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Chow - Open Channel Hydraulics - Standard
Chow - Open Channel Hydraulics - Standard
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MeGRA W-HItr, CIVIL ENGLNEERING SERIES
HARMER E. DAVIS, Consulting Editor . "
OPEN-CHANNEL HYDR~AULICS
BABBI'IT '. Engineering.in Public Health
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BENJAMIN' Statically Indeterminate St~uctures
Cnow . Open,-cha,nnel Hyqraulics i
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DAVIS, TROXELL,'AND WrsKoCIL . Tl1e Testing and Inspection of '
I Engineering Materials
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\ r VEN TE CHOW, Ph.D.
) DUNl'iAM . Foundations of Structures i
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MEAD, MEAD, AND AKERMAN' Contracts, Specifications, and KHAL1D PHOTO STAlb
J Engineering Relations U.E.T
I NORRIS, HANSEN, HOLLEY, BIGGS, NAMYET, AND 1fINAMI . :Structural
Design for Dyiramic Loads (, 'i
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PEURIFOY' Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods' McGRAW·HILL BOOK COMPANY; I:r.;G.
PEURIFOY' gstimating Constructi()u Costs •
New York St. Louis .. San Francisco Di.isseldorf .;
TROXELL AND DAVIS' Composition and Properties of Concrete
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London lViexico Sydney Toront9
TSCHEBOTARIOFF . Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth Structures
URQUHART, O'ROURl<::t, AND WINTER' Design of
Concrete Structures KOGAKUSHA·COMPANY, LTD.
WANG AND ECKEr. . Elementary Theory of Structures .Tokyo
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OPEN-CHANNEL HYDRAULICS :i 6"it
INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDlTION
To
Exclusive rights by Kogakusha Co., Ltd., for manufacture and export from ~.
Humanity and Human Welfare
_. Japan. This book cannot be re-exported from the cou\ltry to which it is
consigiled by Kogakllsha Co., Ltd., or by McGraw-Hill Boak Company, ~.
Inc., or any .of its subsidiaries.
VIII ~.
Copyright © 1-959 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. All rights
reserved. This bo"k, or parts thereof, may not be reprodlJced in any
for~ without pClmissioll of the publishers. Libra,,' of COI1g1·es.r Catalog
Card Number 58-13860
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In recent years water-resources projects and hydraulic engineering
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works' have been developing rapidly throughout the world. The knowl-
( edge of .open-chp,nnel hy~raulics, which is essential to the de~ign of many
,, ~ hydraulic structures, has thus advanced by leaps and bounds: To the
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students and engineers in the field of hydraulic engineering, such valuable
new knowledge should be .made available in suitable book form. It is
': therefore not that some 'new books have already appeared.
Gt. ;
Howi:lver, most of them a.re present-ed in limited scope and 1111 2.re written
in foreign In the· English langu!l.ge, the t\>,ro well-known
f?\'
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I
i, books, respectively' by Bakhmeteff and by 1VoodwI1l'd and Posey, were
published nearly two decades ago. 2
This book gives broad coverage.of recent developments; it should meet
f
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the present Ilead. It is designed as a. textbook fo\, both undergrachui.te
and graduate stuuents .and also as a compendium for practicing <:;,ll'=>lU"'"
Emphasis is given to the qualities of "teachability" and" practicability,"
t\- and t1tt,empts were made in preaenting the material to bridge the gap
which is generally to exist between the theory and the practice.
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In order to achieve these objectives, the use of .advanced mathematics is
deliberately avoided as much as possible, and the exp~a.nation of hydraulic
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eie 1 Such. as: Etienne Orausse, "Hydrauliquc des can~ux decouvel·ts en regime perma-
nent" (" Hydraulios of Open Channeld with Steady Flow"), Editions Eyrolles,
Paris, 1951; R. Silber, "Etude at trace des ecouleroents permanents en canaUl( et
rivieres" ("Study and Sket<lh of Stelldy Flows ill Ca.nals and Rivers It), Dunod,
Ii'
de Pa.ris, 1954; Martin Schmidt, "Gerinnehyqraulik" ("Open-cha.nnel Hydraulics"),
VE'B Verlag Teehn:ik-Bauverlag GMBH, B~rlin and Wiesbaden, 1957; N. N. PllV-
10vskiT, "Otkrytye rusla i sopdazhenie biefov sooruzhenil" (Open channels and adiust-
..h.•
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" ment of water l~veh), in the "Sobranie sochinonil" ("Collected Works"), voL 1,
fftJ pp. 309-543, Academy of Scieooes of U.S.S,R., Moscow and Leningrad, :1955; and
~~'
the new edition of M, D. Chertousov, "Qidraivlika" ("Hydraulias':), Gosenergoizdat,
Moscow and Leningra.d, 1957.
..... /i['
"Hydraulic.s of Steady Flow ill Open Channels," John Wiley and SOIlS, New'
York,' 1941. '
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viii PREFACE T l'REFACE ix
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theories is greatly simplified as far as practicable, ~Illustrativ.e example~ In Part I on basic principles, the type of flow in open channels is cla~i-·
. are to show the application of the theories, and practical problems fied according to the vliriation in the parrunetersof flow with respf.ct to
are provided Jor exercises. Furthermore, short historical accounts are space and time. For simplicity, the depth of flow is used as the flow
given in footnotes in order to stimulate the reader's interest, and ample parameter in the classification. The state of flow is classified according
references are supplied for his independent .studies. Some references, to the range of the invariants of flow with r~spect to viscosity and
hO'\'8ver, may not be readily available to the reader, but they are liste:d gravity. The flow invariants used are the Reynolds number and the con·
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for academicaud historical intercst. Froude number. Since the effect of surface tension of water is insignifi-
In essence, the book is the outgrowth of the author's 20 year,,' experi- cant l.n most engineering problems, the Weber nU!l1b~r as it flow invariant ?4
ence as a student,teacher, engineer, rese.iucher, and consultant in' the is not introduced. In fact, the state of fiow c~n be further classified it IS
field of hydra\llic engineeTing, The manuscript of the book was drafted for its stability in u.ccordu.nce with the Vedernikov number or other suit- ther
for the first time in the academic year of 1951-1952 for use in teaching ahlf?l:rlt!:!rla. However, ::mch a criterion h.as not been weli established in I J
the students of civil, agricultural, and mechanical engineering and of engil1eering praatice, and therefore it is taken up only briefly later in la~
.. theoretical' ahd applied mechanics at the University of Illinois. Since Chap,8. COInj
then several revisions have been made. In .the beginning, the material FOUl' coefficients for velocity and pressure distributions are introduced,
was prepared solely for graduate students. Owing to the general demand particular, the f.mel'gy coefficient is presented throughout the book.
for a book on the design of hydraulic structures for undergraduate studies, This coefficient is usuHlly ignored ill most books on hydraulics. In
the manuscript was expanded to include more fundaments;! principles and practical applications, the effect of the energy coefficient on computations in rn
design procedures. At the sa.me time, most of the advanced mathematics and hence on is quite significant f:Ll1d therefore should not be a~ I
and theories were either omitted or replaced by more practic.'l..l approaches overlooked, e,reHl though the value of the coefficient miJ,y not always be
shou;
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using mathematical operations of a level not higher than calculus.. determined accurately.
Fro!!. 1951 to 1955, the author made several special visits to many The energy and momE,ntum principles constitute the basis of interpre- Tjpj
major engineering agenCies and firms in the United Stat,es tQ discuss tation for most hydraulic phenomena. A thorough treatment of the two hel i
problems with their engineers. As a result, a Yl'.st fund of information prfnclples is in Chap. 3. SilIce the book is intended for the use of
on hydraulic design pnictices was collected and incorporated into the practicing engineel's, the treatment of a problem i~ in m013t cases based on
manuscript. Thereafter, the author also visited many hydraulic insti- a ollEl- or two-dimensional flow: . . riar
tutions and laboratories in other countries and exchanged knowledge with In Part II 011 \ll1ifol'm flow, eeveral uniform-flow formulas are. intro- ail'! 1
their staff members..In 1956 he visited England, France, Belgium, the duced. ,Despite many new proposals for a formula having a theore~ical POl~ta;
Netherlands,.Germany, Italy, <I.lld Switzerland. In 1958 he visited background, the Manning formula still holds its indisputable top position in tJu
Austria, Turkey, India, and Japan, and again England, France, and in the field of practical a;pplicatioI)s. This formula. is therefore used I) ,
Belgium, The information obtained from these countries and from other extensively in the book. In certain specific problems, however, the RuL
countries through publications and correspondenc'e was eventually added Che2iY formula is used occasionally. ' .
.to the final draft of the manus!}ript as supplements to the American The design for uniform flo\v covers nonerodible, erodible, and grassed
practice. . channels. The erodible channels in general may be classified under three
The text.is Ol:ganitlec,i into five parts-namely, Basic Principles, Uni- types: chapl1els which scour but do ilOt silt, channels which silt but do
form Flow, Gradually Varied Flow, Rapidly Varied Flow, and Unstea,dy not ~cour, and channels which ;icour and silt simultlllleously. In channels
Flow. The fin;t three parts cover the material which would ordinarily be of tlie second and third types, it is nec€6sary for the walter to carry sedi-
treated in a one-semester .course 011 open-channel ;hydraulics. For a one~ ments, As will be stated later, the sediment transportation il'; consid~red
semester course on the! design of hydraulic structures, Chaps. 7 and 11 as a subject in the domain of river hydraulics, Therefore, only the chan-
and part IV should suJ:iply most of the material fpr..the t'eaching purpose. nels: of the first type, which :carry relatively clear wa~er in stable con-
Part V on unsteady fldw may' be used either fOl' advanced studies or as dition, are treated in this bodk ,.
supplemental material ;to the one-semester course, depending If),rgeiy 011 Iii Part III ongl'adually va-ried flow, se,,-eral methods for the compu-
the discretion of the irlstructor with .reference to the time available and tation of flow profi1.~s are discussed. .A new method of direct integration
the interest 'ahown by the students. . is introduced which requires the use of a, varied-flow function table first
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.x . PREFACE . PREF~CE
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developed by Professor Boris A~ Bakhmeteff in 1912. 1. The table given in Similarly, the transient flow in chanI).els subject to the iilfiuence of the
• ... Appendix D of th IX. book ]s an ~xten8ion of the table to n~arly: three times tides is a special topic in the rapidly developed fields of tiditl hydraulics
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I its original size. This extended table \1nd a table for negative slopes were
prepared during 1952 to 1954 by the author for teaching purposes at the
Universjty of Illinois,2 For the computation of fiow profiles in circular
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and cOD,stalel1gineering and is therefore b9yond the scope of this book.
In a science which has reached so advanced a state of development,
a large portion of the work is necessarily one of coordination of' existillg
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conduits, a varied-ft.ow function table is also· provided in Appendix E. :
The method of singular point is a powerful tool for the analysis of flow
cOlltributions. Throughout the text} the auth6r hr,s attempted to make
specinc acknowledgment regarding the source of m:lter.ial employed} and
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• profiles. Since this method requires the use of advancedmatheml1tics}
it is described only briefly in Chap. 9 for the purpose of st.imulating £ur-
any failure to do so is o.n unintention:al oversight. .
In the preparation of this \:lOok, engineers and a,dministrators in many
. the I' interest in the theoretical study of flow problems. . engineering agencies hl1ve ~!1thusi<:1st.ically furnished information and
alit In Part IV on rapidly varied fiow, the treatmellt of the problems is extend~d cooperation. The author is especially indebted to those in the
1
I largely supported by experimental data, because this t.ype of flow is so U.S. BUl'cau of Reclamation, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Soil Conser-
~:, ,ration Ser~ice. U.S. Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Army Engineer.
complicated that a mere theoretical analysis. in most cases will not yield
I sufficient information fO!' the purpose of practical design. The use of the . WiLterways E~periment Stat.ion, Offices .of the Chief Engineer and
~!i fiow-n!;i metllod and the method of characteristics is mentioned but no District EnD'ineers of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Weather
. details are given, becallse t.he former is so popular that it, can be found Bureau} U,S~Buref~u of Public Roads; and the Tennessee Vilrey Authority .
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.. in most hydraulics books; while the latter requires t.he knowledge .0£ Also, mn.ny friends and colleagues have kindly. supplied information
and generously offered suggestions. In particular, the author wishes·
I advanced Tiiathematics beyond the scope of this wbrk. . to thank Dr. Hunter Rouse, Professor of Fluid Mechanics and Director of
\ Iii In Pnrt V on llnsteady:fiow, the keatment is general but practical. It
I·1 should be recognized that this type of f10wia a highly specialized subj ect. 3 Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Reseal'ch, State Unive·rsity of Iowa; Dr. Arthur
'1'. Ippen, Professor of Hydraulics and Director of Hydrodynamics Labora-
t.::,The knowledge of advanced mathematics would be required if a compre-
i
I hensive treatment were given. .
It should be noted that the subject matter of this book dwells mainly
tory, Massachusett.s Institute of Technology; Dr. Giulio De Marchi,
Professor of I:1ydraulics and Director of Hydraulic Laboratory, Institute
t/) on the flow of water in channels where water contains little foreign mate- of Hydraulics and Hydraulic Construction, Polytechnic Institute of
rial.· Consequently, problems related to sediment trAnsportation and Milan,Italy; Dr. Roman R. Chugayv, Professor and Head of Hydraulic
I)) air entnl.inment are not fully discussed. In recent years, sedirrient tr!lns- Con:;truction, Scientific Research Institute of Hydraulic Engineering,
i portatim in channels has become abroad subject that is generally COvered Polytechnic Jl1sti;tute of Leningrad, U,S.S.R.; Monsieur Pierre Danel,
a1 -'~e) in the study of river hydraulics, which is often treated iI).depc:mdently.1 President of SOGREAH (Societe Grcnobloise d'Etudes et d'Applications
I Hydrauliques), France, and President of the Interun,tional AssociatiO!l of
, r ... 1 Boris A. Bakh~ete.ff,"O Neravnomernom Dvizhenii Zhidkoati v Otkrytorn
(I Hydraulic Research; Dr. Charles Jaeger, Special L.ectul'er at the Imperial
hJ I
Rusle" {"Varip.d Flow in Open Channels"),·St. Petersburg, Russia, 1912.
, Ven Te Chow, Integratmg the eC\uation of gra~ually varied /lOw, paper no. 838, College of Science and Technology, Univemityof Londoll, and COllsulting
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Proc!;ecHngs, A.men·caT' Society of Civil ETl{/in~er3, vol. 81, pp. 1-32, November} 1055. Enginee!' of. The English Electric Company, Ltd., England; Professor
; .t Closing disc~ssioil by the author in J01trnal of HydrauHcs Division,vol. 83, no. HY1, L. J. Tison, Director of Hydraulic Institute, University of Ghent, Bel-
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paper no. 1177, pp. 9·-22, February, 195;'. : '
• Spedal references are: J: J. Stoke". "W';'ter Waves," vol. IV of "Pilre and Applied
gium; Dr. Tojil'O' Ishihara, Professor of Hydraulics and Dean of Facult.y
do of Engineering, 'Kyoto University~ Japan; and Dr. Otto Xirschmer,
tL, Mathenlatics," Interscience Publishers, New Yorle, 1957; V. A. ArkhangelskiI,
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"Ra~chety Neustanovivsh~gosia pvizheniill. v Otkrytykh Vo40tokakh" ("Calcu-
la.tion of Unsteady Flow in Op£,n Channels"), Academy of ScieRces, U.S.S.R., 1947;
and ·8. A. Khristianovich, "N eustanovivsheiesia d vizhenie v kana.lakh i rekakh"
Yrofessor 'of Hydraulics and Hydralllic Structures, Technical Jnstitute of
Darmstadt, G e l ' m a n y . . ,
Special acknowledgments are due. Dr. Nathan M. Newmarlt, Professor
1an- ("Upstea.dy Motion ill Channels and.Rivers"), in "Nekotoryie!Vopl'osy Mekhaniki and Head; ofthe Department of Civil Engineering} University; of Illinois}
(
f- I Sp19~hnol Sredy" (" Several Que~tions on the Mechanics of Oontinuous Media "),
Aca~emy of Sciences, U.S.S.R., 1938, pp. l3-154. .. for his encouragement and unfailingisupport of this project; D~. James M.
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• ~pecial references on the subj'eet of river hytlrauiics are:· Serge Lelia.vsky, "An
Introduction to Flilvial Hydrauli~s," Constable and Co., Ltd.; London, 1955; and
T.Blench, "Regime Dehaviour of yanllis and Rivers," Butterwor;th & Co. (Publishers)
Ltd" London, 1957. . f
RobertsoiJ., Professor of Theoretica~ and Applied Mechanics, ;University
of Illinoi.':\, for his review of and c~mmellts on Chapter 8 onitheoretical
concepts;: nnd Dr. Steponas Kolu~aila, Professor of Civil Engineering,
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xii PREFACE'
University of Notre Dame, for h.is readi~g of the entire manuscript and
his valuable suggestions, Dr. Kolupaila' also helped in interpreting and
collecting information from the hydraulic literature written ill Russian,
Polish, Lithuanian, and several. other languages which are unfamiliar to
theauthol', . The author also wishes to express his warm gr[l.titucie t,o
those whQ have constantly shown a keen intei'est ill .his work, as this
iuterest lent a strong impetus toward the completion. of this volume. CONTENTS
Ye.nTe Chow
Prefacs . vii
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xiv CO!-T'l'ENTS CONTENTS xv
, Chapter 6. Computation of Uniform Flow . 128 PART III. GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW.."
6-1. The Conveyance of a Channel Section 128 Chapter 9. . Theory and Analysis. 217
6-2.,The Section Factor [or Uniform-fio;; Computation . . ,12.8
i 6-3. The Hydraulic EXjlQnent for Uniform,.flow COmputation. . 131 9-1. Basic Assumptio!l.9 . 217
I() 6-4. Flow Chua.cteristics in Jl. Closed Conduit with Of/en-channel Flow 134 9-2. Dynamic Equation of Graduallv Varied Flow 218
I
6-5. Flow in a Channel Section' with Composite Roughness 136 9-3. Che.ra.cteristiDs of Flow Profiles' 222
6-6. Determination of the Normal Depth and Velocity. 140 9-4. Cla.ssification of Flow Profiles. . ~ -i : 227
6-7. Determination of the Normal a.nd Critice.l Slopes 142 9-5. Analysis of Flow Profile 232
6-8. Problems of Uuitorm-fiow Computa.tion. 144 9-6. Metnod of Singular Point. 237
, 6-9. Computation of Flood Discharge. 146 9-7. The Transitio,nal Depth 242
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6-10. Uniform Surface Flow . 148 249
Chapter 10. Methods of Computa.tion
Chapter 7. D<"sign of Channels for Uniform Flow 157 10·1. The GrD.phical-int!lgration Method 249
10-2. Method of Direct Integration. 252
A. NONERODIBLE CHANNELS 10-3. The Direct Step Method 262
7-1. The Nonel"Ddlble Channel. 157 10-4, The Standard St.ep Method 265
. 7-2. Nonerodible r-,·laterilll and Lining. 157 10-5. Computation of iii Family of Flow Profiles 268
" ) 7-3. The Minirmlm Permissible Velocity 158 10-6. Th~ Standard Stap Method for Natural Channels. 274
7-4. Channel Slopes . . 158 10,7. The SLage-fall-discharge Method ior Natural Channell! 280
7-5. FreebofJ.l"d 159 10-8. The E.m. Method for Natural Channels. 284
7-6. The Best Hydraulic Section 160
7-7. Determination of Section Dimensions 162 Cb,apter 11. Practica.l Problems . 297
B, ERODIBLE CHANNELS WHICH SeOUR BU'l' Do NOT SILT 11·1. Delivery of a Canal for Subcritical Flow 297
7-8. MethOds of Approach . 164 11-2. Delivery of a Cana.! for Supercrit.ical Flow 302
7-9. The Maximum Pel'missible Velocitv . 165 11-3. Prublems Related to Cana.! Design . . 303
7-10. Method of Permissible Velocity . 167 11-4. Computation of Flow Profile in Nonprismlltic Channels 306
7-11. The Tra.ctive· Force. 168 . 11-5. Design of Transitions . 307
7-12. Tractive-force Riltio 170 11-6. Transitions between Canal and Flume or Tunnel 310
7-13. Permissible '1;'raotive Force 172 11-7. Transitions between Cana.l and Inverted Siphon .317
7-14. Method of Tractive Force. 175 11-8. Backwater Effect of a Da.m 319
7-15. The Stable Hydra.ulic Section. liB 11-9. Flow P!l.SSing Isla.nds . . 320
11-10. River Confluence 321
C. GRA8SEDCHANNELS
7-16. The Gra.ssed. Channel . ( . 179 Chapter 12. Spatia.!ly Vflried Flow 327
7-17. The Retardance Coefficient .179
f 7-18. The Permissible Velocity 184
12-1. Basic Principles and' Assumptions
12-2. Dynamic Equa.tion for Spa.tia.lly Varied Flow
327
329
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xvi CONTENTS
333 Chapter 17.
CONTENTS
---'--> , flow, being connnedin a .closed "£Q~1duit, x~rts irect atl!lo,§ heri
pressure but hydraulic pressure only. ., , "--,, ,,-
The t\VO kinds of flow are compared in Fig. 1-1. Shown on the left
side is pipe flow. Two piezometer tubes are installed on the pipe at' . '-....
sections 1 and 2. ,The water levels in the tubes are maintained by the
pressure in the pipe at elevations represented by ~he so-cag~a.lYJdr,guliq
~
g.rade line. The pressure exerted.
by the water in each section of the
pipe is indicated in the corresponding tube by the height y of the watet
c;olumn above the center line of the pipe. The tIJt.al energy in the flow
of the section with reference to a datum line is the sum of the elevation z
of the pipe-center line, the piezoine'tric height y, and the velocity head
V2/2g, where V is the mean velocity of flow. l The energy is represented
in the figure by what is called the energy grade line or simply the energy
line. The loss of energy that results when w:ater flows from seqtion 1
to sectiori 2 is .represented by hi. A similar diagram for open-channel
flow is shown on the right side of Fig. 1-1. For simplicity, it is assumed
. that the flow is parallel and has a uniform velocity distribu,tion and that
the slope of the channel is, small. lP,..i,his c!1;,§e, the 'Y~~!t~ §~rj~ce is ,the
.hldraulic m£l~dine, and ~~~.1t£.Qf..1~j~OIUjUg",,~
piezometric h~@t.2 '., . .
~ Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more
cl.ifficult to solve problems of flow in open channels than.in pressure pipes.
~low conditions in open c~annels are complicated Py the ',fact that the
: 1 It is here assumed that the velocity is uniformly distrib\.ited across the conduit
s~ction; othenvise a correc,tion ,,",ould have to be made, such Ilf is desaribed in Art. 2-7
fbr open c h a n r r e l s . ! ,
: 2 If the flow were curvilinear or if the slope of the channel w~re large, the piezometric
height would be appreciably different from the depth of flow (l<ilts. 2-9 and 2-10). As
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a result, the hydraulic grade Une would not coincide exactly with the water surface.
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xviii CONTENTS
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BASIC PRINCIPLES
I OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS 7
is a practically impossible condition. The term «uniform flow" is , For clarity, the classification of open-channel flow is summarized as
,
Varied. flow roay be furt~; da.ssified as either rapidly or gradually c. Gradually varied flow
I varied. The flow is rapidly; varied if the depth changes abruptly over a b. Rapidly varied flow
comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is gradually varied. A B. Unsteady flow
rapidly varied flow is also known as a local phenomenon,' examples are the L Unsteady uniform flow (rare)
hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop. 2. Unsteady now (i.e., unsteady varied flow)
I
r a.Gradually varied unsteady flow
I
Chong'e of depth from b. Rapidly varied unsteady flow
time to
time
Various types of flow are sketched in Fig, 1-2. For iIlu.strative purposes,
these diagrams, as well as other similar sketches of open channels in this
book, have been draw.l to a greatly exaggerated vertical scale, since
ordinary channels have small bottom slopes.
Uniform 'flow - Flow in a Unsteady unifarm flow - Race
1-3. State of Flow. The state 01' behavior of open-channel flow is
laboratory' channel governed basically by the effects of viscosity and gravity relative to the
in.ertial forces of the flow. The surface tension of water may affect the
behavior of-flow under certain circumstances, but it does not piay a signifi-
RV.F. G.V.F. RV.F.
cant role in most open-channel problems encountered in engineering. ,
Effect of Viscosity, Depeilding on the effect of viscosity relative to
inertia, the flow may be laminar, turbulent, or transitional.
The flow is laminar if t.he viscous forces are so strong relative to 'the
Sluice
inertial forces that viscosity plays a signiftcant part in determining flow
behavior. i~ laminaLfl.mY...Jh~~arti.91esa,ppeal' to IAove in deE!lite
Confraction
below the smooth paths, or streamlines, and infinitesimally thin layers of. fi»id se~11l
sluice To slia:e ove~\:n~Q~!.lt l~ye.r~: . - . - . - - - . - - . - - - - . - . - - -
The flow is turbulent if the viscous forces are 'weak relative to the
inertial fDrces. In turbulent flDW, the water particles move in irregular
Varied flow paths which are ,neither smooth nor fixed but which in the aggregate still
represent the .forward motion of the entire stream.
Between the laminar and turbulent ,states there is a mixed, or tran-
sitional, state.
----:---~-
The effect .of viscosity relative to inertia can be represented by the
~
- -'.
Reynolds number, defined as
' ,
1
// i R == VL (1-3)
G.v. F. - Flood wove R.V.F. - Bore I JJ
I
lJnsteqdy flow • where V is the velocity of flow in fps; L is a characteristic length in ft,
FlG. 1-2. Various types of open-channel Bow. G.V.F. = gradually varied flow;
II here consider'ed equal ,to the hydraulic radius R of a conduit; and 11 (nu)
RV.F. ~mpidly varied flow. i
j.
is the kinematic viscosity of water in fV/sec. The kinematic viscosity
8 . "BASIC PRINCIPLES '
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS 9
ill ft2/sec is equal ~o the dynamic viscosity, f.I (mu) in shlg/ft-sec divided
by the mass densl(;Y p (rho) in slug/ft,·. For water at 68"F (2000)
f.I = 2.09 X 10- and p = 1.937; hence, 11
5
1.08 X 10-$. "
An open~chan?,el flow is laminar if the ReYl10lds number R is small and I v..'ith the data obtained b Nikuradse 8 ~ The resulting Prandil-:von
tUl'bt~lent if. R IS ,large. Numerous experinlents have shown that the I
flow 10 n. pIpe . c~an~es, from laminar to tul'l)ul~l1t in the range of R r d1'man equ~..!4sm Is
Act~IlYI dAubulSson [4] presenteji, prIOr to Darcy, a formula. that can be reducEid to , K = 8gR 2S
the form of Eq. (1-4). i . (1-9)
! .V'
, t tn. this equation, ~he hydraulic :radius is used as the characteristic lengtll in defin-
I ,
Since V and R have speeific ~'alues for any given chantiel shape, K is a
purely numerical factor dependent only on channel shape. For laminar
. flow in smooth cha.nllE)ls, the value of J( call be determined theoretically
[20} .. The pJot in Fig. 1-3 indica.tes that Kia approximately 24. for tht> ree- e R .. ',{I td
o F: '. a.o AI
tanguJar channels and 14 fol' the triangular channel under consideration. (C
$
R • 3,0*
R ., 4,01;:11
• a .. 4, a til
~ R .. ~4 tK
e R • 0.0 tloll
to (I A ... 1.:2 C!A
eta
f
0.1
O.Oi
om
f 0.06
().04
Q k 100.0rt9fM
.. k. 0.02.831"
O.qz
0.02
, \
1
0.01 O.OIl-----4----+-....:..--·t---~·'r-~
0.000
0.008
O.OO41--+-+++4-+-~-+-'f+-+-'-JHh-+-'-I--+-l-+I--!·-++H 10 "--'
.' . h channelS. . Bo.zin's channeis; No.4,
\, I
i
.J 4 • $1'0' FIG. 1-4. The f-R. ~elatlonshlp for Row In rOU~ed wood; No. 14, 'unpolished wo~d '-.---
~
gravel embedded In aement; No. Il,. unpo m lon 10 mm high, and·lO mm In
R
roughened by tra.nsverse wooden stripS 27.
.. 7
;n
Ne 14. except WIt .1 a
50
sp.~in'" of mm; No. 24, cem, ent
te· :
..
FIG. 1-3. The f-R relationship for flow in smooth channels.
t
.Q "
;
\ spacmg; No.1, same B.S. ' d K' her's cha.nnel: smooth concre . ~
k
. .
(15,16}, Elsner [221, and Kozelnny
(Fig. 1-4).
. • h'
whic IS a
.
SIze
(23] are shown in the diagram for fio~ in
m
f the' data channel roughnes.~ is
13Qme 0 ' • f I _
e8.SUre of the roughness fll1rttcles or;m
. f t ' s'.
~-"
have an important influence 011 friction in turbulent flow, as'it does in represen Y , . d' . illustrates the followmg ea ur.e
I, ing the channel surface. The lsgram d fi d b Eq (1-8) In this
laminar fl o:W. ," . . th d til. can be e ne Y . . • •
. L In the lammat reg~on e ~ly h' h than it is for smooth channels
The dataJor laminar flow obtained at the University of Minnesota [20J
l
region, the value of K l.S genera 19 e r . .
and the da~ for turbulent flow cdllected individually by Kirschmer
IJ.
.",
r of rectangular, t:'iangular, trapezoidal, and circular channels. At the
suggestion of Prandtl, Kirschmer [15,lDj explained that the effect of
channel shape may be due to the development of secondary flow, which
is ~pparently more pronounced in rect(1ngular channels than in,say, tri-
sented bt aratio...91 ine~al forces to gravity forc~ This l'atio is,given
by the FrQuile numbe1'z' defined» ',.
v
(1-10)
angular channels: The secondary flow is the movement of water particles where, V is the mean velocity of fiow in fps, g is the acceleration of gra Yity
on /l, cross section normal to the longitudinal direction of the channel. A in ft/sec z) and Lis a.characteristic length in ft. In open-channel fiow the
( ) high secondary flowrinvolves high energy loss andthns r.,ccounts for high characteristic leng~h is made equal to the lmdraulic deptAJ2., which is
'ru chaI!!lE11.J:{:!§.i..frul.nce. . . . .
3. In the turbl,1lent region most plots appear parallel to the Prandtl-
defined as the cross-sectional area of the water normal to the direction of.
flow in the channel divided by the width of .the fr¢e surface. For rec-
von Karman curve, This curve serves as an approximate limiting posi- tangular channels this is equal to the depth of the flow' section,
tion toward which a plot moves as the over-all resistance becomes less, When F is equa.l to unity, Eq. (1-10) gives
Accoi'dingtQ a concept advanced by Morris [241 (Art. 8-2), the rise of the
plots above the smooth-conduit curve may be explained as a resul~ of V = .../gD (1-11)
additional energy loss generated by the roughlless elements. When the and the flow is said to be in a critical sta.te. If F is less thaJ1 unity. or
Reynolds number is very high, some plots become essentially horizont,al, V < V(jJ5, the flow is s'libcriticaZ. In this state the role played. by
reaching a stllte of SO-Galled complete turbulrnce. At this state the value gravity forces is mOfe pronounced; so the flow has a low velocity and is
of fis independent of Reynolds number and dep~nds solely on roughness, often described as tranquil a.nd streaming. If F is greater than unity, or
hydraulic' radius, .and channel shape .
. 4. The' plot of Varwick's data [16J for a give~ roughness,- hydraulic
V > v'{jD; the flow is 8upercriticaZ. In this state the inertial forces
become domL'lant; so the flow has a high velocity and is usually described
radius, and channel sha~ star~ off from ll. curve parallel to thLPran..Q.tj~ as rapid, shooting, and torrentiaL
Voill'{arman curve, then rises as the Reypolds n~mber incre~§, and IE the mechanics of water wave~Jhe.critic& velocity v'gD is ideirtified
f'J final1y becomes horizo'ntal as a state of complete turbulence is reached. as the celerity of the small gl'avitywaves that~ccu;fns-hallo;v wnterm
I' The rise of the plot is a peculiar phenomenon which demands explanation, I channels as a result of any momentary change in the local depth of the
)-- and, since this finding has not been verified by other data, mor.e experi- . _water (Art. 18-6). Such a change may .Q~opecLbjullsJ;urha.ll.c~~u;l.!:
mental studies .seem necessary to substantiate it. obstacl~in...thJL!lb.!IJlp.el that cause a di§placement of waj;.!'lr.J.!.b.<n'§..Jl.nd..
~-'-~It should be noted that the ab'Jve descriptions are limited to low- below the mean surface level and thus create waves th~t...!~~~..2'::~g.l.!-l
'J itJ
14 BASIC PRINCIPLES r OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS 15
. .
designed for this effect ;that is, the Froude llumhflr of the flow in the model'
channel must be made "qual to tha,t of the flow in the prototype channeL
I
I
1\........,;;
1 '-J
I
j
~\
i
I
,-,'
~J
f,
)
i
I C:--'\
I
!
\..-
\
Velocily, Ips
~.~
FIG. 1~5. Depth-velocity relationships for four regimes of open':channel flow. (Afler ,_-
Roberlson and Rouse [3D].)
456-457, 1933. . ... . Natural channels include all watercoUl:~ that exist naturally on the <......1
28. 1. C. Stevens: Discussion Dn The hydraulic jump in sloping channels, by C. E. earth, varying in size from tiny hillside rivulets, through brooks, stl·eams,. \
Kindsva.ter, TramactiO'nll, American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 109, pp: 1125- smaH and large rivers, to tidal estuaries. Underground streams ca~
1135, 1944. water with a fr~e surface are also considereclrulturul open chann~.
29. C. J. Posey: DiscussiDn on The hydraulic jump in sloping channels, by C. E.
Kindsvater, TransactioTLI/, American Society oj Civil Engineers, vol. 109, pp. 1135-
The hydraulic properties of nll,tural channels are generally very irregu-
1138, 1944.
lar. In some cases empirical assumptions reasonably consistent with
30. J. M. Robertson and lIunter Rouse: On the four regimes· of open-channel flow, actual obs:ervl;ttiol1s and experience may be made such that the conditions
Civil E'lI.{Ji11eering, vol. 11, no.. 3, pp. 169-171, !vIa.rch, 1941. of flow. in these channels become amenable ~o the analytical treatment
31. S. A. JegorDw: Turbulente 'Oberwellenstromung(Schiesscnl in offenen Gerinnell of theoretical hydraulics. A comprehensive study of the behavior of
mit gla.tten Wanden (Turbulent 5up'<!rcritical flow in open channel with smoDth
flow in natural channels requires knowledge of other fields, such as
wa.lls) , WGSS/!iTkraJt unci Wasserwirf.8chaJt, Munich, ·vol. 35, no.. 3, pp. 55-59, 1940.
32. Yuichi Iwagaki; On the laws of resistance to turbulent flow in .open smooth hydrology, geomorphology, :sediment transportation, f1tc, . It constitutes,
channels, llfemoirs of: tJte Faculty oj Engin.eerill,f/, Kyo.to University, Jilpan, vol. 15,· in' fact, a subject of its own, known as river lLJlP,raulics,
no. 1, pp. 27-40, Janua.ry, 1953. Artificial channels are those constmcr,ed or developed by human effort:
33. Masashi Hom-rna: Fluid resistance in water flow of high .Froude number, Pro- navigation channels, power canals, irrigation canals f),nd flumes, drainage
ceedings oj the ed Japan National Congress Jor Applied Mechanics, pp. 251-254,
ditches, trough spillways, floodways, log chutes, roadside gutters, etc., as
1952.
34. Yuichi Iwagaki: On the laws of resistarrce to turbulent flow in open rough channelS, well as model channels that are built in the laboratory for testing pm·poses.
Proceedings oj the 4th Japan N a./irma!. C(mgres8 Jor Applied Mechanics, pp. 229-233, The hydraulic properties of such channels can be either controlled to the
1954. . extent desired or designed to meet given requirements. The application
ofhydra.ulic theories to artificial channels will, therefore, produce results
.
fairly close to actual conditions and, hence, are reasonably accurate fOl' ,.........
practical design purposes. .
Under various circumstances in engineering practic\'l the.artificial open
channel is 'given different names, such as "canal," :'\ftume," "chute,"
"drop," "culvert," "open-flow tunnel," etc. These names, however, are
used rather loosely and can be.defined only in a very genernl way. The
canal is usually a long and mild-sloped channel built in, the ground, which
may be unlined C!r lined with stone masonry, concrete, cement, wood, or
bituminous materials. The flume is a channel of wood, metal, concrete,
or masonry, usually supported on or above the surface of the ground to
carry water across a depression. The chute is a channel having steep
19
20 BA.SIC PRINCIPLES
(
slopes. The drop is similar to a. chute, but the change in elevation is I
effected in a shott distance. The culvert flowing partly full is a covered I
channel of comparfl,tively short length installed to drain water through
highway and railroad embankments. The open-flow t'unnel is a com- !
paratively long covered channel used to ca.rry water through a hill or any
obstruction on the ground. I
I
2-2. Channel Geometry. A chann\'ll built witlulllY.a:t+ing cross sectiOll i
ti..'1dc~bottom slope is ~~lled a 'B.risma(ikma1Jnel. Otherwise, the
i
I
channel is nonprismaticj an example is a trough spillway having variable r
width and curved alignment. Unl\lss specifically indicated, the channels
dGScl:ibed in this book are prismatic.
The term channel Bection used in this book refers to the cross section of
1
i
a channel taken normal to the direction of the flow. A l'ertical channel I
s8ctio-n, howeve".is the vertical section passing through the lowest or !
bottom point of·the channel section. For hvl'izontal channels, therefore,
the channel section is always a vertical channel section.
Natural channel sections are in general very irregular, usually varying
from an approximate parabola to an approximate tmpezoid. For
streams subject to frequent fioods, the channel may consist of a main
channel section carrying normal discharges and one or more side channel
sections for accommodating overflows.
Artificial channels are USUally designed with sections of regular geo-
metric shapes. Tablc 2-1 lists seven geometric shapes that are in common
use. The trapezoid is the commonest shape for channels with unlined
earth banks, for it provides side slopes fol' stability. The rectangle and
triangle are special cases of the trapezoid. Since the rectangle has .i!: I;'.>
+
vertical sides, it is commonly used for channels built of stable materials,
such as lined masonry, rocks, metal, or timber. The triangular section
is used only for small ditches, roadside gutters, and laboratory works.
The cirde is Hle popular section for sewers and culverts of small and
medium sizes. The parabola l is used as an approximation of sections of
small and medium-size natural channels. The round-cQrnered rectangle
is a modification of the rectEmgle. The round-bottom triangle L':! an +
~
. approximation of the parabola; it is a form usually created by excavation
with .shovels.
Closed geometric sections other than the circle are frequently used in
sewerage, particularly for sewers enough for a man to enter. These
sections are given various names according to their form; they may be
1 The side slope z; 1 of a pa.rl!.boli~ section at the intersection of the sides with the
I
'{
[
·1
,\
\ '
\ --
i
~Q,?!/'
.
'
,
,
.
1.5
t~.5'
I
'.
~~'
~~ .~'
, ' T:44" ....&.. Tropezuidal chonnel
C~b=20':, .1' \
'~//l7~~0~ P=46,8 - ,
Triangular channel
. NarroW'
$oluti{)ll. By formulas given in Table 2-1, the following are computed: P = 20 +' Sholtow ditch (@c!anglJlar
2 X 6 ";5 = 46.8 ft; A = 0,.5(20 + 4'!L0 6 = 192.0 ft>; R = Hl2/46.8 = 4.10 ft; 5~ction
a
2-4. Velocity Distribution in Channel Section. Owing to the pres~
ence of a free surface and to the friction along the Ghannel wall, the
velocities in a channel are not uniformly distributed in the channel section.
), The measured maximum velocity in ordinary channels usually appears to Pipe
\'I occur below the free .sUlface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the depth; Natural irregular channel
_,. t:../ _
· ,
r
I
curvattire of the streamlines is taken into account. The largest known value from
laboratory meO:suremen1;$ is believed to be '", = 7.4, which was derived by V. S.
Kv:ia.tkovskii in 1940 in the VIGM (All-Union Institute for Hydraulic Machinery,
(Art. 8-5, Prob. '8-9). Assuming a lincar velocity distribution, Rehbock [201 obtained
c< = 1+ +
f" I1nd.{j = 1 "/3. .
• For discussions on this subject, the reader may look into. 121J and [22]. However,
U.S.S.R.) for the spiral flow under !l. model turbine wheeL he should use' judgment in reading these references because they contain erroneous
)
30 BASIC PRINCIPLES OPEN CHAN,lIjELS AND THEIR PROFER'I'IES 31
2-9. Pressu're Distribution in a Channel Section. The pressure at any In actual problems uniform flow i:s practically parallel flow. Gradually
_----7
point on the crO,';fi section of the flow in a channel of small slop: can be varied flow may also be l'egarded .as parallel flow, since the cha.nge in
, measured by the height of the water column in a piezometer tub~ Instayed depth of flow is so mild that the streamlines have neither appreciable
at the point (Fig. 2-7). Ignormg mInor curvature hoI' divorgence; that is, the curvature and divergellce are so
disturbances due to turbulence, etc., it small that the effect of the acceleration components in the cross-sectional
is apparent that this water column should plane is negligible. For practical p1.rposes, therefore, the hydrosta.tic law
rise from the point of measurement up to . of pressure dislribution is applicable to gra,dually varied flow as well as to
the hydraulic grade line or the water sur- 1miform flow.
B face. Therefore, the pressure at any If the curvature of stl'eamlines is substantial, the flow is theoretically
(al point on the section is directly propor- ~-> known as curvilinear flow. The effect of the curvature is to produce appre- .I
tional to the depth of the point below the ciable ELGceleration components or cell trifugal forces normal to the direction
free ~ui'face 9,nd equal to the hydrostatic of flow. Thus, the pressure distribution over the section deviates from the
pressure corresponding to this depth. In h}'drostatic if ourvilinear flow occurs rn the vertical plane:' Such curvi-
other words, the distribution of pressute iinear flow may be either convex or concave (If;lg~nd c). In both \ ;
over the cross section of the channel is the cases the .nonlinear pressure distribution is represented by AB' instead of
'same as the distribution of hydrostatic tlte straight distribution AB that would occur if the flow wel'e parallel.
pressure j that is;the distribution is linear It is assumed that ail streamlines are horizontal at the section under
and can be represented by a straight line consideration. In concave flow the centrifugal forces are pointing dDW:l- )
AB (Fig. 2-7a). This is known ,as the, ward to reinforce the gravity action; so the resulting pressure is greater
hydrostatic latO of preSS1lrB distribution . ./ than the otherwise hydrostatic pressure of a parallel flow. In convex
Strictly speaking, the application of flow the centrifugal forces are acting upward against the gravity action;
the hydrostatic law to the pressure dis- consequently, the resulting pressure is less than the otherwise hydro-
, 8 s' tribution in the ,crQ§s se~tiQn of a flQwing static pressure of a parallel flow. Similarly, when divergence of stream-
(c 1 channel is valid only if th&.!o\v filaments lines is great enough to developappl'eciable acceleration components
FIG. 2-7. Pressure distribution in
have no accele~~n coinponertts in the normal to the flow; thehydrostati'c pressure distribution will be disturbed
straight and curved channels of ·plane·gf cross sectioE' This type of flow accQrdingly.
small or horizontal slope at the ~oretically known as parallel flow, l Let the deviation from an otherwise hydrostatic pressure h. in a curvi-
section under considera.tion. h = linear flow be designated by c (Fig. 2-7b and c). Then the true pressure
piez~metric head; h. = hydrosta.tic
that is, such th'at the streamlines ha VI!
head; and c "" pressure-bead cor, neither substantial curvature nor diver- or the piezometric height h = h; + c. '
rection for curvature. (a) Par~ gence. ~~uently, there are n.o ag- If the channel has a curved longitudinal profile, the approximate
allel flow; (b) convex flow; (c)
preciablc acceleration component.§..JlQ!:= centrifugal pressure may be computed, by Newton's law of acceleration,
concave flow.
mal to the direction of flo'\' that \VO~ ~~,~he E~~~~~ oL~L@iWt d and a croSQ..§ection. Qf
disturb the hydrostatic-pressure d~J;.iQ.u in thfLcros~ctien of-flt-- 1 sq ft, that is, wd/g, and the centrifugal ac~ v2/r; or '
~.-~--- .
( .
