as the glass-fibre
content of the composites increased. Similar results were also
observed for their moduli. The tensile and flexural strength of
the hybrid natural fibre composites with 6 vol% glass fibre con-
tent were improved by 105 and 28%, respectively.
3. The tensile and flexural strength were impaired under wet con-
ditions. Similar results were also observed for their moduli. The
tensile and flexural strength of the P. purpureum/glass–epoxy
composites (S2) were degraded in wet conditions by 24% and
29%, respectively.
4. The FESEM images showed that water molecules affect the
interfacial bonding between fibres and matrix of the hybrid
(b) Flexural fracture specimen composites in wet conditions.

The results of this study demonstrated that the properties of

natural fibre composites can be tailored by using an appropriate
amount of glass fibres. A balance between the environmental
impact and performance could be achieved by designing the com-
posites according to service requirements.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the Universiti Malaysia Perlis

and the Ministry of Education, Malaysia, for providing financial
assistance (FRGS No.: 9003-00515). The authors are also thankful
for the support of the facility during the course of the research. Fur-
thermore, the staff at the Mechanical Engineering Department of
Sultan Abdul Halim Mu’adzam Shah Polytechnic (POLIMAS) are
acknowledged for their fruitful discussions and input to the
project.

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(c) Effect of water molecules
Fig. 8. Field emission scanning electron microscope images of the tensile and
flexural fracture specimens and the effect of water molecules under wet conditions.
Fig. 7 shows the FESEM images of the fracture surfaces of the
hybrid P. purpureum /glass–epoxy composites following tensile
and flexural testing under dry conditions. The flexural fracture sur-
face shown in Fig. 7(b) contained a greater amount of fibre break-
age, fibre splitting, and voids compared with the tensile fracture
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