J,
. i
"
32 BASIC PRINCIPLES OPEN CHANNELS AND 'l'HEIR PROPERTIES 33
v m~y be ass~med equal to the average velocity of the flow. Apparently, sure head at any vertical depth is equal to this iiepth multiplied by a cor-
c is positive for concave. flow, negative for convex flow, and. zero for rection fact·or cos 2 e. . Apparently, if the angle (J is small, this factor will
parallel flow. ,. not differ apprecill.bly .fl'Om unity. In fact, the correction tends' to
In parallel flow the pressure is hydrostatic, and the pressme head may decrease the pressure head by an amount less than 1 % until e is nearly
be represe11ted by the depth of flow y. For simplicity, the pressure head , 6" i a slope of about 1 in 10. Since the slope of ordinary channels is far
of a curvilinear fiow may be represented by City, where a'is a correction less than 1 in 10; the correction foi: slope effect can usually be safely
~oefficiimt for the curvature effect. The l:orrecti.on~oeffici~nt is referred _ _-:i"" ignored .. However, when the cha~l_slope is large and its eff5l9t becoroe~
to as apressure-dislribtttion coejfiy'ient.. Since this coefficient is applied to appreciable, thecorrection should be made if Mcumte comput~ttion is
a pl'esswe head, it may be specifically SLa~'/m1~:!t!~~!1fficienl. It can -'-~-.----. - .
a' =~
~y}o
r.
A hI! dA 1 + 1 rA
}o '
cv dA (2-10)
where Q is the total discharge andy is the depth of flow. It can easily be
seen that a' is greater than 1.0 for concave flow, less than 1.0 for convex.
flow, and equal to LO for parallel flow.
. For complicated curved profiles, the total pressure distribution can be
determined approximately by the fjow~net method or DlOre exactly by
/., i model testing. , Pressure di.stribution
In ra..mr!l.t.Y!1ried flow theghange in depth of fl.oJYJs so rapid and abl'Upt 'on. ~ertical section A'C
.:that th<L§trea!!J.1ines l,:!9ssess 8ubstfilliia.UIJD!J)J,m1Ul.nd di;v~nce. ~
seguently, the hy~ro8tatic law of pressure ,distribut~s not hold strictlJl.
i!!!.IJ!1riifl:U...Y!1:riedJto£ .
- It should be noted at the outset .that throughout this boqk flow is
treated in general as either parallel or gradually varied. Ther~ore, the
FrG. 2-8. Pressure tlistribution in parallel How in cha.nnels of lurge slope.
effect of the curvature of streamlines, will not be considered (~hat is, it
will be assumed that a' = 1) unless the flow is specifically described as
desired. A channel qf this type, say, with a slope gre~ter than 1 in 10,1.'.3
either curvilinear or rapidly varied.
hereafter called a channel of large slope. Unless specifically mentioned,
2-10. Effect of Slope on Pressure Distribution. With fPjerence to a
all chMlnels descrlbeanereafte-r are ~onsidered to be channels of small
straight sloping channel of unit width and slope angle 6 (Fig. 2-8), the
slope, where the slope effect is negligibie.
weight of the shaded :"vater element of lengt;h dL is equaltq..:l:!:'lUlQ~.
If a channel of large slope ,has a. 10ngitudin!11 vertical profil£,; of appreci-
The pressure due to this weight is wy cos 2 fJ dL. The unit pressure is,
therefore,equal to wy cos~ e, and thehead 1 is able. curvatul'e~ the pressure head should be cOl;rected fo]' the effect of the
I\ curvature of streamlines (Fig. 2-9). In simple notation, the pressure
I
-'
h = Y cos 2, e head may be expressed as g'y cos 2 Jt., """~~~~S==
or h = d 90S e In channels of large slope the usu . andhighel'
where d = ~ cos e, the depth measured perpendicularly from the water thl1n the critical velobity. When this velocity reaches a certain riHl.gni,
surface. It should be noted from geometry (Fig. 9-1) that Eq. (2-11) "tude, the flowing water ,vill entrain nil', produ'cing a swell in its volume:i
.and Ml increase in depth.l For this rel1son the pressUl'C computed uy
does not apply strictly to varied flow) piwticularly when 0 is v~ry large,
whereas Eg. (2-12) still applies. Eq~lition ·(2-11) states that ,the pres- Eq. {2-11) or (2-12) 4,~n shown in several gases to b.e higher than th~
1
JAil' becomes entraine~.in ",,,,ter generally...!!! v"e19\l~ of !>~t go Ips and higher.[
or--, ' ,
1 M. Hasurrh has measured the distributibn of pressure along the slopihg faces of
Besides velocity, however. other factors such'as entrance condition, channel rough.,
we~ [241. The data. obtained from these ekperimenta have verified Eqs'. :(2 .. 11) and ness, distance .traveled, cha.nnel cross section. volume or discharge, etc •• all have some;
(2-12) very sa~Jsf!l.Ctorily (25]. .
bearing on a.ir entrainment. ' . ;
i
I
I
34 BASIC PRINCIPLES OPEN CHANNELS AND 'rHEIR PROPERTIES 35
actual measured pressure obtained 'by model testing. If the average struct curves showing the relationships between the depth y and the section elementS
density of the air-water mix~ure is known, it shouM be' used to, replace A; R, D, and Z; and (b) determine, from the curves the geometric elements for y = 4. j
the density of pnrc water in the computation when air entrainment is \\
Distance f,om Distance fro~
expected. The actual density of the mixture varies from the bottom to:
a reference point Stage, a referenc(J point Stage,
the surfafaTor the floV\L For practical purpo;es, however, the density neClr left bank, ft ft near .left bank, ft ft
may be assumed constant; this assumption of I!!llform air distributi_o_I?:_i~_ Left bank: -5 5.6 7 -0.1
-4 4.6 9 -0.1
-2 4.0 11 -0.4
0 1.9 13 -0.1
1 0.8 15 0.7
2 0.2 17 2.6
3 0.3 19 3.2
'1 5 0.2 Right bank: 20 4.1
j
\
2-6. The hydrostaLil" cll.tenary may be plott.ed for [Lny given depth l/ and slDpe angle
O. at its ends by the following two approximate equations:
. I
:1:)= fk [(1 - %k' - 1)1.g,k4).p + (%k' + %2k4) sin 21/> ~ %56k~ sin 4.j.] (2-13) l I
YI = if cos 10 (2-14)
where :1'1 and YI, respectively, are the ordinate and abscissa measured from t,h.e mid- (,
point of the free surface; k = sin (110/2); '" = sin- 1 f [sin (1/>/2)l!kl; and 11 is the slope "
, i
Convex, flow Concave flow angle at the point (XI,l!I), varying from 0 at the bottom of the curve to 9, at the ends.
FIG. 2-9. Pressure distribution in curvilinear flow in channels of large slape. The above equations will define' the. cross section when the flow is at its full dept.h.
The slope angle at the ends of a hydrostatic catenary of best hydraulic efficiency is
found mathema.tically to be II, = 35'37'7". (a) Plot this section with' a depth
the cross section wiII simplify cQmputation, with, the errors on the safe
.[ y = 10 ft, and (bl determine the values of A, R, D, and Z at the full depth .
side. 2-7. Estimate the Ylllues of momentum coefficient (j for., the- given values of energy
PROBLEMS c(lefficient ex = 1.00, 1.50, and 2.op. ,
2-8. Compute the energy and mo~entum coefficients of the cross st'ction shown in
2-1. Verify the formulas far geometrio elements of the seven channel sections given Fig. 2-3 (a) by Eqs. (2-4) and (2-5), and (b) by Eq~; (2-6) and (2-7). The cross sec-
in Tahle 2-1. tion and the curves of equal velocity can be transferred to a piece of drawing paper
$-2. Verify the cUrY'es shown in Fig. 2-1. and enlarged for deSired ll.ccuracy.
2-3. Construct curves siinilar tQ those shown in Fig. 2-1, for a square channel 2-9. In designing side walls ofsteep chutes and overflow spillways, prove that the
section. overturning moment due to the pressure of the flowing water is equal to Yswy' cos' 9,
2-4. Construct cu'rY'es similar to those shown in Fig. 2-1 for an equilateral triangle wherew.is the unit weight of water, y is the vertical depth of the flowing water, and 9
with one side as the channel bottom. is t,he slope angle of the channel.
9.-5. From the data g(ven below on the cross section 1 of a natural stream /a) con· 2 ..10. Prove Eq. (2-10).
2-11. A high-head overflow spillway (Fig. 2-10) has a 60-ft-radius flip bucket u.t
1 It is common practioe to show the cross section of a stream in a direction looking its downstream end. The bucket is not submerged, but acts to change the direction
, downstream and to prepare the lQngitudinal profile qf a channel so that the wate~ of the flow from the slope of the lipillway face to the horizontal and to discharge the
flows from left to right, ;unless this arrangement would bit to show the feature to b~ flov1 into the air' between vertical training walls so ft apart. , At: a discharge of 55,100
illustrated by the cross'section and profile. This practice is generally fqllowed bt ds, ;the water surface at the vertical section OB is at El. 8.52. 'Verify t.he curve that
most 'engineering offices. However, for geographical reasons or in order to depict represents the computed hydraulic ,pressure acting on the training wall at section DB.
clearly the location and profile of a stream, the profile may be shown with water ftow~ The computatiQn is bailed an Eq,' (2-9) and on'the following assumptions: (1) the
ing from right to left and the cross section ma.y be shown looking upstream. This velqcity is uniformly di~tl'ibuted across the section; (2) the vo.lu,e used for r, fQr pres-
happens in ma.ny drawings pre'pared by the TennesseEj Valley Authority, because the sur~ values near the wall base, is 'equal to the radius of the bucket but, for other
Tennessee River and most of its tributaries flow from:east tQ west, and so are shown pre;isure values, is equal to the radius of the concentric flow lines; and (3) the flow is
with the direction of flow from right to left on a, conventional map. entto.ined with air, and the density ,of the air-water mixtureca~ be estimated by the
1 j
f
) )
.1 ,.
!
36 BASIC PRINCIPLES OPEN CHANNELS. AND THEIR PRO'PERT1ES 37
Douma. formula,' that is, 5. George Higgins: "Water Channels," Crosby, Lockwood &: Son Ltd., London, 1927,
'U - 10 ~0.2V:
. gR
- 1 (2-15)
pp.15-36. . .
6. Ahmed Shukry: Flow around bends in an open flume, Transactions, AmericilTl
Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 115, pp. 751-779, 1950.· '
where u is the percentage of entrained .air by voiume, V is the velocity of flow, and 7. A. II. Gibson: "Hydraulics and Its Applications,'" Constable &: Co., Ltd., London,
R Is the hydraulic radIus.
4th ed., 1934, p .. 332. ,
. 2-12. Compute the wall pressure on the section OA (Fig. 2-10) of the spillway
8.J. R. Freeman: "Hydr·a.ulic Laboratory Practice," Amedcan Society of Mecha.nical
described in Prob. 2-11. It is assumed that the depth of tlow section is the same!l.S
Engineers, New York, 1929, p. 70: ' ,
that at section DB.
9. Don M. Corbett and ot.hers:8trealn-ga.ging procedure, U.S. Geologicnl SlI1vey,
Water Supply Paper 888, 1943.
10. N. C. Grover and A. W. Harri'ngtoo.: "S.ream FlOW," John Wiley &; 80·ns, Inc.)
New York, Hl43.
;:;
/
\« $PilIW1!Y
Iraining wall,
eo II cpO!1
11. Standards for methods and records of· hydrologi~ measurements, United Natio7ls
Economic Comm.isslcn for Asia: and the Fa:r Ei.I$~, Flood Control Series, No.6,
Ba.ngkok, 1954, pp. 26-30. ,
12. G. CorioUs: Sur.l'etablissemellt de Ill. formule qui donne la figure des remons, et .sIU·
12. ilorrection tiu'on doH y int,roduire POllr tenir compte des diffel'ences de vitesse
dans les diVers points d'une marne section d'un COUl'ant (On the ba.ckwater-curve
C equation a.tid the corrections to be introduced to !lccount for the difference of the
.2
::l velocitie$ at different points on the same cross section), Ivnmoire No. 268,
:-
.) OJ
t;j
..,l,n'nalca du punts et chaw;sees, vol. 11, ser. 1, pp. 314-335, 1836.
13. J. Boussinesq: Esg's'i sur la theorie des eaux courantes (On the theory of flowing
i. waters), M~moire& ]fr/;sentes par diven savants ri l'Academie des Sciences, Paris,
2
1877. . .
14. Erik G. W. Lindquist: Discussion un Precise. weir measurements, by Ernesf W.
~ Schader andT(ennethB. Turner, 1"7'(tllaac:l.ions, American Society of Civil Engineers,
I /, vol. 93, pp. 1163-1176, 1929.
i 4 ,a 15. N. M. Shcha.pov: H Gidrometriia Gidrotelchnicheskikh SoorllllheniI i Gicir,omashin"
Un;l pressare, II 01 woler (" Hydrometry of Hydrv.lllic Structures and MacJ:Jnery ") I Gosenel'goizciat,
Moscow, 1957, p. 88. . .
FIG, 2-10. Side-wall pressures on the flip bucket of a spillwa.y.
\I 2-13. Compute the wall pressure on the section OA (Fig. 2-10) of the spillway
16. Stcponas Kolupaila: Methods of determin!l.tion of the kinetic energy facto!', The
Port Engineer; Calcutta, India., vol. 5, no. I, pp. 12-18, Januo.ry, 1956.
17. M. P. O'Brien and G: H. Hickox: "Applied Fluid Mechallics," McGraw-Hill
descrIbed in Prob. 2-11 if the bucket is submerged with a tailwater level at EL 75.0. Book Company, Inc., New York, 1st ed., 1937, p'.272. '
It is !l.SSulned that the pressure resultbg from the centritugal force or the submerged 18, Horace William·King; i'Handbook of Hydraulics," 4th ed., l'evised by Ernest F.
jet need not be considered beca.use the submergence will reault in a severe reduction Brater, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1954, p. '7-12.
in velocity. 19. Morrough P. O'Brien and Joe W. Johnson: Velocity-head correction for hydrau1ia
REFERENCES flow, Engineering News-Record, vol. 113, 0.0.7, pp. 214-216, Aug. 16, 1934. .
20. Th. P..ehbQck': Die Bestimmung der I,age der Energielinie bei ftiessenden Gewful-
1. S. F. Averillnov: 0 gidravlicheskom raschete rusel krivolineinoI formy poperech, sern mit HilIe des GeschwindigkeitshOhen-Ausgleichwertes (The determina.tion of
nogo secheniia (Hydraulic design of channels with curvilinear form oithe crosS the position of the energy line in flowing water with the o.id of velocity-head
section), lzvestiia Akademii Nauk S.S.S.R., Otdelenie ~'ekhnic"eskfk;h Nauk" a.djustment), Der Bau.ingenieuT, Berlin, vol.. 3, no. 15, pp. 453-455,·· Aug. 15, 11122.
Moscow, no. 1, pp. 54-58, 1956. 21. Boris A. Bak&meteff: CorioIis and the energy principle in hydraulics, in "Theodore
2. Leonard Metcalf and H. P. Eddy: "American Sewerage Pra.ctice," McGraw-Hm von !Urman Anniversary Volume," California. Institute of Teohnology, Pasadena,
Book Company, 1M., New York, 3d ed., ,1935, vo!. 1. 1941, pp. 59-65.
3. Harold E. Babbitt: "Sewerage and Sewage Treatment," John Wiley &: Sons, Inc., 22. W. S. Eisenlohr: Coefficient's for velocity distribution in open-Channel flow, Tra.ns-
. New York, 7th ed., 1952, pp. 60-:.66. ac:I.ior/.$, American. Socie4/ of Civil Enginee7's, voL 11:0, pp. 633-644, 1945. Dis-
4. H. M. Gibb: Curves for solving the hydrostatic oatenary, Engineering News, cussions, pp. 645-668.
vol. 73, no .. 14, pp. 668-670, Apr, 8, 1915. 23. J. B. Bela.nger: "Essai sur la solution numeriqne de ql,lelques problemes relatifs
au mou.-ement permanent des eaux courantes" ("Essa.y on tIle Numerica.l Solu-
I This iormull!. [26J is based on da.ta obtained from actual· conorete and wooden
chutes, involving errOnl of ±10%. ' tion of Some Problems Relative to Steady Flow of Wa.ter"), Carilian-Goeury,
Paris, 1828, pp. 10-24.
\ ,
38 BASIC PRINCIPI..ES
24. It Ehrenberger: Versuche Iiber die Verteilung der Drucke an Wehrriicken infolge
des I1bsturzcnden '.Vassers (Experiments on the distribution 'of pressuresa\ong the
f~~e of w(d ..;; resulting from the impact of the fa.lling water), Die W IMJserwirtschaft,
Vienna, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 65-72, 1929.
25. 'H&rald Lauffer: Druck, Energie und Fliesszustand in Gerinnen mit grossem CHAPTER 3
Gefiille (Pressure, energy, and flow type in channels with high gradients), Was-
serkrafl, und Wasserwirtschaft, Munich, vol. 30, no. 7, pp. 78--82, 1935.
26. J. H. Douma: Discussion on Open channel flow at high velocities, by L. Standish
ENERGY AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLES 1
Hall, in Entra.inment of atr in flowing water: a symposium,T1'ansactions, American
Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 108, pp. 1462-1473, 1943.
LeI!.'foI.l- Pit' 67/\1c: ,Il.1 ,f;.-N eN
3-1. Energy in Open-channel Flow. It is known in elementary
hydraulics that the total energy in foot-pounds per ponild of water in any
.2. . h}jc/rct,;.d.i :/'t'--10 c: c ,'" Y . 5 . , . (, <
streamline passing through 9, channel section may be expressed as the
total head in feet of water, which is equal to the sum of the elevation
W/ibn .ftu;o 4,4ff luitf& Yl 7 tUi, rv:5 (id.. t
I
HI]~II tt'l"1
_ P ,~,> J: ..
::>..;t;.1".!/f"''' V"'r1.tl.-7
. c. "e J' .,t:;
VW' _..:!.~,~" .it.-.:.~(j
'I
1
d
Vr';,t.. cd cbf #.. is /l. J'Vi4 v..u ¢ ,pver.( e @'we <5 FrG. 3-1. Energy in grad'.lo1ly varied 'open-channel Row.
~y.& o,C;...l."< ~ above a datum, the pressure head, and the velocity head. For example,
with respect to the datum plane, the totltl head H at a section 0 conta.in-
ing point A on a streamline of flow in a channel of large slope (Fig. 3-1)
r1.!1 /!.~Ci//.
bkrl~)~""'p1)
iJ
/,1 (f?)e.'!, 6 rtf..~'( • .§
d
"'"'t / /J /
CttYD.iJ,.u.:; r;~yo;o (}v'Iv: vI<
'. I IS may be written
. '7.... ('/. " .) • ( ftvtAP. t'k,~e l',., ctylv) where ZA is the elevation of pain t A above the datum plane, dA is the depth
!/YiM..ltU... (l!':71tdVt) ~-;P. f ' of point A below the, water surface measured along the channel section,
8 is the slope angle of the channel bottom, and V.{2j2g is the velocity hea~
T>/~~cf Jt#rry.: (IU9A .~) . of the flow in the streamline passing through A.
In general, every streamline passing through a channel section will have
~it..d-(c4blh < .5q,-'Ui4'V"t d.c;ot/.., . 39 _. r"',
( .bq:...... e It:;rY:J
• i
,
40 BASIC PRINCIPLES ENERGY AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLES 41
~ different velocity head, owing to· the nonuniform vel~ity distribution -3-2. Specific Energy, Specific energyl in a channel section is defined
U1 ~ctual fl~w, .Onl~ in un ideal pal'a:lel fl~w of uniform velocity distri- as the energJi per pound of water at any section of· a channel measured
butl.on can .he velocIty head be truly IdentlCal for aU points on the cross with respect to the channel bottom. Thus, according to Eq. (3:-2) with
sectlOn. In the ~ase of gradually varied flow, however,· it may be Z = 0, the specific energy becomes .
assumed, for pr~ctlCal purposes, that the velocity heads for all points on V2
the ch~nnel sectIOn are equa.l , and the el~ergy coefficient may be used ·to S. = d cos 8 + a 2g (3-7)
correct for the over-all effect of the nonuniform velocity distribution.
or, for 8: channel of small slope and a = 1,
Thus, the total energy at the channel section is
V!
H = z + rl cos () V
+ a --.:.
2
E =y+- (3-8)
. 2g (3-2)
.' . 2g
For channels of small slope, 0 = O. Thus, the tots'! energy at the chan.. which illdic!l.tes that the specific energy is equal to the sum of the depth
nel section is of water and the velocity head. For simplicity, the following discussion'
will be based on Eq. (3-8) for a channel of small slope. Since V = Q/ A,
H = z +d + c ;P2g
.- (3-3) Eq. (3-8) may be written E = y + Q2/2gAz. It can.be seen that, for a
Consid~r !lOW a prismatic channel of large slope (Fig. 3-1). The line given channel section and discharge Q, the specific energy in a channel
r~pl'eSelltlltgJhL~_~~va~ion of the tota.Lhea..cLO-f.Jlow is the lill.&gy_line. section is a function of the depth of flow only.
;rhe slope of the hne IS known as the energy g'radient, denoted by Sf. When the depth of flow is plotted against the specific energy for a given
The slope oLthe water surface is de;noted by Sw and the slope of the channel section and discharge, a specific-energy CUTve (Fig. 3-2) is obtained.
channel bottom l by So = sin () . In uniform £10'" This curve has ,.two limbs AGand BG. 'rh~ .lifl.lb AC.~J)proache;3the
. ", S J-- S w-- S o-Sln.
- . ()
According to the principle of conservation· of energy, the total energy ,horiz.ontall\-xis asymptoticallx toward the righ.t. The limb Be approaches
head at the upstream section 1 should be eql.lal to the· total energy head the line OD as. it extends l.lpward and to the right. Line OD is a line that
) at t~e downstream seetion 2 plus the loss of energy hf between the two passes through the origin and !ul:,s _ananglfi Qf lr~eJlP.ati.QJUiQl!j11 to '!5~!-
I, sectIons; or ... For a channel of large slope, the angle of inclination of the line OD will
,.
V;2 . V" . be different from 45°. (Why?) At any point P on this curve, the ordi-
Zl +d l cos /1
.
+ al ~2·g = Z2 + d z COs /1 + az ---.l:
2g
.L
,
h
'f (3-4) ) nate represehts the depth, and the: ,abscissa represents the specific
energy, which is equal to the snm:6f the pressure head y a.nd the'velocity
This equation applies to parallel or gradualJy varied flow. For a channel head V 2 /2g. .
of small slope, it becomes .
The curve shows that, for a given specific energy, there are tW9 possible
.
ZI
V;
+ YI .+ al -2
g
= Z2 + Y2 + a2 -V~
2g
.
+h.f (3-5) depths,. for instance, the low stage YI and the high stage y~. The low
stage is· called the alternate depth· of the high stage, and vice vel'sa. At
Either of these tW? equations is known as the energy equation. Wh~n point G; the specific energy is a n~inimum. It will be proved Inter that
al = .a2 = 1 and hr = 0, Eq. (3-5) becomes this condition of minimllriJ. specific energy corresponds to the critical
. V I2 .·. V 22 state of fio.v. Thus, at the critical state the two alternate depths
Zl +
. . Yl+ -2
g = Z2 +y~ + -2g const (3-()) apparently become one, which is known as the critical depth 1/e. When the
depth of ;fiowis greater than the critical depth, the velocity of flow is less
This is the well-known BernoHl,li energy equation.2
than the critical velocity for the given! discharge, and, hence, th:e fiow js
. 1 The slo~e is generally defined as tan O. For the present purpose, however it is sub criticaL When the depth of flow is less than the critical depth, the
defined as sm O. ' flow is supercritical. Hence, YI is the. depth of a supercritical flow, and
.. It ~s .believed th~t this equil-tioni is ascribed to the Swiss mathematician Daniel
2
1/2 is the depth .of a subcritical flow. ' '
, \ Berno\llh only ?y lllf~l'ence, to gjve recognition to his pioneer achievement in
If the discrarge changes, the specific energy will be changed· aucord-
hy.dro1yn~mICs, m ,partlcular the in~roductio'n of the concept of "~ead." Actuall}',
'JI
tlu~ e~uatlOn was first formulated by; Leonhard Euler a.nd later popularized by Julius ingly. The 1wo curves A' B' and A" B."
(Fig. 3-2) represent positions of
WelSbl\ch [1 J. .. .
1 The concept of specific energy was first ir~troduced by Bakhrneteff [21 id 1912.
42 BASIC PRINCIPLES ENERGY AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLES 43· ~~1
,the specific-energy curve when the discharge is less 'and greater, respec- At the critical state of ftowthe specific energy is a min~mum, or
tively, than the discharge used for the construction of the curve AB. dE/dy =0. The above equation, therefore, gives (j
3-3. Criterion for a Critical State of Flow. The critical state of flow ' N\':;"
has been defined (Art. 1-3) as the condition for which the Froude number VI D
2g - 2 ,~
4 (3-10) {
where D is the hydraulic depth of the wateI: area normal to the channel
bottom. In this case, the Froude number may be defined as
,Fw. 3-2. Specific-energy curve.
(3-13)
theoretical criterion for critical flow may be developed from this definition
as follows: It should be noted that the coefficient a of a channel section actually
Since V = Q/ A, Eq. (3-8), the equation for specific energy in a ·varies with depth. In the above derivation, however, the coefficient is
channel of small slope with a = 1J may be written assumed to be constant; therefore, the resulting equation is il0t absolutely
Q2 exact.
E=y+--, (3-9) 3-4. Interpretation of Local Phenomena. Change of the state of flow
217A -
Diffe~entiatiilg with respect to y and noting that Q is a constant,
from subcritical to supercritical orvice versa occurs frequently in open
channels. Such change is manifested in a corresponding ch&nge in the
dE = 1 _ ~ dA = I _ VI dA depth of flow from a high stage to a low stage or vice versa. If the change
dy gA3 dy gAdy takes place rapidly o'/er a relati velyshort distance, the flow is rapidly
. . "
The differential water area dll near the free surface (Fig. 3-2) is equal varied and is known as a local phenomenon. ' The hydraulic drop
~ , ,
and
.
to T dy. Now dA/dy = T, and the hydraulic depth D:= A/T; so the hydraulic jump are. the two types M local phenomena, and, may be
above equation becomes ' described as follows: .
Hydraulic Drop. A rapid change in the depth of flow from a high
dE V2T 'V2 stage to a low stage will result in a steep depression in the water surface.
-=1--=1--
dy 'gA , gD Such a phenomenon is generally caused by an abrupt change .in the
I Th~ concept of critica.l depth bas'ed on the theorem of minimurh energy Wall first channel slope or cross section and is known as a hydraulic drop (fig. 1-2).
introdl.).ced by BOss [3J. ' At the transitory region of the hydraulic drop a reverse curve usually
,
,<
44 BASIC PRINCIPLES ENERGY AND MOME~TUM PRINCIPLES - 45
appears, connecting the water surfaces before and after the 'drop.' The .~~h~~ the brin~. T~actual situation i~ that the brink section is thg
point of inflection on the reverse curve marks the approximate position true section of minimum energy, but it is not the critical section as com-
of the cdtical depth nt which the specific energy is a minimum and the jnite(fEyt'te prineiple based on the parallel-flow assumpti~ Rouse [~l ...
flow passes from a "SUbcritical state to a supercritical state. found that for small slopes the computed critical depth is about 1.4 times
The free ove'rfall (Fig. 3-3) is a special case of the hydraulic drop. It the brink depth, or Yo = 1.4yo, and that it is located about 3y< to 4yc
occurs 'where the bottom of a fiat' channel is discontinued. As the free "behind the brink in the channel. The actual water surface of the over-
overfall entel'S the air in the form of a nappo, there will be no reverse curve fall is shown by the full line (Fig. 3-3). ,..--
\I,
\
in the water surface until it strikes some object at a lower eleva.tion. It.
is the law of nature that, if no energy were added from the outside, the
It should be noted that, if the change in the depth of flow from Do high
stage to a low stage is gradual, the flow becomes a gradually varied flow
y
v'{ijl,/::~LJ) '7 f"'~'''1i
-
o
-, ""c.
-::!~ <U
_ Ii Y '0 Y
o "
"" "
o.tl:
/Theore.licOi water surfoce
---"""",-""-,,,,- ==:::t' ~s~~nLP~~e.!...! I~ _ _ _ -'-
Actual WQter surface - -- - -'\. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~
E Ir.ilial
deplh
FIG. 3-3. Free overfa.ll interpreted by specific-energy c~rve. having a prolonged reversed curve of water surface; t.his.phcnomenoll may
~Clllled ~ grad'unl hud7'a1t~ic drop and is no longer a local phenomenon~
water sl1T~!:\cewould seek its lowest possible position corresponding to the Hydraulic Jump. When the rapid change in the depth of fiow is from
\ ' least possIble content of energy dissipation. If the specific energy at an a low stage to a. high stage, the result is usually an abl'llPt rise of water
upstream section is E, as shown On the specific-energy curve, it will COl1- ~e. (Fig;. 3-4, in which the vertjc!l,l scale is exaggerated). This local'
1 ti~u.e to be dissipated on the way downstream and 'Will finally reach a phenomenon is known a~J.he hydraulic j1tmp. It occurs frequently in a
mllllmum energy content E",,,.. The specific-energy curve shows that canal below a regulating sluice, at, the foot of a spillway, or at the place
the section of minimum energy or the critical section should occur at the where a steep chann!)l slope suddenly turns jlat.'
brink. r~~~~tie less_tha!Lth.~,J~titical depth _because If thejump is low, that is, if the change in depth is small, the water will
!Er~he:~ecl'eas.e," In deJ2th woul£.!eguire a.TI, increo.se in sgecific energy, not rise obviOtisly and abruptly but will pass from the low to the high
~.pos~ll>l~o.!ll.p~nsating external en~,ls sup~lie<!: .The stage through a series of undulations gradually diminishing in size.
theoretIcal water-surface curve of an overfall is shown with a dashed line Such a low jump is called an uooular jtimp. .
in Fig. 3-3. . When the jump is high, that is, when, the change in depth is great, the
It ~hould be reme~bered that the detel;mination of critical depth by jump is called a direct jump. The direct jump involves a relatively large
Eq. ,c3-1O) or !3.11) IS based on the assumption of parallel flow a.rid is amount of energy loss thro,ugh dissipation in the turbulent body of water
ap.phc~ble only approximately to gradually varied flow. 1'he flQW at the in the jump. Consequently, the energy content in the flow after the
brink E' actually ..llllt:llilinear, fru:...:the curYatl..lli} of .flow is -P..'CQllQl!nclill; jump is appreciably less than that before the jump. .
.hen~, the method is invalid 'for determining the critical depth asJ.~ It may be noted that the depth before the jump is always less than the
46 BASIC PRINCIPLES
ENERGY AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLES 47
depth after the jump. The depth before the jump is called the initial
alternate-depth line. At the critical section, it is noted that the three
.depth y 1 and that after the jump is called .the .sequent depOt Y2; The initial
lines, namely, the .yater surface, the critical-depth line, and the alter-
and sequent depths VI and Y2 are shown on the specific-energy curve
nate-depth line, intersect at a single point. It is seen' tho.t, in passing
(Fig. 3-4). They· should he distinguished from the altern!J.te. A~p~hs
through the critical Reotion, t,he water surface entei'S the supercritical-
YI and Y2'! whi(J~~e the two nossible depth~ fo!:....the same specific ener~l' flow region smoothly.
_.~~itial and s~lent depths are actual depths before and after a jump
The· three-dimensional plot of energy curves is complicated. The
in which ~rgy lOss b.E is invoh-ed. In other words, the specific
description given here is used only for helping the reader to visualize the
-energy E 1 at the initial depth Vl is greater tha.n the specific energy
problem. In actual applications, the energy C'lrves may be constructed
at the sequent depth .y~ by an amount equal to the energy loss AE. II
there were 110 energy losses, the initial and sequent depths would become
identical with the alternate depths in a prismatic channel.
3-5. Energy in NQnprismatic Channels. In preceding discussions the 1
channel has been assumed prismatic so t.hat one specific-el~ergy curve \
could be applied to evil sections of the channel. For non prismatic chan-
nels, however, the channel section varies along the length of the channel
and. hence, the specific-energy curve differs from section to section. This II
cbm'plication can be seen in a three-dimensional plot of the energy curves
along the given reach of a nonpl'ismatic channel. I
I
For demonstrative purposes, a nOllprismatic channel with variable I
slope is taken as an example, in which agradually varied flow is carried i
from a, stibcritical state to a supercritical state: (Fig. 3-5) .. The vertical I
!
profile of the channel along its center line is plotted on the Hx plane with
the x axis chosen as the datum. For a variable-.slope channel, it is more I
convenient to plot the total energy head H = z + y + V Z/2g, instead of
the specific energy, against the depth of flow on the By plane. For
!
II
simplicity, the pressure correction due to the slope a.ngle and curvature of
flow is ignored in this discussion. An energy line is then plotted on the
Hx plane below a line parallel to the x axis and passing through the initial
X
total head at the H axis. The exact position of the energy line depends
FIG'. 3-5. Energy in a non prismatic channel of variable-slope, carrying gradually
on the energy losses along the channel. Four channel sections are then va.ried flow from sllbcritical to supen::ritical state.
selected and four energy curves for these sections are plotted in the Hy
planes ~ shown. The initial section 0 is an upstream section in the separately on a number of tWo-dimensional Hy planes for the chosen
sUbcritical-flow region. The two depths corresponding to a given total sections. The data obtained from these curves are then used to plot the
energy H 0 can be obtained from the energy curve. Shice this section is water surface, critical-depth line, and alternate-depth line on a two-
in the subCl'itical-flow region, the high stage yo should be the actual depth dimensional Ex plane. For simple channels, the energy curves are not
of flow, whereas the low stage is the alternate depth. Similarly, the necessary because thi;l critical depth and alternate depths C3.n easily be
alternate depths in other sections can be obta,ined. In the downstream computed directly,
sections rand 2, the low stages Yl and Y2 are the actual depths of flow singe
they are in the supercritical-flow region. The critical depth at each se y-
Eumple3-L ·A rectangular cha.nnell0 ft wide is narrowed down to 8 ft by a con-
trMtion 50 ft long, built of straight wa,lls and a horizontal fiooc. If the discharge is
{
\
tion can also be obtained from the energy curve at the point of minimum . 100 cfB and the depth of Bow is 5 ft On the upstream side of the transition section,
energy. At &ection C the critical flow occurs, and the depth y, is the determine the flow-surface profile in the contra.ction (0.) allowing no gradual hydraulic
critical depth. On the H x plane, varioUs lines can finally be' plotted; drop in the contraction, Ilnd(b) a.llowing a gradual ,hydraulic drop ha.ving its point of :l
inflection a.t the mid-sectioll of the contra.ction. Th!Jrip.tionalloss through the con-
showing the channel bottom, water surface, critical-depth line, and traction is negligible. - .
, .
48 BASIC PRINCIPLES ENERGY AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLES 49
", . .
Sol1ttiDn. From the given data; the total'energy in the approaching flow meas~red ., critical depth at t}Jis section is equal to the total head divided by 1.5 (Prob. 3-3), or
above the channel bottom i~ u: = 5 +
{100/(5 ?< 1O)1'/2g = 5.062 ft. This energy is 5.062/1.5 = 3.375 ft. By :r::q, (3-10), the critical velocity ts'eqllnl to V, = V3.375g =
kept constant throughout l,lIC contractIon, since energy losses are negligible. A hori- 10.4.5 fps. Hence, the width of this' critical section should be 100/(10.45 X 3.38) =
zontal energy line showing the elevation'of the tobl head is, therefore, drawn on the 2.83 fi. '
channel· profile (Fig. 3-6). . With the size of the mid-section determined, the side walls of the contraction can
bo drawn in ,with straight lines. The lm~ and high stages at each section are then
computed by the equation previously'given, As the flow upstream from the critical
section is subcritical, lts water surface should follow the high stage. Downstream
from the critical secti6n, the flow is sllpercritical and its Burface profile 'follows the
low-stage line.
The criti.::al-depth line is shown to sepai'ate the high from the low stage or the sub-
Cl'itical from the stipercritical region of flow. On the basis of Eq. (3-10), the critica.l
depth can be computed from the equation
(lOO/by,), y,
2g = '2
or . y = {/lO,OOO
, "gb%
where' b is the width of the channel, which can be measured from the plan,
It should be noted :that the vertical scale of the channel profile is greatly exagger-
ated. Furthermore, the outline of the gradual hydraulic drop is only theoretical,
based on the theory of parallel flow. In reality, the flow near the drop is more or less
curvilinear, and the .actual profile would deviate from th/'! theoretical one.. .
This example also serves to demonstrate 11 method of designing a channel transition
(Arts. ll-5 to 11-7), The designer may fit any type of contraction walls he desires
to suit a given flow profile, or vice versa, .
3-6. Momentum in Open-channel Flow. As stated earlier (Art. 2-7),
the momentum of. thefiow passing a channel section per 'unit time is
FIG. 3-6. Energy principle applied to a channel contraction (a) without gr:adual expressed by pwQV /y, where p is the momentum coefficient, w is the l.mit
hydraulic drop; (b) with gradual hydraulic .(hop. ' weight of water in lb/ft i , Q is the discharge in cfs,
and V is the mean
velocity in fps,
The alternate depths for the given tot ..l energy. e..n be computed by Eq. (3-9) as ,-----?'?>- According to Newton's second law of motion, the change of momentum
follows: . '
" 100'
per unit of time in the body of water in a flowing channel is equal to the
5.062 = Y + 2g(by)' . resultant of all the external forces that are acting on the body,Applying
or . , - 5 06'> "
y . ~Y
+ 155.25
b'.
= 0 a
this principletO channel of large slope (Fig. 3-7), the fplfo~~ing expl:ession.
for the momentum change per unit tirnein;the body of water enclosed
This is a cubic equtl.tion in which b is the width of the channel. At the entrance sec-' betv.:een sections 1 and 2 may be written:
tion, where b = 10 ft, its s61ution gives two positive roots: a low stage 'YI = 0.589 ft,
which is the altemate depth; and ahigh stage Y2 := 5.00 ft, which is the depth of flow. '~l 0(.
J(.. 1 (3-14)
At the exit section ,where 11 = 8 ft, this. equation gives a low ati\ge YI =. 0.750 ftiand a •.;.. "'>l·~)(qt
high stage Y. = 4.964 ft. ! - cit! , . ,
When no gr~dual hydraulic drop is allowed in'the contraction (Fig. 3-6a), the1depth
where Q, w, and 1:::' are :as.. previously defined, with subscl'ipts refe1'l'in'g to '
of flow at the exit section.should be kept at the high stage, as shown, The high stages
)>1' C(
sectionr-l~nd 2;
P! and P 2 are the resultants of pressures acting on the
for other interm£ldiate sections are then compute~ by the above equation, whicli giveB _, Yn two sections; W is the weight of water enclosed between the sections; and
the flow-surface ptofile. Similarly, the low stages are computed by the aboye pro-
I F! is the total external force QL friE,tion and reslstanc~~ing-,ilong the
cedure and indicated by the alternate-depth line~ ; ,I lLUliace of conta,Qt bet\V'een.the water and the cha;nl)el.The above equa-'
When a grodua:~ hydrauiic drop is desired in the contraction (Fig. 3-6b), theldepth I
of flow at the exit ~ection should be at the low stage, Since the point of inAection of ! tion. .is known as the m;omentum
I ·
equation, l ,
the drop or 11. critipal section is maintained at th~ mid-section of the c~ntracti<?n, the !, 1 The application of the inomentum principle was first suggested by Belanger [5J.
,
50 BASIC PRINCIPLES ENERGY AND )';IOMENTUJI{ PRINCIPLES 51
For a parallei or gradually varied flow, the values of PI and P 2 in the rectangular channel of small slope and wi~lth b (Fig. 3-7),
r- momentum equation may be computed by assuming a hYdrosta.tic ;'~Wb1l1:l.
distribution of pressure. For a cur:-vilinea.r or rapidly varied flo"l,' how- . and
PI
P z = 7§.wb yz2 L
ever, the pressure distribution is no longer hydrostatic; hence the ~alues Assume FI = wh/by
of PI and P z cannot be so computed but must be cOl'rected for the curva-
ture effect of the streamlines of the flow. For simplicity, P 1 and P2 may where h/ is the friction head and ii is the avera.ge depth, or (YI+ Y2)/2.
be replaced, respectively, by {)!'P 1 and f1~'P2' where {:Jt' and {)z' are the The discharge ~hrcillgh the reach may be taken as the produot of the
correction coefficients at the two sections. The coefficients are referred average velocity and the avera.ge area, or
I Q ~ ~i(Vl + V~)bii
I Also, it is evident (Fig. 3-7) that eha weight of the body of water is
W = wbfjL
and sin {j =
Substituting :111 the abo,'e expressions for the corresponding items in
.\ Eq. (3-14) and simplifying, .
(3-16)1
Fro. 3-7. Application of the momentum.principle. 1. t'Yltkfr; ~t·-Z,a:k.~ ferent velocity-distribution coefficient,s, although these are nearly equal,
but al~o invol;e different meanings of the frictiollltllosses. ,II!. the energy
1.iJ" ~ e"" t Jt-l'!' !ill.!ll!-t!.on, the Item hr mea::;yres t.he intl?rna.l energy dissipat.ed in the whole
to as pressure-dislribution coefficients, Sjnce and P2 are forces, the. ~.~~?} ~.~s of the water iI!tbe reseh, whereas the item hi in the momentum
coeffi(Jients may be specificall~r (JaIled force coefficients. It can be shown i equatirJll measures the losses due to external forces exerted 011 the water
i
thu,t the force coefficient is expressed by by the walls of the channel. Ignoring the small difference between the
{:J' = 1-::
AZ)o
fA hdA= 1 +~ fA
AzJ~
cdA (3-15)
coefficients a and fJ, it seems that, in gradually varied flow, the internal-
ellergy losses are practically identical with the losses due to external
where z is the depth of the centroid of the wa.ter area A below the free forces. In uniform flow, the rate with which surface forces are doing
surface, h is the pressure head on the elementary area dA, andc is the work is equal to the rate of energy dissipation, In that case, therefore,.
pressure-head correction [Eq. (2-9)1, It can easily be seen th'1t pI is a dist,inction between hI and h/ does not exist except in definition.
!.Treater than 1.0 for ooncave flow, less than 1.0 for and equai The simila.rit,y between the applications of the energy and momentum
=~~ principles may be confusing: A clear ullderstandingof the basic differ-
to 1.0 f <2.r...1lllJ:allel flow:
It can be shown that the momentum e.quation is similar to the energy ences in their constitution is important, de.'lpite the fact that mmany
equation when ~pplied to certain flow problems. In this case, a gradually instances the two principles will produce practically. identical results.
varied flow.is considered; accordingly, the pressure distribution in the The inherent distinction between the two principles lies in the fact that
sections may be assumed hydrostatic, and (1' = 1. Also, the slope of the energ'J is a i5calar quantity whereas momentum is a vectC)r quantitT also·
. channel is ass~ed relatively small. 1 · Thus, in the short reach of a the ~nergy equation contains a term for' internal losses, where:s th~
momentum equation contains a term for external resistance.
1 If the slope a.!l~le 8 is large, then PI = }iwdl~ cos 0 and P. = ;fW~1 cos O,where
ell and el, are the Beptbs of flow section and cos IJ is a. correction factor (Art. 2-10). Generally speaking, the energy principle offers a simpler and clea~er
, ,a. tI
/::}.
Qw (V2 -- 17 1) = PI - P2
g
The hydrostatic forces PI and 'P 2 may be expressed as
PI = wi 1 A. 1 a.nd P 2 = wi 2 A 2
where i l a~d i2 are the distances of the centroids of the respective wa.ter
areas Al and Az below the surface of flow. Also, Y I = Q/ Al a.nd
V 2 = Q/ A z• Then, the above momentum equation may be written
r0 0 1">'1 e'Y°;t~,- [1""< a-"1,..""; 7 (~~4li/M ,rgf1lJ,o/,J<. (){;.:aty/'b .d:./n Ct"7fd-t. 'c.~ t5 If) f3 L
:: /, .ve-.le, i:-~ ' r · »( , I <Y'£.
, . '- 'Y) c'Af:i
j .. /.:: .r-? .1: /)~;..<_. r . . ' _ .. ,:Ad .rI.r...,~;,;,;",,! f. ....u,:u.,
54 BASIC PRINCIPLES ENERGY AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLES 55
The two sides of Eq. (3-18) are analogous and, hence, may be expressed For a minimum yalue of the specific force, the first derivative of F
with respect to iJ should bl') zero, or, from Eq. (3-19), '
.
for ahy channel section by a general function
"
Qz' dF Q2 dA ,d(zA) 0
F - i t zA "(3-19)
u4'_ gP dy T --elY
, ' '
This function cOMists of two terms. The first term is the momentum of
For a change dy in the depth, the correspo,nding change 'd(iA) in the
the flow passing through the channel section per unit time per unit weight
of water, and the second is !:.l!.e for.J<.ELrillr....unit weigb.:Lm w~t.!lr. Since
static'moment of
the water area. about the free surface is equal to
[A (2 + dy) + T(dyP/2] - zA, (Fig. 3-9). Ignoring the differential of
, both terms al~e essentially force per unit weight of water, their sum may
higher degree, that is, assuming (dy) 2 = 0, the change in static moment
, , be ,c~lled the 8PlJcifjE.l(jr.c~.1 ,Accordingly, (3-18) may be expressfld
becomes d(iA) = A dy. Then the preceding equation may be written
dF _ Q! dA +A = 0
,I
B
gA2 dy I,
Since dA/dy = T, Q/ A V,and AfT = D, the above equation may be
reduced to
c· i" (3-10)
i
I !i
~=-:-_. I ( This is the criterion for the criMeal state of How, derived e~rlier (Art. 3-3).
o 45° for () Ez '£lEiE:, Therefore, it is proved that the dep~h at the minimum va-lueaf the specific
channel of ,......,
zero or small
slope (0] l.bl
force is the critical depth.I It may also be stated that at the critical state
of flow the specific'jorce is a minim.'um for the given discharge.
3-9. Specific-fofce curve supplemented \~ith specific-energy curve. (a) Specific-
energy curve; (b) channel section; (e) specific-force curve. ' NQw, comp£1,re the specific-force curve with the specific-energy curve,
(Fig. 3-9). For a gi;iell specific energy Ell the specific-energy curve indi-
as F 1 = F 2. . This means that the specific forces of section,s 1 and 2 are cates two possible depths, namely, a low stage YI in the supel'critical flow
equal, p.r:ovided t~t the e~rnal forces and the weight effect of water in region and a high stage yz' in the subcritical flow region. 2 , For a given
the..rea<;h between the two s~ctiQns can be igno];ed. v~lue of F1, the specific-force curve also indicates two poosible depths,
By plottillg the depth against the spec~fic force for a given. channel namely,.ail initial depth lit in the supercritica.l region nncla sequent depth
section and discharge, a ~pecific-jorce CU'fve is obtained (Fig. 3-9). This ljz in the sub critical flow region. It is assumed that the low stage and
curve has two limbs AC and BC. The limb AC approaches the horizontal the initial depth are both equaJ to YI' Thus, the two curves indicate
axis asymptotically toward the right, The limb BC rises upward and jointly that the sequent depth Y2 is a.lways less than the high stage 1/2'.
extends indefinitely to the right. For a given value of the specific force, Furthermore, the specific-energJ' curve shows that the energy content
the curve has two poss(ble depths Yl and Yl' " A13 will be shown later, the E2 for the depth Vi is less than the energy content El for the depth Y2'.
two depths constitute the il1it~al and sequent depths of a hyqraulic Therefore, in order to maintain a constant value of F1, the depth of flow
jump. At point· C on the curve the two depths become one, and the may be changed from Yl to Y2 at the price 'of losing a certain amouilt of
specific force is a minimum. The following argument shows that the energy, which is equal to El - E, = I:J.E. One example o( this is the
depth at the minimum value pf the specific force is eqv,al to the critical 1 It should be noted that the above proof is based on the assumptidrul of para.liel
depth.~ , flow and uniform velocity distribution. However, the concept of !lritico.l depth is: a
1 This has been variously called the "force plus momentum,'~ the "momentum
genera.l concept, tl:..a.t is valid for aU flows, whether derived from energy or from
ftux," the "total force;" or, briefly, the "force" pf a stream (see pp. 81 and 82 of [14J). momentum considerations. This validity has beeJ;!. proved by Jaeger [14,17,18), and
The {unction represented by Eq. (3:'19) was formula.ted by Bresse [15J for the study of the proof is known llS the J a.eger theorem {I9]. '
~ In order to make 2. clear distinction between the sequent depth and the high
the hYdra.ullc jump to be described in Example 3-3. :
i The conoept of critic!!.1 depth based on tbe theorem of momentum :is believed to of tile alternate depths, the sequent depth is designated by y. and the ):ligh sta.ge
ha.ve:been developed by Boussinesq [16). lit. In some other places in thLs book, however, both are designated by 1/1'
'.. ,I
"'i
f ENERGY AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLES 57
56 BASIC PRINCIPLES i
\
I section.' In applying the mornentur~l principle to nonprismatic channels,
hydraulic jump on a horizontal floor, in which the specific forces before therefore,a three-dimensional plot similar to that shown for the applica-
and after the jump are equal and the loss of energy is a consequence of tion of the energy principle (Fig. 3-5) can be constructed. For practical
the phenomenon. This will be explained further in the following exam-
purposes, however, this is rarely necessa.ry.
ple,' It may be noted at this point, however, that the depths YI and Where there is no interyention 'of external forces or where these forces
yz' shown by the specific-energy curve are the alternate depths; whereas are either negligible or given, the momentum pdriciple can be applied to
the ?epths. Yl and Y2 shown by t.he specific-force curve are, respectively, its best advantage to problems, such as t.he hydr.alllic jump, that deal
the mitinl depth and the sequent depth of !1 hydraulic jump. '
;"!I"':';...~;.tJ,,""'!j12!JiJ."'J="_<".bJ'-JlJ""'''''' th.at..!:~l!!!i~~. jUhe energy
!' Example 3-11. Dedve a relationship b~tween the initial depth and the sequent
depth of 8: hydraulic jump on a horizontal floor in a rectangular channel. ' -
following example shows how the momentum
design of a channel transition in which a
, Sob/ion. The el:ternal forces of friction and the wet'lH effect of Wil.Wr in the
hydl'~ulic jump o~ a horizontal floor are negligible, because~ the-jump't.;;:kes place in a hydraulic jump is involve(i.
relatively short distance and the slope angle of the ,horizontal fioor is zero. The'
specific forces of sections 1 and 2 (Fig. 3-4), respectively, before and after the jump, Example 8-4., A rectangular channel Sit wide,.earrying 100 cfs at a depth of 0,5 ft,
can,therefore be considered equal; that is, is connected by a str:oight-wall transition to Il. channel 10 it wide, flowing nt.s. depth.
(3-18)
(:1!!)'
y,.
- (2F,' + 1) (J!J)+ 2F,' 0
~
= (3-20)
(3-21) .
For a. J:!.iv:? ,F'roude ?u~ber FI of the apprQaching flow, the xatio of the sequent. depth
to the IlUt1l3l depth IS given by the above equa.tion.
It should be understood that the momentum principle ill used in this solutiou because
the hydraulic jump involves a high amount of internal-energy losses whioh cannot be
evaluated in the energy equation., '
.The jOilit. UIlB of the specific-energy curve aud the specific-force curve helps to d~ter
~ne gra.plllcally the energy loss involved in the hydraulic jump for II. given appro8.ch-
mgflow. For the given approaching depth 11., points P, ana. P,' are located on the
spe~itic-force curve and the spec~c~energy curve, respectively (;Fig, 3-4). The point
FIG. 3-10. (mnergy and'momentum principles applied to II. channel expansion (a.) with
Pi'!gives the initial energy content E , . Dralv a vertical line, passing through the hydraulic jump; (b) without hydraulic jump. . .:
P?int PI and intercepting the upper limb of the specific-force curve at point P" which
gives the sequent depth 1)2. 'Then, draw a horizontal line passing through the point
o~ 4 n (Fir;. 3~lO). Determine the flow; profile in the transition if th~ frictional loss
P a and intercepting the specific-energy curve a.t point P.", which: gives the energy con- through tl;\e tra.n&'ition is negligible. If, a hyqraulic jump occurs in the transition,
tent E, after the j';lmp. The energy loss in the jump is then equal to El - E"
how C!l.n i~ be eliminated? -:' ,
represented by / l E . : ' S"l'Uti"n~ From the given data, the tptal energy with respect to the channel bot~'
priIicipl~ Nonprisrnati~ tom in the approaching flow is E ~ 0.5 + [IOO/(O.S X 8))'/2g = 10.207 It, and in the
a-8.Momentum Applied to Channels.
sp~cifj.c force, like the specific' energy, varies with the snape ofthechannel
The
dowiistrea.i:n,
,
E - 4,0 + (100/(4 X 10)Ji/2y, . = 4.097 ft. ,It is appnhnt that this
58 'BA.SIC PRINCIPLES ENERGY A.ND MOMENTUM PRINClPLES 59
IlMrgy difference 01 6.110 It must be dissipated through the transition by ~ome means, for instance, by bolting orOM ,!limbers to the bottom. of the transition. It can be
since the frictlontll lru;s is negligible. Furthermore, the Fro.ude numbers 6.24 and !LSSumed ill this a'(ample that the energy diff-crcnce of 6.1 10 ft is dissipated uniformly
0.22 of the 8.pproaching a,nd downstrea.m flo'YS are, respectively, greater and less than in tlte transition by artificial roughness. TllUB, the energy line in the tl'ansition is
unity, indicll.ting IJ. change of the flow from supercritical to Bubcritica.l. Therefore, a simply a straight line joining the total heads of the two end sections (Fig. 3-lOb). For.
hydra.ulic jump can be expected to occur to dissipate the energy difference and to deSign p1l1-poses, it is convenient first to assUlne the lIow profile and then to proportion
effect a change in the flow st,ate, Whether this jump will occur within the transition the dimensions of the tranllition so 'that the jump can be eliminated, In proportion-
or in the upstream or. the downstream channel is, however, to be disclosed by fur~her ing the transition, the jump is eliminated either by varying the wid~h or by raising
analysis. . the bottom of the transition. In this example. it is assumed that the bottom is to
be raised, 01' "humped" (Fig.3-10b). The subsequent procedure of the compuGlttion
TABLE 3-1. CObfPUTATION FOR A CHAI'1N1:lL EXF.Ai'/SlON DESCRIBED IN
is to (1) a,!lsume the flow profile; (2) compute the velocity head, which is equal to the
EXAMPLE 3-4 .,
difference. between the total heo.d B.nd the water-surface eleva.tion, at a llumbe!' of
sel",cted sections; (3) compute the velocity and then the water area and depth of flow
Section Low stage High stage foreayh section; (4) determine the elevation of the bottom or the transition, which is
width 'II" ft PI 1/2, ft F, equal to the devation of the water surfar.:e minus the depth of flow; (5) compute the
b, ft for E = 10.207 for E = 4.097 o.lternate depth, ~ince the bottom of the transition is fixed; and (6) compute F'l and
F, lines fo!' the low and high stages, an.d plot them on II convenient Sl'ale. It can be
8.00 0.500 78.6 3.940 71.9 seen that the two F' lines inter3ect and' become tangent to each other a.t a critical sec-
8,50 o 470 78.7 3.960 75.9 tion, where the :flow cha.nges from low to high stage, that is, from 8upercritical to sub-
9.00 0.4'.1:3 78.8 ,3.979 79.9 critical stale. If the critic31-depthlinc is plotted, it will intersect the alternate-depth
9.50 0.419 78.8 3.987 83.6 line and th~ water surface simultaneously at the critical section. Bl\Scd on the criti-
10,00 0.398 78.8 4.000 87.8 ca.l-depth line, a line of minimum speCific energy can also be construc,ted. This line
should be tangent to the total-energy line at the critical flection.
Take 'five sections of the transition with their widths shown in Table 3-1. For
the total approaching enel'gy of 1O.20i ft,.the low stage YI for each section call be com- PRODLEMS
puted by means of Eq. (3-8) or (3-9), or
3-1. With reference to a channel of small slope !l.ud a section shown in Fig. 2-2, (a)
construct a family of specific-energy cllrves f(or Q = 0, 50, 100, 200, 300, and 400 ds,
"':"""-1::--=::'- + VI,:"" 10.207 (b) draw the locml of the critical-depth point on these curves, (c) plot a curve of the
critical depth against the'diilcharge, and (d) plot a family of curves of alternate depths,
where b is the width of the section. Similarly, the high st,age 1/2 for a total ene1'gy of Yl vs. V~, for the given discharges_ .
4.097 can be computed from 8-2. Construct the specific-energy curve for a 36-in. pipe carrying 3:n open-channel
flow of 20 cis (a) on It. flat slope, and (bj on a 30 slope.
0
+ V2 = 4.097 S-B. Show that at the critical state of How tha specific-energy head in a rectangular
channeli;; equal to 1.5 times the depth of flow, assuming zero slope and a = 1.
Thelow- and high-stage linea are then construeted slong with t·lle energy lines (Fig. 3-4. Derive the equations for the lOCI15 of the critiMl-depth point on the specific-
3-lOa). After these stage and energy lines are determined, the specific forces P! and energy curve and for the curve of critical depth vs. discharge, as oota.ined in Prob. 3-L
F. for low and high stages, respectively, at ea.ch section are computed and plotte~ to 3-6. Prove (3~12).
any convenient scale and datum. The hydraulic jump must, occur where the specific 3-6. PrC/ve Eq. (3-13).
'forces for the low and IUgh stages are equal, or at the intersection of the F lines. At. 3-7. Prove that at the critica.l state o( flow the discharge is II ma::dmum for a given
this <laction the water surface at low ,stage will jump to the high stage, as indicated specific energy. 1 .
by a vertic,al line. (Fig. 3-10a.). Actuall:)" however, the jump will take place over a 3-8. Show that 'the relation between the altc;rnate depths Y1,and 1/. in !1 rectangular
'short distance, as shown by the dotted line.' The energy loss in the jump is repre- channel ca.n be expressed by .
sented bj' the vertical intercept between the upstr.9a.m and downstream energy lines,
which is equal to 6.110 ftl covering the energy; difference between the flows in the con- (3-22)
ne¢ting channels. By varying tlie shape of the cross sections of the connecting chan:
nels the location of the intersection of theF lines, or the position of the jump, can be where Y. is the critical depth. Using values of y.!Yc as ordinates !tud of Yz/Yt as
altered. Changing the depth of flow in the downstrea.m channel will also change the abscissas, .construct a dimensiouleSiil graph for the above equation rand study its
po~ition of tile jump. Generally, an increase in the downst~eam depth will mon characteristics. '
the. jump upstream, and a decreaSe in the depth will move the jump do:wnstream. \
The hydraulic jump (lan be eliminated if the energy loss can be dissipated gradually 1 The .concepG of critical depth based. on the theorem of maximum diacharge was ".!
And ·smoothly. This can. be done by introducing proper roughness in the transition, first introduced by Belanger [20J.
r
~
'1
I \' .1
60 !!ABIC PRINCIPLES ENERGY A.ND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLES 61
, '
3-9. Solve the problem given in Example 3-1 (a) if there is a. total energy 108s of where V is the mean veloility, D is the hydraulic depth of the section, and t3 is the
0.60 ft unifol'Jnly diStributed throughout the lel!gth of the contraction, and (0) if 'momentum coefficif;nt for nonuniform velocity distribution. '
a gradual hydraulic drop is desired with its point of inflection at !l. diStance 20 it 3-1'1. For eliminating the hydraulic jump in Example 3-4, the flow profile is
upstream from tlie exit section. assumed to be composed of two Feversed circular curves tangent to el1ch other at the
3-10. Applying the momentumpl'inciple and the continuity equation to the analysis middle aection of the transition and also to the water surfaces "in the connecting chan-
of a submerged hydrllulic jump which occurs at the sluice outlet in a rectangular chan- nels at the two ends of the transition. Verify the computation (shown in scale on
nel (Fig. 3-11), prove that Fig. 3-100).
3-18. A frictional loss of 1.0 ft is p,Ssumed to be uniformly distributed along the, '
length of the tra.nsition in EXMllple 3-4. Determine the flow pro.file in the tmnsition.
17. Cll!irles Ja.eger: Contribution a l'etude des courants liquides a 8urf8.c.oe libre
(Contributil1nto the St11dy of Iree-surface liquid flo;,vs), RIWWi genlrale .de
L'hydrauliq1l.{l PI'tTis, yol. 0, no. 33, pp. 111-120; no. 34, pp. 139-153, 1943.
18. Charles Jae~e.l·: De l'impulsion toto.le at de ses rapports a,yac I'energie totaled'un
cou:u,nt liquide a surface libre (The tota.l impulse and its relations with the toto.l CHApTER 4
I~-
energy of a fl"ee-Ilurface liquid flow), RlWue gtntrale de l'hydravliq1l.e, Paris, voL 13, .
no. 37, pp ..12-1\); no. 38, pp. 86-87; no. 39, pp. 143-151; no. 40, pp. 191-197; CRITICAL FLOW: ITS COMPUTATION
llO •. 41, pp. 257-2iH, 1947.
HI. Etienne Crausse; "lIydr3ulique des canaux deco\lverts en regime permanent" AND AP:PLICATIONS
("Hyciro.ulio5 of Open Ch!lJlneL'! with Steady Flow"), Editions Eyrolles, Paris,
1951, pp. 111-112. . ,
20. J. B. Bela.nger: Notes sur Ie cours d ' hydraulique (Notes on the course in hydrl:lu-
lies), llHmoire, gmt" Na.tionale de$ Pont8 e~ ChaU$88I3$, Paris, 1849-1850, pp~ 32-33.
4-1. Critical Flow. As described in the previous chapter, the llritic!1!
stf1.te of flow through a channel section is characterized by severa.l impor-
tant conditions. 1 Recapitulating, they are (1) the specific energy is a
minimum for (l. given discharge; (2) the discharge is a maximum for a
given specific energy (Frob. 3-7); (3) the specific force is a minimum for a
discharge; (4) the velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic
depth in a channel of small slope; (5) the Froude number is equal to
unity; and (6) the velocity of flow in a channel of small slope with uni-
form velocity distribution is equal to the celeri~y of small gravity waves
in shallow wat,el' caused by local clisturbances.
Discussions 011 critical state of fiow have referred mainly to a particular
section of a channel, known as the critical sectiQu. If the critical state of
flow exists throughout the entire lellgth of the channel or over 11 reach of.
the cha.nnel, the flow in the channel is a criticaL flow. Since, as indicated
by the critical-flow criterion Eq. (3-10), the depth of critical floW' depends
on the geometric elements A' and D of the channel section when the
discharge is constant, the critica.l depth in a prismatic channel of unilorm .,)
slope will be the same in all sectio1l3, and cl'itteal flow in a prismatic
'channel should, t.herefore, be uniform flow. At this condition, the slope
of. the channel that sustains a given discharge at a uniform and critical
depth is called the critical slope S~. A slope oithe c;tiannelless than the
I.
critical slope will cause a slower flow of subcritica,l state for the given
discharge, as will be shown later, and, hence, is called a mild or subcritical
. slope. A slope grel1ter th~\n the critical slope will result in a faster fiow
of super critical state, and is called a steep or supercritical slope.
A flow at or near the critical state is ullstable. This is becau~e a minor
in specific ellergy at. or close to Cl'itical state will cause a major
( '.
the change. It can be observed· also that, when the flow is near the
critical state, the water sUl'face appears unstable and wavy. Such
phenomena are generally caused by the minor chnnges in energy due to
variations in channel roughness, cross section, slope, 01' deposits of
sediment or debris. In the design of a channel, if the depth is found at
or neart,he critical depth fOl" a great length of the chinnel, the shape or
slope of the channel should be altered,if practicable, in order to secure
I greater stability.
, \
The criterion for a critical state of flow (Ar~. 3-:3) is the basis for the
"'1
I
tJ
articles. Two major applications of critiClll-fiow theory nre flow control
and flow measurement, which will also be discussed in this chapter. . II .
4-2. The Section Factor for Critical-flow Computation. Substituting
V Q/ A in Eq. (3-10) and Simplifying, ~~,.. ...g.
.<i
.., -0
. Q c
";l
--:.~
z=-
v'g (4-1) 0,-,
'"!"
:3
'-'
Q
... 't
When the energy coefficient is nO& assumed tobe unity, ..,... . ..c::..,"
:5
tj)
. Q 'w .5
...
z=--
v'g!cY.
('1-2) ..,..':! .~...
"'0 ...
'0
OJ
critical-flow compu.tation [Eq. (2--3)]. Equation (4-2) states that the ....o 1> .s
section facto!: Z for a channel section at the critical state of flow ~s equal a '" ~...
OJ
fIl
dt5;;:.. ::>
to the discharge divided by the squaJ.~e root of U/Ol. Since the section 0
factor Z is !l. function of the depth, the equation indicates that there is -<
.j,
only one possible critical depth for maintaining the given discharge in a. ci
channel and similarly that, when the depth is fixed, the~'e can be 'only ~
one discharge that maintains a critical flow and makes the depth critical
in the g'iven channel section.
Equation (4-1) or (4-2) is ll. very useful tool for the computation and
analysis of critical 'flow in 1111 open channel. When the discharge is (5
given, the equation gives the critical section factor Zc and, hence, the g
critical depth Yo_ On the other hand" when the depth and, hepce, the
section factw' are given, the critical! disharge can be compu~ed by
Eq. (4-1) 'in the following form:
Q =Z Vg
I
(4-3)
or by Eq. (4-2) in the following form: .
Q=z:(2 (4-4)
N;'
ci
OpI ~ puo' q/,( lO SGnlOI\
65
. .
66 BASIC PRINCIPLES CRITICAL :FLOW: ITS C.OMPUTATION AND. APPLICATIONS 67
A subscript 0 is sometimes used to specify the oondition of oritical flow. This equation indicates that the value of M for the trapezoidal section is
Formulas fOI' t,he section factor Z of seven common channel sections are a function of z and y/b. For values of z = 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0,
given in Table 2-1. The Z values for a circular section can be found and 4.0, a family of curves for 111 versus y/b are constructed (Fig. 4~2).
either from the curve in Fig. 2-1 or from the table in Appendix A. These curves in.dicate.that the value of JI.f varies in a range froni 3.0 to 5.0.
In Ol·aer to simplify the computation of critical flow, dh:nensionless !
curves sho.wing the· relatiOll between the depth and section factor Z
(Fig .. 4-1) have been prepared for rect<:.ngular, trapezoidal, 'and circular
S.C , . . - - -.......--.,-----,---7""',--,"'7'1rm-"----,
5.0 1
channels. .These self-explanatory; curves will
·help to determine the depth
4.0 I-----.... ~-'-.-.----- --'-----+.........,f'--I'--7'-HI+-+------j
Example 4-1. Derive arl equatioI! showing critic:u dillcharge through a rectangular 2.0
cha.nnel section in terms of the cha.nnel width and the total head.
Sol~tion. For the rectangular section, Tal?le 2-1 gives the sQcti6n fantor Z = by!.J;.
At the critica.l state'of flow, the depth y HI1.5 (see Frob. 3-3). Substituting these
expressions in Eq. (4-3), using· g = 32.16, and simplifying, we find that the cri~icar 1,0
discharge is o.a
Q. 3.087bHu . (4-5) 0
~
,.. 0.6
4.,.3 .. The Hydraulic Exponentfo.r Critical-flow Computation. Since '0
c 0.5
0
the section factor Z is a function of the depth of flow y, it may be assumed 0,4
......a,..
that
(4-6)
...
0
0.3
.,.
."
M = JL
.A
(31' -'- .:1-TdydT). (4-9)
FIG. 4-2. Curve:; of Mvalues.
f,
I
t
70 BASIC PRINCIPLES
. CIUTICAL FLOW: ITS COMPUTATION AND APPLICATIONS 71
If the channel has a critical slope (middle sketch in Fig. 4.5), then the
flow is initially uniform and critical throughout the channel. In the
presence of the dam, however, the flow through the pool Will be subcritical
, and the pool surface will approach the horizontaL At the dowllstream
! end a so-called drawdown ettrve will be developed, extending upstream
Flo'..,. oon<lilian controlled 01 the downstream e~
* ''.N '
><: S;:-MMc<:)M:r.I~MP)(o)Mp')
,...r:OOOMp')~¢I'lO~tO<a\O
r:- . . . ----roI.<;q~:1N~
..
..100C::OOOOQOOOOO
~_-:-l_."C"')C'}(t)~.:";ImMI.'I?
N-N
;; " " 0 0 0 ~ 0 <:;I 0 0: 0 0- <:)
~oo(Oooooooooo
SECTION L-L a:-t;~~ (I'lC'lVlr')MC<')(?tnC")
FIG, 4-6, Plan, elevation, ana dimensions o.f ,he Parsholl flume. (U.s. SlIil Conser-
vation 8811>ilie [26J.} Plan and elevation of a concrete Parshall measuring fIl\me show-
ing lettered dimensions as follows.:·
I W - size of flume in in, 01' ft; A = length of side wall of converging seetion;
,%A = dista.nce back"from end of orest to gage point: B . '"
i Ilxiallength of converging
section; (} = wid.th ofdownstl'ea.m end of flume; D = width of upstrea.m end of flume;
..:; ..... ;:;-CO)oc)OOOQOOO
~Q..-t ..... NC'-lC')"Iq'IV)~,....OOCl!
E = depth of flume; F length ofthl'oat; G "" length of diverging section; K = differ-
ence in ele.... ation between lower eml oj' flume and crest; ,yI = length of approach /lOOI'; ~~~~~~;::~~
2 '" ::.•~ e ~ S'
,
~ q;) Q S 'otI t--<,
N ~ depth af depression in throat \:lelow crest; P = width between ends of curved
~. ~ C"ol C'.J "'tt "ttl <qO U1 t.e ~ CC ..... 1:--
wing wa.lls; R radius of curved willg wall; X = hol'izontn.l distanoe to E. gage I~""~~~------------------I
point from low point in tlu'Oll.t; Y "" verticil.l dilltance to. Eo ga.ge point from low
point in throl1t. See the tlible on the next page for actual dimellsions for various
sizes of flume."
~
'"
~
.:~i:f
.=~M.~O .• O.
l~ .... ·,......-tto':l(#)MM~"~"'')LI':l
effect originlj.tillg from ~hepool will not extend far upstream. Instead, ii~~~
~tO :::fOOlQIt)OIOOf;!)Q
the flow in the upstream channel will eontinue in:the downstz-eam direc-
:~ ..:. Col ,,' 'ttl ~ l.O·tn 0: 10 ..,;. l'-< co
tion at a supercritical state until the flow-s]lrface profile is actually below
the poolle'Tel;1 the~ .it will rise abruptly to the pool elevation in a hydrau-
1 Itshoul:l: be noted that; the pool level in this case is ~ot. horizontal but curved.
The curved water surface has an 81 profile, which will be :described later (Art. 9-4).
73
l
74 BASIC PRINCIPLES CRITICAL FLOW: ITS COMPUTATION AND APPLICATIONS 75 J
lie jump. The backwater effect will not extend upstream through the or free-flow condition having the critical depth at a contracted section and
hydraulic jump. The fiowupstream from the jump.is governed entirely a hydraulic jump in the exit section. Under certain conditions of flow
by t.he Upst.l·cam conditions. however, the jump may be submerged. . . '
The above example explains the important fact that on subcritical ,. One of the most extensively used critical-flow flumes is the Parshall
slopes the effect of change in water-suI:face elevation downstream is I' flume l (Fig. ,1-6) which was developed in 1920 by R. L. Parshall. The
transmitted upstream by a ba:ckwater curve, whereas on supercritical depth-discharge relationships of Parshall flumes of' various sizes as
slopes the effect cannot. be transmitted far upstl:eam. The flow condi- calibrated empirically, are represented by the following equations: '
tion in a sub critical channel is affected by downstream conditions; but,
in a supercritical channel, the flow condition is dependent entirely upon ThrQat width Equ.a.lion
the condition upstream or at the place where water enters the channel. 3" Q = 0.9921I.u4T (4-12)
Accordingly, tile control of flow is said to be at th,~ downst.ream end for 6" Q= 2.06H.ua {4-13}
channels ,,,ith sub critical slope and at the upstream end £01' channels 9" Q= 3.07 H.l.63 (4-14)
with supercritical slope. 12" to 8' Q~ 4WH.uuw'·'" (4-15)
10' to 50' Q= (3.6875W -I- 2.5)H.1.G (4-16)
When t.he challnel is on a subcritical slope a control section at the
downstream end may be a critical5('1ction, sunh as that created on the top
of an overflow spillway. On a supercritic~l slope, the r;ontrol section at· In the above equations Q is the free discharge in cfs Wis the width of
the upstream end may also be a critical section, 2.S shown in the figure. .thro~t inft, ~nd Ha is the gage reading in ft. Whe:l the ratio of gage
A sluice gate or an orifke or other control structure may also be used to readmg Hb (FIg. 4-6) to Ha exceeds the limits of 0.6 for 3-, 6-, and 9-in.
create a control section. It should be noted that whether the channel flumes, 0.7 for 1- to 8-ft flumes, and 0.8 for 10- to 50-ft flumes, the flow
slope is critical, subcritical, or supercritical will depend not only on the becomes submerged. The effect of submergence is to reduce the dis-
measure of the actual slope.but also on the discharge 0; the depth of flow. charge. In this case the discharge computed by the' above equatiollS
4-6. Flow Measurement. It was mentioned in the preceding article ~ust be correc~~d by a negative quantity. The diagrams in Fig. 4-7
that, at a critical control section, the relationship between the depth gIVe the correct1Ons for submergence for Pa.rshall flumes of various sizes.
and the discharge is defillitive, independent of the channel roughness and The correction for the I-ft flume is made applicable to the larger flume's
other '.Incontrollable circumstances. Such a definitive stage-discharge by multiplying the correction for the 1-ft flume by the fador given
relationshipoffers.r. theoretical basis for the measurement of discharge in below for the particular size of the flume in use. .
open channels.
Based on the principle of critical flow, various devices for flow measure- Size of flu.me W, ft Correction factor
ment have been developed. In such devices the critical depth is usually 1 1.0
created either by the construction of a low hump on the channel bottom, 1.5 1.4
2 1.8
such as a weir, or by a contraction 'in the cross section, such as a critical-
3 2.4
flow fiwne. The use of a weir is a simple method,. but it causes relati vely 4 3.1
high head 109s. If water contains suspended particles, some will be 6 4.3
deposited in the upstream pool formed by the weir, result.ing in a ,gradual 8 5.4
change in the discharge coefficient. .These difficulties, however, can be
overcome at least partially by the use of a critical-flow flume. Similarly, the correction for the 10-ft flume is made applicable to the
,The critir.al-flow flume, also known as the Vent~ri flume, has been
designed in various forms.l : J+, is usually operated with an unsubmerged I Experin).ents on this type of mea.suring. device, then called the Ventu.ri flu rite, were
.i
..;.
~.
]
"
·r
76 BASIC PRINCIPLES
GRITICAL FLOW: ITS OOMI'iJTATIONAND APPLICA.TIONS 77
i
Correction, cIs
U
Discharge, cIs
1.9 ZD I (tt)
(OJ
Discharge, cIs
( b) Correction. cis
(e)
Fro. 4-7. Diagrams ior computing Bubme.!"ged flow through ParshaU flumes of various
sizes. (Colorado Agricullural Ezperime:n.t Sta.tion [25J a.nd U.S. SlYil Conservation
Service [26).) (a) Diagram showing the rate of submerged flow. in cubic feet per
~econd,through a 3-in. Pa.rshall measuring flume. (bl Dia.gram s!lOwing the rate of
submerged flow, in cubic feet per second, through a. 6-in. Pars!lall measuring flume.
(el Diagram showing the rate of submerged flow, in cubic feet per second, through a
9-in. P!lrshall measuring flume. (d) Dia.gra.m for computing the rate of $ubmerge.d
b flow, in eubic feet per second, through a loft Parshall measl.lring flume,' (e) Diagram
'" aa for determining the correction in cubic feet per second Plll': 10 ft of crest for subDlerged-
f
c.
flow discharge.
FIG. 4~7
78 BASIC PRINCIPLES CRITICAL FLOW: ITS COMPUTATION AND APPLICATIONS 79
larger flumes by multiplying the correctioll for the lO~ft flume by the \ 1
factor given below for the paJ,ticular flume ill use. I
Size rJ/ flume W, f/, CorrectiOlt factor I
I
j [
10 LO
12 1.2 1
15 1.5
20 2.0
25 2.5
30 3.0
40
50
4.0
5.0 II
It is desiiable to set the crest of the Parshall flume so that free flow will
occur. If conditions do not permit free-floW operation, the percentage ,
of submergence Hb/H" should be kept, whenever possible, below the I,
practical limit of about 95 %, since the flume will not measure dependably
if the submergence is greater. The size and elevatiori of the crest depend
upon the discharge to be measured and upon the 5i;(;e of the flume and,
consequently, upon the loss of head through the flume. The loss or head
can be determined from ~he diagrams in Fig. 4-8. A practical example
(Example 4-5) will be given' to show the deterrcinatiol1 of the size and
elevat.ion of the flume crest.
Because of the contraction at the throat, the velocity of water flowing
through the flume is higher than that of the flow ill the channeL For
this. reason any sand or silt in suspension or rolled along the bottom call.
be carried through, leaving the flume free of deposit. When a heavy
burden of erosion debris is pl't;lsent in the stream, ho\yever, the Parshall
flume will become invalid like the weir, because deposition of ths debris
will produce undependable results. For use under such circumstances,
a modified Parsh.aLl flume known as the San DimGSfiume (27,28] has been
developed, which has the advantage of a self-cleaning mechanism for
heavily debris-laden flows in the stream.
For measuring open-channel flow in closed conduits, such as sewers and
;; .
covered irrigation canals, critical-flow flumes of special designs have been
proposed. Palmer and Bowlus [29-31J have developed several of these
flumes, including one'which is simplr a flat slab on the bottom and has no.
side contractions, one with a rectangular croSs section, and several witp
trapezoidal-shaped throats. Stevens [32], recommended a critical-flow
flume in which he used a blister-shaped' hump control on the bed of the
conduit to produce a critical flow over it. The frictional.1osses in this
design are believed to be very small.
~~:s' 4-8;cD()lio!l.Tgar;~sAf{)O~ del~ermalirunE''g th.s los,s h~!l.d t(hrough Parshall flumes of various
~ :
Like. many measuring devices, the critical~flow flume has certain dis- of -\
advantages. The flume CD.nnot be used directly with or, combined with Seroi~e ~61.) Slat~{)'11 251 and U.S. Sml Ccm.ssnJl1tion
a head gate. "It is more expensive to build and requires more accurate II lW • • ell .ur
,:z:pmmen
, .:~.
I
"\'..:,
"
culverts. The results of this experimental study indicate that the culvert j
,
can be used as a flow-rate measuring device if it flows part full and has
free outlet fall. A weir sill should be installed, however, to improve the
accuracy ofthe measurement in the low-flow ,range. In this investigation,
, { a standard Villemonte-type weir silP was developed and its location on
the culvert floor determined. Head-discharge relationships were also
determined for various flow ranges.
Example 44. Using the theory of criticaillow, derive an equation for the discha,ge
FIG. 4:-9.
8.9ction of a Parshall Ilume illustrating ,th,e determination of the' proper crest
elevatlOn [26].
over a broad·crested weir.
Solution. COllsiaer the section on the weir crest where critical flow occurs. At this
section, y, = 2(V,'/2g} HJ1.5 or V, "" VUH,/1.5, where H. is the specific-energy most eoonomical because of its small dimensions. However when the width of the
head at the section. The discharge per foot width of the weids, therefore, equal to channel is considered, the final selection may be in bvor of th~ 3- or 4-ft flume because
moderat~ or long wing wall.s may be required for a smeoll structure. Usually, the
g = V.y, =%H. V%i'if. = 3.09H.1.S
,
(4--17) throat wldth of the flume Will be from one-third to one-h!'\lf of the channel width.
This is a theoreticru discharge equation i1) which H. is uncertain since the critical sec-
tion is usually difficult to locate. For' practical purposes, however, the t\quation is
PROBLEMS
generally written q = CH'Jl, where H is the elevation of the upstream wa~er surface
iLbovethe weir c~est. This is the form described earlier (Example 3-2). . 4-1. Prove the following critical-discharge equations for the triangular trapezoidal '
If an ...!'sated free overfall exists at the downstrea~end of the weir, the a\'ove equa- aud circular' sections: I ' , ,
tion ca.n be expressed in termso! the brink depth Y" which can easily be measured.
Since y, :. l.4y~ (Art. 3-4), the equ!l.tion required is Channel 8e£!lion Equation
,
q = 9.38y ol.l (4-18)
, Triangular Q, = 2.295zH..·• (4-19)
Experiments h9.V~ shown that, when the head on the broad-crested w!:!r is greater Trapezoidal Q _ 5.671{(b + zy)yJu
than about 1.5 times the length of the crest, the nappe of the free overfall becomes , - -(I) + 2zy)',$ - (4-20)
detached and the weir is in effect a sharp-crested weir. Circular Q.= 0.251(0' - sin OJ''' d U
Example 4-6. Design ft. Parshall flume for handling 20 cfa of now in a.: chann'cl of (sin Yz 9) 0,6 n (4-21)
moderate slope when the water depth in the channel is 2.5 ft." Parabolic Q. = 2.005TH.L5 (4-22)
Solulimt. The discharge given can be m!"llsured by flumes of several si~es, but the
best selection' is the flume of most practical' a.nd economical size. i ' , In the above equation~, IX = 1 and H, is the specifiiJ..energy head; other notation'
Assume W .. 4 it ,and H,/H. 0.7, For Q = 20 cfs, Eq, (4-15) gives' H. ~ L15 . follows that of Table 2-1; ; ' '
ft. Hence, H, = Q,81 f t . ; , ' 4-2. C~mpute the hydr£lulic exponent M of the trapezoidnl cha.nnel section (lfig:
At 70% submergence, the 1vater surface ih the throat, at Hb gage. is essentially level 2-2) ~avlDg a flow dept!h of 6 ft, using (a) Eq. (4-10), (0) Fig. 4-2, and (e) the
with the surface of the tailwater. Under :this condition of flow, sllown lin Fig. 4-9, graphlCru method based on Eq. (4-11).. •
4.-3. Compute .the hydraulic. exponeD.t M of a 36"1n. circular conduit having a,;
1 The Vilhimonte weir sill consists or two; tri!LIIgular. tapered cotlvergin~ sills placed
flow depth of 24 In. above the Invert, uSing (a) Fig. 4-2 and (b) the graphical method;
on the culvert Hoor with an opening left between them (39}. ' based on Eq. (4-11). ' '
• This example is sdopted from [26J. ' 4-4. Prove that the critical depth and velocity for a rectangular channel are'
82 BASIC FRINCIFl;IllS
CRITICAL FLOW; ITS COMPUTATION AND ,APPLICATIONS 83
expressed by
(4-23)
and (4-24)
where Q is the. discharge, b is the channel width, and "dll the energy coefficient.
4-5. A rectangular channel, 20 ft wide, carries g, discharge of 200 cfs. Compute
the critical depth and velocity.
4-6. Solve Example 4-2 by various methods if the discharge is 300 cfs.
4-7. Solve Example 4-3 by various methods if tr.e discharge is 15 cis.
4-8. An' a.pproxhnate but practiclJ.I fonnula for the critical depth of a circular sec-
tion of <iiameter do, derived by BrILine [40] from ~.n equaticm equ.ivalent to Eq. (4.-21),
is
y. = 0.325 (£t + [).083d. (4:-25) I
is
which accurate only when 0.3 < y./d Q < 0.9. ' Solve Example 4-3 and Prob. 4-7 by
this formula,
I
I (
4-9. Referring to the naturalchaonel given in Frob. 2-5, construct a CUrve of critical -{
depth aga.inst discharge, ranging from 0 to 400 crs.
4-10. Prove that the section of a cha.nnel in which the flow is critical at any st'lge
takes the form expressed by !
(4-26) J
whhle z is half the top width and II is the di5~ance of the water surface below the energy
line. Draw II skeLch of the section and d!lscripe its properties. Is this channel possi-
ble? If not, how could it be made pOllSible? Is this channel practicable ind the
flow stable?
1
4-11. Verify the computa.tions for the 2- and :HtPa.rshal! flumes tried in Exam- FIG. 4-10. Rating curves of ;l. critical-flow flume proposed for a clos"d conduit. (After;
ple 4-5. J. C. Stevens [32J.) d. ""diameter of the cor.duit. '
4-12. Determine the dischltrge through the 4i-ft Parsha.ll flume described in Exam-
ple 4-5 if the percentage of submergence is .:l00/".
dh'ided lJy the water area. corresponding to th'e energy head instead or'the actual
4-13. Determine the discharge measured by a 10-ft Parshall flume if the gage rea.d-
area.: corresponding to Y" and (3) that the critical-flaw section i3 at the maximnm
ing H. is 3Al ft at a. free~flow condition. .
~leight of. t~e cDntrol "hump." The second assu.mption elimina.te,s a. trial procedure
4-14. Design a Parshall f!IJme to mell.sure 10 ers of flow in J1 channel ha.ving a depth
In determmmg the velocity hegd of the a.pproa.ching flow !l.nd, furthermore, tends to .1
I
of flow equal to 1.5 ft. '
, co,"?pensatc for the error involved in the first a,'55umption. Verify anyone of the
4-16. A uniform flow of 300 cfs occurs'a.t a depth of 5 ft in a long rectan!!;lliar chan- , ra tmg curves.
nel ,10 ft wide, Compute the mini,mum IH~ight of a. fiat-top hUmp that ca.n be built
on the floor of the channel in order to produce' a critical depth. What wilLresult if REFERENCES
the hump is lower or higher tha.n the computed minimum height? I
1. Charles Jaeger: "~ngineering Fluid Mllchanics,~) trrulsu;,ted from the German by
4-16. If the critical depth in the above problem is produced by a contraction of the
channel, wha,twill be the maximum contracted width? I
1
P. O. Wolf, Bla.ckle & Son, Ltd., London and Glasgow, 1955, pp. 93-119. '
4-17. A low da.m 5 ft, high having a broad horizontal crest is built in a. t"6ct~ng\llar 2. Ven Te. Chow: Integrating the eq1!aticns of gra.du!l.lly varied flow, paper 833,
channel 20 ft wide. Assuming that a depth df 2.5 ft measured on the crest is the Proceedtngs, Am.erican, Society of Civil Engi1l.llers voL 81 pp. 1-32 November
1955. ' , , ' ,
critical depth, compute the discharge and the depth of flow upstrea.m from the dam.
4-1B. On the basis-of the theory of critical flow, Stevens [32] has derived the rating I 3. R., R. C~uga~v: Nekutorye vop.osy neravonomernogo dviphenna. vody v o tkrytykh
curves for the blister-lShaped critical-flow flume tlll~t he proposed for use in circular f pnz~tlchesJ{lk~ ruslakh (About some questions concerning n'Jnuniform flow of
conduits (Fig. 4-10). In the deriva.tion, it is as~umed (1) that there is no energy loss
I wat~r m op~n pnsma:i~channels), I zVcsliia. V sesoi11.Z1logo N a.uChno-l ssledClValel' alcaga
from !ll to !It, (:~) that the !;I.pproachingvelocity in the pipe is eq ual to the discharge Imt';.llila Gidrlliekhntk~' (Tramactians, All-l"lnian Scientific. Research Institu.te of
I '
I Hydra.ulic Engineering), Leningra.d, vol. 1, pp. 157-289, 1931.
84 BASIC PRINCIPLES CRITICAL FLOW: ITS COMPUTATION AND APPLICA~ONS 85
4. A. H. Jameson: The Venturi flume and the effect of contractions in open channels, 19. Arma~do Ball.offet: C:i~ical fl~w meters (Venturi flumes), paper 743, Proceedings,
1'ransactions, Institul-iolt of Water Engineers, vol. '30, pp. 19-24, June 30, 1925. Amencan Soc.ety of Cwtl Engmeers, vol: 81, pp. 1-31, JlIly, 1955.
5. A. H. Jameson: The (il.rvelopment of the Venturi flume, Wawr and Water Engineer- 20. V. M. Cone: The Ventnri flume, Journal of Agricultm·aIResea·rch, voL 9, no. 4,
ing, London, voL 32, no. 375, pp. 105-107, Mar. 20, 1930. pp. 115-129, Apr. 23,1917. . . . , .
6. F. V. A. E. Engel: Non-uniform flow of water: Problems and phenomena in open 21. Ralph L. Parshnll and Carl Rohwer: The Venturi flume, Coloraclo Agricultural'
ehannels with side contrn.c.tions, The Engineer, vol. 155, pp. 392-394, Apr. 21; Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 265 February 1921 ..
pp. 429-430, Apr. 28; pp. 45[':'457, May 5, 1933. 22. R. L. Parsho.ll: The improved Vent~ri flume, Trans~clions, AmeJ";cr!.n SlJciety lJf
7. F. V. A. E. Eagel: The Venturi flume, The EngincliT, voL 158, PP: 104-107, Ciuil.Enyineers, vol. B9, pp. B41~B51, 1926.
Aug. 3; pp. 131-133, Aug. 10, 19&4.' 23.R. L. Parshall: The Parshall mell-suring flume, Colorado Agricultural Experimen l
8. A. Linford: Venturi flume flow meter, Civil Engineering and Publ'ic W01'ks Rev-iew, Siation Btdlet'in No. 423, March, 1936. '
London, vol. 36, no. 424, pp. 532-587, October, 19'11. An abstract is given in Jour- 24 R. L. Parshall: Measuring water in irrigation channels, U.S. Department lJf Ag"i-
nal, Americar;. Waler Works Association, vol. 34, pp. 1473-1475, September, 1942: . ~ulh!rB, Parmer's Bulletin No. 1883, January, 1932; revised, October, 1941. .
9. E. S. Crump: Moduling of irrigatioIl channels, Pt"dab Irrigation Brar4ch Publi- 25. R. ~. Par.sl;al~: Parshall flumes of large size, Colorado A(Jricul/ural Experiment
cations, Paper Nos. 26 and 30A, Lahore, India, 1922 and' 1\)33. . Statton, BttLettn No. 3R~, May, 1932; revised as Bulletin No.· 426A, March, 1953.
lO. C. C. Inglis, NoteB on standing wave flumes and flume meter baffle falls, Pl:bUc 26. H. L. Parshall: Measurmg i.vater in irrigation channels with Parshall flumes and
Works Department, Government of Bombay, Techn·ical Papers, No. 15, India, 1928. s:nalt weirs, U.S. Soil Consenlation Senlicc, Circula?' 843, May, 1950. This
11. Giulio De Marchi (anthoT, pis. I and III) and FraMesco Contessi~i (author, Circular supersedes [24],
pt. II): Dispositivi per la misura della pOl·tatll dei canali con minime perdit,e di 27. H. G. Wilm, John S. Cotton, and H. C. Storey: Measurement. of debris-laden
quota: Nuove ricerche sperimentali slii misuratori a risalto !draulico (C'l.llnli stre~m flow with critical-depth flumes, Transactions, Ami-rican Society of Civil
Venturi); Part,e I, Esame del pro(;esso idmulico; Parte II, Descri,.ione delle Eng-meers, vol. 103, pp. 1237-1253, 1938. . .
esperienze; Pal·te III, Risultati delle esperienze [D.evices for measuring discharge 2B. K. J. Bermel: Hydraulic influence of modifications to the San Dimas critical-
in cannls with minimum loss of level: New expaTimentnl researches on standing depth measuring flume, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol. 31 no. 5
wave flumes (Venturi flumes); pt. 1, AnnJysis of the hydralilic process; pt. II, pp. 763-768, October, 1950. . ' ,
Description of the experiments; and pt. lII, Results of the experiments], L' Enfn'gia 2fl. Harold K. Palmer and Fred D. Bowlus: Adaptation of Venturi flumes to flow
. elettrica, Milano, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 6-15, Jil.nnary, 1936; vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 236-244, measurements in conduits, Transactions, American' Society of CilJU E7tginee;s
May, 1936; vol. 11, no. 3, p'p. 189-214, March, 1937. Reprinted as lstituto di vol. 101, pp. 1195-1216, 1936. . '
Idraulica e Co,~truz'io7'li JdJ'auliche, .Milano, Memorie e sludi Nos. 17, 25, and 26, 30. John H. Lu~wig and Russel G. Ludwig: Design of Pltlmer-Bowlus flumes, Sewage
1936-1937.
.12. Giulio Dc Marchi: Nouvelles recherches experimentales sur Ie jaugeur !I. ressaut
a;:d ~ndltst"al Wastes, vol. 23, no.,g, pp. 1096-1107, September, 1951.
31. Edwl~ A. Wells, Jr., I'.nd Harold B. Gotaas: Design of Venturi flumes in circular
hydra.uliqne, canal Venturi (New expel'imental researches' on standing-wave condUits, Transactions, American Society of Civil ElIginee1's, vol. 123, pp. 749-771,
.flume, Venturi flume), Ministry of Agriculture, Pa.ris, France, 1937. This is an 1958.
abstract of pt. I of \11]. .'
la. Guido Neuhia: Ventul'imetri-per canali a sezioni di forma generica (Venturi meter
32. !. C. Ste;ens: Discussion on Adaptation of Venturi flumes to flow measurements
III c~ndUlts; by Ha.rold re. Palmer and Pred D. Bowlus, Transactions, American
for canals with cross sections of general forms), Acqua e gas, vol, 25, no. 11, pp. Society of Ciuil Enginee1's, vol. 101, pp. 1229-1231, 193fl.
2'rD-291, November, W36. . 33. Herbert Addison: "Hydmulic Measurements" JohnWile v & Sons In N
14. Guido Nebbia: VeJ,lturimetri per canali a sezioni di tipo monomio (Venturi 'meter York, 1941. . ' J . ' c., ew
for canals with cross sections of monomial type), Acqua e gas, vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 34. "Wate'l' 'tvIell.sunnnent Manual," U.S. Bureau of Il.eclamo.tioll May W53
326-333, December, 1936. 43-58. ' , , pp.
15. Guido Nebbia: Venturimetri per can ali a sezione di forma. generica: Primi rj;,'Ultat~ 35. Horace William King: "Handbook of Hydraulics," 4th ed., revised by Ernest F
sperimentali (Venturi meter for cano.ls with cross sections of geneml forms: Pre- , . Brater, Mct;lraw-Hill. Book Company, Inc., New York, 1954. ' '..
liminary experimental results), Aequo e (las, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 155-181, May, 103S; ;;6. F. T. MaVIS: Reducmg unknowns in small culvert' design, Engine~rin(l News-
vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 199-214, June, 1938. Record, vol. 137, no. 2, pp. 51-52, July 11, 1946.
16. Duilio Citrini: Miauratori a risalto (Standing-wave flumes), L' Energia elettrica, 37. W; O. Ree and F. R. C~ow: Measuring runoff rates with rectangular highway
Milano, voL 16, nu. 10, pp. 758-763, October,1939; reprinted as Istitutodi Idra1,&lica culverts, Oklahoma AIlT!CUU'Ural Experiment Stat'ion, Technical Bulletin T-51
e Costruz'ioni Idrauliche, Milano, .Memorie e studi No. 35, 1939. November, 1954. . '
-17. Duilio Citrini: Modellatori a risalto: Guida al progetto (Standing-wave meters: 38. W. O. Ree ~nd ~. R. Crow: Culverts as Wo.teT rUIloff measuring' devices, Agri-
Direction~ for design), Centro studi per Ie. aPl?lica.zioni dell'ingegneria all'agri- C1!/tural Eng~neenng, \"01. 35, no. I, pp: 28-31 and 39, January, 1954.
coltura, Sindaeato ingegn.eri di :A{ilano, Se;oorate Paper No.5, Milan,. 1941 ; reprinted 39. James R. Villemonte: New type gaging station for small streams; Enginee1'ing
as I stituio Ji I draulica e Cos!ruzione' I drauliche, Milano, JIIlemorie e studi No. 44, 1941. News-Record, vol. 131, no. 21, pp. 748-750, Nov. 18, 1953.
lB. Anwar Khafa.gi: Der Venturikanal: Them'ie und Anwendung (The Venturi flume: 40. C. D. C. Braine: Draw-down and other factors relating to the design of storm-
theory and application), Eidgenossisehe Itchnische Hochscitu/e Zurich, Mitteilungen w2.ter outflows on sewers, Journal, Institution of CiviL Engineers, London vol. 28
der Versuchsallslaltfv.r Wasserbau und Erdbau, No. I, Zurich, 1942. no. 6, pp. 136-163, April, 1947. . ' "
,
I
l
.PART II
UNIFORM FLOW
1
i.
1 I
'1;
. \
. j,
CHAFTER 5
DEVELOPMENT OF UNIFORM· FLOW
AND ITS FORMULAS
. .)
" It should be noted that unifor:m flow cannot occur at very high veloci-
ties, usually described as ttltTarapid. 'This is because, when uniform flow
reache~ i certain high velocity, It becomes very unstable. At highel'
vetoci~ies' the fl~ "'1ill eventually entrain Edr and becbme unsteady.
i
I
The criterion fOl: instability of u,niform flow will be discussetl1i:1':A:rt:1f-8:
~ 5-2. Establishment .of Uniform Flow. When flow OCCtll'S in an open
channel, resistu.nce is encountered by the water as it flO\vs downstream.
89
'"
~,
l I~~, '
r~~;::~1
phj"Sical conditions of the channel, Buch as entrance' condition, shape,
slope, and roughness. From a hydrodynamic standpoint (see Art. 8-1),
the length of the transitory zone should not be less than the length
required for the full development of the boundary layer under the given
t;"ifOftl1 fl 0 "'_ _ _-I.1 conditions.
I 5-3. Expressing the Velocity of a Uniform Flow. For hydraulic com-
i
I I putations the mean velocity of a turbulent uniform flow in open channels
I
I . is usually expressed il,pproximately by a so-called unifol·tn-flow formula.
I I Most practical uniform-fiow form1.lia,s ca:n be expressed in the following .\
t t
I general form:
FIG. 5-1. :&!ts.blishment of uniform flow in Il long ohe.nne1. ance, varying with the mean v:elocity, hydraulic channel rough-
ness, viscosity, and many QtheJ: factors.
If the water enters the channel slowly, the velocity and hence th(;l resist- For practical purpos~s, the fiow in a natural channel may be assumed
a~ce are, small, and the resistance is outba,lanced by the gra;~ity forces, l,miform under normal conditions, that is, if there are 110 flood Rows or
resulting:in an accelerating flo~v in the upstr~am reach. The velocity and markedly varied flows caused by. channel irregularities. 'In applying
. the resistance will gl·adually 'increase until a balance between resistance
1 Theoretically speaking, the varied depth a.t each end approaches the uniform
aDd gravity forces is reached. At this moment alld' a.fterward the flow
dept.h in the middle llSymptotically and gradually. For praotica\ PUfilvS\lS, however,
becomes uniform. The upstream reach that is required for the establish- the depth ma.y be considez:ed constant if the variation in depth is within a certain
ment of uniform flow is known as the transilory zone;' In this zone the margin, say, 1 % of the lwerage uniform-fiow depth.
;1' flow is accelerating and varIed. If the channel is shorter than the transi- Z In. uniform flow f S :'" Sf =' S,. = So. When the uniform-flow formula is applied
"
t.o the computation of energy slope in a gradually varied flow, the energy slope will -\
tory length required by the given conditions,. unIform flow cannot be.'
. attained. Toward the downstream end of the channel the resil5tance be denoted specifically by Sf instead of S. .
t
. .l·.
92 UNlF'ORM FLOW DEVELOPMF.NT OF UNIFORM FLOW AND 1'1'13 FORMULAS 93
the uniform-flow formula toa natural stream, it is understood that the . 5-4. The ChezyFormula. As early as 1769 the French engineer
result is very approximate' since: the flow condition is subject to more Antoine Chez)" was developing probably the first uniform-flow formula, the
imcertnin betors th}l[l would be involved in it regular artificial channeL famous CMzy furmula l which is usually expressed as follows:
As pointed out by Schneckenberg [1]; a good uniform-flow formula for
(5-2)'
an alluvi.al channel with sediment transport and turbulent flow should
take equal aecount of aU the following variables; where V is the mean velocity in fps, R is the hydraulic radius in ft, S is
A the water area the slope of the -energy line, and C is a factor of flow resistance, called
.V the mean velocity ChezY'$ G.
V ma the maximum surface velocity'
P the wetted perimeter
R the hydraulic radius
y . the maximum depth of w-ater area
SUI the slope of the water surface
n a coefficient representing the channel roughness, known as the
coefficient of 7'oughness 1
, .
Q. the sllspended sediment charge
..
,
1
. I
., DEVELOPMENT-OF UNIFORM FLOW AND ITS FORMULAS 97
!J
... .8
J
'A
'-'
'"
OJ i'l 1l where R is the hydraulic radiusin H; R is the Reynolds numbel';and E is
.,m- ~
c 'tl
.~ a measure of the channel roughness, having the tentative values shown
.S.
j tQ "'"
.S t1. r:I in Table 5-3.
Q)
,..
.>
0
A
t:i
Q) '"
A,
j;: For rough channels, the flow is generally so turbulent that R beoomes
J
A
g :El'" il: very large compare~~th C; thus, Eq. (5-5) approximates the. form
., ~-
p" ...,'"
I
"
0; ~
~
..,:il
...'"
til T.tUILE 5-2, COMPARISON OF VARIATH)NS IN CHi:z.y's C, BAZIN'g m,
lI 5.,'" '"
c
:= .. :a
oil
oil
c AND KTJT'J'ER'S 11
... :a
'"
'0
'"
ill
U
'"~
..::;.... ... !5
;i!
-
~
"
"'
.~
~~]
., c
~g'O
'"""""
,~
oil
~ l:t:1
ill' ",.",
.q
'"
'0
.!!l
~
11., ............................
12 ............ , .................
Ill ...........................
14., ............... , ........ , ..
0.129 O.OU3 .... ,
0.324,0.0151.
OJHI0.0148 .... :j2.7
0.3210.0150 .... 4.4
1.6
3.8
1.0
1.2
1.8
....
A
Q)
:El~
'"
:El 15 ..............................
16 .............. ·~ ...............
0.'7150.0209 . . . . 4,2
0,7110.0212 ..... ' 5.7
1.2
1.5
17 ....... :: ............... 1.... 0.7210.0215 16.1 2.2 .;
32 .......................... j.... 0.4240.0' 1.8 0.4
o S.AZ~H:>
33 , ., ..••.......... ,. . .... , ..... 0.444 0.0 3 .1 L2
. 44, ..... .' ..................... 0.8580. , ... ;1118:6 8,8
2~!!!~g.~E~i.~ii!~~ gg 45 .. , .......... :.; .............. 0.7040. . .... 11.1
fL~.tG,~I~,LIW.!~I~!~I'L1UT~.ll~ttLI~I~.llk'~~~~~~WW~~WU~~~~o 5.7
S3l'iNlmlO .:Ici SIXV Mia.mi River at Tadmor, Ohio, 1915-1916". 167.4* L9S O. 4.0810.9 4.9
Bogue Phalia River, Miss .• 1914 .... " ....... 63.3· 4.09 0.070424.20.35.1 22.2
Arkansas Drainll.ge Onnals, Ark., J915 ....... 165.9· 2.12 O. :3 18 4.8
Mississippi River, Carroltoll, La., J912 ..... , ...... 1.33 1.30 5.4
MiSSissippi River, 'Oarrolton, La., 1913 ... , ....... , 1.46 12.8
IrraWllddy River, Burm!l ......................... 1. 35 23.0
Volgu. River at Sa.mara., R.ussia. ... ,.......... .58 0.0311 1.8713.0
Volga River at Zhiguly, RUl~sia., ........ " . ,76 0.0363 18.8036,5
Average va.riation.. .. . " .:, ... , .. , .. ,
I
, (
C = 42 log (R/e). For smooth channels, the iurface roughness may be: .
so slight that e becomes negligible compared with R; then the formula
approaches the fbrm,C = 42 log (4R/C). Sinoe Chezy's is expressed a
implioitly in the Powell formula, the solution of 'the formula for C requires:
!l. trial-and-error procedure. . .
The Powell formula was developed from limited laboratory experiments:
on smJoth and rougn channels and from the theoretical velooity distri-;
i'
96
. :1\
."
~ ,',
98 UNIFORM, FLOW DEVELOPMENT OF UNIFORM FLOW AND ITS' FORMULAS 99
butioll studied by Keulegan (Art. SA). The practical application of this well-known form
formula is limited, since further investigation is needed for determination
(5-6)
of the properva.[ues of E.
TAIILll 5-3. TllNTATlYE VALUES OF POWELL'S.
where V is the mean velocity in fps, R is the hydraulic radius in ft, S is
Powell's. the slope of energy line, and n is the coefficient of roughness, specifically -1
Description of channel
known as 111anning' 8 n. This formula was developed from seven differ-
New Old ent formulas, based 011 Bazin's experimental data, and further verified
by 170 observatipns} Owing to its simplicity of form and to the satis-
Neat cement surface ............... . 0.0002 0.0004
Unplaned-plank flmlles .... ; ............ . 0.0010 0.0017
0.006 a linear meas,ure of roughness and </>(Rlk) is a iunction of Rlk. If <p(Rlk) is considered
Concrete-lined channels. . . . . . . .. . ..... . 0.004
climensionless, It ,\yil! have the same dimensions as those of kH, that is, ~H.
Earth, straight and uniform ............ .
Dredged ear~li channels ................. i
0.04
0.10
On the ot.her hand, of course, it is equally possible to assume tha~ the numerator j
l.
of 1.486/n can a.bsorb the dimen'sions of Lwr-- I , or that ",(Rlk) involves a dimensional
factor, thus leaving no dimen~ions for n. Some authors, therefore, preferring the
Example 5-1. Compute the velocity and discharge in the trape~oidal channel simpler choice, consider n it dimensionless coefficien t. '
described in Example 2-1, hONing a bottom width of. 20 ft, side slopes 2: 1, and a depth It is inte~esting to note that the conversion of the units for the l\'Ianning formul!l.
\
of wat,er 6 ft. Given: Kutter's n = 0.015, and S = 0.005. is independent of the dirn~nsions of n, as long as the same value of n is used in both I
Solution. From Example 2-1, A = 192.0 it' and R = 4.10 It. Using the G. l{.. systems of units. If n is .assumed dimensionle~s; then the formula in Engliah units
formula, the value or Ch6zy's C i" .gives the numeric."l Gonstallt 3.2B08~ = 1.486 since 1 meter = 3.2808 ft: NfliV" if n
is assumed to have the dimensions of LhI, it" nllmerical value in English units must be
41 65 + 0.00281 + 1.811 different from its valuo in metric units, unless a nnme.rical ~orrection factor is intro-
. . 0.005 0.015 = 1242
0= duced for compensation. Let n be the vallie in metric units and II' the value in Eng-
'41 6- + 0.00281) 0.015 .
+( • 0 0.005 V4J.O lish units. Then,n' = (3.2B08H)n = 1.2190n. When the formul(l. is converted from
metric to English lin its, the resulting form takes the numerical constant 3.2808'~+~~ =
Then, by the Chc~y formula,
V = 124.2 V4.10 X 0.005 = 17.8 fps
3.2BOB~~ = 1.811, since. n has the dimensions of Lli. Thus, the reSUlting equation
should be writtan V = 1.811R~~S}i/n' Since the same. value of n is used in both sys- J
tems, the practical form of the formula in the English .system is Y = 1.8UR~S!h1
Therefore, 1.2HlOn = 1.48I}R~S"~/n, whiGh is identical with the formula derived on the assump-
Q = 192.0 X 17.8 = 3,420 ds
. tiori that II has no dimensi.olls.
5-6. The Manning Formula. In 1889 the Irish engineer' Robert In a search of early Ii~erature on hydmulics, the author has failed to find an y
significant discussion regarding ~he dimensions of n. It seems that this was not ~
Manning I presented a formula, which was later modified to its present
problem of concern to the forefathers of hydraulics. It is most likely, however,. that
1 Manning first presented the formula in a paper read on December 4, 1889, at a
11: was unconsciously taken 2-S dimensionl¢Ss in the conversion of the Manning formula,
meeting of the Institution of Civil Engine:ers of Ireland. The paper ,...-as Io.ter pub- becau,se such a conversion, as shown above, is more direct a.nd simpler.
lished in the Transa.ctions of the Institution [15J. The formula \V'as first given in a Now, considering the approximations involved in the derivation of the formula
complicated form and then simplified to V '= CR?~S'\, where V is the mean velocity, and the uncertainty in the value of n, it seems unjustifiable to carry the numerical
C is a factor of flow resistance, R is the hydraulic radius, and S is the slope. This was constant to more than three significant figures. For practical purposes, a value of
further modified by others and expressed in me.tric units as V = (1ln)R~\SH. Later, 1.49 is believed to be sufficiently ac.;urate [161.
it was converted back again to English uni~,resulting in V = (1.486/n)R;~S'~. In Manning mentioned that the simplified form of the forl11ulahad been suggested
this conversion, as iIi the conversion of the: GanguilLet and Kutter formula, tlie independently by G. H. L. Hagen prior to Mo.nning's own work, ,according to a state.-
numerical value,of n is kept unaffected. Cons:equently, the same value of n is widely ment by Major Cunninghllm (171. Hagen's formula was believed to have appeared
used in both systems of units. first in 1876 [7J. It is also known that Pllilippe-Gaspl1rd Gauckler [18J had all early
In the vielV of modern flllid mechanics, which pays much attention to dimensions, proposal of the simplified form of Manning's formula in 1868 and that Strickler [191
the 'dimensions of n become a matter of consideration. Directly from the Manning presented independentiy the Same form of the formula ill: 1923. '
I For the derlva.tion of the exponent of Il, use was made of Bazin's experimental
formul!l, the din).ensions of·n are seen to be TL-H. Since it is unreasonable to sup-
pose that the roughness coeHicient w01..lld contain the dimension T, some, authors do.ta on artificial channels [12J. For different shaj:les and rOllghnesses, the average
assume that the, numerator contains -../g, thus yielding the dimensions cif i>~ for n. yalue of the el{ponent was found to vary from 0.6499 to: 0.8395. ConsiderinC' these
Also, for physical reasons, it will be seen that n = (</>(Rlk)Jk>~ IEq. (B-26)J, \~here k is variations, Mll,nning adopted an approximate v[l.lue of % for the exponent. 'On the
i
,
100 UNIFQRMFLOW I DEVELOPj\HlNT OF UNIFORM FLOW A.ND ITS FORMULA.S 101
, i
factory results it lends to practical applications, the Manning formula has for n between 0.011 and 0.040. For practical purposes, the following
become the most widdy used'of all uniform-flow formulas for 6pen-chan- approximate forms of Eq. (5-9) are generally suggested for use:
nel flow computations.; A nomographic solution of the formula is given Y= 1.5 vrn for R < 1.0 m
in Appendix C.
Within the normal ranges of slope and hydraulic radius; the values of
Y"" 1.3 vn for R > 1.0 m
Manning's n and Kutter's n are generally found to be numerically very 15-7. Determination of Manning's Roughness Coefficient, In applying
close. For practical purpose~ the two values may be considered identical t~e Manning formula or the G. 1C. foi'Inula, the greatest difficulty lies
when the slope is equal to or greater than 0.0001 and the hydl'aulic radius iIi" the determination of the roughness coefficient n; for there is no exact
is betwe~n 1.0 and 30 ft. Typical values good fer both Kutter's nand method of f'electing the n value. At the present of knowledge, to
Manning's n are shown in Table 5-0 and illustrated in Fig. 5-S. select !1 value of n actually means to estimate the resistance to flow in a
Comparing the Chezy formula with the Manning' formula, it can be given channel, which is really a matter of intangibles. To veteran
seen that engineers', this means the exercise of sound engineering judgment and
experience; for beginners, it. can be no mOl'e than agness, and different
c (5-7) individuals will obtain different results. .
.III Qrder to give guid::mce in the proper determination of the roughness
This' equation provides an important relationship: between Chezy's C coefficient, four general approaches' will be discussed; namely, (1) to
and :Manuing's n. understand thefa,ctors th!l.t affect the value of n and thus to acauire a
) The exponent of the hydraulic radius in the Manning formllla is !'.ctnally basi~ knowledge of the problem and l~arrow the wide range of gues;work,
-I not a constant but varies ina range depending mainly on the channel
shape !l.nd roughness (see 11 previous footnote). For this reason, some'
(2) to consult a table of typical n values for channels of various types,
(3) to examine and become acquainted with t.he appearance of some
hydraulicians prefer to use the. formula with a variable (lxponent. For typical ehannels whose roughness coefficients are known, and (4) to
example, the unifomi-flow formulil. widely used in the U.S.S.n. is of this determine' the value of n by an rmalytical procedure based on the theoreti-
type; this is the Pavlovskiiformttla [21], proposed in 192£$.* This formula cal velocity distribution in the channel cross section and on the data of,
in mei)'ic linits is either velocity or roughness measurement. The first three approaches
will be given in the next three articles, and the fourth approach will be·
(5-8) taken up in Art. 8-7,
(5-9) 5-8. Factors Affecting Manning's Roughness Coefficient, It is not
. where
uncommon for engineers to think of a channel as having a single value of
and where C is'the resistance factor in the Chezy formula expressed in n for aU occasions. Ii1 reality, the value of n is highly vELdable and
'metric units. The exponent y depends on the Ioughnesscoefficient and depends on a number of factors. In selecting a propel' vaiue of n for
hydraulio radius, Tile formula is valid Jor R between O.i'and 8.0 ill and various design conditions, fl,basic knowledge of these factors should be
, " found very usefuL 'The factors that exert the greatest influence upon the
basis of other later studies, some authors Stiggested ll. value oi % [20], and others sug- coefficient of roughness in both artificial and natural channels are there-
gested a variable depending on Rand 11. [21J. . fore described below. It should be noted that these factors are to a Cer-
l The Manning formula was suggested for intern~tionaJ use by Lindquist [3j at the
Scandinavie:Sectional Meeting oi the World Power Conierenee in 1933 in Stockholm.
tain extent int/ilrdependent; hence discussion abou,t one factor may be
The final recommendation for such use was mlide by the Executive Committee at the repeated in connection 'with anothel'. '
3d World Power Conference in 1938 in Washington, D.C. . A. Surface. Rm€ghness, The surface roughness is represented by the
2 On account of this relationship, the Manning formula is sometimes oonsidered a size and shape of the grains of the material forming the wetted perimeter
variation'oi the CItezy fortimla with Chezy's C defined by Eq. (5~7). and producing a retftrding effect on the flow. This is often considered
*' The Pa.vlovsIl.il formula. was published in severa! editions of Pll.v!ovskiI's "Ha.nd- the only factor in selecting a rOllghness coefficient, but it is actually
book of Hydraulics" [211_ An article o.bout this formula. entitled Ft)1'l1m!a dlia
kt)effitlrien/.ll Chazy (Formula fur a Chtzy coefficient) is given in pp. 140-149 of the 193T just one of several major factors. Generally speaking, fine grains result
edition or the book. A footnote in this article reads: "'1'.he formula. was proposed in in a relatively low value of n and coarse grains, in a high value of n.
1925." In alluvial streams where the material is fine in grain, such as sand,
UNIFORM FLOW DEVELOPMENT OF UNIFORM FLOW AND ITS FORMULA.S 103
102
clay, loam, or silt, ,the retardiI).geffect is much less tha;n whe:e t?e material The U.S. Soil Conservation Service has made studies on flow of water
is coarse such as gravel;; or boulders. When the materIal IS fine, the in small shallow channels protected by vegetative linings (Chap. 7, \
1
value of ~ is low and relatively un.affected by change i.n flow stage, 'Yhen Sec ..0), It was found that n values for these channels varied with· the
the material consists of gravels and boulders, the value of 71 is generally shape and cross section of the channel, the slope of the channel bed, and
high, particularly at low or high stage. Larger boulders usually collect . the depth of flow. Comparing two channels, all other factors being equal,
at the bottom of the st.ream, making the channel bottom rougher than the. the lesser average depth gives the higher n value, owing to a larger -1
banks and increasing the value of 71 at low stages; At high stages, a proportion of affected vegetation. Thus, a triangular channel has a
. portion of the energy of flow is used in rolling t.he boulders downstream, higher n value than a trapezoidal channel, and a wide channel has a
thus increasing the value of n. A theoretical discu,ssion of surface rough- lower n value th11D. a narrow channel. A flow of sufficient depth tends to
ness will be 'given in Art. 8-2. bend over and submerge the vegetation and to produce low n values. A
B. T1 egetation. Veget.ation may be regarded as a kind of surface .steep slope causes greater velocity, greater flattening of the vegetation,
roughness, but it also markedly reduces the·capacii~ ~f the c~annel. an~ and low n valu,<::s. .
retards the flow. This effect depends mainly on heIght, denmty, dlstn- The effect of vegetation on flood plains will be discussed later in item H.
butiol1, and type of vegetation, I;1nd it is very important in designing . C. Channel Ir:regularity. ChanneUrregularity comprises irregularities
small d[ainl;1ge channels. . in wetted perimet.er and variations in cross section, size, and shs.pe along
At the University of Illinois an investigation has been made to deter- the channel length. In na.tural channels, such irregularities are uSl,lally
mine the effect of vegetation on the coefficient of roughness [22]. On one introduced by the presence of sand bars, sand waves, ridges and depres-
of the drainage ditches in central Illinois under investigation, an avera~e sions, and holes and humps on the channel bed. These irregul9.rities
n :value of 0.033 was measured in March, 1925, when the channel was ill definitely introduce. roughness in addition to that caused by surface
good condition .. In April, 1925, there were bushy willow? a~d dry w~eds roughness and other factors. Generally speaking, a gradual and uniform
on the side slopes, and n was found to be 0.055. ThIS ll1crease m. 71 change in cross. sectioll, size, and shape will not a.ppreciably affect the
represwts the result of one year 's growt~ of vegetation. D~ring the value of n, but abrupt changed or alternation of small and large sections
summers of U)25 and 1925 there waS a thICk growth of cattaIls on the necessitates the use of a large value of 71. In this case, the increase in n
bottom of the channel. The n value at medium summer stages w~s may be 0.005 or more. Changes that cause sinuous flow from side to
about 0.115, l,tnd at a nearly bankfull stage it was 0.099. The cattaIls side of the channel will produce the same effect.
inihe channel were washed out by the high water in September, 1926; the D. Channel Alignment . . Smooth curvature with large radius will give
average value of 71 found after this occurrence was 0.072 .. The conclusions. a relatively low value of 71, whereas sharp curvature with severe meander-
drawn from this investigati'on were, in part, as follows: ing will increase 71. On the basis of flume tests, Scobey [23] suggested
1. The minimum value of 11, that should be used for designing drain~ge that the value of 71 be increased 0.001 for each 20. degrees of curvature 111
100 ft of channel. . Altholagh. it is doubtful ,..hether curvatllre ever 1
ditches in· centml Illinois is .0.040. This value is obtainable at high·
stages duri!1g the summer months in th~ most carefully n:aintained ch~n increases 11, mOfe than 0.002 or 0.003, its effect should not be ignored, for I
nels where the bott.om of the channel IS clear of vegetatiOn and the. Side curvature may induce the accumulation of drift and thus indirectly
slop~s are covered with grass or low weeds, bU,t no bushes. This low increase the value of n. Generally speaking, the increase of roughness 1
value of n shonld not be used unless the channel IS to be cleared a:nnuaUy
of all weeds and b u s h e s . . .
in unlined channels carrying water at low velocities is negligible. An
increase of 0.002 in n value would constitute an adequate allowance for I
2. A value of n = 0,050 should be used if the channel is to be cleared curve losses in most flumes containilig pronounced curvatures, whether
in alternate years only. Large weeds and bushy willows from 3 to 4ft built of concrete or other materials. The meandering of naturai streams,
high on the side slopes will produce this value of n. however, may increase the 71 value as' high as 30 %.
3. In channels that are not cleai'ed for a number of .years, the growth E. Silting and Scouring. Generally speaking,.8ilting may change a
may become so abundant that values of n· ~ 0.100 may. be found.
'.'
,. j very irregular channel into a comparatively uniform one and decrease n,
'whereas scouring may do the reverse and increase 71 • . However, the
. 4. Trees from (3 to 8 in. in diameter growmg on the Side slopes do not
dominant effect of silting will depend on the nature of the material
. \
impede the flo\v so much as do small bushy growths, provided overhang-
ing branches are cutoff, .
i deposited. Uneven deposits such as sand. bars and sand waves 'are
",1\.,'.,..
."'
'"
104 UNIFORM FLOW i l' ;DEVELOPMENT OF UNIFORM FLOW AND ITS FORMULAS 105
, channel irregularities and will increase the 'roughness. 1 The amount f of .inundfltion, as obseryed in the Nishnabotna River, low-a,fof the aver-
!
· uniformity of scouring will depend on the material forming the wetted age gfowing season [24]. It should be noted, however, that vegetation
· perimeter. Thus, a sandy or gravelly bed will be eroded more uniformly !I a
has a marked effect only up to certain stage and that the roughness
than a clay bed. . The deposition of silt eroded from the uplands will i
I coefficient can be considered to remain constant for pl'actical purposes in
tend to even out the irregularities in:a channel dredged through clay, I determining overbank flood discharges.
The energy used in eroding and carrying the material in suspension or I
rolling i~ along the bed will also increase the n value, The effect of
50
scouring is not significant as long as .the erosion on channel bed caused by Mississippi River oetweenMemphis
and Fulton, Tennessee .
high velocities is.progressing eyenly and uniformly. o o U,S, Geologicol Survey doto
.. U.S, Corps of Engineers dato
F. ObstrucHon. ,The presence of log jams, bridge piers, and the like i!:
· tends to increase n. The amount cif increase depends on the nature of ~ ~O
the obstructions, theil' size, shape, numbel', and distribution. .'2
G. Size and Shapl'J of Channel. There is no definite evidence about g" 20
the size and shape of a channel as an important factor affecting the value '"
;:;:
1
:106 UNlFORM FLOW DEVELOPMJilNT OF UNIFORM FLOW AND ITS. FORMULAS 107
;higher and lower stages; and (2) that the bankfulLn values do Dot vary . In selecting,. the. value of nl, the degree of irregularity is considered
greatly for rivers and canals in different kinds of material and in widely. smooth for surfaces comparable to the best attainable for the materials
separated locfl.i;ions. involved; minor for good dredged chm1l1els, slightly ei'oded or scoured
For circular conduits, Camp [27,28] was able 'to show that the n value side slopes of canals or dra.inage cha.nnels; moderate for fair to peor dredged
for 11 conduit flowing partially fuBis greater than that for a full conduit. channels, moderately sloughed or eroded side slopes of canals cr drainage
Using measurements on clean sewer pipe and drain tile, both clay and .channels; and severe for badly sloughed banks of natural strea.ms, badly
concrete, from 4 to 12 in. in size, he found an increase of about 24% in the eroded or sloughed sides. of canals or drainage channels, and unshaped,
r-
n value at the half-depth (Fig. 6-5).l The n value for the pipe flowing jagged, and irregular surfaces of channels excavated in rock. .
full was found to vary from 0.001:15 to 0.011. Taking an average value of III selecting the value ofn2' the character of variations in size and 1
shape of cross section is considered gmdlLal when the change in size or ,-I
0.0103, the nvalue at half-depth should be about 0,013. This is identical
with the usual design value,which is based largely on measured values in shape occurs gradually, alternating occasionally when lal'ge and small
se·::tions alterna.te occasionally or when shape changes r,ause occasional
sewers Hov\e'ing partially fulL .
I. SeasonoJ Change. Owing to the seasonal growtih of aqus,hicplants,
grass, weeds, willow, and trees in the channel or on the banks, the value
shifting of main flow from side to side, and alternating frequently whim
iarge arid small sections alternate frequently or when shape changes
J
of n may increase in the growing seasOl]. and diminish in the dormant cause frequent shifting of main flow from side to side,
season. This seasonal change may cause changes in other factors. The selectioll of the value of n3 is based 011 the presence and character-
istics of obstructions such as debris deposit", .stumps, exposed roots,
--\
J, Suspended Material and Bed Load. The suspended material and \'
the bed load, whet.her moving or not moving, would consume energy and boulders, and fallen and lodged logs. One should recall that conditions
cause head loss or increase the apparent channel roughness. considered in other steps must not be reevaluated or' double-counted in
this selection, In ,iudging the relative effect of obstructions; consider
All the above factors should be studied I1nd evaluated wit,h respect to the following: t.he. extent to which the obstructions occupy or reduce the
conditions regarding type of channel, state of flow, degree of mainten~~ce, average water area, the character of obstructions (sharp-edged or angular
and other related considerations. They provide a basis for determmmg objects induce greater turbulence than curved, smooth-surfaced objects),
the proper value of n for a given problem. As a general guide to judg- and the position and spacing of obstructions transversely and longitudi-
ment it may be accepted that conditions tending to hldtlce turbulence nally in the .reach under consideration. . .
and c~use retardance will increase 1. value and that those tending to reduce In selecting the value of n~, the degree of effect of vegetation is
turbulence and retardance. will decrease n value. <
considered' .
Recognizing several primary £actors affecting the roughness coeffic,el1~, . (1) Low for conditions comparable to the following: (a) dense gl'owths
Cowan [32J developed a procedure for estimating the value of n. By thIS of fla"{ible ~urf grasses Qr weeda,of which Bermuda and blue grasses are
procedure, the value of n may be computed by examples, where the average depth of flow is 2 to 3 times the height of
vegetation, and (b) supple seedling tree switches, such as willow, cotton-
n = (no + ",1 + n2 + nl + n()m5 (5-12) wood, Or salt cedar where the average depth of flow is 3 to 4: times the
where no is a basic n value for a straight, uniform, smooth channel in the height of the vegetation.
natural ~aterial:; involved, nl is 8, value added to no to correct for the (2) 1l1edi11.?n for conditions comparable to the following: (a) turf grasses
effect of surface in'egularities, 'lt2 is a value forvf.tl'iations in shape and where the average depth of flow is 1 to 2 times the height of vegetation,
size of the channel cross sectiol1, Tt3 is a value for obstructions, n4 is a (b) stemmy grasses, weeds, or tree sCl'ldlings with moderate cover where
value for vegetation and flow conditions, and mil is a correction factor the average depth of flow is 2 te 3 times the height of vegetation and
fllr meanderiIlg of channeL ' Proper values of. no to n, and m, may be {c) brushy growths, moderately dense, similar to willows 1to2 ~ean;
selected from Table 5-5 according to the given conditions. . ., old, dormant season, along side slopes of a channel with no significant
,j vegetation along the channel bottom, where the hydraulic radius is
. I The n/n~ curve was based O.D measurements by Wilcox [29] on 8-in, clay and con~
~rete sewer pipes a.nd by Yarnell a.nd Woodwa.rd 130] on open-butt-joint concrete
. ahd cla.y drain tiles 4. to 12 in. in eiZe. For depths less thaD about O.I5d., the
I
!
greater than 2 ft. .
'(3) High for conditions comparable to the f;llowing: ea) turf grasses -\
eurve was verified by the data of Johnson [311 forlarge sewer!!, .
t where the average depth of flow is about equal to the height of vegetation,
,1
t
:~'
~!
~""---'"~--'.".-~.-.-,'~ .
'I
'\
!
,
4;1
I'
108 UNIFORM: FLOW
I, DEVELOPMENT OF UNIFORM FLOW AND ITS FORMULAS 109
(b) dormant season-willow or cottonwood trees 8 to 10 years old, inter- I 'fAllLl!l 5-5. VALUES FOR THE CO]>tl'UTATlON OF THE ROTlGHNESS COE·FFICI.!!lNT
grown with .some v,l:eds and brush, none of thp- vegetation in foliage, fi
:BY EQ. (5-12)
where the hydraulic radius is greater than 2 ft, and (c) growing season-
bushy willoW's about 1 year old intergrown with some weeds in full foliage I, Channel conditionB Values'
along side slopes, no signifieant vegetation along channel bottom, where' I
hydraulic radius is greater than 2 ft. . Earth 0.020
(4) Very high for conditions comparable to the following: (a) 'turf
. grasses where the average depth of fio~ is less than one-half the height M.ateriul
Rock cut 0.025
of vegetation, (b) growing season-bushy willows about 1 yellr old, inter- in vo I.... ed nQ
Fine gravel 0.024
grown with weeds in full foliagealon.g side slopes, or dtmse growth of
eat tails along Ghannel bottom, with any value ofhydratilic radius up to Coarse gravel 0.028
1001' 15 ft, aIld (c) growiIlg season:-trees intergro,vn with weeds and brush,
all in full foliage, with any value of hydraulic radius up to 10 or 15 ft. Smooth 0.000
Ir:. selecting the value of ms, the degree of meandering depends all the
Minor 0.005
ratio of th.e meander length to the straight length bf the channel reach. Degree of
r.,
The meandering isconsidel'ed minor for ratios of 1.0 to 1.2, appreciable irregularity
for mtios of 1.2 to L5, and severe for ratios of 1.5 and greater.
., Modernte 0.010
j
In applying the above method for determining the n value, several Severe 0.020
things should be noted. The method dQes not consider the effect of
Gradual 0.000
suspended and bed loads. The values given in Table 5-5 were developed Va.ria.tions. of
from a study of some 40 to 50 cases of small ftnd moderate channels. channel cross Alternating oceaSionally n2 . 0.005
Therefore, the method is qU<jlstionable when applied to large channels section
whose hydraulic rn,dii exceed, say, 15 ft. The method applies only to Alternating irequently O.010~.015
unlined natural streams, Rood ways, and drainage channels and shows.il.
Negligible 0.000
rninimum value of 0.02 fol' the 11, value of such channels. The minimum
value of n in general, however, may be as low as 0.012 in lined channels Relative Minor O. 01O-{}. 015
and as 0.008 in artificiH1 laboratory flumes. effect of '11..
6-9. The Table of Manning's Roughness Coefficient. Table 5-6 gives obstruutions 1\...." .. ~ .~ 0.030-{}.030
a list of n values for channels of various kinds. I For each kind of channel
the minimum,. nOimal, and maximum values of 11, are ShO\VIl. The nor- 0.040-0.080
mal values for artificial channels given in the table are recommended only Low 0.005-0.010
for channels with good maintenance. The boldface figures are values
generally recommended in design .. For the case in which poor mainte- Medium 0.010-0.025
nance is expected in the future, values should be increased accordiQ.g to VegeLfLtion
High 0.02S-{}.050
the situation expected. Table 5-6 will be found very usp-Iul as a guide to
" the quick selection of the 11. value to be used in !\, given problem. A Very high 0.050-0.100
) poplllur table of this type was~prepn.red by Horton [34) from an examina-
tion of the best available experiments at his time. 2 Table 5-6 is compiled Minor 1.000
L The minimum value lor Lucite was observed in the Hydra.ulic Engineel'ing La.bol'a-
Degree of
meandering Appreciable m. 1.150
Lory nt the University or Illinois [33). Such a low n value Inay perhaps be obtained
also for smoot\) brass o.nd glass, but no observntions have yet been reported. Severe 1.300
t A table showing n values and other elements hom 269 observations made on many
existinga.rtifiCia.l cha.Ilnels is also given by King [35J.
I
) -(
110 UNIFORM FLO>'i DEVELOPMENT OF UNIFORM FLOW AND ITS FORMULAS 111
. TABLE 5-6. VALUES OF THE ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT n
(Boldface figures are values generally recommended in design)
Normal Maximum
1
----~~~~~~~~~-I . I
------
A. CLOSED CONDUITS FLOWING. PaRTLY FULL D. LINED OR .BUILT-UP CHANNE1.S
A-I. Metal
a. Brass, smooth 0.009 0.010 0.013
I . B-l. Meta!
a. Smooth steel surface
b. Steel 1. Unpainted
1. Lockbar and welded
2. Riveted and spiral
c. Cast iron
O.OlD
0.013
0.012
0.016
0.014
. 0.017 . I 2. Painted
b. Corrugated
B-2. Nonmet.al
0.011
0.012
0.021
0.012
0,013
0.025
0.014
0.017
0.030
1. Coated
2. Uncoated
d. Wrought iron
0.010
0.011
0.013
0.014
0.014
0.014
0.016
0,015
I a. Cement
1. N el1t, surf!lce
2. Morta-r.
0.010
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.013
0.015
1. Black 0.012 b. Wood
2. Galvanized 0.013 0.016 0.017 L Planed, untreated O.OlD 0.012 0.014
e. Corrugated met.al 2. Planed, creosoted 0.011 0.012 0.015
1. Sub drain . 0.017 0.019 0.021 3. Unplan(ld 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. Storm drain 0.021 0.024 0.030 4. Plank with battens 0 .. 012 0.015 0.018
A-2. Nonmp.tal. 5. Lined with roofing paper 0.010 0.014 0.017
a. Lucite 0.003 0.009 O.OlD c. Concrete
b. Glasll 0.009 0.010 0.Of3 . 1. Trowel finish 0.011 0.013 0.015
c. Cemen't 2. Float finish
1. Neat, surface O.OlD
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.013
0.015
I
!
3. Finished, with gravel on bottom
4. Unfiliished .
0.013
0.01.5
0.015
0.017
0.016
0.020
2. Mortar f 0.014 0.017 0.020
d. Concrete iI 5. Guuite, good section 0.016 0.019 0.023
1. Culvert, straight and free of debris 0.010 0.011 0.013 J. 6. Gunit8, wavy section 0.018 0.022 0.025
2. Culvert with bends, connections, 0.011 0.013 0.014 f 7. On good excavated rock 0.017
! O.OZI)
and some debris 8. On irregular excavated rock 0.022 0.027
3. Finished 0.011 0.012 0.. 014 d. Concr'lte bottom float finillhed with
4. Sewer wit.h manholes, inlet, etc., 0.013 0.015 1).017 sides of
strl!-ight 1. Dressed stone in mortar 0..015 0.017 0.020
5. Unfinished, steel form 0.012 0.013 0.014 2. Random stone in mortar 0.017 0.020
0.016 0.024
6. Unfinished, smooth wood form 0.012 0.014 3. Cp,ment rubhle masonry, plastered 0.015 0.020 0.024
7. Unfinished, rough wood form 0.015 0.017 0.020 4. Cement rubble maSQnry 0.020 0.025 0.030
e. Wood 5. Dry l'Ubble or riprap 0.020 0.030 0.035
1. Stave O.OlD 0.012 0.014 e, Gravel bottom with sides of
2. Laminated, treated 0.015 0.017 0.020 1. Formed cOllCrete 0.017 0.020 0.025
f. Clay 2. Random stone in mortar 0.020 0.023
1. Commondrain8.ge tile
2. Vitrified sewer
3. Vitrified.sewer with manhol,~s, illlet,
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.013,
0.014
Q.015
0.017
0.017
0.017
3. Dry rubble or riprap
f. Brick
1. Glazed
0.023
0.011
0.033
0.013
0.026
0.036
J
0.015
etc. 2. In cement mortar 0.012 0.016 0.018
4. Vitrified subdrain with open joint 0.014 0.016 0.018 11. Masonry
g. Brickwork 1. Cemented I'Ub ble 0.017 0.025 0'.030
1. Glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015 2. Dry rubble 0.023 0.032 0.03.5
2 .. Lined with cement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.017 h. Dresse.d ashlar 0.013 0.015 0.017
h. S'anitary sewers coated with sewage 0.012 0.013 0.016 i. Asphalt
slimes, with bends and connections 1. Smooth 0.013 0.013
i. Paved invert, sewer, smooth bottom 0.016 0.019 0.020 2: Rough 0.015 0.016
j. Rubble masonry, cemented 0.018 0.025 0.030 . j. Vegetal lining 0.030 0.500 '-,
·fI I
I: ,
. ~;
.·'h· I
t,
:.::." ,.,,,""::".:
112 UNIFORM FLOW DEVELOPMENT OF UNIFORM FLOW' AND ITS FORMULAS ll3
'l"\13LE. 5-6: VALUES OF TliE Ro'l1GllNESS COEFFlCllilNT n (continued) TABLE5c6. V,u,UES OF THE ROUCnl'NESS COE)"FICIENT 7i (continued)
Type 01 channel and description ·Minimum Normal Maximum description ~inimum Normal Maximum'
--~--------------~---I·----~I
C. Exe.WATIilD OR DREDGED b. Mountain strea.ms, ·no vegetation in
a. Ea.rth, straight and uniform cha.nnel, ba.nks usually steep, trees
.1. Clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020 and brush along banks submerged· at
2. Clean, e.fter weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025 high sta.ges .
3. Gravel, uniform section, clean 0022 0.025 0.030 1. Bo~tom: gra.vels, cobbles, and fetv 0.030 0.040 0.050
4. With short gr!l.8S, f.ew weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033 boulders
b. Earth, winding and sluggish 2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders
i' 1. No vegetation 0.023 0,025
0.040 0.050 0.070
0.030 D-2. Flood plains
I 2. Grass, some wGeds 0.025 0.030 0.033 <l. Pasture, DD brUsh
3. Dense weeds or aquatic plants in 0.030 0.035 0.040 . 1. Short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035
deep channels ,2: High grass 0.030 0,035 0.050
4. Earth bottom lind rubble sides 0.028 0.030 0.035 b. Cultivated areas
5. Stony bottom and weedy banks 0.025 0.035 0.040 1. No crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
6. Cobble bottom nnd clea.n sides 0.030 0.040 0~050 2. Mature row crops
c. Dritgline-eltcavated or dredged
0.025 0.035 0.045
g. !vIa ture field crops 0.030 0.040
1. No vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033 c. Brush 0.050
2. Light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060 1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0,050 0.070
d. Rock cuts
1. Smooth and uniform
2. Jagged and irregular .
e. Channels not maintained, wc.eds and'
I 0.025
0.035
0.035
0.040
0.040
0.050
2. LIght brush and trees, in winter
3. Light brmlh and trees, in sumInar
,4. Medium to densl'l brush, in winter
5. Medium to dense brush, in summer
0,035
0.040
0.045
0.050
0.060
0.070
0~060
0.080
0.110
0.070 0.100 0.160
brush uncut d. Trees
. l.Dense weeds, high as flow dept.~ 0.050 0.080 0,120 1. Dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0200
: 2. Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080 2. Cleared land with .tree stumps, no 0030 0.040 0.050
3. Same, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.071iJ 0.110 sprouts
I
4. Dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.1<10 3. Same ¥ above, but with heavy, i 0.050 0.060 0.080
D. NATuML S'IREAMS' growth of sprouts I'
D-l. l\llnnr streams (top width at flood stage 4. Heavy stand of timber, f.l few down
<100 it) 0.080 0.100 0.120
trees, little undergrowth, flood stage
a. Streams on plain below branches
I: Clean, straight, fun stage, no rifts or 0.025 0.030 0.033 6. Same as aboye, but with flood stag" 0.100 0.120
deep pools I 0.160
reaching bra.nohes
2. Same as ..bove, but more stones and I I
0'.030 0.035 0.040 D-3. Major streams (top width at flood stage
weeds >1.00 it). The 11. vallie is Jess than that
I
3. Clean, winding, some pools and
shoals .
4. Same ail above, but llome weeds a.nd
I 0.033
0.035 .
0.040
0.045
0;04:>
0.050
for minor streams of similar ,description,
becll.use banks offer less effective resistance.
a. Regular section with no boulders or /1 0.0215 0.060
stones . , 1 brush
5. Same as above, lower stages, more
ineffective slopes and sections II 0.040
!
0.0'48 0.055 .
____b_._I_f_re_g_u_la_r_a_:n_d_ro_U_g""h_s_e_ct_i_on_ _ _ _...i:-_O_,0_3_5_'11___L_0 .100,
1·
6. Same as 4, but more stones
7. Siuggish reaches, weedy, deep pools I 0.045
0.050
0.050
0.010
0.060
0.080
I
J
13. Very weedy rea.ches, deep pools, or 0.075
ftoodways with heavy stand of tim- 1 I 0,100 0.150
I
I
J
graphs of a number of typical channels, accompanied by brief descriptions I
of the channel conditions and the corresponding n values, are shown in
Fig. 5-5. These photographs' are collected from different sources and
arranged in order of increasing magnitude of the n vslues. They provide
I i
a [eneral idea of the appearance of the channels having different n values
8.nd so should facilitate selection of then value for a given channel con- 1
dition. The n vaJue given for each che-nnel represents approximately
the coefficient of roughness when the photograph was taken. -<I--
The above type of visual aid is also employed by the U.S. Geological
Survey. The Survey has made several determinations of channel rough- I
ness in streams, mostly in the northwes~ern United S~ates. These in-
clude measurements of cross-sectional area.) width, 9.epth, mean velocity,
slope, and computation of the roughness coefficient. The reaches were 1
photographed in stereoscopic color, and the photographs have been
fl'
circulating among the district offices 'of the Survey as !!- guide in evalu-
ating n. FIG. 5-5. Typical channels ~howing different n values. (These photo h '
duced ft~m [3~J and [38J with the permi,nion of the U.S. Departme~~~f ~ ~~l~!t~:,:
~1~1~rtlj.m~1 rc~ure~ used Jo~ reprodu.ctil]ll purposes were supplied thTUugh th~ courtes;
~, •.rr" C' E' ";0 ey tofr ph,otogrhrkphs 1 10 14 rkncl phol()gl'aph 19, rknd lhrou(lh the courtesy
~ ,,,. • . ,.am.!er or l!e 01 !Jrs.) ,
1
-'
.)
't '.
: .~
115
,-1
~l'
!I
I
I
1
i
t (1) j (4)
! I
)
1i
I
i
I!
!
t
\' (
;
,
I
.\ ~ii)
!
I
I
I
(6)
(8)
(9)
IL :;
,. '\.
the earth
9. 1'1 =
channel. With weeds in broken places and looStl ssnd on bottom.
0.024. Canal excavated in silty clay loam. Slick and hard bed.
12. 1'1 = .o.O~8. Cobbl~bottom channel, where there is. insufficient silt in the
wa.ter Or too hIgh a velOCIty, preventing formation of a graded smooth bed.
~
US . lW .
~1
'I
I·
(13)
(16)
(17)
(14)
!
I
I
l
i (18)
I,
t
(15)
t.
I,
FIG; 5-5 (16-18)
! 16. 11 ,= 0.040. Rock channel excav!\ted byexpl~sives. .
17. 7L;-= 0.040. Ditch in clay and sar.dy loam; irregular side slopes bottom !Lna
! cross section; grass on s l o p e s . : :' ,
13. 11 = ().029. Ea.rth c~nal excavated in alluvial silt 'soil, with deposits of sand 18. 11"" 0.045. Dredge channel, irregular side slopes .and bottom, in bla.ck, waxy
clay at}op to yellow clay at bottom, sides covered with small'saplings and brush
on. bottom and growth of gi-ass.
14. 11 = 0.030. Canal with large-cobbleswne bed. slight and gradual variations in cross section. '
15. 11 = 0.035. Natural channel, somewhat irregular side slopes; fa.irly even, clean 121
a.nd regular bottom; in light gray silty cla.y to light tan silt loam; very little varia.tion .
in cross section.
12Q
(22)
(19)
./
(20)
I
(23)
(21)
(24)
I
I
I i
!
I
~
Flo. 5-5 (19-21)
'19. 11. = 0.050. Dredge channel ~ith very irregul~r side slopes ap.d. bo~tom, in
dark-colored waxy clay, with growth of weeds and gra.ss. Slight vanatlOn In shape
I
I
.'{1
of cross section for variation iin size. i, . FIG. 5-5 (22--241 .
· 20. 11 = 0.060. Ditch in heavy silty clay; irregular side slopes and bottom; practi-
· cally entire seotion filled with large-size growth 'of troos, principally willows and
.22. n = 0.110. 8~me as (21), but with much foliage and covered for about 40 It
WIth growthresembllllg smart weed. .
cottonwoods. Quite uniform cross seotion. . 23. n = 0.1~5. Natural channel floodway hi median line sand toj fine clay none
21. 11. = 0.080. Dredge dianne! in black slippery clay and gray silty clay loam,
: irregulrtr wide slopes and bottom, covered with dense gro\vth of bushy ~illOWIl, some
sId~ s!oPe:'; fairly e17ell and regular bottom with occasional Ba~ bpttom sl~ughs'
l~ariation Hi depth; practically 17irg;in timber, very little undergrowth except occa~
· in bottom; remainder of both slopes c017ered with weeds and a soatteflng growth of slUnal dense patches or btlllh~d a.~d small trees, some logs and dead fallen trees.
willows and poplars, no' foliage; some silting on bottom... . . . 24. n ... 0.150. Natur:J.1 river In sandy clay soil. Very crooked course, irregular
. . . 122
sl~e slopes and uneven bottom. Many roots, trees .and bushes, large logs and otb r
drift on bottom; trees continua.Uy falling into ch",rmel due to bank caving. e
. 123
f
.;;."
Jt
124 UNIFORM FLOW DEVELOP!'.{ENT OF UNIFORM FLOW AND ITS FORMULAS 125
Stage, ft Discharge, cis Stage, It Discharge, cfs
PROBLEMS
0.3 1.'0 1.50 50.0
5-1. Expiain why a uniform flow cannot occur (a) in Il frictionless channel, and (b) 0.4 2.3 1. 75 62.0
in a. horizontal channel. ' , ' 0.5 4,.6 2.00 75.0
6-2. When Chezy's C determined by the G. Ie formula becomes independent of '0.6 7.8 2.25 88.0
the slope S, show that the value of R 3.28. Find the corresponding relation 0.7 1l.0 2.50 10'2.0
between C all.:! Kutter's n. ., 0.8 15.0 3.00 132.0
li-S. For tbe conditions given in Example 5-1, compute the values of Ba.zin'i! m and 0.9 20.0 3.50 164.0
Powell's ~. 1.'0 25.0 4.00 199.0
6-4. Compute the velocity and discharge of flow in a new etu'th canlll having the 1.25 38.0
same shape, si;;e, slope, and depth of flow as the channel given in Example 5-1. Use 6-1S: By the Cowan method, estimate the n value for !l. slightly curved rellch ill
(a) tile G. K. formula, ,assuming'Kutter's n "" 0.022; (b) the Bazin formula, selecting
channel 21 of FIg. 5-5. '
!l p'roper value of 11>; and (e) the Powell formula, selecting a proper value of •.
5-6. Taking Manning'S n as the given value of Kutter's n, solve E):ample 5-1 by REFERENCES
the Manning formula. , '
5-6. If the coefficient of l'oughness 11 is unknown for the channe.l ill Example 5-1, L E. C. Schnack~nberg: Slope discharge formuiae for alluvial streams and rivers,
but a discharge of 2,000 cfs is observed under the given conditions, compute the v!Liues Proceedings, New Zea.land·lnsWt!lion of Enginesrs, vol. 37, pp. 340-409, Welling-
of l{utter's 1~ and Manning's 11. ton, 1951. Discussions, pp. 4.10-4.4.9.
5-7. From the MllJlning formula (using a consta.nt of 1.486 instead of 1.49 for 2. IVllJl E. Houk: Calculation of flow in {)pen channels, Miami Conservancy District,
theoretical a~curacy) and the Chazy formula, determine the reilltion betweeu CMzy's Technical Report, ·Pl. IV, Dayton. Ohio, 191B. '
C and Manning's n for the condition de:;ocribed in: Pl·ob. 5-2. This \\'iii show that the 3. Erik l,indquist: On velocity formulas for open channels and pipes, Transactions
G. K. formula and the Manning formula are theoretically identical at the condition of the World Power C01~feTimce, Sedional Meeting, Scand'inavi(l, Stockholm; vol. I,
when ,Cl,ezy's 'C is independent of the slope S. pp. 177-234, 1933. '
, 6'-8. Prov~ that the friction factor f in the Darcy-Weisbach formuir.,Eq. (1-4), is 4. Philipp FOfchheimer, "Hydraulik" (" Hydraulics JI), Teubner Verlagsgesellscha.ft,
related to .Manning's n by f = 116n~/R~~. Leipzig e.nd Berlin, pp. 139-163, 1930.
1i-9. Run 12-4 of Bll.zin's teats [12J was made on a rectangular plank flume ,fi.±4 ft 5. Zivko Vladislavlievitch: Apen;u critique sur le~ formules pour la predetermination
wide with wooden strips 1 em thick and 2.7 cm wide nailed crosswise on the bottom de Ie. vitesse moyenne de I'ecoulement uniforme (Critical surveyor the formula()
and ~ides at a spacinll; of 3.7 em center to center or strips. This fiume gave, a mean for predetermination of mea.n velocity of uniform flow), Transacli(]11)1 of th~ lst
velocity 0[3.33 fps at a flow depth of 1.02 ft and a slope of 0.0015. The t.emperature Congress, InternationaL Com'mislrion on Irrigalion and Drainage, New Delhi,
rending WIl.S 8.5·C. Determine Manning's n, and compute (a) CM.2y'S C, (b) Kutter's voL 2, rept. 12, question 2, pp. 405-4.28, 1951.
n, (c) ,Bazin's m; and, (d) Powell's •. " 6. Oornelis. Toehes: Stres.mfiow: Poly-dimensional treatment of vari!).ble factors
6-10. Run 15-·1 of Bazin's tests was the san1e as run 12-4, described in the preceding affecting the velocity in alluvia.l streams and rivers, Proceedings, Inslittttion of
problem, ex~ept that the spacing of stripa was increaaed to 7.7 ern. 'Using the same Civil Engineers, Lut,do'/1., vol. 4., no. 3, pt. Ill, pp. 900-93S, December, 1955. ,
disc,harge as that of run '12-4., the depth of flow wn.s found to be 1.33 :it. Determine 7. G. H. L. He.gen: "Untersuchungen fiber die gleichformige Bewegung des Wassers"
Mnnning's IL, and compute (a) Chez)"s C, (b) Kutter's 7'" {~} Bllzin's m, and (d) ("Research'!S on. Uniform Flow of Water"), Berlin, l~7f.L , '
Powell's ..Oomptu'e the values of • obtained from runs 1274 and 15-4 with the height 8. Clemena Herschel: On the origin of the Chezy formula, J(l,.rnal, Association of
of the strips, and explain I,he effect of roughness in both cases. Engineering Sooel:ie3, vol. 18, pp. 363-368. Discussion, pp. 368-369, Jalluary-
'6-11. U!iing the Manning formula., construct 0. discharge-rating curvel for the June, '1897.
natural chlll\uel section given in Prob. 2-5. The slope ii! 0.0016, and, 11; ;= 0.035, 9. A. Brahms: "Anfangsgriinde dcr Deioh- und Wasserbaukunst" ("Elements of
Extend the sides of the channel by ~traight lines at high stages if necessary. Dam and Hyd!,aulic Engineering"), Aurich, Germa.ny, 1754 and 1757, vol. I,
'6-12. Tile actual rating curve of the channel section in Prob. 2-5 is described below. p.l05. , '
Construct a CUTve showing the' variation in Manning's r. with respect to the stllg'l 10. E. Ge.nguillet llJld W. R. Kutter: Versuch zur Aufstellung einer neuen allegemeinell.
above the datum. ' Formel fUr die gleichfllrmige Bewegung des Wassers in CaniLlen und Fliissen (An
investigation to establish a new general formula for uniform Bow of water in canals
1 It should be noted that the synthetio rating curve thus obtained is very approxi-
a.nd rivers), Zeitsclirift cIes Oeslerreichischel~ Ingenieu.r- u.nd Architekten Vern1les,
ma.te, parti~ularly for a natural channel, beoause the n vDJue is a.ctually not !l. constant vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 6-25; no. 2-3, pp. 46-59, Vienna, 1869. Published as e. book in.
but a function of th.e depth (see Art. 5-8). ' Bern, Switzerland, 1877; translated into English by Rudolph Hering a.nd John C.
126 UNIFORM FLOW
DEVELOPMENT OF UNIFOIUI{ FLOW A~m ITS FORM (JLAS
127
Trautwine; Jr., 1.\5 "A general Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in Rivers parties," prelimi~ary ~raft, U.S. Soil Conservation Sel'vice, Milwaukee, Wis., 1954.
and Other Glumnais," John 'Wiley &; Sons, Inc., Nevv York, 1st ed., 1888; 2d ed., 25. E. W. Lane: DISCUSSIon on Slope discharge formulae for alluvial streams a.nd
18!H and i\)Ol.
by E. C. Schnackenberg, Pr(JcllJldin(J~, New Zealand 1~lItitu.l.ion of Enqillee!'s
11. C:.\pt:.\in A. A. Humphrey.s and Lieut. H. L. Abbot, U.S. Army Corps of Topo- vol. 37, pp. 4.35-438, Wellington, 1951. '. )
graphical Engineers: "Report upon thB physics and hydraulics of the Mississippi 25. J•. S. ~ey~!,~ :'I,nd E. A. Schultz: P~na;Ha Canal: The sea-level pI'oject, in A
River; U!Jon the protection of the alluvi!>l region a,gainst overflow; and upon the symposIUm. Tlda.l currents, Tran,~act!OnB: Ametican Society of Civil Engineers
deepening. of the mOllths; based upon surveys and investigations . . . ," J. E·, voL 114, pp. 668-571, ~g49. '
Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, 1861; reprinted in Washington, D.C., in 18157, 27. Thomas R. Camp: Design of sewers to facilitate flow, Sewage 'Work.:; Joumal, voL
and as U.B. Army Corps (Jf Ellllineel's, PtofC8sionai Pap.,. No. 13, 1875. 18, pp. I-HI, .January-December, 194.6.
12. H. DI.\!'cy a.nd H. Ballin: "Recherches hydra.uliques,'· lre partie, Recherches
28. 1i"lomas It <A1.tnp; Disoussion Oil Dete.rmination of Kutter's 11 for sewers pal.t!y
experimenta.les sur l'ecoulement de Feau dans ies canaux decouverts; 2e partie,
filled, by C. FI ank Johnson, Trans(lcl~ons, American Societ!! of Civil Engineers
Recherches experiment&les rel().tives aux ramous et il. In. propaga.tion des ,andes V<ll. 109, pp. 240-243, 1944. •
("Hydralllic Resea.rches," pt. 1, 'Experimental research on flmv of water in open 29. ~, ~, Wilcox: A compara.tive test of the ftow Gf water in 8~inch concrete and
channels; p~. 2, Experimenta.l research on 'bMkwater and the propagation of vltTl.Hed clar .sewer pipes, Ur;.ilJersill1 ,of W'ashil1(Jlon, ElI(Ji'l'tee:ring Expariment
'wave:;), ACMiemie des Sciences, Paris, 1865. Slatton, Bulwt.ll 27, Mar. 1, 1924.
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30. D. L. Yarn~ll and 8. M. Woodward: The flow of water in drain tile, U.S. Depart-
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1897. . ti A'S' , . , ransa;c·
ons, 'mcnoon oClely of Ct~ll vol. 109, pp. 223-239 1944.
14. Ralph W. Powell: Resi~tance to flow in l'ough cha.nnels, 'l',u,naadion'5, American
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1.5. Hobert Manning: On the flow of water in open channels and pipes, Transactions, 33, Donal~ Schnepper B,nd Ven Te Chow: Full scale toe-of-slope gutter model
·I1/.~titution of Civil Ellgine(Jl'8 'of Ireland, vol. 20, pp. 161-207, Dublin, lSIH;
unp~bI1SI:ed rep~'rt ~f an ~n",:,es~ig~t,ion conducted by the Department of Civii
Engmeenn.g, ,?nlverSlty of ~l1mols, In coopera.tion with the Division of Highways,
supplement, voL 24, pp. 179-207, 1895,
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'1'0, " no. 8, pp. 3r3-374, Feb. 24, 1916. Discussions. by Fred C. Scobey and1
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conduits), Annates de~ pOJ~ts .1 chriu.ssees, vol. 15, ser. 4, pro 229-281, 1868. 35 . .Romce Wilham I{i?g, "Handbook of Hydraulics," 4th ed., revised by Ernest F.
10. A. St.ridder: J3eitriige zur Frage der Geschwindigkeitsformr.i und der Rauhi,g-
~rate~, M?Gra.w-Htll Book Company, Iuc., New York, 1954, pp. 7-102 to 1-111
keitsia.hlen fur Strome, !{a,nii.le und ge.schbssene Leitungen (Some contributions
to the problem of velocity fonnul" and roughness c(lI;lfficient for rivers, canals, and
3a. 'Engmeer,mg ~Handbook: Hydra.ulics," U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soii'
Oonservation uervice, 1955, sec. Ii.
37. F. ~. Scobey; Flow of water ip irrigation and similar canals, U.S. Department of
dosed conduits). Jfillcil!l.nge'l des eidgen6:isischen Amteofiir }Vasserwirtachajt, Bern,
Swit~erland, no. 16,1923. Agr::cu1tw'~, Technical BuUeiin No. 852, February, 1939.
20. Thomas Blench: A new theory of turbulent fto,v in liquids of small viscosity, 38. C;.t.. Ramser; Flow of water in drainage channels U.S. DSDartmeni 01 Anr' It
Journal, b'stittlt'ion of einil Engineer., Lolkion, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 611-612, April, • I B UL'1 etm
T ec11.n~ca . N o. 129, November, 1929, ' . . ten u.re,
• I~~ .
21. N. N. Pavlov'skiI: "GidravlkheskiI Spravochnik" ("Handbook of Hydraulics").
This book ha.~ many editions: (1) "Giclrl\vlicheskiI Spravochnilc," Put, Letlingrad,
1924, 192 pp.; (2) "Uchebnyl GidravlicheskiI Spravoclwik'" (for schools),.!~ubuch,
'Leningrad, lng, 100 pp.; 2d ed, W3l, 168 pp.; (3) "Gidrnvlicheskii Spravochnik,"
Onti, Leningrad and Moacow, H}37, 890 pp; !lnd (4) "Kratki! GidravlicheskiI .
Sprflvochnik," (concise version), Gosstrolizd'at, Leningrad and Moscow, 1940, .
314 pp. ,
22. George W; Pickets: Ru·n-off investigat.ions in central IllinQis, University of Illinois,
Engineering Experim.ent Sta.iion, Bulletin 232, ,vol. 29, no. 3, September, 1931.
23. Frederick C. Scobey: The flow of water in flumes, U.S. Departm.ent of ;Agriculture,
1
Technical Bulletin No. 393, December, 1933.
24. Methodology for cmp and pasture inundation damage appraisal: "Training
manual for hydrologists on watershed protection and flood preventiQn work pIau
..~ . r
CHAPTER· 6
and, from Eq. (6-4), (6-8)
COMPUTATION PF.UNIFORM FLOW
Primarily, Eq. (1)-8) applies to a channel s~ction when the flow is uni-
form. The right side of the equation contains the values of n, Q, and
S; but the left side depends only on the geometry of the water area.
6-1. The Conveyance of a Channel Section. The discharge of uniform Therefor'}, it shows that, fora giv~n condition of n,Q, and S, there is
flow in a channel may be expressed ns the product of the veloc:ity, repre- only one possible depth for maintaining a uniform flow, provided that the
sented by EC[. (5-1), and t.he water area, or value of AR~i always increases with increase in depth, which is true in
(6-1) most. cases. .This Q~h is the normal depth. Wyen nand S are known at
Q = VA = CAR-S· = KS"
. a .()1~~!l!!!)1 section, it can 'be seeii1l1ilXl.f1Ji}]6-8) that there can beomyr!ne
(6-2) discharge for maintainin a unjform flow through th~ sectlOD.~provlaect
where
..-:Ui8:tARW'a ways increases withincrease of depth.l ThTs discharge 18
The term J{ is known as the comeY(1,nce of the channel section; it is a . 'tfi'e-normal d~8~'i.a.r.gr----·· .,._ ....,-.--.. :-_._-.... ,._-,- -.' ...------.--:.-
measure of the carrying capacity of the channel seDtion, since it is directiy
''Equation'T6-8) is avery useful tool for the computation and analysis
proportional,to Q . . . . . I· of uniform flow. When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known,
When either the Ch~zy formula or the Mmmmg formult\ IS used D.s t"le.
this equation gives the section factor A"R"H and hence the norml\.l depth
uniform-flolv formula, i.e., when y = 72, the discharge by Eq. (6-1)
Yn' . On the other hand, when n, S, and the· depth, hence the section factor,
becomes are given, the normal discharge Q" can be computed from this equation
Q= K',IS (6-3)
in the following form: .
and the conveyance is
l( = Q- (6-4) Q = 1.49 AR%
. n
v'S (6-9)
.yS . '
This equation can Qe used to compute the convey!mce when the discharge Thisis essentially thc product of the water area and the velocity defined
and slope of the channel are given. . by the Manning formula. The).'UP-.?cript ~_g,--.§ometill!!lL1L~.d t<L§Qecify
When the Chezy formula is used, Eq. (6-2) becomes ihe_c..Qpdition of uniform ·fl9,F-.
In order to simplify the computation, dimensionless curves showing
K = CAR~~ (5-5) the relation between depth and section fuctor ARH (Fig. 6-1) have been
where C' is Chezy's resistance facto::. Similarly, when the Manning prepared for rectangular,. trapezoidal, and cirpular channel' sections.
These self-ex:planatory curves will help to determine ,the depth for a
formula is used,
given section factor A.8~, and vice versa. .Ihe A R~ val ue~ for a circu-
K = 1.49 AR~ (6-6)
n lar section can also· be 'found from the table in AppeEi!ix A.
I .
The above two equations are used to compute the Conveyance when 1This is true for channels in which the v'alue of AR3, al'ways increasllII. with increase
the geometry of the water area and t1')e resistanc~ factor or rou~hlless coef- of depth. since Eq. (6-8) will give one value of AR~,. which in turn gives only one
depth. In the CMe of a closed conduit having a gradua.ily closing top, the va.lue of
ficient are :given. Since the Manning formula IS used extensively, mos~
Ami will first increase wit~ depth and then decrease with depth when the full depth
of the folldwing discussions and computations will be based on:Eq. (6-6). is approached, becaUse a n;taximum value of AR3i usually occurs in such a conduit at
6-2. Th~ Section Factor for Uniform-flow Computati<:n. '11h: ex~re: a depth slightly less than :the full depth. Consequentlj, it is possible to have two
sion AR~i is called the section factor for uniform-flow. eomputatwn; It IS depths for the 'lame value pf ARH, one greater and the either le5J3 than the depth for
an important element in the computation of uniform flow. From Eq. the maximum value of Ami. For further discussion onthie subject see Art. 6-4.
. 1~8
COMPUTATION OF UNIFORM FLOW 131
6-3. The Hydraulic Exponent for UniformAiow Computation. Since
a
the conveyance !{ is function of the depth of flow y, it may be assumed
that
(6-10J
where C is a coefficient and lV is a pn.rameter called the hydra.ulic l3:cponent
for uniform~jlowcompulalton.
Ta.king logari~hlTIs on both side.$ of Eq. (6-10) and then differentiating
with respect to V,
d(ln l() N
dy 2y (6-11)
Now, taking logarithms oil both sides of Eq. (6-6), K lA9AR~~/n, alld
then differentiating this equation ,... ith respect toy under the assumption
..;
... that n is independent of y, .
..s... .
Cl,
~
d(1nI{) = .!. dA: +~! dR
(6-12)
dy A dy 3 R dy
0
d
Since dAjd'b' = T and R . A/ P, the above equation becomes
'0
c;
....'"
~
(5T _ dyd!.)
Q
~
co
.0
hO
~= ~(111 K) = J.- 2R (6-13)
.S dy 3A
?- s
'"tt:
<t .,.
l-
<J
Equating the right sides of Eqs. (6-11) and (0-13) and solving for N,
-
"CJ
'0 ...
0
8
o
This equation indicntes that the value of N for the.tmpezoidal section is
a function of z and y/b. For values of z = 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0,.2.5, 3.0,
and 4.0, a family of curves for N versus y/b can be constructed
(Fig. 0,,2). 2 These curves indic;lte that the value of N varies within a
range of 2.0 to 5.3.
j The curve for a circula.r section with N plotted against y/d Q, where do
lI is the diameter, is also shown in Fig. 6-2. This curve shows that the
I . I This equation (IJ was "Iso developed independently by Chuga.ev [2) through the
I N.
use of the Chez.y lormula. .
S Similar curves to tho'le in Fig. 6"2 for trapezoidal channels were constructed by
.Kirpich [3J and al~o prepared iudependently by Pa.vlovskil [4] alJd R~khml\noff (5).
d 0 0 d
0p/" puo q/" }OsanlOll
130 1
l>.
'A
- - -~-·--:---~~~----~-·-'------~~"--.,
---. ...-..-,-"..---.c~---.~=...~-=-,_....-:
~ -,.~-.,-.~.' ':"
....=_.. _... '-" .-.~~--- .""-~-.-"--"
132 UNIFORM FLOW COMPUTATION OF UNIFORM FLOW 133
value of N. decreases rapidly as the depth of flow approaches the top' of and abscissa are interchanged. If a constant n value is assumed, Eq.
the channel. Further mathematical analysis has reveo.led that the (6-6) indicat~ that K IX he~ce, the~e curves for AR~~ should show
value of N will be equal t~ zem at Vida = 0.938 and will then become the same characteristics as if the curves were plotted for Ie From
negative at greater depths. The significance of this fact will be discussed (6-10), it can. be seen that the hydraulic exponent for the straight-
\ later. in this article and the next. line range of the plot is equal to twice the slope of the plotted straight
line. Thus, if any' two points with
6.0
5.0 >.4--1-_-1---1_-'- -.'---'-- coordinates (K1,Yl) and (K 2;Y2) are 150r,--,---",-,-,. , - - . , - - . , - . , - "
4.0 I-+--/----J
taken' from the straight line, the ap- 100
3,0 I~+-'-----J
proximata value or
N may be com-
puted by the following equation: 50
1,0 +
I
0.8
.0.6 i /
0.5
III K
§ I
./ The cutved'
0.<1
1 Ille
plot when 'h.
:::
" 0.2
~I
~
0,;
0.06
0.06
0,q5
0.04
log Y ':I
0.0 3
Fw. 8-3. Graphica! determination of N by Fro. 6-4. Typicltl channel sections
logarithmic plotting. having appreciable variation ill N
0,02
2.0 2.5 4,0 4.5 5.0 5.5 value with respect ro depth. (After
I VOlues of N R. R. C}~ugaev [2].)
.1,
FIG. 6-2. Curves of N v.alues. When the cross section of a channel changes abruptly with respect to
depth, the hydraulic exponent will ohange accordingly .. Several typical
Fot channel sections other than the rectangular, tnpezoidal, nnd
sections are shown in 6-4. In such cases the logarithmic plot of N
'circular shapes, exact values of N filly be computed directly by Eq. (6-14),
against y rna.y appear as a broken line or an evident curve, For the
provided that the derivative dP/dy can be eVllluated. For most chan-.
nearly straight portions of the broken line or curve) the hydraulic expo-
'nels, except for channels with abrupt changes in cross-sectional form and
nents may be D.Ssumed constant.
for closed conduits with gradually closing top, a logarithmic plot of K as
When the depth of flow approaches the gradually closing crOWl1 of a
ordinate o,gainst tIle depth as abscissaJFig, 6-3) willappear approximately
closed conduit, the logarithmic plot will appear as a curve. The hydraulic.
as a straight line. This can also be seen from tll!') dimensionless curves
exponent in the range of the curved plot is equa,l to twice the slope of the
for ARH in Fig. 6-1, which are plotted similarly except that the ordinate
tangen't; to the curve at the given depth (Fig. 6-3). For practiaalpurposes,
i34 UNIFORM FLOW COMPUTA.:!'ION 'OF UNIFORM FLOW 135
the curve may' be divided into 11 number of short segments', arid eachseg- for example, hilS been shown to increase by as much as 28% from 1.00d n
ment may be considered a straight line having,a constant slope orhydrau- to O.25dc, where it appears to be a maximum (see Fig. 6-5 and the dis-
lie exponent. cussion in Art, 5-8 regarding t.he as a factor affectiIlg n value).
I N ow take the circular section as an example, The dimensionl€&s This effect callses the actual maximum discharge and velocity to occur
!
i
log:l.rithniie plot of ARH against depth is shown in Fig. 6-1. Assuming a . at depths of about O.97d o and O.94do, respectively. The corresponding.
i, const,ant '('Llue of n, this curve will show the same characteristics as if the curves of Q/Qo and ViTr Q are shown by the dashed lines in 6-5.
J. depth were plotted against K. As the depth' increases, the curve deviates According to the assumption of constant n value, the velocity would be
i gradually from a straight line and finally reaches a prononnced curvature the same for a half-full pipe ru; for a full pipe; whereas, if the n value is
I
I·
(
at Yldo = 0.938, where the value of A RH/dij~'J is a maximum. Since the
n value is assumed constant, t,his ratio yl d Q = 0.938' also corresponds to
the maximum value of the conveyance K. The slope of the tangent to
. Subscri:>t "d' indicolas the lull tlow condition
r----:r:....-.-,---,--.-----r-- . . r--r~-.-__.~._-r--~
the curve at this depth, according to the gl'aph in which the ordinate and I
abscissa a,re interchanged, is hQrizontal, and thus the hydmulic exponent
N is equal to zero. For depths with ratio greater than 'lild o = 0.938,
the curve shows a decrease in t.he value 'Of A RH!do'~ and, hence, a decrease
in the conveyance K if r:. is ai$Bumed constant. The slope of the tangent
to the. curve and with it the hydraulic exponent will thus beconie
negative.
6-4. Flow Characteristics in a Closed Conduit with Ope-.l~channel Flow.
Taking the circular section as an example, the dhnenslol1less curves for
ARHI AoRoH and R 3i l Roy" are shown by the full lines in Fig. 6-5. The
subscript zero indicates the full-flow condition. 'If the n value is assumed
constant or independent of the .depth variation, these" two curves will
represent the variation of the ratios of the discharge and velocity to
their corresponding full-flow values (Le., QI Qoand YITT 0)' Both the
discharge and velocity curves show maximum values, which occur at II
0.6 0.7 0,8 0.9
about Q,938d o and 0.81d o respectively. Mathematically, the depth for
the maximum discharge, or O.93ado) can be obtained oimply by equat.ing Votues of 0/0 0 , vivo • AR<iYAoRJI~, cnd R 1fYR~iJ
to zero the first derivative' of ARH with respect to y, since the discharge FIG. 6-5. P'low characteristics of a circula.r section. (Alter T. R. Camp, [27J 0/ Chap. 5.)
computed by the Manning formula is proportional to ARH for consta,nt
nand S. Similarly, as the velocity by t,he Manning formula is pro- taken to vary with the depth, ru; shown, the veloc.ity at the half-depth is
portional to R*, the depth for the maximum velocity, or 0.81d o, can be only 0.8 the full velocity.
obtained by equating the first oerivative of R"" to zero. Flu;thermore, The discussion for the circular conduit applies also to any l:losed C011-
the dimensionless curve of QIQo shows t.hat, when the depth is greater duit with a gradually closing top.. The exact depths for maximum
than about 0.82do, it is possible to have t'l'IO different depths for the same discharge and velocity, however, will depend 011 the shape and roughness
discharge, one !J.bove and one below the value of O.938d o. Similarly, the variation of the specific conduit section. Since the ma.x;imurn discharge
cut've of V /1'0 shmvs that, when the depth is gn:&ter than the half-depth, and velocity of a closed conduit of gradually closing top do not occur at
it is possible to have two different depths for the same velocity, one above the full depth, this means that the conduit WillllOt. flow full at the maxi-
and one below the value of O.81do. . mum capacity as long as it maintaimr an open-challlHil flow 9n a uniform
The above discussion is based on the assumption that the roughness grade free from obstructions. For praetical purposes, however, it may
. coefficient remains constant as the depth che.nges. Actually, the value of sometimes be assumed that the maximum discharge of a cir('.ular cOllduit
n for average clean sewer· pipes and drain tiles, both. clay and concrete, or similar ,closed conduit with gradually closing top does occur at the full
I
136 UNIF,ORM FLOW
COMPU'l'ATION OF UNIFORM FLOW 137
depth, because the depth for maximum discharge is so close to the top
where ~l' Hi, ... ,R/'f are hydraulic radii of the subdivided areas. For
. that there is always.a possibility of slight backwater to increase this depth
simple c~!\.nnel sections, it may be assumed that
closer to and eventtu:IUy equal to the full depth. '
. 6-0. Flow in a Channel Section with Composite Roughness. In simple RI = R2 = . . . = RN = H .
chann81s, the roughness along the wetted perimeter may be distinctly
Raugnne88 of Ice-covered Channels. When a. channel is covered with
different fl'OJU part to PE1l't of the perimeter,but the mean velocity can
the wetted perimeter of the flcrw is greatly increased. . The bottom
stiil be computed by a uniform-fl,uw formula without actually subdividing
surface of the ice cover may be either as smooth as a finished concrete
the section.. For example, a rectangular channel built with a wooden
sUl1fa:ce or as rough as the natur&'l channel bed v,rhenclrifting ice blooks
bottom and glass walls must have different n values for the bottom and the
.exist. Tabb 6-1 gives the 11, values for drcdg;ed channels covered with
walls. In applying the Manning formula to ~uch channels, it is sometimes'
ice, as proposed by Lotter [13]. .
necessary to compute an equivalent n value for the entire perimeter and
use this equivalent value for the computation of the flow in the whole
section. .
. For the determination of the equivalent roughness, the water area is .lee condition Velooity of flaw, fps n Value
divided imnginatively into N parts of which the wetted pel'imeters P 2,
... , PN and the coefficients of roughness nl, n2, • . . ) nN are known. Smooth iee:
Withol\t drifting iee blookB 1.3-2.0 0.01D-0.012
Horton [6] <Lnd Einstein [7,8] assumed thateachpal't of the area has the
>2.0 0.014-0.017
same mean velocity, which at the same time i15 equal to the mean velocity With drifting ice blocks 1.3-2.0 0.OI6-0.01E
of the whole section i that is, VI = V ~ = . . . = V N = V. On the >2.0 .0.017-0.020
basis of this assumption, the equivalent. coefficient of roughness may be Rough ice with drifting ice blocks 0.023-0.025
obtained by the following equation:' .' .
Let nand n1 be the roughness coefficients for channds with and without
ice cover, respectively. By means of Eqs. (6-17) to (6-19)' it is possible
to compute the roughness coefficient 7l-1 of the ke cover. However, the
(6-17) coefficient thus computed may sometimes be a negative ,falue . , which is,
of course, unrealistic, .
There are many other assumptions for the determination of all equiva-
In order t.o develop a realistic approach to the problem, Pavlovskil [14)
lent l'Oughness.Pavlovski! (9] and also Muhlhofer [10] and Einstein
assumed that the total force resisting the noW' is equal to the sum of the
and Banks [111 assumed that the total force resisting the flow (that is
the flo~
resisting forces due.to the channel bed and' the ice cover. Thus, from
JCV'"PL; see Art. 5-4) :is equal to the sum of the forces
Art. 5-4,
developed in the subdivided 3reas.By this assumption, the equivalent
(5-20)
roughness coefficient L'3
where the subscript 1 refers to the channel bed and 2 to the ice cover.
Since Chezy's C = -vu;jR OJ' J( = W/C2, the above equation b~comes
(Plnl 2 + P2n2~ + ... + PN'1i~!)H P P1' P!
n P}i
(6-18)
i
C1 = +
C1 2 Czl (6-21)
,I Lotter [12] assumed that the total discharge 'of the flow is equal to thei II Let: the wetted perimeter P z = aPi or P = PI + P2 (1 + a)P1i
J sHm of the discharges of the subdivided areas. Thus, the equivalent then
roughness coefficient .is ! 1 a 1 a
PRH'
i = C12 C2 2 + (6-22)
n = ...-----'-.- (lH9~ Sin(:e,: by Eq. (5-7), C 1. 49R ,t'/n,
(1 + a),n2
(6-23)
RH!
138 UNIFORM FLOW COMPUTATION OF UNIFORM FLOW 139 :i
It is further assumed that the total hydraulic radius R is made up of . channel section is equal to the total discbirge divided by the total water "1
two parts: t.he hydraulic radius Rl due to the channel bed and the area.
hydraulic l':1,dius R~ due to the ice cove'r; that is, that R '= Rl + R 2 • Owing to the differenr.es that exist among the velocities of the sub-
Now, let El = Rl/R2 a,nd E2 = nt/nz. Then Eq. (6-23) is reduced to sections, the velocity-distribution coefficients of the whole section are
different from those of the subsections. The values of these coefficients
(1 + a)~2 = 11,2
2
(1 + ~)H (E22 + aEif,) (6-24) may be computed as follows:
Let Vt, V2, : • • , vI! be the mean velocities in the subsect,ions; let
For the condition of maximum discharge, Pavlovskil. postulated that al .. a2, . . . 1 aN and fJI I fJ~, ... ,fJN be the velocity-distribution coef-
the relation !.LlUOJ;lg R I , R 2, and n is such that dnjd~i = O. Thus, from ficients for the corresponding subsections; let .6.A 1 , .6. A 2, • • " .6.AN be
Eq. (6-24), Ez z =aEI)', a.nd
n = - Tt2 (a'' (T' 0Z''S)2~
7 (6-25)*
VT+li
For wide channels, it may be a,ssumed that PI = P z, that is, that
a = 1. Thus, E22 = ~l~', and
Tt = ..72 (1 + ~2~l)% (6-27)
Fw. 6-6. A channel con8isting of one main section and two' side sedions.
Q = 0.63- Ql
nl
(6-29)
= {Kl + ](z + .. + ](N)S~~ Sfi
11, I
,~
"
(6-26) I
and (J = -J-'N'-~--~-- (6-31)
f (Il(NY/ A
~ I
i
!
X.I,
. .t .
:' ' I of ~
/71
/r
140 UNI~ORM FLOW I
COMPUTA.TION OF UNIFORM FLOW
.
Example 6-1. ' Compute the velocity-distribution coefficients at a peak flow in a V.:=: LJ"'L ~ J../l
,',
'.rT"
[md simplifying,
natural stream channel consisting of a main sectioll and an overflow side section. The
data obtained at the peak flow stage are: 200 = 1.49 [Y(lO + Y)-J~~ O.0016H
y(10 +
y) 0.025 10 + y V5
Subsection A, ft' J P, ft I I
n value {J or 7,680 +:1,720y = [y(lO + !:::)J2.5
Main section.
1
. - . - - I · --,3-6-0-1\.
S
~5 11~0-.-O-3-5~JII-1-.-1-0-'--1-'0-4- Solving this equation for Y by trial and errol', V. = 3.36 ft. This is the normal depth.
-_.,
The corresponding arelL is An = 89.S ft' alld the normal velocity is V. = 400/89.8 =
Side section. .. .. .. .. 5,710 405 0.040 1. 11 1. 04 4.46 fps. From EXlLmple 4-2, it is known that the critical depth for the same discharge
in the channel is 2.15' ft. ,Since the normal depth is greater than the critica! depth,
Sol'u/'i01l:. The computations are given below. , the flow is subcritical.
Soh;/ion 2: The Trial~and-e,.~or Approach. Some engineel's prefer to solve this
S"b~"tio" AA
-I---!
I-~ R .. J. " K I /3K2/I!A I ",K'/I!.tl'
type of problem by trial and error. Using the given data, the right side of Eq. (6~S)
is 1IQ/1.49 ...;s = 167.7. Then, assume a value of y and compute the section fnctor
''AR%: Make several such trials until. the computed value of AR3; is very' closely equal
Main section. 5,360\22523.88.290.035 I. 892 X X X 10' 16-::;4 10'1".93 10" ......t.u-liiJ....7.; Lhen the a.ssumed ii-i~;~ th~-~l~sest trial :e. the.llormaCdepth:-·This tl'ial-and=
Si~::~~i~~.,:: ~:~~~I~~y~·15:~~ ~:~'~~
1.244 X 10' 12.82 X 10' B,56 X 1O" error computation is shown as follows:
I 3.136 X 10' i g. 76 X 10 8 I 32.49 X 10"
In Exalllple 6-2, ARn =< '167.7. The v",[ue of AR~fi/M~ is 0.0569. I For this value,
charge is 400 cis. ' '
c.D~term!ne the critir.;a.1 slope at the n01'l:11al depth of 3.35 ft, a.nd compute the ~or
respondmg dlscharge.
J
the uhnrt gives yllJ = 0.168, or 11" = 3.36 ft. So:1ttion.
' . (v.)
h From the given data it is found that R = 2.56 it and V '= 446 ' f ps..
In Example 6-3, AR15ldo~1 - 0.269. For this va.lue, the chart yla., = il.72, Su bstltutmg t ese va.lues; in the Manning formula and .~ol-dng for Sn,
or 11 = 0.72 X 3 = 2.16 ft.
A, Ad -
•••• C' -
1.49 256"'8
0.025 I"
. ~.,,'
6-7. Determination of the Normal and Critical When the dis-
or s. 0.0016
charge and roughness are given, the Manning formula can be used to
determine the slope of Ll. 'prismatic channel in which the flow is uniform
I
This is the slo~e that will maintain a unifO~'m flow i~ the gh'en channel at a depth oI ·'l.
at a given normal depth Yn; The slope thus determined is sometimes 3.36 ft and a discharge of 400 cfa (see Example 5.2),
culled specifically the normal slope Sn. b. From the given data t.he critl!:al depth is found to be 2.15 ft (see Example 4-2)
The corresp:ndin g. v:J.lues of R ~nd V are R 1.97 f~ and V 7.60 Ips. Substitutin~ !
the known ~ A.lues m the MnnnlIlg formula and solvmg for Sa, ' ,I
7.66 1. 97HB.l."
I
or S. 0.(1067
t
Th~s is the slope that will maintain a. unifornl and critical flow in the givell cha.nnel for
a dis~harge of 400 cfs. The depth of flow is 2.1& ft.
c. For the given normal depth of 3 .•36 it, it is found that R = 2.68 ft, Ii = 89.8 fV
D :" 2.~8 ft, and, by Eq. ~I-ll), the critical velocity V. 9.3'fps. Substi~
tutmg tne known values m the Manning formula and solving for 13 m ,
1.19'
9.3 = 0.025 2,56~~S",,~
or S.n = 0.0070
o
This is ~he slope that will maintain a uniform and critical flow in the given channel
at the glvp,n normal clepth of 3.36 ft. The disoharge is equal to 9.3 X
FlO. 6-7. A curve of !I vs. ARJ~ for n. circula.r section. 89.8 = 835 ds.
Example 6-6. petermine the limit slope of !I. rectangular channel (Fig. 6-8) with
By varyillg the slope of the c:hannel to a certail1 value, it is to b = 10 ft and n = Q.0l5.
change the normal depth and make the uniform flow occur in a cl'it,ical .S~ll'tion. .Since the limit slope is the :;mall~.st critical slope, its value' maybe deter-
state for the ghren dischatge and roughness. The slope thus obtained is mmed gra.phlc.\J.lly.rro~ a Cll::ve ~f.the critical slope plotted aga.inst discharge.
the critical slope 8., and the corresponding normal depth is equI11 to the ~or the determmatJOn of a cntlcal slope, the following two cOlldition~ should be
satisfied:
critical depth. The smallest critical slope for a channel of shape L The first condition, from Eq. (6-3), is
and roughness is called the l~:1nit slope SL.
Furthermore, by adjusting the slope and the discharge, a critical uni- .Q = K vB. (6-32)
form flow may be obtained at the given llorinal depth. ·slope thus or, 'when the Manning formula is used,
obtained is known as the critical slope at the given normal depth So...
,The folloH.'ing examples will illustraie the above discussion.
(6-33)
Example 6-4. A trapezoidal channel has a bO,ttoro w'idthof 20 H, side slopes of or, for the rectangular channel,
2:1, and u = 0.025.
a. Determine the normal slope at a normal depth of 3.S6 it whf:)n the discharge is I
400 cfs.
1 (f}-34)
i
I.
,t . i
'I
144 UN)FORM FLOW COMPUTATION OF UNJl<'ORM FLOW 145
:2. The second condition, from Eq. (4-3), is 1. The normal discharge Q
2. The mean velocity of flow V
(6-35)
Q =Z,...;g 3. The normal depth 'Ii
or, for the .ectangulul' chmnel, 4. The coefficient of roughness n ,
Q= 1O....;g y'" (6-36)
5. The channel slope S "
By using Eqs. (il-34) and (6-36) .iLnd eliminating 11, the relation between Q and S, B. The geometric elements that depend on the shape of the channel
can be established. This relation is expr;lssed, however, as an implicit function, and section,such as A, N, etc.
a direct solution is mathematically complic!l.ted, A practical solution of the problem
i~ to assume different values of ii, substitute 11 in Eq. (6-36) and solve for Q, and then When any four of the above six variab'lesare given, the remaining two
substitute lIll.!ld Q in Eq. (6-34). anti solve for So. Following this procedure, the rel!l.- unknowns can be determined by the two equations. The following are
tion between Q and S< was compute.d ..nd plotted as shown ilt Fig, 6-8. The plotted. some types of problems of uniform-ftow computa~ioll:
A. To compute the normal discharge. Inpractical applieD.tlons, this
comput.ation is required.for the determination of the capacity of a given
channel or for the construction of a synthetic rating curve of the channel.
B. To: determine the velocity of. flow. This computation has many
appli.cations. For example, .itis often required for the study of scouring
and silting effects in a given channel.
C. To compute the normal depth. This computation is required for
Supercrltlcal the determination of the of flow in a given channel.
flow D. To determine t.he channel roughness. This computation is used
to ascerta.in the roughness coefficient in a given channel; the .coefficient
thus determined may be used in other similar channels.
E. Ta compute the channel slope. This computation is required for
adjusting the slope 0(0, given channel.
2. :3 4 5 6 7 F. To determine the dimensions of the channel section. This com-
Slope in 10-3 Slape In 10- 3 putation is required mainly for design purposes .
(al . (b)
Table 6-2 lists the known and unknown variables involved in each of the
F!G~ t>-8. Curves of critica.! slope vs. discharge. six types of problems mentioned above. The kllown variables are indi-
cated by a check mark (v') and the unknowns required in the problem
curve MLN indicates a minimum value·of S, O.004Il.t L, which IS the required Iimii by a question mark (?). The unknmm.val'iables that can be determined
slope. ' , . : ' . from .the known variables are indicated by a dash The last
Assumil1g that the maximum expected depth of flow in the ch$.IlneLis 5 ft, a dlS-
cha.rge cUl:veOM (Fig. can be cOIl1itrueted according to Eq. (6-9). It becomes TABLE t>-2. SOME TYPES OF PROBLEMS OF UNn'ORM-FLOW COMPUTATiON
evident tha.t within the sha.ded area. betweEn the curves OM and MLN, a.ll expected
flows wHi b~ subcritical. On the right side of the Cllrves, the flows will be, super- I
critical. Since t1:,e point L is below the cUr'le 'OM, the limit slope is possible in the Geo-
Type of Dis- VeIoe- De th Rough-
p Slope metric
exj:lected flLnge of flow. . . prob- cha.rge ity ness . Exa.mple
. Similll.dy, the maximum expected depth of flow is !\.Ssumed to be 1.5 ft, and the 11 S ele-
lem Q V n ments
curves ar~shown in Fig. 6-8b. In this case, the point L is above the Cl.lCVe·01l1; there-. :
fore, the limit slope cannot be expected to occur in the realm under cQnsideratioll.
A ? - v v v I v Prob. 5-5, (Ex, 5-0
6-8. Problems of Uniform-flolw COII}putation. The computation of B - ,
? v v v v Prob. 5-5, (Ex. 5-1-)
uniform flow may be performed: by the use of two equations; the· con- c v - 1 v v v Example 6-2
D v v ? v 'I. Prob.5-6
tinuity i equation and a unifodn-flow. formula. When :the Manning E v' .- v v ? , v Example 6-4a
formulli. is used as the uniform-fl6w formula, the computati/;m will involve F v .- v v v; ? Example 7-2
the following six variables:' ."
145 UNIFORM FLOW
COMPUTATION OF UNIFORM :now 147
·l
column of the tabie shows the example given in this book for each type tracted-opening method is related to rapidly varied flow and, therefore,
of problem. The examples shown. in parentheses are solved by the. use will be descri I:>ed later, in Art. 17-6. .
of the Chl:z;y formula. It should be noted, however, that Table 0-2
The Slope·-area Method. The following inform:ttion is necessary for the
does not include all types of problems. By varying combinations of slope-area methqd: the determination of the energy slope in the channel
various known and unknown variables, more types of problems can be
formed. In design problems, the use of the best hydraulic· section and
of empirica.l rules is generally introduced (Art. 7-7) and thUl'J new types
of problems are created .
reach; the measurement of the a vel'age cross-sectional area, and the le.ngth
of the reach; and the est.imation of the roughness coefficient applicable
to the channel reach, so that frictional losses can be calcu!il.ted. When
i
this information is obtained, the discharge can be computed by a uniform-
. 6l.9. Computation of Flood Discharge. In uniform-flow computation
flow formula, such as l'vIa.nlling's. The procedure of computation is as
it is understood, theoretically, that the energy slope Sf in the uniform-flow follows:
formula is equal to the slope of the longitudinal water-surface profile and
1. From the known values of A, R, and n, compute the conveyances
also to the slope of the channel bottom (Art. 5-1). In natural streams,
Ie, andKd,respeetively, of the Epstl'eam and dO\\'llstrealll sec~ion8 of the
however, these three slopes are only approximateiy equal. Owing to reach.
inegular channel conditions, the energy line, wB,tel' surfa.ee, and channel
2. Compute the average conveyance K of the reach as the geometric
bottom cannot be strictly parallel to one another. If ·1;he change in mean of 1(u and F:.o,' or
velocity within the channel reach is not appredable, the energy· slope
may be taken roughly equal to the bottom 01' t.he surfs.ce slope. On the (6-37)
other hand, if the velocity varies appreciably from one end of the reach. 3. Assuming zero velocity head, the energy slope is equal to the fall F
to the other, the ·energy slope should be taken as the difference between of water surface in the reach divided by the length L of the reach, or
the total heads nt the ends of the reach divided by the length of the
reach. Since the total head includes the velocity head, which is unknown, F'
S =£ (6-38)
a solution by successive approximation is necessary in the discharge
computa~ion.· . The corresponding 'discharge may, therefore, be computed by Eq. (6-3),
During flood stages, the velocity var~eS greatly,. and the velocity head or
should be included in the total head for defining the energy slope. Fur- Q= K vB.
thermore, flood flow is in fact varied and unstean'y, and use of a uniform- (6-3)
flow formula for discharge computation is acceptable only when the which gives the first approximation of the discluirge.
changes in flood stage and dischurge are relatively gradual. 4. Assuming ~he disclul.rge p.qltal to thefil'st approximation, compute
The direct use of a uniform-fl.ow formula for the determination of flood the velocity heads at the upstream [1,nd downstream sections, or au V,,2j2g
discharges is known as the slope-aJ'ea method. The flood discharge may and ad V d Z j2g. The energy slope is, therefore, equal to
also be determined by another well-kno".,n method called the contracted-
opening method, in which the principle of energy is applied directly to a s=!!:!.
L (6-39)
contracted opening in the stream. Both methods l require information where
about the high water marks that are detectable in the flomded reach. (6-40)
Good locations for coll~cting such information may be found not only and kis a factor.' When the reach is (;ontracting (Vu < V d ), k = 1.0.
on main streams but also on smaller tributaries; but they ml.\st be either • When the reach is expanding (V" > V.), k = 0.5. The 50% decreru;e
comparDtjvely regular valley channels free from bends and thus well in the value of Ie for an expanding reach is customarily assumed for the
suited to the slope-area method or else contrll-cted openings wiyh sufficient recovery of the velocity head due to the expansion of the flow. The
constriction to produce definite indrease in head and velocity and thus corresponding discharge is then computed byEq, (6-3) u.'ling the revised
i
suited t.o the contracted-opening method. j
The foilowingis a description of the slope-area method. 2 The con- I flow, but it is believed that at this stage of reading the rcad~r should be able to follow
I the procedure.described here. This method shows how the uniform-flow formula can
I For a comprehensive description of the metholis, see [21]. : ! be applied to gradually vllded flow and thus paves the way for a more cOinprehensive
~ It shoul.d be noted tha.t the slope-area method actually deals with gradually var.ied I treatment on the subject of gradually varied flow in Part Ill.
i
J1,
, ,
.~
I
-~----I-!----- ,.,j
Thus, from Eq.
1st 0.500 . . . . . . , .. \°.50° °.0010000.0316 97,000 (6-41),
2d 97,000 0.500 1.354 1.424 0.430 1 0.000860 0.0293 90,000
3d 90,000 10.500 1.165 1.~25I0.44010.0d0880 0.0297 .91,200
dv = g8 (Ym - y) dy
. J'
4th 91,200 10.500 1.H.l5 1.258 0,437i 0.000874 0.0296\ 91,000
5th 91,000 1 0 . 500 1.190 11.253 1°.437\ 0.000874) 0.0296 91,000 Integrating and noting that v = 0 w;hen Y = 0,
6-10. Uniform Surface Flow. When water flows across a broad sur-
face, so-called S1J.1"!ace flow is produced. The depth of the flow may be so
v = g8 (YYm _
)I • .
t)
2
(8-42)
thin in comparison with the width of flow that the flow becomes a wide-' This is a quadratic equation indicating that' the velocity of uniform,
open-channel flow, known specifically as sheet flow. In a drainage basin ·laminar flow in a wide open channel has a parabolic distribution. Inte-
150 UNIFORM FLOW COMPUTATION OF UNIFORM FLOW 151
grate Eq. (6-42) from Y = O. to Y = Ym and divide the result by Yrn; the PROBLEMS
average velocity is
6-1. Detern:ine the normal discharges in channels ha.ving the following sections for
V = -1 10 °' vdy
11
(6-43) 'y = 6 ft, n = 0.015, and S = 0.0020: .
Y•• 0
a. A rectangular section 20 ft wide
and the di:;;charge per unit width is b. A triangular section with a. bottom angle equal to GO"
c. A trapezoidal sectiC'u with a bottom width of 20 It and side slopes of 1 on 2
(6-44) d. A cil'cular section 15 ft in diameter .
e. A parabolic section having a width of 16 ft at the depth of 4 ft .
where CL = gSj3v, a coefficient involving slope and viscosity.
Uniform surface flow becomes turbulent if the surface is rough and if 6-2. Prove the following equ1Ltion for the dischuge ina. tl'iangular highway gutter
(Fig. 6-10) having one side vertical, one 3ide sloped at 1 pn z'. MallTlilig's n, depth of
the depth of ftmv is sufficiently large to produce persisting' eddies. In
this case the sui'face roughness is a dominating factor, and the velocity
can readily be expressed by the Manning formula. Thus, the discharge
I
per unit width is
(6-45)
I
I
where y", is the average depth of flow and where CT = 1.49So·~/n, a \
coefficient involving slope and roughness,
The change of state of sheet flow from laminar to turbulent hn.s been
studied by ffi8.ny hydraulicians. The transitional region was found FIG. 6-10. A highway gut:ter section.
variously at R = 310 by JeffreY<i [22], from R = 300 to 330 by Hopf [23},
and from R = 548 to 773 by Horton [24J. However, Horton believed flow y, and longitudinal slope S:
that the Reynolds criterion is not satisfn.ctory for sheet flow over relatively
(G-48)
rough surfaces. He reasoned that, at the transition point, the velocities
for laminar and turbulent· flow are nearly equn.l, because this condition of where
equal velocities represents the minimum amount of energy capable of
. maintaining turbulent £low.. Thus, the flow cannot be turbulent if the . 6~3. Compute the discharge in the triangular highway gutte!' described in the pre-
velocity is less than cedmg problem when z = 24, n = 0.017, Y = 0.22.ft, and S = 0.03.
6-~. U~ing the Manning formula, determine the hydmulic exponent N for the [01-
(6-46)
lowing channel sections: Ca) a very narl'OW rectan(!;ls, Cb) a very wide rectangle, (c) a
Y~ry wide panbola for which the wetted perimeter i~ practically equal to the top
where Y", is the avewge depth of flow. Width, and (d) an equilateral triangle with a vertex at the bottom. .
6-5. UBing the Ch6zy formula,' ~how that the general equation for the hydmulic
As the natural ground surface is rarely even and uniform in slope, over-
exponent N is .
land flow is apt to cha!lgefrom lamim\'r to turbulent, and vice versa, within
a short di.'lta.rice. Consequently, the flow is mixed between the laminar N = 1:..
A
(3 T _ U dP)
dy
(/H9) .
and turbulent. For very rough surfaces or areas densely covered with
vegetation, the flow ill general is highly turbulent. Experiments have
indica.ted tha.t the discharge of overland flow per unit width of flow varies
6-6. Solve Prob. G-4 if the determination of the hydl'!l.)llic exponent is based on the
Chezy formula. Compare the results with those obtained in Frob. 614. 1,
with the aver~ge depth o~ flow as follows: I The G. K. formula shows that Chezy's C is a f~nction of the hydrauiic radius and
hence of the depth ii. Thus, the Chezy formula has hot been found very convenient (
(6-47) for determination of the N value. Forcanal~ in earth and gravelly soil the N value
is generally found to havBan increase of 0.30 to 0.50 due to the v!l.ri!l.ti~n in Chezy's -\
'where C is a coefficient a~d where the exponent :j: varies between 1.0 for C with respect to the depth. Thi~ i~crease, however, brings the N valuc closlJr to
highly turbulent. flow and 3.0 for mixed flow. . that bMcd on the Manl1ing formula.
6-:11. Prove Eq. (6-46), I,. actions, Am.erican Geophysical Union, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 603-6jO, August, 1950,
12. G. l{. Lott.er: SOQbrazheniia k gidravlicheokomu raschetu cusel s l'!>tlichnoI
6-32. Using Eqs. (1-5) and (6-43), determine the value of ]( in Eq. (1-8}. i
sherokhovatosliiu stenoI!: (Collsidera.tionson hydraulic design of channels wi~h
6-33. Compu~e the discharges ·per unit width of a ghect flow on a. surflLc€ with
0.01 and AS = 0.035 when the depth of flow is (a) 0.01 ft and (b) 0.004 ft. The
I different roughness of \ir8.1I8), /zu.estiia. V~e~oiu2nogo Nauchno-!ssledvvateJ,'skof/Q
11 !I Instiluta. ·Gid1'otekhniki (Transa.ctiqna, .till-Union Sde1\tijic Reseprch In.stilutc of
temperature of water is 6soF. . .' Hyd~at;lic En(Jineering), Leningrad, voL 9, pp. 238-241, 1933. .
6-34. Compare Horton's criteria. for sheet flow in Prob. 6-33 with those shOW\l by 13. G. It Lotter: Vliianie uslovii ledoobrazovaniia. i tolshchinY l'da naraschct deriva-
. ~he cha'tt of Fig. 1-3. " .... . tsionnykh ka.nruov (Influence of condi~ions of ice formation and thickness on the
6-35. Show that the velocity-distribution coeffici(mts for la.minar uniform flow in design of derivation ca-nlLls), IZTleiltiia. Vsesoiu.znogo Nav.chno-I:ssled()va.t~l'slco(jo.
wide open channels are a "" 1,.54 and ~ 1.20. .
6-36. Using the Blasius equation (1-6) for turbulent flow in open cha.nnels,
Ins/itu/a Gidrolekhltiki (Tra.nsactions, All-Union Scimtiji.c ReseO;rch 17Ultitute of
H1!d~G7j.lic Engineering), Leningrad, vol. 7, pp. 5&-80, 1932.
i
;ahow that the cOI'nsponding exponent, in Eq. (6-47) is:c = 1 77. 14. G. Ie LoLter; Metod akademilca N. N. Pavlovskogo dUo. ojJcedeleniia koeflitsienta
I
I"
.
"> ,,/.-:'
.'!
156 . UNIFORM FLOW
./
'~.
UNIFOR\I1 FLOW"
158 DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR UNIFORM FLOW
. water to pick up lining blocks and push them out .~~ ??SlulOn. 159
movmg .. h Id be designed against such POSSibilItIes. a.now the pradicable Use of just about any type of lining or lining tl'eat-
Accordingly,
h M' the, Immg SOli, 'bi e VelO~l'ty
urn PerrnlSSI ' - . The mim:mum pel'missible ment now or in tho future ant.icipatcd by the Blireau.
v~locit'lJ
.
7 -3, T e mlm "t'n is the lowest velocity that Will not" 7-6. Freeboard. The freeboard of a channel is the vertical distance
velocity, ?L' I'.he ~onS'O" ~d ~ duc~ the growth of aquatic plant and mo~s. fi'Oill the top of the channel to the water surface nt the design condition.
start sedlmentatlOn an IJ1 t ' . d its e"act value cannot be er.sIly This distance shouid be sufficient to prevent wnves or fluctuations in
1'1 . I ' ty is very uncer aJl1 :Ln l\. h'
liS ve. OCI
d For water carrymg ' ' no ISlt load , or for desiltecl flow,, t IS water surface from overflowing the sides. This ftwtor becomes imp or-
fdetermme .
t . h s little si"'nI'fi canee excep, t for .its effert - onplant growth.h Gen- 'h . tant particularly in~he design of elevated flumes, for the Rume substruc-
. ac IIOJ a kino'' .a mean l ' t ' f 2 t 'Hps may be used safely w en" ture may be endangered by any overflow.
t>
ve OCI y 0 0 • . 't ef
era y spea "". , t' the channel is small, and a mean veloci y 0 There is no universally accepted rule for the'determination of free-
percentage of sIlt preseDillln.
not less than 2.5 fps W pi even,.
t a growth of vegetation that would
' board, since wave action or wat~t-8urface fluctuation in a channel ma.y
bi;: created by many uncontrollable causes. Pronounced Waves and
sedously decrease ::allihe
th ,. i'lg capaCity of the channel.
longitudinal bottom Glope of cha.nnel is
,
a fiu.ctuatioll of water surface are generally expected in channels where the
7,.4. Channel Slop , ra hv and the energy head required for velocity is so 11igh and the slope so steep th~t the flow becomes very
generally governed by the topog , P', h slope may ,depend also on the unstable, or on curves where high velocity and large deflection angle
h f! f ater In many cases, t e . ,
t e . ow 0f the w channe
, 1 F'" 'or exanlple , channels' used for W:Lter-dlstrl- r may cause appreciable superelevuted water surface on the convex side of
' pur~ose o. ' b se used in irrigation, water supply, y :au I~
h d
" a curve, or in chnrmels where the velocity of flow appt'oaches the critical
butlOn plll poses, such as t o , . h' , level at the pomto! state at which the water may flow at alternate depths and thus jump from
. . , d h droDower proJects reqUIre a Ign .
delivery;~J.l1
mll1Jl1g, y . a smaL1 b-I'
therefore, '~d eSI'rable in order to keep the los3 III
ope I::> the low stage to I;hc high stage at the least obstruction. Other natural
causes such as wind movement und tidal adion may also induce high
elevation to a minimfum' h 1 deIJend mainly on the kind of materiaL, waves and Tequire special considemtion in design.
The side slopes 0 a e anne . h .
" 7-1 give:, a genera1 I.d ea o
Table f the slopes
. suitable for use Wit 'l'fLrJOUS
' Free boards va.rying from less than 5 % to grea,ter tha.n 30 % of the depth
of flow are commonly used in design. For smooth, il1terior, semicircular
TABLE 7-1. ' sLOPES
SUl'rABLE SID;;; FO R CHANNELS BUILT IN V,UllOU.S I{INDS metal flumes on tangents, carrying water at velocities not, greater than
OF MATElRIALS . 80 % of the criticnl velocity with a maximum of 8 fp.'l, experience has
. 111 aterial Side slope indicated that a freeboard of 6 %. of the flume diameter shouid be used,
Rock .... ,.,.. . .. , ........ ', ... , * • • • • • • • • •
~ w ••••• Nearly vertic al For flumes on curves with high velocity or deflections, wave Ilction will
Muck and .peaL soils . .. ", .. . .... : .'........ , ... ~ ........ . ~:i: 1 be produced; so freeboard must he increll.sed to prevent water from slop-
Stiff clay or earth with, concrete Immg ... , , . ' , .......... . H':1 to 1:1 ping over,
"
Etlft.h ,Vlth Btone I"Wing, or earth
. for large eila,nnels ....... .
Firm clay or earth for small ditches ........... , , .......•
1:1
1%:1
'an
Freeboll.rd in unlined cann.'l OJ' lateral will nornu;.lly be governed by
Loose sa.ndy earth. , ....... , ... , .... , .... , , .. , ... , : . , .• 2:1 ~. considerations of canal size and locatiOJ1, storm-water inflow, and water-
Sandy I06.m 'or porous clay .. , . : .. : ... , ...... , . , .. , .... , 3:1 table fluctuations eaWled by checks, wiud action, soH characteristics,
percolation gradients, operating road requirements, and availability of
. . erodible material, however, a more accurate excavated material. According to the U,S. Bureau of Reelamation [4J,
. m~LterJal.
kinds of , f th For h'd b e checked
lopes SOUl " [wainst
"0 the criterion of the approximate range of freeboard frequently used extends from 1 ft
determll1atwn 0. . e S l i t (Art 7-10) or by the principle of tractive for smalliateral"/ with shallow depl;hs to 4 it in canals of 3,000 cfs or more
maximum permli5s1bb~~e. °f:c~ors to' be considered in determining slopes capacity with reheively large \vater depths. The Bureau recommends
force (Art. 7-14). ,~1. ~dition of seepage loss, climatic change, that preliminary estimates of the freeboard required under ordinary
are method of constru<..; lon, COl . . 'd 1 hould be made as conditions be made according to the following formula:
. t Generally speakmgj SI e s opes s
channel Size, .e c. d h
Id·b designed for high hydraulic efficiency
steep as practICable a~ s ou 1 e th US Bureau of Reclamation [4]
and st:Lbility. For 11l1ed can~~, e'~'5'1 slope for the usual sizes (7-1)
has been considering standarfdlzhl~lg ~n a .. that it is sufficiently flat to.
of canals. One advantage a t IS S ope IS , I
I
1;,
where F is the freeboard in ft, y is the depth of water in the canal in ft,
and C is ll. coefficient varying from 1.5 for a canal capacity of 20 cfs to
2.5 for a canal capacity of 3,000 cfs or more~ This approximation is
.\
II
160 UNIFORM FLOW
DESIGN OF CH .... NNELS FOR UNIFORM FLOW 161
based upon average Bureau practice; it will not, however, serve for all
conditions. . be noted that a best hydraulic section is the section that gives the mini-
For lined canals or h1.teralS, the height of lining abo"';'e the water surface mum area for a given discharge but not necessarily the minimum exca-
I
will depend upon a number of factors: size of canal, velocity of water, v!1tion. The section of minimum excavation 'occurs only if 'the water
I, curvature of alignment, condition of st0rm- and drain-water inflow, surface is at. the level of the bank tops. Where the water surface is
I below the bank tops, as frequently occurs, channels narrower than those
fluctuations in water level due to operation of flow-regulating structures, .
and wind action. In a somewhat similar mannel', the height of bank. of the best hydraulic section will give minimum excavation. If the'
above the water surfitce will vary with size and location of canal, type. water surface overtops the banks and these il.l'e even,with the ground
of soil, amount of intercepted storm or drai.n water, etc. As a guide for. level, wider channels will provide minimum excavation,
lined-canal design, the U.S. Bureau of Replaination [3] has prepared TABI,E 7-2. BEST HYDRAULIC SECTIONS.
curves (Fi~. 7-1) for average freeboard and bank heights in .relation to
capacit.ies. AArea Wetted /' Hydraulic' Top Hydrau- Section
Cross se<;tion
II_~__·. perimeter
P
radius
il, _ _
width
R-I_ _
lie depth
T_I_D~ _ _Z_ _
. factor
I' I
Tmpezoid, half I .: .
of a hexagon I
Rectangle, half
,13 yl: 2 .../3 11
I
%,y %' v3" 11 '%y %y'"
of a square
Triangle, half of
I
I
2y l ,II 4y ! ~YI 2YI Y 2:\1',6
I 2 V2 11
I "~YI "I ~' ~y"
a :;quare y' I
Semicircle .) ~Y' i
,
72YI Try
2111 4-y -4 y'"
P,arabola, " I
T=2V2y 1% V'2 )%'V2 y'
HYt Y
20YI %YI % y'3y u
Hydro~tatic
catenary ! r
1. 39.58Sy' 2, 9836y 0.46784y 1. 917532yIo, 72795y 1.19093y ' ·&
Capacity. cIs
.' The pri~ciple of the best hydraulic section applies only to the desig.n
FIG. 7-1. Retommended freeboard and lleight of bank of lined channels. (U.S: Bureau of nonerodlble channels. For erodible channels, the principle of tractive
of Reclamation.) force must be used to determine an efficient section (Art, 7-15). . •
7-6. The Best Hydraulic Section. It is knO\vn that the conveyance of Example 7-1. Show that the best hydraulic trapezoidal 8ecti~n is one-half of a
hexagon,
ar chn.nnel section increases with increase in the hydraulic radius or wit.h
.decreD,se in the wetted perimeter, ]'rom a hydr~ulic viewpoint, there- Solutio ll . Table 2-1 gives the water area. and wetted perimeter of a tl'apezoid as
fore, the channel section having the least wetted peri!lleter for a given A = (b + zy)y and P = b + 2 VI + .' y
area has the maximum conveyance; such a section is known as the best whe~e y is th~ depth, b is the bottom width, and .: 1 is the side slope,'
hydrauNc section, The s~micircle hrLs the least perimeter among all sec- .. Flrst, conslder A and z, to b,e constant. : Differentiating the above two equations
,tions with the same area; hence it is the most hydraulically efficient. of with respect to y and solvmg Simultaneously for dP Idy, . .
all sections, .
dP b
• The geometric elements of six .best hydraulic sections are listed in dy = 2( v'f+Zi - z)
y
iTable 7-2, but these seytions may not always qe practical owing to I
'difficulties in constructioJ;! and in use of material. : In general, a channel f For a minim~m wetted perimeter, dP Idy ~ 0, or
t
:section should be designed for the best hydraulic. efficiency but should be I b = 2Y(VI ,+ ZZ - 2)
: modifi~d for practicability. From a practical point of view, it should I Substitl!ting this equation for b/n the previ~us two equations for A ELnd Pand solving
1
11
UNl.F'ORMFLD'W
DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR UNIFORM FLOW 163
1,62 .
where x. is the width-depth .ratio b/y and z is the horizontal projectkm
simu1t,a.neDusiy for: P, of t~e SIde slope corresponding to 1 ft vertical. Similarly, engineers in
p =z
IndIa
. . have
[61 I uS,ed an enlpirical formula: V = VA I 13 '='
0577 V: r7A h'ch
z tha.t makes P th~ least.
of Diifer:entiating P with respect to .ti, 'IV 1
Now, find tile va.lue IS equlva ent to x = 3 - z for trapezoidal sections' alld Ph'II'lP' , .
z, equcting dP Ida to zero, and sol viug for z, . . f7] El' . . , pme el1gJ.-:
ne61S t use q. (,7-3) WIth z 1.5, or z ~ 2.5, far earth canals,
z = ~3 ~ ta.n30· 35
Table 2-1, and solve for the depth. If there are oth('J' unknowns, such "E
as band z of a trapezoidal section, then assume the values for these 2
0
unknowns and solve Eq. (6-8) for the depth. By assuming several values OJ
-::::---'-":......:..~~;.--'
y)%
== 167.7
.
in the
[
feet .. (7-2)
y= 0.5 -vA
where A is the water area in ft2. For a trapezoidal section it can be
Assuming b "'" 20 it and z = 2 and simplifying,
shown that this rule may alsabe expressed by a simple formula 7,680 + 1,720y = (y(1O + y)Ju
x= 4- 2 (7-3) Y,= 3.36 It
\
I
164 UNIFORM FLOW
DESIGN OJ!' CHANNELS FOR UNIFORM FLOW 165
It should be noted that thia solution is exactly the same as the computation of of Reclamation and is tentatively recommended for design of erodible
the normal depth given in Solution 1 of Example 6-2. Accordingly, the solutions by
channels. It should be noted that either method at the present stage will
trial il.nd error and by the graphical method described in Exo.mple 6-2 can also be
applied to the present prublem. serve only as a guide and -\vill not supplant experience and sound engi-
Similarly, assume other suitable values of band z, and compute the corresponding neering judgment.
depths. The final' decision on dimensions will depend on practical considerations. 7-9. The Maxim'urn Permissible Velocity. The max-im1tm permissible
If the 'values of band z are decided o.t the 'beginning of the compuio.tion, the depth will velocity, or the nonerodible velocity, is the greatest mean velocity that. will
be c,)mputed only once. r
not cause- erosion of the channel body. This velocity is very uncertain
Suppose that b =20 ft, 2 = 2, and y = 3.36 ft are the final vo.lues. Assign a free- L
board of 2 ft; the total depth of the channel is, therefore, 5.36 ft and the top width of and variable, and ,can be estimated only with experience and judgment.
the channel (not the width of the ,vater smface) is 41.4 ft: The water area is 89.S ft', In gencml, aId and well-seasoned channels will stand much higher veloci-
and the velocity is 4.46 fps, which is greater than the minimum permissible velocity
for inducing silt, if any. ' T.~llLE· 7-3. MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE VELOCITIES RECOMMENDED' BY FOR'rIEll
When the best hydraulic section is required, substitute A, = vl3y' and R = 0.5y, ,AND SCOBEY ANi. THE CORRESPONDlNG UNIT-TIIAC"l'IVE-FORCE VALUES
i' obtained' frem Table 7-2, in AR~~ = Hi7.7 !!p..d simplify; the depth is found to be CONVERTED BY THE U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION"
y = lUI it. Add 3 ft freeboard; the total depth is 9.1) ft. The corresponding: bottom (For straight channels of small slope, after aging)
width is 7.6ft, the top width of the dUlllnel is 18.7 ft, the water area is 75.2 ft', afld the
velocity is 5.32 fps. Since the, best hydraulic trapezoidal section is the half hexagon,
va/a. , ! Water trans-
t,he side slopes are 1 on Clear water _I porting col-
loidal silts
Material '7\
B. ERODIBLE CHANNELS WHICII SCOUR :BUT DO NOT SILT
v, I rD, V, TO,
7-8. Methods of Approach. The behavior of flow in an erodibl~ chan- fps ilb/ft2 fps Ib/ft'
nel is influenced by so many physical factors and by field conditions so --'1---------
complex and uncertain that precise design of such channels at the present· Fine sand, colloidal ... , .. , . , .. ,. " ""'1
Sandy loam, non colloidal. . .,. . . , , . . ..
i
0.020 1. 50 O. (127
0,020 1. 75 . 0,037 I
2,50 0.075
2.50 0,075
stage of Imowledge is beyond the realm of theory.! The uniform-flow '1
Silt loalll, nOllColloidal .. " ", ... .", ''', 0.020 2.00 0,048 3.00 0, n
formula, which is suitable fOr the design of stable nonerodible channels; Alluvial silts, noncolloidal. ......... 0.020 /2.00 0,048 3.50 0.15
,provides an insufficient condition for the design of erodi.ble channels. Ordinary firm loim,., ..... , ....... , .. 0.020 2.50 0.075 3.50 0.15
This is because the stability of erodible channels, which governs the Voleanicash" ...... " . . . . . . . . " .... 0.02012.50 0.075 3.50 0,15
design, is dependent mainly on the properties of the material forming the Stiff clay, very colloidal. , ...... " " , .... " 0.025 I 3.75 0.26 I
1
5.00 0.413
Alluvial silts, colloidal.. " " " ' ' ' ' " ' ' - ' 1 0,025 3.75 0.26 5.00 0.46
channel body, rat.her than only on the hydral..lllcs of the flow in the chan- ShalesandhardPl1ns .... : ......... ".: ... j 0.025 6.00 0.67 6.00 10.137
nel. Only after a stable section of the erodible channel is obt,ained can
the uniform-flow formula be llsed for ,computing the velocity of flow and ~~:~:tl:~m' ~~. ~~b'b'l~~ ";h~~ :~~~~~li~i~l~l: :~:~~~ i: ~~ ~:~~5 ~:~~ I g:~~
discharge. Graded siits to cobbles when colloida.l. , , . ,.1
0.0;10 4.00 0.43 5.50 i 0.80
I 0.67
I
Two methods of approach to the proper design of erodible channels iI Coa-rse gmvel, ~0IlC0I10idlll .......... , .. ; ... / 0.025 4.00 0.30 .16,00
CObblesandshmglE'3, ... , ................ 0.035 5,00 0,91 5.50 1.10
are described here: the method oj perrn1;sSible velocity and the method of i , • I
J
tractive f01·ce. The method of permissible velocity has been used exteu- . • The Fortier and Scobey values were recommended for use in 1926 by the Special
sively for the design of. earth canals in the United States to ensure freedom I! Committee on Irrigation Research of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
from scour. The method of tractive force hOes sometimes been used in
I Europe; it is now under comprehensive investigation by the U.S. Bureau
f
f ties tha.n new ones, becau$e the old cha.nnel bed is usually better stabi-
) i' lized, particularly with the deposition of colloidal matter. When other
I It has been noticed that certain channels are erodible whereas others v:ary similar i
conditions are the same, a deeper channel will convey water at a higher
in cha,nnel geometry, hydraulics, and soil physical properties are not. As a further f
step in investig~tioIl, the chemical properties of the material forming the channel J mean velocity without erosion than a shallower one. This is probably
body should be explored, It may be that an ion exchange between water and soil or t because the scouring is caused primarily by the bottom velocities and
hydration of the, material is providing a binder in some places and thus affecting the for the same mean velocity, the bottom velocities are greater in .the shal~
erosion. For a general discussion of the compiexity of this problem, see [81 and [91. IL lower channel.
!~
,
I
Attemp~1 were made early -to define a mean velocity that would cause 2
neither silting nor Scoill:ing. From the present-day viewpoint] how-
ever, it is dOHbtful whether such a velocity Mtually exists. In 1915, J
_Ir
j
!
,g 0.7
:
.2
'0 .)
~
~,
g 0.5f----j--·,--+-..·---/---';-',,\},c-:-+---f-1--i
'"
.~
0.4
,."
"iii
I
'"
:is I
j o~~,-=l==I=t:I=l=
0,.8
·t
()'5~H-++--t -{
O.4!-H-++-fflt-f--+
o.:;f--f-+-++-+H-H--t
Q.~ !-,-,-.---l...--'---r",-,--,--W.-..c
Cloy
:3
Per"r.issible va loci!i es. fps
FIG. 7-4, Curves showing' U.S.S,u, da.ta on permissible velocities for cohesive soils.
!
.suitable n values for various materials and the converted values for the
FIG. 7-3. U.S. and U.S.S.R. data on ]lermissible veloCities for no,nco,hesive soila, corresponding permissible tractive force, which
will be discussed later (Art. 7-13). In 1036, a
Etcheverry [2Gl published probably the first table of maximum meIl.n .u.~l'''''.<1iH magazine [28] published values of m[l.xi- I
velocities that are safe il:gaillllt e1'Osion. . In 1925, Fortier and Scobey [27J
pli bUshed the well-known to ble of "Permissible Canal Velocities 11 shown
mum permissible velocities (Figs. 7-3 and 7-4)
ahove which scour would be produced in noncohe-
I
ill Table 7-3. The values in thiE table are for lVell-seasoned channels of sive materiai of a wide range of pa.rticle sizes and
small sfopes and for depths of flow less .than 3 ft. The table also shows various kinds of cohesiVe soil It also gave the
variation of these velocities with channel dep!;h ~
1 The first famous fo,rmula for this nonsiiting and no,neroding vciocit,y fo,r silt-laden
water was published in 1895 by Kennedy [lOj. From a stl\dy o,f tne dischargo and (Fig. 7-5).
depth of 22 canals of the Upper Bari Doab irrig.!l.tion system in Punjab, India, the The maximum permissible velocities mentioned
Kennedy fOrImll", WD-S developed as . abo Ire are with reference to straight channels.
(7-4) For sinuous channels, the velocities should be
lowered in order to 'reduce scour. Percentages of
where V, is the nonsilting and noneroding mean velocity in fps; y is the depth of flow reduction suggested by Lane [29] are 5% for
in ft; C - 0.84, depending primarily or. the firmness of t,he material forming theqhan-
slightly sinuous canals, 13 % for moderately
nel body; and z "" 0.64, an exponent which varies only slightly. Ba.sed on later
studies by other engineers, the valu~s of C generally recommended are 0.,55 for sinuous canals, and 22 % for very sinuom; canals.
extremely fille soils such a.s tho,se found.in Egypt; 0.84 for fine light sand soils such
as those found in the Punjab, India; 0.92 for coarse light sandy soils; 1.01 for sandY
loamy silts; and 1.09 for coarse silt or hard-soil debris. For clear water, a "alue of
percentage val tieS, however, are veJ;'Y ap-
proximate, since no accurate data are available
at the. present time. Carreclion foctor
r
i
z = 0.,5 has been suggested. 7-10. Method of Permissible Velocity. Using FIG. 7-5. Curves showillg
For the design of canals carrying sediinent-laden water, the Kennedy formula is U.S.S.R. corrections of
now practically obsolete and is being replaced by methods based on Lacey's regime the maximum permissible velocity as a criterion] permissible velocity fo,r
theory [11-16], Einstein's bed-load function [17), a.nd Maddock-Leopold's principle the design procedure for a channel section, as- depth for both collesive -j
,,
of channel geometry [18J. There are voluminous writings on these methods. Com-
prehensive bibliographies can be found in [19] to [25]. . I
l
silmed to be trapezoidal, consists of the following and noncohesive mate-
steps:
rials.
I~
l~
168 UNIFORM FLOW DESIGN o.F CHANNELS FOR UNIFORM l"L~W 169
I,
l 1. Fot' the given kind of material forming the channel body, estimate It should be noted that the unit .tractiv~ force in channels, except for
the roughness coefficir.nt n (Art. 5-7), side slope z (Table 1-1), and the wide open channels, is not uniformly distributed along the wetted perim-
maximum permissible velocity V (Table 7-3 and Figs. 7-3 to 7-5). ' et.er .. Many attempts have been made to determine the distribution of
2. Compute the hydraulic radius R by the Manning formula. the tractive force in a chann~l. Leighly [31] attempted to determine this
3. Compute the water area required by the given discharge and per- ,distribution in many trapezoidal and several rectangular and tl'iangular
missible velocity, or A = Q/V. ' . channels from: the published data on the velocity distribution in the
4. Compute the wetted perimeter, or P = A/R.
5. Using the expressions for A and P from Table 2-1, solve simul- 1.5
i
taneously for band y. The solution may be expedi~ed by the charts
given in Appendix B. '
6. Add a pl'0per freeboard, and modify the section for practicability.
. '
Example 7-3. ,Compute the bottom width and the 'depth of fiow ,of !l. trapezoidal
cha.nnel laid on a slope of 0.0016 and carrying 8. design dischfl.rge of 4{)O cfs. 'rhe
channel is to be excavated in earth containing noncolioidal coarse i1;rllvels and pebbles.
O:97QwyS
Solution. For the given conditions, the following rm!estimated: n 0.025, z = 2,
, and nlll:llili1um pe;l'missible velocity = 4.5 fps. :FIG. 7·6. Distrihution of tra.ctive force in !1 trapezoidai channel section.
Using the Manning formula, !wlve for R.
1.49 --
4.5 = 0.025 R~ ";0.0016
or R ." 2.60 ft
ThenA = 400/4.5 = 88.8 ft', a.nd P = AIR 88.8/2.60 = 34.2 ft. Now
A = (b + zy)y = (b + l!y)y ~ 88.8 ft'
and P = b + 2 v'l+ ii Y = (b + 2 y'S y) )\4.2 it
Solving the above two equations simultaneously, b 18.7 ft and y 3.46,ft.
'I -11. The Tractive Force. When water 'flows in' a channel, a. force is . Ii,
developed that acts in the direction of flow on the channal oea-:-"This l- fl--+--!--+---l- - -I I rmm]
!4-+-1-+--+=1t++i~
fm'cb, which is simply the pull of wilter on the wetted area, is known as the
tract~'ve force. l In It uniform flow the tra()tive forceis apparently equal to
the effective component of the gravity force acting on the body afwater,
parallel to the channel bottom and equal to wALS, where w is the unit
123'156789
o
o
:-.-JI:~
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10
weight of wa.ter, A is the wetted area,' L is the length of the channel bh
bh
reach, and S is the slope (Art; 5-4). Thus, the a.verage value of the On bcttom of cl1annels
On sid s S 01 channels
tractive fOl'ce pel' unit wetted area, or the so-called tmit tractive f~rce
TO, is equal to wALS/PL = wRS, where P is the wetted perimeter and FIG. 7-7, Maximum unit tractive forces in terms of wyS. '
R is the hydraulic radius; that is .
. . [TV = w~· V q-5)
channels. U nfoi·tunately,. to deficiency of data, the results of his
study were not very conclusive. In the CS. Bureau of Reclamation,
In a wide open channel, the hydraulic radius is equal to the depth of flow . Olsen and Flol'ey[32] and other engineers ha,ve used the membrane
y; hence TO '" wyS. analogy and analytical and finite-difference methods for determining the
1 'l"his is also known as the shear force or the drab fOl·ce. The idea of tractive force distribution of tractive fOl:ce in trapezoidal, rectangular, and tria!1g ular
is gellorally believed 1.0 h!we been first :introdue~d intohydraulia litera.ture by du channels. A typical distribution .of tractive force in
a trapezoidal chan-
Boys in 1879 [po 149; of 30]. Howelrer, the principle of balancing this foroe wit~ the Itel reSUlting from the m~mbrane-analogy study is shown in Fig. 7-6.
channel resistance in 11 uniform flow was sta.ted 1;Iy Brahms earIy in 1754 (see Art. 5-4). The pattern of distribution varies with the shape pf the section but is
I
.Ii".
170 UNIFORM FLdw DESIGN OF QHANNELS FOR UNIFORM ;FLOW 171
. .
practically unaffected by the size of the section. Based on such studies, is equal to the force tending to cause the motioil. The resistance to
curves (Fig. 7-7) showing the maximum unit tractive forces on the sides motion of the particle is equal.to the normal force W, cos ¢ mUltiplied by
and bottom of various channel sections have been prepared for use in the coefficient of frictioil, or tan (J, where e is the angle of repose. Hence,
cu,ilal design. Generally speaking, for trapezoidal c.hannels of .the ilhapell
ordinarily used ill canals, the maximum tractive force on the bottom is (7 -(3)
close to the va.lue wyS, .and on the sides close to 0.76 wyS.
Solving for theullit tractive force T, tlmt causes impending motion on a
7 -12. Tractive-force Ratio. On a soil particle resting sm the sloping
sloping surface, .
side of a channel sect.ion (Fig. 7-8) in which water is flowing, two forces
.. W . / tan" tP
are acting: the tractive force aT, and the gnlvity cfol'ce component 'YV; sin ¢, T, = ,c!
cos rb tan II '\;1- tan' (1 (7-7)
Simplifying, )
K =
T
~
J( =
= COli '"
/1 _
f
~ 1 - tan 2 0
~
tan 2 ¢
(7-10)
1
Si.ll '" (7-11)
'\; Sill" ~
PIG. 7-8 .. Analysis of forces ac.ting on a pa.rticle resting on the surface of a chn.nnel bed.
which tends to cause the particle to roll down the side slope. l The
It can be seen that this ratio is a fUllctioll only ~f the inclination of the
sloping side", and of the angle of repose of the material O. Fot cohesive
.
1
symbols used are a = effective area of the particle, T, = u\lit tractive and fine noncohesive materials, the cohesi vc fOI'ces,even with com-
force on the side of the channel, W, = submerged weight of the particle, paratively clear .vater, become so great in propprtion to the gravity-
and", = angle of the side: slope. The resultant of these two fO;'ces, which force component causing t.he particle to roll down that the gravity force
are at right angles to each other, is wn safely be neglected. Therefore, the angle of repose need be con-
sidered only for coarse noncohesive materials. According to the U.S.
VlV,2 Si112 '" + oh,2 Bureau of Reclamation's investigation, it was found in general t.hat the'
When this force is large enough, the particle ~vill move. angle of repose increases with both size and anguiarity df the material.
By the principle of frictional motion in mechanics, it may be assumed For use in design, curves (Fig. 7-9) were prepnred by the Bureau, showing
that, when mot.ion is impending, the resistance to mqtion of t.he particle values of the angle of repose for nOli cohesive material above 0.2 in. in
1 The concept of the three-dimensional analysis of the 'gravity and tractive forces
. diameter for various degrees of roughness. The diameter referred to
acti]lg on a particle resting on a slope at the Btate of impending motion was first given is the diameter of a particle than which 25% (by weight) of the material
by F'orchheimcr [33J. A complete analysis of a chann"l section using this .concept is larger.
Wa.'l first developed by Chia.-Hwa Fan [34J. The a.nalysis ,vas also developed inde-
pendently by' the U.S. Bur~a.u of Reclamation under the direction of E, W. Lane 1 Equation (7-10) was presented by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation [35,361 and
[29,35]. Eq. (7-11) by Fan [341. The two equations are mathematically identical.
172 UNIFORM FLOW
,i . DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR UNIFORM FLOW 173
Panic 1e size in in clles
particle size for noncohesive material and upon compactness or v:o~ds
0.1 . 0.2 O.l 004 0.6 o.e 1.0
L-----.rL--; I , I I I I I I I I 2.0 3.0 4.0 ratio for cohesive materiaL Other' soil properties such as the plastIcIty
I
42 3/16 1/4 lIB 112 3/4 I H/2 index 1 or the chemical action may probably also be taken as indexes for
~- -T--[I
l ~j
I... I defining permissible tractive force more precisely. However, sufficient
r
• .....
data and information on these indexes are lacking_ The U.S. Bureau
40
I r // ---V~.' of Reclsmation has made 'a comprehensive study of the problem, using
data fol' coarse noneohesive material obtained from the Sall Luis Valley
8 ///
I V V / / V/
-;:;
,6 -1-- // , V V//V
""
N
~~i/I / VI/';I/I
~~"'/
o
.., :3 4 V L/
;VL
~
.---;----
Ii
2
.'"...." t7- ·Z
~'"
."
..,'" 0
~o $O~ V 1
~/
.; "
~
'"c.e
.If':
~<~I
I b'" if t1 !
I
Il I.;;:,~ 'ti
'"
'-
!, '0
.!? I \ I .I
.
'"c:
'2 6
f--- ... J~Ci
;;"'/ /
V."O- V 'b i---
/ .<1r-+~I+H Recommeoded value for
"-:; canals in coarse l
noncohe~ive material~
si.e 25% lorg er
24
~ ~0° .~~
L ,'") r
;
j ,
2. 2
V:o."':;"
20 I) I
.FIG. 7-9. An .. Jes of repose of nonconesive material. (U.S. Bureau of Rec/a.1l1alion.) 50 100
7-13.
• Permissible
• Tractive Force. The pe?'m-issible tract1've'01"ce
J is the
maXImum Ulllt trnctive force that will not cauge seriOlls erosion of the FIG. 7-10. Recommended permissible unit tr.active forces for canals in noncohesive
Ino.terial.(U.S. Burea:!' of Rec!amalit.m.)
material forming the channel bed 011 a level surface: This unit tractive
fol'c~ c"n. be determined by laboratory experiments, and the value thus canals [37), values converted from permissible velocities, given by Etche-,
obtamed IS known as the critical t1'uctiz,c JOT'ce. However, experience has verry and by Fortier and Scobey,' the U.S,S.R. values, etc. (Alt.7c9).
shown that actual canals L.'1 coarse nUl1Cohasive material C[l.n st!].nd sub- As a result, values of permissible tractive force recommended for canal
stantially higher va.lues than the critical tractive forces measured in the design were developed as follows:
laboratory. This is prohab!y because the water {md soil in £l.ctUtll canals
(J?nt~in slight amounts of conoidl1.1 and organic matter whiGh provide a 1 The pla~ticity index is 'the difference in .percent of moisture between plas~ic limit
and liq:uid llmit in Atterberg soil tests. This index has been investigo,ted by the U.8.
bmdlllg power and also because slight movement of soil particle" can be Bureau of Reclamaiioll as a soil characteristic that can be lL~ed to indics.te resistance
t.?lerated in P:a.~tical designs. without endangering channel stability. to SCour for cohesive materials. For cs.nal deSign. a plasticity illdex of 7 may be.
B.mce the permISSIble tractive force is the design criterion fOl' field. condi- '
tlOl1S, the permissible value may be taken less than the critical value.
I
-\
taken tentatively as the criticnl vll-Iue, with SCOill' OCCUrring for moder:.te 'tractive
forces below this value. However, acours a.re still observed in many cases where the
Tb,e determination of permissible. tractive force is now based upon
I index is above 7. Research'shows that determinat.ion of the plasticity index in (:00"
junction with consolidated-shear testa may possibly be necessary.
I
A
174 UNIFORM FLOW DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR UNIFORM FLOW 175
For coarse noncohesive matel'ial, with sufficient factor of safety, the 7 -14. Method of Tractive Force. The first step in the design of erodi-
Bureau recoIilluends tenta.tively a value of permissibletracti Ire force in ble channels by the method of tractive force consists in selecting a11
pounds per square foot equal to 0.4 times the diameter in iilches of a
particle than which 25 % (by weight) of the material is larger: This
approximate channel section by experiene.e or from design tables,l collect- !
ing samples of the material fo;:ming the channel bed, and determining
.recommendation is shown by the straight line in the design c'hart (Fig. the'required properties of the samples .. With these data, the designer
7-10). investigates the section by applying tractive-force analysis to ascertain
For .fine nOll cohesive material, the size specified is t.he median size, or probable stability by reaches and to determine the minimum section that
size sma.ller than 30% of the weight. Three design curves (Fig. 7-10) appears stable. For channels in noncohesive materials the rolling-down
effect shouid be considered in addition to the effect. of the distribution of
tracth-e'forces; for channels in cohesive material the rolling-down effect is
\'0 E==E=E~j=R+q:B=t==+=a
., negligible, and the effect of t.he distribution of tractive force alon:e is a
r\ Sondy cloys (sand < 50 %) _~
,..... Llilil! I I criterion sufficient for design. The final proportioning of the channel
section, ho\-vever, will depend on other nonhydl;aulic practical considera-
!;iops.· The analysis for tractive force is best described by the following
example:
Example 7-4. Design a trapezoidal channel laid on a slope of 0.0016 a.nd carrying
a discharge of 400 cfs. The cha.nnel is to be excavated in earth containing noncol-
lnidal coarse gravels and pebb['~s, 25 % of which is 1.25 in. or over in diameter, Man-
ning's n. = 0.025. .
SoLution. For trapezoidal channels, .the maximum unit tracth'e force OIl the slop-
illg sides is usually less th!>ll that Oil the (,ottom (Fig. 7-7); hence, the side force i~ the
controUing value .in the analysis. The design of the cha.nnel should therefore include
(It) the proportioning of the section dirnensioIlll for the maximum unit tractive force
on the sides. and (b) c.heckiilg the proportioned dimensions for the maximum unit
tJ:active force on the bottom, .
a. PTopol'lioning the. Section D!:men,~ions. Assuming side slopes of 2: I, or z = 2, 3,nd
a base-depth ratio bly ",. 5, the maximum unit tractive force on the sloping sides
(Fig. 7-7) is 0.775wi;s = 0.775 X 62.4 X 0.0016Y = 0.078y lb/ft'.
Considering a very rounded ma.terial 1.25 in. in diameter, the angle of repose (Fig.
7-9) is 8 = 33.5". 'Nith fJ = 33,5' and z ~ 2, or cJ> = 26.5", t,lle tractive-fol'ce ratio
by Eq. (7-11) is K = 0.587. For a size of 1.25 in., the permissible tractive force on
Voids ratio a level bottom is TL = 0.·1 X 1.25 = 0.5 lb/ft' (sam.e from Fig. 7-10), and the permis-
FIG. 7-11. Permissible unit tl'l1ctive forces for canals in cohesive material as converted sible tractive force on the sides iST. ~- 0.587 X 0.5 = 0.294 lb 1ft'.
from the U.S.S.It. data on permissible velocities. . For a state of impending motion of the particles. on side slopes, 0.078y = 0.294, or
y = 3.77 ft. Accordingly; the bottom width is b = 3.77 X 5 = 18.85 ft. For this
trapezoidal section, A = 99.5 ft' and R = 2.79 ft. With n = 0.025 aud S = 0.00113,
are tentatively recommended (1) for canals with high content of fine the discharge by the Manning formula is 470 crs. Further computation will show
sediment in the water, (2) for canals with 10',11 content affine sediment ill that, for z = 2 and bIy = 4.1, th" ~ection dimensions are y = 3.82 ft and b "" 15.66 ft
the water, <lnd (3) for canals with clear water. and that the discharge is 41"4 cfs, which is close to thO} design discharge ..
For cohesive materials, the data based on convei·sion. of permissible Alternative section dimensions may be obtained by as~uming other '(alues oI z or
velocities to UIJit tractive forces and given in Table 7-3 and Fig. 7-11 are side slopes. .
b. Checking the Proportjalled Dimensions. With z = 2 and bly = 4.1, the maximum
recommended as design references. ' unit tra,ctive force on the channel bottom (Fig. 7-7) is 0.97wyS = 0.97 X 62.4 X
The pel'missible tTactive forces mentioned above refer to straight chan- 3.82 X 0.0016 = 0.370 [b/ft', less than 0.5 Ib/ft', which is the pel'mu;sible tractive
nels. For sinuous channels, the values should be lowered in order to . force on the level boLtom.
reduce. scour. Approximate percentages of reduction, suggested by
I Typica.l average earth sections of irrigation ca.nals and laterals, constructed or
Lane [29J, are 10% for slightly sinuous canals; 25% for moderately sInu- proPQsed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamatiotl. and selected for the flows required on
ous canals, and 40% for very sinuous .canals. the basis of econom.v and stability, are given in Fig. 5, paragraph 1.120, of [4].
DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR:UNIFORM FLOW
177
176 UNIFORM: FLOW
transfer (if tractive force has little effect on the results and can safely be
7-15. The Stable Hydraulic Section. The section of an erodible chan-
nel in which no erosion will occur, at a minimum water area for a given ignored. . . '. It· y
. According to assumption 5, the tractlve force actmg on any e em en ar.
dischilrge is called the stable hydraulic 8ection. Empirical pi'oJiles, such
n.rea AB OIl the sloping side (Fig. 7-12a) per unit length o~ the channell~
as the ellipse and the parabola, have been suggested as stable hydrauUc
equal to wyS dx, where w is the unit weight of water, Y is the depth 0
sections by many hydraulicians.. The U.S. Bureau of Reclama.tion [38]
has employed the principle of tractive force t o · a theoretically 'water· above AB, and S is. the
stable section for erodible channels carrying clear water in noncohGS'ive longitudinal slope. , . Since the area
.materials.· . AB is VCdX)2 + (dy)2, the unit
In designing trapezoidal sections, as described in.the preceding article, tmctive force is equal to
the tractive force is made eqnal to the permissible value over only a part t
pf the perimeter of the section, where the forces are close to maximum;
on most of the perimeter forces are less than the permissible value. rn tal V
other words, the impending instability occurs only over a small pr.rt of where rP is the slope angle of the
the perimeter. In developing a stable hydraulic section· for maximum tangent at AB. .
\
• 29.5'--·-----1
efficiency, it is necessary to satisfy the condition that impending motion The other assumpti(;ms stated
shall prevail everywhere on the channel bed. For material with a given above have been used previously to
angle of repOSE> and for r~ given discharge, this optimal section will provide develop the equation for the trac-
noi only the chl1Ilnel of minimum water area, but also the channel of . tive-forc~.ratio K (Art. 7-12). The
minimum top width, maximum mean velocity, and minimum excavation. unit tractive force all the level
In the maihematical·derivation of this section by the Bureau, the follow- bottom at the channel center is
'ing assumptions are made: .. . 1'L wYuS, where yo is the depth of
L The soil particle is held against thechanllel bed by the component of flow at the center. The corre-
r,he submerged weight of the particle acting normal to the bed. sponding unit tractive force on the
2. At ,and above the water, surface the side slope is. at the of sloping area ~B is,therefore, equal
repose of the material under the action of gravity. to wyoSIL , .
3. At the center of the channel the side slope is zero and the, III o~der to achieve impending
7-12. Andysis and desigll ?f sto.ble
force alone is sufficient to hold the .particles at the point of incipient mo~ion ·over the entire periphery of. FIG.
hydraulic secti0!1' (a) ~heoretLcl'l.l sec-
instability. the channel bed, the two forces tion {or given soil properties. and eh!l.l1ll:l
4. ·At points between the center and edge of the channel the particles mentioned in the above paragraphs . slope, providing Q - 220 cis; (b) mod~-
fred section for Q" 400 cfs; (c) modI-
are kept in a state ,of incipient motion by the resultant of the gravity should be equal; that is,. fied section for Q' 100 efs.
component of the particle's submerged weight acting on the side slope and wyS cos <p = wYoSK
the tractive force of the flowing water. Substituting Eq. (7-10) for K and tan-1 (dy/dx) fol' <p in the above equDt-
5. Thc tractive force act.ing on an area of the channel bed is equal to
the weight component of the water d,irectly above the area acting in the tion and simplifying,
direction of fiow. This weight component is equal to the weight times
the longitudinal slope of the channel. (dy)t
dx
+ (lL)£ tan
Yo •
2 (I = tan~ fJ
If assumption 15 is to hold there. can be no lateral transfer of tra.ctive ya' and :t = O. With this condition
force between adjacent currents moving at different velocities in the sec- . At the center of the channel, y
tion-a situation, however, that never actually occurs. Fortunately,
the mathematical analysis made by the Bureau I has shoWn that the actual pa.rticle is loea~d. This assumption gives ~ solution .that agrees very clqselY w~th
the solution bailed on assumption 5. Therefo.re, neglect of the trB?"fer 0,1 .tractwEl
Takiflg the effect of lateral tnl.litive force into accoUnt, an a.!ternative assumptioll
force in the a.~!l.lysis will give equally sn.tisfactory results, Bad wll:.h cOJ;lslderably
I
was ina.de by the' BUreau, which states that the tractive force acting on a particle is ·1
prop~rtiona.1 to the square of the ll1ean velocity in the channel at 'the point where the I less ,,'ork.· .
i
.. ~
.178 UNIFORM .FLOW . DESIGN OF 'CHANNELSFOR UNIFORM: FLOW 179 I
. .
the solution of the above differential equation is 1 it by 180/11" or 57.3. The top width mllY be computed by Eq. (7-12) with if = 0, or
cos 0.128::; = O. Thus, 0.128::; = 11"/2 and x = 12.3 n.
Tli.e top width is T = 2::; =
tan
Y = Yo cos ( - - -8 x) (7-12) 24.6 ft.
, yo By Eq. (7-14), the mean velocity is V= (1.35 - 1.19 tau 33.5') 5.151' X 0.0016}'/
0.025 = 2.69 fps. By Eq. (7-15), the water Mea is A = 2.04 X 5.16'/tan 33.5° =
This equation shows that the shape of a stable hydra,ulic section under
82.2 fV. Hence the discharge is 220 cfs. Since the design discharge is 400 cfs, it is
the specified assumptions is a simple cosine curve. From the results of necessary to add a rectangular area at the middle (Fig. 7-12b). The width of the
the Bureau's mathematical anaiysis, the following properties of this stable rectangle may be computed by Eq. (7-17) as
section can be stated ~
I . ,,_ ·0.025{400 - 220) _
TO
(7 -13) I T - 1.49 X5.l6~~ X 0.00W1 - 4.9 ft
Yo o.97wS
1.35 - 1.19 tan 8 yo%Sl! TherefCJre the top width is 24.6 + 4.9 = 29.5 ft.
l' (7-14) ·11 If the channel is 'designed to carry 100 cis, it isnecesso.ry to remove !l. vertical area
n
ir.:im the middl~ (Fig. 7-12c). The top width of the removed a.rea may be computed
2.04Yo 2 by Eq. (7-1il).
A (7-15)
= tan e
where 70 is the permissible t.ractive force in IbjfV, V is the mean velocity
in. the section in fps, A is the water area in ft~, 8 is the angle of repose for
II T' = 0.96(1 - V 1 0,%20)X 21.6 = 7.7 ft
Therefore the top width is 24.6 - 7,7 = lB.\) ft.
the material or the slope angle of the section at the water edge of the
channel, T is the top width, and the rest of the symbols are hS previously
l C. GRASSED CHANNELS
. . ---'i
180 UNIFORM FLOW
DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR UNIFORM FLOW lSI
!
\
.l
182 UNIFORill FLOW· DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR UNIFORM FLOW 183
.sl---l--t--........f.--+-++-+-!-l-f---+
~1---4--4--.--+---+--~-~+++----r--+--~~~-+-+~~+---+--+---~
r:: H
.1 :
.09
.OS
.O~
.00
.O~ !
...
-.I
VR VR
(0) Curves for A or very high vegetal retardance.
(e) CurYe.s for C or modera~e vegetal retardancB.
i
.\,
VR
. (b) Curves for B or high vegetal reta.rdllnce.
(d) Curves for· D or low vegetal reta.rda.nce, a.nd a.n .e.vernge curve for E or very low
FIG. 7-14. Experimental n-VR curves. (U,S. Soil Conservation Service.) vegetal reta.rdll.nce.
l
'f
I
i
.1
I
184 ~I
UNIFORM FLOW
1 DESIGN OF CHANN~LS FOR UNIFORM FLOW ~85
>30 B High
,
Foil' .
11-24
6-10
C
D
Moderate
Low Cover Slope IMlge,
%
I. Permissible velocity, fps
7-19. Sel~ction of Gra~s. The selection of grass for the channel lining
, II Do not
5-10
use all
4 3
slopes steeper ~han _10~%_ _ __
depe.nds mawly on the clImate and soil in which the plant will grow and
surv.I~~ under ,the given conditions. From the hydraulic viewpoint, Lesp,edeza sericea, -w-e-ep-i-~~g-lo-v-e
I 0-5 I ,3.5 2.5.I
stablhu y . and other f~ctors should also. be considered. In general, a grass, ischaemuffi (yello.v blue- I Do not use on slopes steeper than 5 %, except lOr
higher dlsch:.l.l'ge requu'cs a stronger or better lining. On steep slopes stem), kudzu, aHalf!\., crabgrass side slopes in a combination channel
?unch grasses; such as alfalfa, lespedeza,and kudzu, will develop channel~
------
Annuals---used on mild slopes or as~ --~-=5---1 3 ,5 2.5 I
mg of the flow and" hence, are unsatisfactory for lining. For slopes temporary pr"tection until per- Use on slopes steeper than 5 % is not reCOffi-
greater than 5 %, only fine and uniformly distributed sod-forming grasses manent CQyel'S al'e established, mended
sueh as Bermuda grass,. Kentucky bluegrass, and smooth brome ar~ common lespedeza, Sudan grass
re~om~nended fOl' lining· where the main flow occurs. Because' of the
, I REMARKS. The values apply to average, uniform stands of each type of covel'.
obJec.tlOnable spreading nature of sod-forming grasses, the top portion of
! the. Sides and the berm may be planted with gras.:;es that do Ii.ot.spread
lIse velocities exceeding 5 fps onlr where good covers and proper maintenll.nce cll,n be
obtairied.' ,
easliy, such as weeping love gl'B,SS. 11'01' fust establishment of the lining, . * If.s. Soil Conse.rv!l.tion Service 1411.
Bermudagl'assand weeping love, grass fLl'e recommended. Sometirne~ (B) is to review the design for maximum capacity, that is', to determine
an~uals are used as temporary protectibn until permanent coveb by the increase in depth of flow necessary to maintain a maximum capacity
native gras~e~ are ~stablished. Silt deposition in channels may be con- under the conditiun of' a higher degree of retardance. For instance, if.
~rolled by Iml?g With bunch grasses, which will develop channeled flow common lespedeza is selected as the grass for lining, the comn-lOn lespedeza
lnCl'ease velOCity, and thus reduce silting.: , '
of low vegetal ret!l.rdar\.ce (greell~ average length 4.5 in.) is used for the
. 7-20. Proced?re of ~esign., After the !kind of grass for channel ]ining first stage in design. Then, in the second stag~, the cummon lespedeza
IS selected, the qegree of retardrmce can be determined from the condition of moderate vegetal retal'dance' (green, uncut,: average length 11 in.)
of the stem length and the density of growth. During the period of shou1.d be used. Finally, a proper freeboard is added to the computed'
186 UNIFORM
I
DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR UNIFORl!vl FLOW 187 1
depth of the channel, which will further increase the maximum design
capacity. The design procedure I is described as follows: Side slope Bottom width Depth Top width
A. Design Jor Stabilt·ty. Given the discharge, channel slope, and kind
of grass, the Ilrst stage of design may proceed in the following stiOlPs:
z:1 b, ft !I, it
....
T,ft
---~-
1
1. Assume a value. of n, and determine the corresponding values of VR 3;1 17.0 0.53 20.18
from the n- VR curve (Fig. 7-14). 6:1 12.5 0.62 19 94
Triangle ........... 10: 1. 0 1.00 20.00
2. Seler:t the permissible velocity from Table .7-6, and c()mpute the
value of R. Para.bola .......... o.n 2().00
1 ' L35
'Trial
noQ. !I' A R V l'R n I V
1.491mSH
-
2 0.34
11.
1
-
3 4.72 13,4 0.051
1 0.70 0.G3 3.73 2.35 4.2.2
4 2,50 2 0.60 11.3 0.54 4,42 2.39 0.050 3,96
3 0.65 l2.3. 0.58 4.07 2'.36 0.051 4.07
1
1
The correct va-lues for the determination of sections o.re.R = 0.50 It and A = 3% =
10 ft'. Several cha.nnel sections meeting these requirements are proposed as follows The correct depth is 0.55 ft. Adding a freeboa.rd of 0.2 tt,.the total depth is 0.85.ft.
(using charts in App~ridb:: D ) : ' ,
. For the trapezoidal ::;ection with a side slope of 6: 1 and b 12.5 ft, t~12 computat~on
For an eXl).mple .of the pra.ctical results in a total depth of 0.94 ft. Simila.rly, the tot!).l depth of the trlangula.r sectIOn
I of a. grassed channel, see £42J.
with a side slope of 10: 1 is found to be 1.33 ft,.
.1
For the parn.bolic :3ection of y =- 0.73 ft and T = 20 ft, the trial computn.tions are mostly in n.Uuvi!ll soil, ra~ging from light sand~ or silty [oams to adobe and having
as follows: an average particle size of 0.002b in. Review the hydraulic design of the channel
section.
7-12. Review the stability of the section dimensions obtaincd in Example 7-3 by
Trial
no.
---
y
I T A I R V
I- - -I- - -
VR n
1.49m1S~~
n
the method of trn.ctive force, !l.Ssuming that 25 % of the material forming the channel
bed is L2b in. or over in diameter.
7-13. Solve Example 7-4 for the following conditions, respectively:
.
I 0.80 I 21.0 11.2 0.52 4.406 2.32 0.051 3.78 (a) If the side slopes are. assumed as 1 on 1.5. .
(b) If the mateJin.1 forming the channel bed contains fine noncohesive particles,
2 0.90 22.2 13.3 0.60 3.76 2.25 0.051 4.15
I
3 0.85 21.6 12.2 0.57 4.10 2.34 0.051 4,03 50% of which are larger than 1 mmin diameter. The water is clear.
·1 0.85 21. 7 12.4 0.58 4.03 2.34 0.051 4.07 (e) If the m~.terial forming the channel bed is cohesive compact clay, having !L voids
I I I ratio eqllal to 0.5 ..
It should be noted that the computation for the parabolic section is simplifi<od by (d) Ii the channel is moderately sinuous.
the lI,se of t}leequation for R in Table 2-1 and by the foct that the depth is proportional 7-14. The conversion from the maximum permissible velocity to permissible trac-
to the squ,ue of the top width; that' is, T = 20 -Vy/O.73. Allowing!l freeboard of tive force (Table 7-3) is based on 0. flow depth 0'£ 3 ft _and an avernge channe.l section
0.20 ft, the total depth is 1.06 ft n.nd the top width is 24.1 ft. ha.ving a bottom width of 10 it and side slopes of L5: 1. For a.llllvial noncolloidal silts
.The final choice of the cllannel section and its dimensions ...... ill depe-nd on practicability and. clear-water floW, the m!lximum permissible velocity recommended by Fortier and
nnd on the circllmstances under which the problem is proposed.. ' . Scobey is 2.00 fps r.nd the n value is taken as 0.020. Compute the corresponding
permissible tractive foree.
7-15. Compute the maximum tractive force per unit area on the section of the All-
PROBLEMS American Canal described in Prob. 7-11. .
7-16. Determine the cross ser.I,ion and discharge of the st~ble hydraulic section of 0
7 -1. Show t~at the most efficient rectangular or triangular section is one-half of a .channel excavated in a' noncohesive IDr.terial ho.ving To = 0.1 lblft', S = 0.00040,
square.
. 7-2. Explain (a) that any section formed by a p'olygon which can be inscribed by
o "" .31", and n = 0.020. .
7-17. Determine the modffied profile for the channel section obtained in the preced-
!\ semicircle with the ccnter in the water surface will have its hydro,ulic radius equal
ing problem if the channel is tOCllUY (a) 75 cfs ILnd (b) 300 efg.
to one-half the radins of th~ inscribed circle, and (b) that such section will have the 7-18. Design a waterway lined with Bermudn. grass on- erosion-resistant soil and
best hydl'll.ulic effiuiency. . cn.rryillg a discharge of 200 cfs .. The n.vernge slope of the channel is 3 %. Use the
7 -3: Detenuine the best hydraulic section of the channel in Example 7-2 if the sec-
curve for modemte vegetn.l rel,ardance.
tion is (n) rectangular, (b) triangular, (e) cirl!ular, (d) parabolic, and (e) in the form of 7 -19. Determine the total depth for maximnm capacity of the channel section pro-
It hydraulic catenary. . . po,,,ed for the preceding problem. Allow 11 fre,eboard equal to 20% of the computed
7-4. Solve Example 7-2 by the empirical rule of Eqs. (7-2) and (7-3). depth. .
7 -6. Design a nonerodible channel carrying 200 cfs with n = 0.020 and S = 0,0020.
Use your own judgment and assumptions.
7-6. Based on the p.ractice of t1u~ U.S. Bureau or'Reclamation, det.ermine (0) the REFERENCES
freeboard of the channel designed in Example 'r-2 when the channel is unlined and
1. Victor L. Streetel': Economical conal cross section~, Transactions, American
(b) the heights of the lining and benk if the channel is lined. '
Society of Civil Engineers, vol.. 110, pp. 421-430, 1045.
7-7. Solve Example 7-3 if the material forming the channel body is fine silt having
2. I van E. Houle" Irrigation Engineering," vol. 2, "Projects, Condllits, und Struc-
an average particle size of 0.006 mm. Estimate the permissible velo,~ity with the aid
tures," John Wiley & Sons, Ill~., New York, 1956.
of (a) Fortier and Scobey's table, (b) U.S.S.R. data, and (e) the Kennedy formul~.
3. ",Linings for lrrigrttion Canals," U.S. Bureau of Reclamn.tion, Jl1ly, Hl52.
modified for clear ,vater. . .
4. Cll-nals !lnd related structures, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Design and Constnlc-
7-8. SOlVE Example 7-3 if the mn.terial forming the channel body is fairly compact
lion Manila!, Design Supplement No.3, Apr. 17, 1952; vol. X, 'pt, 2,. ghop. I,
heavy clayey soil with a voids ratio of l.0.
paragraphs 1.15, 1.8, and 1.18. . .
7 -9. Solve Example 7-3 if the channel has !l. pa.rabolic section.
5. B. A. Etcheverry: "Irrigation Practice and Engineering." vol. II, "Conveyance
7 -10. Design the section of a canal to carry a discharge of 200 cfs throllgh a land of
of Water," iVIcGmw-HiIl Book Company,Jnc., New York, 1st ed., 1915, p. 122.
erodible soils with n = 0.020 and S = 0.0020. Assume other necessary data and use
6. G\lilford L. Molesworth: "Pocket-book of Engineering Formulae (Useful Formulae
your o~vn jlldgment. .
and Memoranda) for Civil·and Mechanical Engineers," E. & F. N.Spon, London,
. 7-lt. 111e All-American Canal is desigr:ed to divert 15,155 cfs of desilted water from
the Colorado River to irrigate the Imperial Valley in southern Califpmia. This canal 7th ed., 1871, p. 175. '
7. Isidro D. Carino: A graphical solution for flow in earth channels, paper 1360,
, i is 80 millls long. . The typical maximum section has a bottom width of 160 ft, width
Proceedings, American Society of Civil Engineers, J oumal, Irrigation and Dra.ina.ge
at wo.t¢r surface of 232 it, water depth of 20.6 ft, minimum freeboard of 6 ft and bank
Division, voL 83, no. IR2, pp. 1-9, September, 1957. .
width of 27 to 30 ft. The terminal capacity is 2,600 cfs. The canal was 'excavated
190 UNIFORM FLOW DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR UNIFORM FLOW 191
8. 'Pete W. Terrell [LIld Whitney M. Borland: Design of stable canals and channels in 31. J. B. Leighly; Toward a thaory of the morphologic significance of turbulence in the
erodible ma.terial, Transactions, AnLerican Society of Civa Engineers, vo!' 123, pp. flow of water in stream, Uni~ersily of Ca.17/orlliCL, Publications in GelJgraphy, vol.
lOl-U5, 1D£i8. . 6, no. 1, pp. 1-22, Berkeley, 1 9 3 2 . , .
9. E. W. Lane: Stable channals in erodible material, Tmnsact·irms, American Society 32. O. J. Olsen and Q. L. Florey (compilers): Sedimentation studies in open channels:
of Cilia Engineel's, vol. lO2, pp. 123-142, 1937; and discussions. Bo.und~y shear and velocity distribution by membrane 'ano,logy, ana.lytical and
10. Robert G. Kennedy: The prevention oI silting in irrigation canals, Proceedings,. fil11te-dlfference methods, reviewed by D. McHenry and It. E. Glovel' U.S.
Inslit:l.tiolL c,f Civil Engineers, London, vol. 119, pp. 281-290, 1895. Bu,rea.u of Reci.rultation, LabOl·atory. RepOl·t, No. Sp-34, Aug. 5, 1952. '
11. Edward S. Lindley: Regime channels, Minutes of Proce,ed£ngs, Pun}ao Engtneering 33. Ph.ili~p Forchhei~eT: "Hydraulik" ("Hydraulics "), Teubner Verlag:sgesellschaft,
Congress, Lah01'e, India, vol. 7, pp. 63-74, 1919. Lelp,ag and Berlin, 1st ed., 1924, p. 495; 3d ed., 1930, p. 551.
12. Gerald Lacey: Stable channels in alluvium, Proceedings, Inst·itution of Civil 34. Chi~-Hw~ Fan:.A study.oI stD,blc channel cross section (in Chinese), Hydraulic
Engineers, London, vol. 229; pp. 2.'i9-384, HJ30.' En(]~neer.~1!!l, Chtne.se SoCtely of Hydraulic Enginse'rs vol. 15 no 1 pp 71-79
13. Gerald L"c"y: Regime flow in incoherent alluvium, Cenl,.al Board of h1'1:galion, Nanking, 1947. ' ",. "
PlLblication No. 20, Simla, Iudia, 1940. . 35. E. W. Lane': Progrl:'ss report on results of studies on design of stable channels
14. Gerald Lacey: A general theory of flow in alluvium, Journal, Instit'ution of Civil U.S. Bureau of [leclamation, Hyd'·(L!J.lic Laboraiot']J Repol·t, No. lIyrl-352 , J\1l1e'
Engineers, Londan, vol. 27, pp. 16-47, 1946. '. 1952. ' ,
15. Thoinas Blench: "Bydrs-ulies of 'Sediment-bearing Cano.ls and Eivers," Evan~ 36. A. C. ~~rter: Critica~ tractive fones on channel side ~lo]Jes, U.S. Bgrea.l! of .,\
'Industrie$, Ltd., Vancl)uver, B.C., Canada, 1951. Rcclmrt(lMTc, Hydrav.hc LaboratoJ'Y Report No. Hyd-3G6 (supersedes Hyd-295)
16. Thomas Blench: Regime theory for oclf-formeci sediment bearing'channels, Tmns- Feb. 18, 1953. '. . . ,
actions, American Bociety oj Ciliil En.gineers, vol. 117, pp. 38.1-400, Hi52. 37. E. W. Lane ~tl1d E. J. CarIllOn: Some factors affecting the stn.bility of canals cou-
17. H. A. Einstein: The bed-load fUllction for sediment tran~Jlorta~ion in open channet structed in coarse granular materials, Pr'oceedings of the Minnesota [nlernalional
flows, U.S. Depa"bILent of Agriculture, Technical BuUelin No. 1025, 1950. IIydmulics Convention, Sept. 1-4, 1953, Joint Meeling of Inte1'1wtional As.sociation
18. L. B. Leopold and Thomas Maddock, Jr.: The hy.draulic g~ometry of stream for H ydt·l}.ulic Research and HydmldiC5 Divi.sion, American Bociety of Civil Eng,;rwers,
pp. 37-48, August, 1953. .
cha.nnels and some physiographic implictttions, U.B:G'eological BUTVP,Y, Professional
Paper 252, 1953. 38. R. E. Gloyer and Q. L. Florey: Sta.ble channel profiles, U.S. But'eau of Re,clama- .j
19. ,K W. Lane: Sta.ble channels in erodilJle material, Tra1tSdctio,is, American Society ,ti01l, HydTflHl'ic Laboratory Report No. Hyd-325, Sept. 27, 1951. The work was
of Civil Engineers, vol. 102,pp. 123~142, 1937. .' started by R. G. Conard and revie.wed by E. \Y, Lane.
20. Serge Leliavsky: "An Introductiqn to F1uvial Hydraulics," Constable & Co., 39. W ..0. Ree: Hy~raul.ic characteristics of veget.ation for vegetated waterways,
Ltd., London, 1955.' Agnculttlral .Enqmeenng, vol. 30, 110. 4, pp. 184-187 and 189, April, 1949. '
in
21. Instit\ltion Research Committee: Recent developments hydraulics, Proceedings, 40. ~'. O. Ree and V. J. Palmer: Flow of water ill channels protected by vegetat.ive
In.stilution of Civil Enginp,cr.s, London, pt. III, vol. 4, pp. 990-1049, December, lmmg, U.S. Boil Co,~seTVation. Service, Technical Bulletin No. 9lH February 1949.
1955. 41. Stillwater Outaool' Hydraulic Laboratory: Handbook of chandel desig;ri' for soil
22. Ning Chien :'The present status of research on sediment transport., Tl'anoactions, an~ water conservation, U.S. Soil Conservation Service, SCS-TP-Gl, Marcll., 1947;
A lILerican Society of Civil Engineers, va!. 121, pp. 833-868, 1956. reVised, ,June, 1954. . .
23. Ning Chien: Graphic design of olluvial channels, Transactions, Amer':can Society 42. V. D. Fredcnhagen and E. H. Doll: Gmssed waterways, Agricullural Enuineming,
of Cilia Enuineers, vol. 121, pp. 1267-1280, 1956. ' vo!. 35, no. 6, pp. 417-419, June, 1954. .
24~ Ning Chien: A concept of the regime theory, Transactions, American Society of
Civil Engineers, vol. 122, pp. 785-793, 1957.
25. Eno~ J. Carlson and Carl R. Miller; Research needs'in sediment hydraulics, paper
953, Procced£ngs, American Society of Civil Engineers, J oumal, Hydraulics D£visio1];,
vo!' 82, no. 11 Y2, pp. 1-33, April, 1956. I
26. D. A. Etcheverry: "Irrigation Practice and Engineering," va!. II, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1915. ·1
27. S. Fortier and Jf. C. Scobey: Permissible cana.l ;relocities, Tran8~tions, AlILerican
Society of Cillil Engineers, vol. 89, pp. 940-956, 1926. ,
28. The maximum' permissible ,mean 'velocity in open channels, Gidrotekhnichesko·ie
Stroitel'stvo, (Hydrotechnical Constmction),I\{oscow, no. 5, pp.5-f, May, 1936.
29. Emory W. Lane: Design of stable channels, Transactions, Am.erican Society of
Civil' Engineers, vol. '120, pp. 1234-1260, 1955. .
30. P. du Boys: Etudes du regime du B,h6ne et l'action exercee par les eaux su~ un lit
~ fond de graviers indetiniment affouillable '(The Rhone and streams with movable -\
•bedsj, Annales rles ponts et Cha1L8S~eS, ser. 5, vo!. 18, pp. 141-195, 1879.
1,
(
·1
I
'l'HEORET1CAL CONCEPTS RELATED' TO 'UNIFORM FLOW 193
bution; (3) the depth of Row is indefmitely 1111'ge,so the depth of ftow cun
be considered constant as the water enters the channeL 1n th!'i,~ha!!neJl
the effect on the velocity di!J.trib!Jti®~t9. boun.1.::I£Y-XQ.hlghnes~ is
indicatedbythe- ii~~" IlHf,- Outside the surface represented by ABC,
. CHAPTER 8 --7'- th~ ;~I~city7 d'i;tribution is practically uniform. Near the channel sur-
face and within the region ABC, v~locjty"'y£l.ries l\.ccording_tQ_ 4isww.e
I THEORETICAL CONCEPTS OF BOUNDARY LAYER, iromthe channel surface. . The region inside ABC, though not distinc-
'ti;;;,i;k~~~~ boundary layer 1 and its thickness is deSignated by o.
lI SURFACE ROUGHNESS, VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION, Since the bouhdary layer is not dis-
AND INSTABILITY OF UNIFORM FLOW tinctive, jiB. thi<lkn.es.JLh~~_I?een de.-
i ....fu!ed arbitrn.rily in."yarioufi..~ays .
.~~_......:;.-> A common definition is that the lrei&-C,;11 _ '
._- ~ thickne;:;s 6 is the magnitude of the ':((5 w/,bu l( ~n
This chapter presents assorted theoretical concepts which have been normal distance from the boundary 1
developed in the mechanics of open-channel flow. These concepts, ;ll~ft1,ceat ,~hi()h th;Vclocity ;; is '
though not to be thoroughly discussed, may shed some light upon the equitnQ99%Of theli:rrd~~:
solution of many practical problems. -n:y Vo, ''I'hTcli.the velocity:'distribu-
8-1. The Boundary Layer. When watel' enters a channel, the velocity' 1ion-:-b~ur:ve1n the boundary Tayer
distributionncross the channel section, owing to the presence of boundary approaches
. g:<~---~-~
asy!llptoticall~(Fig.
k. = 5C ; (8-3)
where C is CheZ~I's C, I' is th.e kinem(\tic viscosity, and l' is the mean
velocity. The above conditionis·giveri for r0l1ghi1ess obtained with sand
. having \'alue;s of C greater than 100, prob"bi,r. For the avcri1ge COll-
'~-----Y- If the conditions for ul1iformflow exist throughout the channel, the di~ion, Schlichtillggives kc = 100"/1', which corresponds to C '" 113.5.
turbulen t boundary layer will be fully developed at section CD; thereafte! ail approximD.tion, (8-3) U1:;ty be applied to channels.
the velocity distribution w~e patt.er.!!,:. In a laporutory If the roughness height is gl"eater tha~l th'l critical va111e..d~y EJi: .
·cha.nnel, the laminar boundary layer AB _gan be elh?inated easily by
placing a..l."ou~hness el_e!l~e!l~
ary layer will be developed
el1t.!~lce: Thus, the turbulent bounC!=-
very beginning of the channel, an~ the
(8-3) (Fig. 8-3c), the roughness elemeuts will have sufficient magnitude
~ angu!a.ritY..to extend...tht'lis~ffects beJ:::9l!.c!. the !l).mil~[1,r subl~r..i1ncl.
thus to disturb the flow in the chi1nne1. The surface is therefore said to
I
totallen&h of the :/lone for the full development of boundary la~l' c!tllbe bC"ro1Lg/i:--in rough ch~i;,nJS, ~
the-~eI;;~ity distribution will depend 011 the
slloi'·tel1~~ SinGe the flow in ordinary chanl1els is usually turbui~nt:the form and ~ize of the roughness projections, .!1l1d a stable laminar subli1yer
f9UO;:;;g articles will deal only with the turbulent boundary layer. . can no longer be formed.
8-2. Concept of Surface Rough~ The concept of the existence ofa I It should be noted that the roughness height is mel'eLy a measure of the linear
laminar sublayer in the turbulent· boundary layer offers a picturesque dimension of the rQughness elcmeuts but is not necessarily eqoaL to t.he ac~ual, or ev~n
explanation of the behavior of surface roughness. When the surface an average, height. For example. two roughness elements ll13.Y have diffctcllt linear
profile of a channel is enlarged (Fig. 8-3), it can be seen that the surface is dirnr>,nsions, but, owing to the difference in shape and orientation, they may produce
composed of irregular peaks ~l1d valleys. The ejJectiue height of the identical roughness effect and, thlls, their roughncsscs will be clesignated by the same
roughness height.
i A refined concept of the Ia.minar subla.yer will consider that there exi~ts in the s\lb- 2 The position from which the rOllghness hcight should he measured is IL disputable
layer a small a.mount of eddy which dec~eases very ra.pidly to zero· at the boundary mli\tter. It is a.'<StlInJad here tha.t k is measured from 1\ datUllI that li,,~ at. n distance of
surfll.ce. . , O.5k below the average bottom of the channel.
, i
lI
~I THEORETICAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO ·UNIFORM. FLOW i97
196
I
UNIFORM FLOW
of abnormal turbulence. 1 °In 'such a flow,therefore, the ratio yl).will be
r->'I'h~ average roughness height for a given surface can be determined by
; an importn.nt correlating parameter.. .
expenment. Table g··1 gives
I,
~si-~m.ooth ~o~..2.ccurs when_ the roughness elements. are.~.Q.~...
averaged from manv
The con~ept, of l"~ughness in conduits was further advanced by' Morris
I
I
together tb.!--'l!i..~' ski.ms the _cre5t..§.2l..the_.e!e~nt£, . The
grooves between the elements will be filled with dead water contall1mg
[5]. Morns assumed that the flow over. a .i
rough surface is due largely tl) rough- !i
ness element. The o.f
!.~etermiM,
and
Dam
k = 0.005 it (J 53°8' q = 360 cfs/n
Fm. 8-5. Growth of bounda.ry layer over the surfac<:l of an overflow Rpillway. 50 1 X 10; 0.0073 0.36 40 50.S 7.09 7.13
100 2 X 10· 0.001313 0.136 SO 71.8 5.00 5.07
200 4 X 104 0.0060 1.20 160 101.5 3.~ 3.65
either accelerating or. uniform, and, if accelerating, th.~l£~~~idlr 400 8 X 10' 0.0055 2.20 320, 113.5 250 2.72
~~M t;-~l1!use boulldary~layer S~~~llS. . 600 L2 X (05 0.0052 3.12 480 175.8 2.04 2.35
- The st,udy of boundary-layer de.velopment by Bauer was made on con-
crete overflow spillways (Ii'ig. 8-5). In this case the transition from the The computed water surfa.ce a.nd t,he bounda.ry layer are plotted on logarithmic
la~illar to the turbulent boundary layer usually occurs far upstream paper (Fig. 8-6). The point of intersection of the two profiles indica.tes the location
from the zone under consideration; hence the laminar boundary layer can of the section where the bOlmdary layel: reache.s its maximum, or where it is fully
be ignored, fo'r it is all insignificant part of the .problem. From the developed. The lengtb of the development is shown to be approximately 460 ft.
It shOUld be noted that the simplified method of 'computing the water-surface
results of Bauer's investigation, the following equation may be written:'
profile of a varied flow is justified in this problem because the flow is relatively thin
l) _ 0.024. and the slope is very steep.. As the frictional loss in this case is :negligibly small, the
x - (x/k)o.13 potential energy of water is practics.lly entirely converted into the lunetic energy
expressed by the velocity head. For the computation of surfl:\Ce proj\Ies of varied
where 8 is the thickness of the turbulent boundary layer at distance x flow in general, various methods will be described in Part Ill. 1I
from 0 in the diiectionof flow (Fig, 8-5) and where k is the roughness To illustrate the effect of change in roughness upon the growth of a boundary layer,
the computation has been repea.ted using ~he8amc da.ta but with a rOl\gbness twice as
height, Bauer has shown the application of this method by the 'follow- large, The line marked with It 11 = 8, k = 0.01 itO (Fig. 8-6) is the result of this
ing ·example. It should be noted that the flow on the spillway surface computation. The change in water surface ispractic.!Llly negligible. It can be seen
to be described in this example is varied and that a sirtiplified method of tha.t the difference between the values of the development lengtll for the two cases is
!
I
I
I
.. I
<I
J
i
200 UNIFORM FLOW
~I',
r THEORETICAL" COl-iCEPTS RELATBD TO 'UNIFORM FLOW 201.
:FEfIi
9 ! I t
tions:' (1) that themixh}g 'length is proportional. to 'Ii, and (2) that the
shearing stress is constant; Since the shearing stress at the, channel Lbo..:\) . '
s
5 i'.r-., ,~ surface is equal to the unit tractive force (Art. 7-11), the second assump-
tion 'gives T = TO.:, From these two assumptions,Rq. (8-5) may be
. .
I,
~>'er..... ! ~u{j , .,~
wrItten
~
(8-6)
t- ~.,
/' r
"
"/.bf:
where K is a constant for the proportionality between L~nd }I:, The value
,\
I
I
JiV
.... of K has been ·determined py many experiments [8] to be about 0,40.
'+-
i , I
..
11ltegr'ating li<J. (8-6), ' t
c.( '1 .=::> I '" ~ "3'
OJ
I
oP~c:7 I~ In JL (8~7)
,,'
U
v = 2.5
~
i5
't>'
"..'" epV:l
O·
I Vp yo
FIG. 8-6. Solution of Example 8-1 for the growth of a boundary layer. Thili equation indicates ,that t~l:9,ci.~.J~he turbulel:t re~~~
logarithmic funotion of the distance .y. It is commonly known as the
about 30 ft, or a variation of less than 10%. This shows that an increase in rough- -. - . -~~-~ .. ~--~~
,ness has a tendency to speed up the boundary-layer growth or to',educe the develop- Prandtl-von Il..(irmdn· univeJ'sal-velocity-dist1-ibution Zaw. I
menL l e n g t h . ' , This la.w has been VCl,jti.ed by several experiments [10J.' The results
indica.te a striking i'imilarity betvveen observed and computed distribu-
. 8-~., Veloc!ty Distribution in Turbulent Flow. The velooity distribu- tions and, therefore, offer reasonable justification for use of this log;arith-
tiOn In a ulllform channel flow will become stable when the turbulent mic law in practical problems., '
",-_Q.9un~ar~ la!el' 1l3i'!!!.v ,develoE~d. In the turbulent boundary layer, When the sul'face is smooth, the constant yo in Eq. (8-9) has been found
the, clistnbu:lOn can be shown to be approximately logarithmic. "," to depend solely ,on the friction velocity and the kinematic viscosity;
The shearing stress at any point in a turbulent flow moving over a solid that is, '
surface has been given by Prandt.l [7] as my
(8-10)
Yo = Vr
, T = pl2 (::)2': (8-5)
where m is a constant equ~l to about % for smooth surfaces. 2 , For wavy
where p mass ~el1sity = wig, wh~re w i~ the unit weight of the fi.tiid
1 Von Karman .[9J also proved this law by II similarity hypothesis which assumes a
and g IS the gravitational acceleration ': linear shearing-stress distribution, the mixing length being proportiona.l to (dv /dy) /
l ':'" a characteristic length known as; ~he mixing length ,........ , (d~/dy·). !
dvldy velocity gradient at a normal distance y from the solid surfp,ce • Thill value is derived from Nikuradse's experimental data. 011 smooth pipes [111.
I
20~ UNIFORM FLOW
!
i THEORETICAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO UNIFORM FLOW 203
.<
surfaces, the' value of m wHI depend on the shape of the wa.ve profiles. if: proportional to its vertica.l distarice Y from the boundary i that is,
Substituting Eq. (8-10) for Yo in Eq. (8-9). and simplifying,
B = P - 'YY (8-15)
v = 575V
. 9yVI
r log - v - for smooth surfaces . (8-11) where P is the wetted perimeter and l' is a function depending on the
shape of the section. Thus, the water area is equal to
This equation gives the velocity distribution in turbulent flOlv OVer 'k .
smooth surfaces. 11 = ( B d.y = Ph - 2: 11,2 (8-16)
When the surface is rough, the constant Yo is found to depend on the }o 2
roughness height ; that is, Substituting in Eq. (8-14) the value of v from Eq. (8-9), that of B from
(8-12) Eq. (8-15), n.nd that fO!' A from .Eq. (8-16) and then integra ling and
where the const.ant l m is equal to approximately ~Q' Substituting
Eq. (8-12) for YQ in Eq. (8-9) and simplifying,
30
v = 5.75YI log -!-
Co
for rough surfaces (8-13)
r
pipes. It is assumed, however, tha.t it is permissible to apply the llni- 2.5Vr In
. Yo R . 4A J
versal-Velocity-distribution h~w to other cases of turbulent flow, using the
constants determined from tests on circular pigcs.
8-0. Theoretical UnIfOrm-flow Equations. Using' the Prandtl-voll
• -. or -V = VI {5.75 log [m~ exp ( -1 -~~) + 5.75 lug n~~} 1 (8-17)
Karman universal-velocity-distribution law, KeulElgan (13)2 has derived . In thp, above equation t.he quantity represented by the first term on
equations for mean velocity of turbulent flow in open channels. . :I;<"o.r the right-hand side is a function of· the shape of t.he chn.nnel section.
the sake of clarity l;1.nd simplicity, Keulegan's derivation will be modified However, the variation of this quantity with different shapes of the
below. section is relatively small. F~r the sake of simlJlicity, the quantity may
By the cQntiuuit.y equation, the. total discharge through an ordinary be represflnted by an ov~r-all constant" 11 0• This constn.nt will include
channel section (Fig. 8-7) may be written not only the shupe function but also other uncertain factors, such as the
effect of free ~urfn.ce and the effe.ct of nonuniform distribution. of the
Q = FA =.
t V=k v dA
1.= O .
= lch vB dy ,
0 .
(8-14) tract,ive force at the boundary. Accordingly, Eq. (8-17) may be wribten
where h is the depth of water, A is the vlater area, B is the length of the
curve of equal velocity, and y is the vertical depth measured from the
V Yr (A
= 0 + 5.75 log mR)
Yo
(8-18)
boundary to the curve of equal velocity. Since the laminar sublayer is
relatively very thin, 00 can be assumed to he zero. It is further assumed
This is the general theoretical equation for the mean velocity of uniform
. flow in open channels.
It
that the maximum velocity is at the free surface and that the length B is
For. smooth channels, Yo mn:y be represented by Eq. (8-10). Also,
This' value is derived from Nikuradse's experimental data on Tough pipes [121.
1
[n Nikuradse's experjments, sand grains were cemented to the inner walls of pipes to * It is entirely feasible to simplify the derivation by assuming this constant at the
. simulate roughness. Such roughness is known as artificial T"Ougimess. very beginning. However, the procedure given here is aimed to give a logical demon-
2 Other references on this subject fLre [141 to r21J~ i ·stration of the basic principles involved.
I
f
lf .J
-I
",,,', ...... .
205
204 UNIFORM FLOW THEORETICAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO UNIFORM FLOW
C -- 32"61
"
20.8R
ogc;- for smooth channels (8-22)
0
C = 32.6 log 12}!!: for rough (!hannels (8-2:3)
-I
~ (~)k;6
law of velocity distribution expressed ih Eq. (8-13), it can be seen that
n
(R/k)'A
(8-26) the velocity distribution depends on the roughness height,- which may be
related to Manning's n by Eq. (8-26). : In other words, the roughne8s in
J
where (8-27)
21.9 log (12.2R/k) terms of Manning's n can be taken as a dominating fa,etor that affects
The plot. of t.his equation, (Fig. 8-9) indicates that, for a wide range of the velocity distribution. If the distribution is known, the value of
R/ k, the variation in </I(R/k) is small. As an approximation, ¢(R/k) may
Manning's nean, therefore, be determined, This concept has been
be assumed constant and equal to an aVel'!l,ge value. On the basis of used by Boyer (24} and others [25-28] in estimating the value of 11 from
actual observations made in S,vit;r.e!·land, Strickler [23J ar.rived. at a the vertical velocit,y distribution ill a stream,
formula which, when compared with Eq. (8-26), gives an average value l Let VQ.2 be the velocity at two-tenths the depth, that at a distance
of .p(R/Ie) = 0.0342. The roughness height used by Strickler is the O.8y from the bottom of a wide rough channel, where y is the depth of
flmv, By Eq. (8-13), the velocity may be expl'essed a.s
I , . 24y )
...---o~':-
;;.
S J feems in
No,lhweslern U.S.
Uo.t 5.75V r logT
,'" ~ (I ~ ..;,n.. _ _ _ _
II " '\. Sfricklerts
__ _
.
=
~
Similarly, let UO.s be the veloeity at eight-tenths the depth; t.hen
J
,
I\
210 UNIFORM FLOW
,,
I
THEORETICAL CONCEPTS RF.LATED TO UNIFORM FLOW 211
bank friction is negligible and in \vhich the active channel, even though
split by sand ba'rs and possibly by islands) is free of debris and vegetation. II providing the value of X,. For lack of such a formula, the Manning or
Chezy formula is used as an approximation only. Since the channel
8-8. Instability of Uniform Flow. Uniform floW' will become unstable 1 slope is us,tally large when instability of [Jaw develops, the Froude number
I
'when the velocity of How is very high or the channel ,slope is very steep. ill (8-35) should be computed by Eq. (3-13), which considers the slope
When this happens, the instability of the free surface is characterized by effect.
'the formation of a series of roll waves. This phenomenon was first
PROBLEMS
reported by Cornish [31J in 1910 when he observed it in open :channels in
the Alps. The roll Wave is a phenomenon of unsteady flow and its nature 8-1. Show that Eq, (8-0 is deriv~d from the condition that the presence oi'the
will be described ill Art. 19-9, boundary Lg,yer raises the bottom of the cha,nnel to a virtual distance equal to the dis-
Many attempts [32-45J ha.ve been made to develop a criterion for
instability of uniform flow. In 1945, Vedernikov [35], employing certain
approximations of Saint-Venaht, developed a criterion which may be
called the Vedemikov number V. Later, Craya (41} and Iwasa [43}
I pLa.cement I;hiclmetls.
8-2. A laboratory [·ecta.ngular channel 1.5 ftwide carries a unirorm flow of 0.34 cis
at p, depth of 0.15 ft and ll. slope of 0.0009. The roughness height of the channel sur-
f!>ce is 0,00215 ft. Plot the profiie of the turbulent boundary layer, 1).0(\ est.im!l.te the
length -of channeL required for a fun development of the boundary layer \vhich begins i,Il
studied the initiation of continuous tilliegrowth or decay of an infinitesi- tobe turbulent u.t the entrance.
1110.1 di5tUl'bo.nce wave 011 fluid surface, and developed similar criteria. 8-S. Determine whether the c.hannel'described in the preceding problem is hydrauli-
cally smooth or rough. '
The Vede1'llikov number may be expressed as 8-4, A trapezoidal channel (Fig. 2-2) with b ,.. 20 H, z 2, and S = 0.001 ca.rries
a uniform Row at a depth of 6 ft. Compute the unit tractive force :Lnd the
V = xyV fric~icm velocit,y developed in the channel, Wha.t are maximum friction veloci-
V",- V
ties on the sides and bottom of the dUlIInel?
where x = exponent of the hydraulic radius in the general uniform-flow 8-li. Snow t.1U1.t
formula Eq. (5-1). Thus, x = 2 for laminn.r flow (Art. 0-10), (8-36)
x OJ) 'for turbulent flow if the Chezy formuln. is and
x = H for turbulent flow if the Manning formula is used. where f is Darcy's friction factor and 11 is Mll.rming's roughness coefficient.
V = mell.n velocity , 8-6: Using Eq, (8-13) for expressing the theoretical velocity distributi.on in wide
V", = absolute velocity of disturbance waves in channel rough cha.nnels, (a) show that the I:iverag8 of the velocity of 0.2 depth alid the velocity
~ = a shape factor of channel section, defined by at 0.8 depth gives the velocity at 0.6 depth, and (b) compute the position of the mean
velocity below the free surface) and compare the result with that determined by the
rule of the U,S. Geological Survey (Art.. 2-6).,
dP
'Y=l-R-
dA.
(8-34) 8-1. A wide channel carries a uniform .flow a~ a depth of 5 in. on a slope of O.OOOL
1\
The channel surface is rough, having a value ork = 0.25 in. Compute and construct
where R is the hydraulic radius) P is the wetted perimeter, and A is the a curve showing ~he theoretical velocity distribution in the channel section. What
water area: Thus,"( -= 1 for very wide channels, and 'Y 0 for very are the mean velodty and its position? .
8-8. Determine the values of k in Probs. 5-9 and 5-10.
narrow· channels. 8-9. Eq, (8-13), show that the theoretico.l velocitJ:"-distribution coefficients
It will be shown that V", - V is equal to the celerity c of the waves in wide channels can be expressed as
(Art. 18-6») or to the critical velocity V.. Since ,the Froude number
F =- VIV., Eq. (8-33) may be reduced to <:t. ~ 1 + 3.' - 2.' (2-6)
1:
(1=1+.- (2-7)
V = xyF (8-35)
When the Vedernikov nuniber V is less than unity,any wave in the
where. 2.5V';V. Also show that ( = H.2/C ~ 0.883 Vi
= 9.5n/RH .. (v~r/V)
- 1 where C is Ch6zy's resistance factor,:j is Darcy's friction factor,:n is Man-
chalinel will be depl'essed!ll1d the flow can be stable.' But when V is ning's roughness coefficient, R is the hydraulic radius, VA( is the maximum velocity,
equal to or greater than unity 1 waNes will amplify so that stableflow will and V is the mea.n velocity.
become impossible, unsteady flow will preva.il, and roll waves will form. 8-10. Plot a curve showing the relationship between a a.nd {J defined (2-6)
and (2-7), respectively.
In, computing V for a turbulent ft.ow, it should be noted that a suitable
8-11. Comput,e the velocity-distribution coefficients. of the flow in the channel
uniferm-ftow formula for flow in chul1nels of large slope shoul(i be used in
I described in Prob. B-7.
r
1>;
r
212
UNIFORM FLOW
THEORETICAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO 'UNIFORM j,'LOW 213
18-~~: A wide st.ream carries approximately uniform flow- at a depth of 12 ft Th , '
ve OCI les at 0.2 and 0.8 depths are found to be 1.85 o'nd 1 32 f ...e 13. Garbis H. Keulegan: Laws of turbulent flow in open channels, Research Paper RP
mate (a) the roughness coefficient (b) th I . . ps, respectIvely. Estl- 1151, Journal of Research, U.S. National Bureau of Standards, vol. 21, pp. 707-741,
' ' n, e mean ve oClty (e) the slope f tJ h I
an d ~d) tn8 dis,:harge PCI' unit width of the channel. ' , o l e C anne . Decemher, 1938.
8-LS In a wIde' t
. s ream IlaVing
' . moving . sediment bed the f I' " 1 • 14. Erik'Lindquist: 00 velocity formula.s for open channels and pipes, T"ansacl-ions
able: S = 0,003 k, = 050' d 1. , 0 . 0 " mg (ata are aVO,IJ- of the "World Power Conferer.ce, Sect'ional M feting, SfX!ndinavia; Stockholm, vol. 1,
J,"' • mm, an ,,,~ = 0040 mm TI e I d· r d'
al'ea al'e found to be It = 0.85! _ 1 8, d A _ _. I ,Iy lau lC ra IllS and li'ater pp. 177-234, 1933.
, • J ' . an - 2/3y - 797 where R d '
ano, A IS in [('.' Construct tl. e disc lIar t" ' an yare m ft 15. A. E. Dretting: A set of practical hydraulic formulae based on recent experimental
" . , ge-ra mg curve of the strean'
, b-14. Show that the Vedernilcov' number in wide channels is V ~ 2F '. research; comparison with older formulae, Appendi:r; 24, 2d !Jleeling, International
Row, V = O,67F fo), turbulent flol'v: 'f th "T " f ' for lammal' Association of Hydraulic Str'!J.ctuTes Research, Stockholm, Apr. 7-9, 1948, 20 pp.
1 • e ,',-annmg orm'll- IS us d dV 0
turbulent flolV if the Che~y formula is used. ,~e ,an = ,SF for ' 16. Ralph W.,Powell: Flow in a channel of definite roughness, T,ansaclions, American
8-11i. Using t.he Vedernikov' criterion expla'n tl ' . I"" • . . Society of Ci'j'il Engineers, vol. 111, pp. 531-566, 1946. '
f<t0tors Upon 1Iow instability. (a) th 'I' f I " I" genela e"ects ot the follOWing 17. Ralph "'. Powell: Resistance to !low in smooth channels, Transactions, American
I . e va I,e D x m the unIform flow f rmll lib) h
Slape of U.tb thannel cross section, (c) the viscosity ,of tho flu'd -(tl) thO a" t ,e Geophysical Union, voL 3D, no. 6, pp. 875-878, December, 1949.
clent, and (e) the channel slope. " I, e enel'gy codfi- 18. Ralph L, Powell: 'Resistance to flow in rough chs.nnels, Transact~ons, American
Geophysical Union, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. ,575-58:2, August, 1950.
REFERENCES 19. A . .fi.. Robinson and M. L. Albertson: Artificial roughness standard fOr OP€ll
~hannels, Transa,ctions, A.merica" Geophysical Union, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 881-888,
1. Hermann Schlichting: "Boundary Layer The r . " , , '
tv J Kestl'n 'f G. H'II B k C <JlY, transluted from t.he Germau December, 1952. "
J. , 1. C >IIl.W- I 00 ompany I K Y 20. Yuichi 11vagaki: OIl the laws of resistance' to turbuleut !'low in open smooth
Ltd:, Lor~don, and Verlag G. Braun, ICarlsrulle,n c . ew ork, Pergamon Press
l 955 channels, lI1emoil's oj the Faculty of Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan, vol. 15,
2. J. W. ~elieur: The boundary layer development in open channels a ' ,
Pro~e~dm!!s, .f1merican SOCiety of Civil Engineers Journal Engi" .'
D~!Jts!?n, voL 83, no. EM1, pp. 1-24, Janu!l.ry 1957. '
P
n.enng. ec antcs
/;e\ ll~:-;, no. 1, pp. 27-40, January, 1953.
21. Yuichi Iwagaki: On the law of resistance to turbulent flow in open rough channeia,
Proceedings of the,4lh Japan National Congress for Applied M echanies, pp. 229-233,
3. Franms n Hama' Bound I' h ' '.
, ,. : ary- ayer c aractenstll:s for smooth unu rOll h surf 1(l54.,
'Z1anSaclwlIs, 80c'lety of Naval Archiiects and 11[ an'ne I ; L • I ~~ aces, 22. H. Darcy and H. Bazin: Recherches hydrauliques:I, Recherches cxperimeotales
351, 1954. """,gmeers, VO , u"" pp. 333-
sur l"ecoulement de I'eau dans les canaux decouverts (Hydraulic research: I,.
4. Yoshiaki Iwasa: Boundary layer grow'h of oPen ch"nnel fl ", Experimentftl research on',the flow of water in open channels;, ],f emoires present~s
ct '[ 'b' .•. ~ OWS on a sn'iooth bed
;,n I s contl'l utlOn to practical application to chp.nnel ciesiO'n JI'{.n'~·r. 0 'I par divers savants a l'Acud~mie d~s Sciences, vol. 19, no. 1, Dunod, Paris, 1865,
r
J' aClilty a En' . }' U' . ", "'v. u 1, ,e
~ gtneenng" yoto ntvers~tll Japan vol XIX no III' 0')9 23. A. Si,rickler: Beitriige zurFrn.ge der Geschwindigk'eitsformel und der Rallh-
JUly, 1057. ' ,. " , . ,pp. J~ -254,
igkeits~!l.hlen fiir Strome, Kanale und geschlossene Leitungen (Some contributions
5. Henry M. Morris, Jr.: A new'conce t of fl " _' .
A. ,.' _, S · " . . P O I , m .ough condUIts, Tran,;rJ,cl'io1Ls to the problem of the velocity formula a,nd roughness factors for rivers, canals, !l.nd
, ~le"ca,. aClety of C~j,,1 En{}tneeTs, vol. 120 pp.373-398 19-- D; . "
VIctor L, Streeter Walt R d H H ,,1)0. .SCUSSlOns by closed conduits), Mitteilungen des ddgenossisehen Amtes 1iir Wasserwirtiieha1t,
:Bern, Switzel'land, no. 16, 1923.
Jr., pp. 399-'410. '.' er an, arry " Ambrose, and Henry M. Morris,
24, M,. C. Doyer: Estima.ting the Manning coefficient from ~_n average bed roughness
6. William J, Bauer: -Turbulent boundarv layer on 3teep slopes T " ' , in o[3en channels, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, voL 35, 00. 13, pp.
7 L . . 0 ~ .. y 0,tv:
A me"iC(nI S C'·, ( C' '1 E , -
ngmeeu, vol. 119, pp. 1212-1233, 1954.
, ransaC,1.OnS
' 957-9&1, December, 1954 .
. P udwIJ,:P:tandtl: Uher dIe ausgebildeie Turbulenz(On fully developed turbulen ) 25. Boris A. Bakhmeteff and Nicholas V. Feodoroff: Discussion on opeu cha.nnel flow,
TOCte mgs of the 2d Inte?natianal Congress Of Applied Mechan'''cs Z" 'h ~e , Transactio1'1s, Americcm Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 1'08, pp. 492-502, 1943.
62-74, 1926. ' ~ " Hone, pp.
213. M. P. OiBrien: The vertical distribution of velocity in wide rivers, Tra.nsactions,
8. pBoris Ap' Balchmeteff: "The Meahanies of Turbulent Flow" Princeton Un' 't American G~ophysical Union, voL 18, pt. 2, pp. 4137-470, 1937.
ress, rmceton, N.J., 1936, p.'06, ' Ivers! y
27. F, C. Scobey: The flow of water in il'rigation channels, U.S. Department of Ag,'i-
9. ;h~~d~r von I{~rm.!in: Mechanische Aehnlichkeit und Turbulenz (MeChanical culture, Professional Paper, BI"Uetin No. 194, 1915.
~ml:rlt,Y anSu t~h:bulence), Proceedings 01lhe 3d International Congress 01 AppHed 28, W. R Langbein: Determination qf Manning'S n from vertical-velocity curve,
,ec ames, toc,. aim, vol. 1, pp, 85-92,1930. : '
Transactions, American Geophysical Union, pt. II, pp. 618-620, July, 1940.
10. VItO A.Vanoni:, Velocity distribution in open channels Civil En' " 'I 29. Hans A. Einstein !lnd H. L. BarbuTossa: River channel roughness, Transactions,
no, 6, pp, 356-357 June HJ41 ' gtneertng, VO . 11,
J
11. J Nikur'adse' Ge 't .. ' . I: d Amen:can SocieLy of Civil Engineel's, vol. 117, pp. 1121-1132,1952'-
' f' " se zm~sslg.(elten el' tUl'bulenten Str5mung in glattC!l Rohren 30, James J. Doland and Ven Te Chow: Discussion of River channel roughness, by
(LaIVs 0 turbulent flow In -'Smooth p' ) V ., I
h It N ""6' B ' ~ Ipes, eretn ( e!ttscher I"geniel"'e, Porsclnm(JS- Hans A. Einstein and H. L. Ba.rbaross3., Trr;msaclions, American Sociely 01 Oivil
e o. "", erhn, 19,,2. . '
Engineers, yol. 117, I'p. 1134-1139, 1952.
12; J. ~i,kurlldse:'Str5mu~gsgesetze in rauhen R(\~ren (Laws of flow in rough i es 31. Vaughan Cornish: "iVaves 'of the Sea and Other Water Waves," The Open Court
Vele'n deutscher IngemeuTe, Forschungsheft No. 361, Berll'n, 1933. p p ),
Publishing Comp!l.ny, La Salle, Ill., and T. Fisher Unwin, Loudon, 1910.
214 UNIFORM FLOW
l,
32: Harold Jeffreys: The flow of water in an inclined channel of rectangular section, I
London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical i1!agazine and Journal oj Science,
ser. G, YfJL 49, pp. 79:3-807, May, 1925. .
33. G. H. Keulegan and G. W. Patterson: A oriterion for instability of flow in steep
channels! T,'o,nsactions, American Geophysical .llnion, vol. 21, pt. II, pp. 594-&96, \
July, 1940.
·34_ Harold A. Thoms,s: The propagation 'of waves in steep prismatic conduits, Pro-
I PART III
42. Tojiro Ishihara, Yuichi Iwagaki, and Yasuo Ishihara: On the rollwave-trains
appearing in the water flolV on a steep slope surface, llfemoirs oj the FawUy oj 1[
Eng£neering, Kyoto University, Japan, vo:' XIV, no .. 2, pp. 83-91, March, 1952.
43. Yoshiaki Iwusa: The criterion for. instability of steady uniform Hows in open
channels, 111 c1Iloirs oj the Faculty oj Engineering, Kyolo University, Japan, ·vol-.
XVI, no. 6, pp. 264-275, March, 1954.
44. Chia-Shun Yih: Stability of parallel laminar flow with a free surface, Proceedings
oj th~ 2d U.S. National C01t(JreSJ oJ Applied lif echanic8, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, 1954, pp. 623-528.
45. C. C. Lin: "The Theory of Hydrodynamic Stability," Cambridge University
.Press, Oambridge, England, 19.55 ..
!.
",
1
.1 .' l/eerd k11 tZP~>YI ,~ti;_n7 CHAPTER 9
.)
J
!n~ for '/, Jir""tJy nt~;tv' ai"r£- c;(,,"" nel
. . •
THEORY AND ANALYSIS
, l/}~ctr~ a:lt/ -~~ ~~"7~7~~~1/2-prn#.J 1 . 9-1. Basic Assumptions. The gradually varied flow to be discussed in
11-.I~ [af,;d~..td on -Ilu hMCd'9- tJ7Ur/&-'n1 t!c# t.".-.ru;dfL-! Part III of this book is the steady flow whose depth varies gradually
dong the length of the channel (Art. 1-2), This definition signifies two
conditions: (1) that the flow is stea,dy; t.hat is, that the hydraulic character-
istics of flow remain constant fqr the time interval under consideration;
and (2) that the streamlines are practicaily parallel; that is, that hydro-
static distribution of pressLlre prevails ovel' the channel section,
The development of the theory of gradually varied flow dates back to
the eighteenth .century. Mn.ny early hydraulicians L have contributed to
this development. The theories thus developedprac.tically all hinge on
the following basic assumption:
-----p A. The head loss at a section-is the same as for a Hnijo'(m flow having the
velocity and hydra111'icraciius of the section. .
According to this assumption, the u:r.iform-flow fonmila may be used to
evaZ1/ate the enngy slope of a gracl1wlly va-riecl flow at a giveTI. channel sect'ion,
and the corresponding coefficient of roughness developed primarily f01' wd-
.form flow is applicable to the va'ned flow. This as~umption has never been
precisely confirmed by either experiment 2 or theory, bnt errors arising
. from it are believed to be small compared with those ordinarily incurred
in the use of a u;1iform-flow formula and in the selection of the Toughness
coefficient. Over years of use this assumption has proved to be a reliable
basis for design. The assumption is undoubtedly more correct for varied
flow where the velocity increases than where _the velocity decreases,
. because in a flow of increasing velocity the head loss is caused almost.
entirely by frictional eff~g~, whereas in a flo,"v of decreasmg -velocity--
~here may.E(;l!~t.];~:s.c::~l~_e~_dy_.lo..~~-
I Bela.nger ll] is believed to be the outstanding contriblltor. Also El.mong early
contributors are Bernoulli, Bresse, Poncelet, Saint-Yenant, BOllssiuesq, El.lld others
~l'il1·i;;~·~ &~"Rtff [2] to [5]. _ .
lV1301HOd qn'gt.:;~ 2 Using the experimentlll data from the .Sunderland Technical College lind ICing's
College in England and from the University of lllinois, Bettes [G] has dClL'ived an j-R
relationship (Art. 1-3) for gradually variedftow in smooth open cblHlels, which WIIS
found to agree very closely with the relationship for uniform ftow obtained by Allen
[7]. Also, the computlltion of backwater curves based on this assumption ho.s been
verified satisfactorily by many experiments. These experimental verifications, though
not VEry rigorous, indicate the validity of the assumption for practical purposes.
217 .
218 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW 'l'HEORY AND ANALYSlS '
section 1 is
.
H = z + d cos e.+ a 2g
V2
(3-2)
T,
where Ii is the total hea,d in ft i z is the vertical distance of the channel ,4
bottom above the datum in ft; d is the depth of flow section in ft; (J is . "
FIG. 9-1. Derha.tion of the gradually-varied-fiaw equation. t
the bottom-slope angle; ex is the energy coefficient; and V is the mean
.. velocity of flow through the section in fps, and the slope of th~ ch~,l1nel bottom So = sin 0 = -dz/dx. Substituting
It is aSllUmed that 8 and ex are\ constant throughout the channel reach t,hese slopes in Eq. (9-1) and solving for ddjdx,
under consideration. Taking the bottom of the channel as th!3 x axis and
differentiating Eq. (3-2) with respect to the length :1.: of the w[.;ter-sUl'face dd So - Sf (9-2)
profile, which is measured along the x axis, the following equation is dx = cos () + Ctd(V~j2g)jdd '(
obtained: . (
dH dz + cos e-dd
-dx = -cl.t _ ..:.::.Jb:. Ct -dx +
d --
2g
(V2) (9-1) This is the general differential equation for gradually varied flow, referred
to hereafter as the'dY1iamicequa:t~Q'n;of gradually variedflow,or simply as
It shouldJ?e n(jte<Uliat the slope i~fined as the sine of the sl~le , the gradual/y-va7'ied:'Jtow eqttation. It represents'the slope of the water)
a1~~ssuEled po§.itive_if i~e8cena~n the direction of flow and surface with "espect /0 the bottom of the channel. The depth d is measured
negative if it aSC§Jl..ds. . Hence, 1 in Fig. 9-1, the energy slope Sf = -dH7dx, .= from the bottom of the channel, lJ.rld the channel bottom is taken as the
. , -'!""'--~
.. -....;;:.;...=~~---....:---'~
x axis. Thus, the slope of the water surfcLCe is equftl to the bottom slope r
l It should be notEld that the frictional loss dE is always a negative quantity itl the
'direction of flow (unless outside energy is added to the course of the flow) and that
So if ddjdx = 0, less than .so if dd/d.'C is positive, and greater than So 1
the change ill the bottom elevation dz is a negative quantity when the slope descends. if ddjdx is negative. In other words, the water surface is paranel to
r .f :.5
I . ""
54J<.~~
<1>
'I~
,
i Y'~>3'"
. :"; "., .
i i, ~ .
I .:; i . 221
220 . \ THEORY AND ANALYSIS
GRADUALLY VARIED. FLOW ,
. velocity and hydra1,llic radius of the section. When the Mann~ng formula
the cbannel bottom when. ddjdx. = 0, rising when dd/ dx is positive, and
. loweling when del/dx is negative. .. is used, the energy slope is
In the abovH equation, the slope angle 0 has been assumed constant or (9-8)
independent of x. Otherwise, a term -d sin (J(d8/dd), where (J is a func-
tion of X, wonh:l have been added to the denominator. For small .OJ When the Chezy formula is tiseo,
cos 8"" 1, d "" y, and cld/dx ~ dy/dx. Thus Eq: (9-2) becomes Vi
(9-9)
Sf = GZR
dy _ So - Sf
.;:rJ,x - 1 + ad(Tn/2Q)/dy (9-3)
In: a form, expressed in terms of the conveyance [(, the energy
(6-4), may be written
In most problems, the channel slope is smaH; accordingly, Eq. (9-3) will
be used in subsequent discussions.
(9-l0)
The term ex d(P/2g}/dy ill the varied-fiow equation represents the
change in velocity head. The coefficient a has been [;,ssumed to be con-
stant from section to section of the channel reach under consiciel·p.tioll. Suppose that a uniform flow of a discharge equal to Q occurs in the
Ot,hel'wise, the change in velopity head would have been expressed as section. ._'!h.~.}~!!~~~~()jJe ,vo.u1d ~~t)9.ual to the bot_tom slope, an~q ..
(I(Cl V2/2g)/dy, where IX is a function of x. Since V =Q/ il, Q is constant, (9-10) may be written
and dA/dy '1', the velo~ity-hf.)ad term may be developed as follows: (9-11)
1
d (V~) aQ2 dfi- 2 aQ2 dA aQ2T
a dy 21} = 2g--dy = - gA3 dy'= - gfP (9-4) where K" is the conveYf-llCe for uniform flO'w at a depth y". This Kn
\
should be distinguishedfro}n K in Eq. (9-10). The notation K represents
Since Z = VJP/T, the above may be written simply the numerical v!),lue of the conveyance at a depth yof the gradually
d (V2) aQl
varied flow. The value [(" is t~e conveyance computed for Q at the
a ely \ 2y = - gZ2 (9-5) depth yAas if the flow were r.onsideted uniform.
Dividing (0-10) by Eq. (9~1l),
Suppose that a critical flow of discharge equal to Q occurs at the section;
Eq. (4.4:) gives Sf Kn~
(9-12)
So = ](2
(9-6)
Substituting Eqs. (9-7) and (9-12) in Eq. (9-3),
where Z, is the section factor for cl',i~ical-fiow computation for discharge ., ~Y = So 1 - (Kn/IC)2 (9-13)
Q at depth Ye. The symbol Z, used herein should be carefully dis- dx . 1 - (Z,/Z)2
tinguished from the Z in Eq. (9-5). The symbol Z simply represents the This is anotber form of the gradually-varied-flow equation.
numerical value of VA3/T, which is computed for the discharge Q at a There are other popular forms of the gradually-varied-flow equation
depth equ~l to y of the gradually vUl'iedfiow. The value of Z. is the
that can readily be derivea, such as
section factor.; which is computed for Q at the depth v, as if the flow were
considered critical. Now, substituting Eq. (9-6)' for Q in Eq. (9-5) dy . 1 - (Kn/KF (9-14)
and simplifying, dx = So 1 - r(K,,/J()~
(9-7) where r So/ S,n, or the ratio of the channel slope to the critical slope at
the normal depth of discharge Q (Art. 6-7) ;
The term Sf inEq. (9-3) represents the energy slope. According to..the
'\ :first assumption in Art. 9-1; this slope at a channel section of thegr!ldually (9-15)
~al'ied flow is equal to the' energy slope of the uniform fiow that has t),e
222 GRADUA.I,LY VARIED FLOW THEORY AND ANALYSIS 223
where Q is the given discharge of the gradually varied flow at the actual Since the values of K and Z increase 01' decrease continuously with
depth y; Qn is I;he nQrma.1·discharge at ~. depth equal to y; and Q. is the the depth y, the first case indicates y > y" and Y > Y.. As y > y"
cntic!1r discharg;;:t a depth equal t·o y; [\nd ' the flo'N must he subcritical. If Y > Yn > y" the sUDcritlcal flow must
occur in a mild channl!l (i.e., a channel of subcritical slope). On the other
;'
dy So - Q~/C2A2R
(9-16) hand, if y > y, > Yn, the subcritical flow must oceur in a steep channel
(IX = ,1 - aQ2/ gA2D
(i.e., a channel of supercritical slope). Similarly, the second case indi-
where D i~ the hydraulic depth, C is Chezy's resist~nce factor, and the cates Y < Yn and y < yo. The corresponding flow must be supercritical;
rest of the notation is as defined in this article. and it occurs i:n a mild channel if Yn > y, > !I and in a steep channel if
For wide rectangular channels, y, > Yn > y.
For a drawdowll curve, dy/d:!: is negative aild Eq. (9-13) gives two
1. When the Ma11n.ing formula is used, possible cases:
2. When the Chezy formula is used, The first case indicates that Yo > Y > Yn. and, thus, that the flow is super-
Ci:itical in a steep channeL 'Slffiiiarly, the second case indici,tes that
dy <:: 1 (Yn/V) 3
dx = '-0 1 _ (yjy)3
(9-18) ~ V > Yo, 9E.. that the flow is subcritical in a rild channel.
vVhen the water surface is parallel to the bottom of the channel,
9-3. Characteristics of Flow Profiles. The dynamic equation of dy/dx = 0, and Eq. (9-13) gives 1 - (1(',/ K)2 = 0, or Y == yn, which indi-
gradually varied flow developed in Art. 9-2 expresses the longitudinal cates a uniform now. Tbe flow is a unjform critical flow if y = Yn = Yo,
surface slope of the flow with respect, to the channel bottom. It can 8, Ulliform subcritjcal flow if y = y ... > Yet and a uniform sllpercritieaIflow
therefore be used to describe the characteristics of various flow profile.s if Yo > Yn = y. l·
or profiles of the water surface of the flow. F'or simplicity, the channel is 70-r purposes of discussion, cha.nnel slope may be classified as sv.stair.ing ,
considered prismat'ic, and Eq. (9-13) is used for discussion. , The values and nonsusta.ining. A sustaining slope is a chai1l1el slope that falls in
. of I( and Z in this eauatiori 1),re assumed to increase or decrease continu- the direction of flow. ,Hence, a sustaining slope is always positive and'
ously with the depth' y. This is true for all opeil-chanmil sections except may also be ,called a positive slope.' A sustaining or positive slope may be
for conduits with a gradually closing top. In such conduits, the value of critical, mild (sllbcritical), or steep (supel'critical). A nonsustaining
K, after reaching its maximum value, will decrease as t.he depth of flow slope may be either horizontal or adverse. A horizontal slope is a zero
approaches the top of the conduit (Art. 6~3). , ' slope. . An adverse slope is a negative slope that rises in the direction of
The flow profile represents the surface cUI'Ve of the flow. It 'will repre- flow. .
sent a backwater cUl've l (Art. 4-5) if the depth of flow increases in the In a channel of horizontal slope, Qt" So = ~ (9-11) gives Kn = 00
dil;ection of flow and a dmwdown curve (Art.4-5) if the depth decreases in . or ~ince K ... ~ = Q, Eq. (9-13) fo~ hOrizo\ltal channels may
the dil'ecti'on of flow. :Following the description in the preceding article, be written
it can be seen that the flow profile is a backwater curve if dy/dx is positive dy _ -(Q/K)~
and a dra-wdown curve if dy/d~: is negative. (9-19)
dx - 1 - (Zo/Z)2
For a backwater curve, dy/dx is positive; thus, Eq. (9-13) gives two
possible cases: Considering Un = 00, this equation indic,1tes two possible conditions:
~7'd' -<'I "ac-<'O' J,'OY-",", sQor:lo?
1. 1 - (K n/K)2 > 0 and 1 - (Z,/Z)2 > 0 1. Yn > y > Yo
2.1- (Kn/KP < 0 and 1- (Z./Z)~ <0
1 The term" backwater curve 11 i$ used primarily to indicate the longitudinal sur-
face curve of the water backed up above .0. dam or into a tributary by flood in the mll-in
T:~ ::s:c:;e:e:rese~L~b~~t~cal
dy/ilx is s 0\ ve.
flow with ~,draWs1oWl~\::::e~ :~~:e~o_yac._."
e second case represents a supercritical
r
stream. Ma.ny authors ha.ve extended its meaning to include all types of flow profiles. a ackwater curve, ~s shown as positive. ~.- ...
0:-----.
1
~I
224 Gfu\DUALLY VARIED FLOW THEORY AND ANALYSIS 225
In a channel of adverse ~lope, or SD < 0, Eq: (9-11) indicates that, for
negative values of SD, K" :must be imaginary or [(Hi must be negative TAllLE 9-1. TYPES QF FLOW P ..QFILES. IN PRISMATIC CHANNlliLS
I I
of c,u{"ve
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zon.a Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
In the first case, dy/dx is negative, and .the flow profile is 3. drawdown 'i
Ij curve. In the second case, dy/dx is positiYH, ami the flow profile is a
None Non~
:
i None
j
backwater curve. Since Ie. is imaginary, the value of Yn cannot be
easily expressed. 1 In fact, a finite positive .value of Yn is physically
Horizontal
S, 0 H2 1'. > Y>,'J« Dra.wdown 'I Subcritieal
. impossible because a uniform flow call never occur in an adverse channel.: fill !In. > y~ >y 1:1 i SupercrhJcal
(Why'?)
'1> yn > y. I B ...kwnt;,r ! SubcrlU",,1
The above discussions are summal'ized ill Table 9-1 and in Figs. 9-2
Mild
-"12 >u> Drnwdo\itn Suberitir.t'l
and 0-4. Some special features of the theoretical flow profiles are' as' l) <1.. < B. lin
j
Parallel to Uniform~
the critical-depth line. If the depth of flow is ch!mged suddenly from a Critical
en tlcnl
8,-8,>0
C2 1),:; := 11- 'lJ~ channel
low stage to ll. high stage in crossing the critical-depth line, a hydraulic bQttom
jump will occur, l'epresentinga discontinuity iIi the flow Profile. If the
depth changes from a high to low stage, then a hydraulic drop wi.ll occur.
C3 II, - y. > 11 Bll.ckwJlter Super-critical
It should be noted that, at or nep.l' the critical-depth line, the flow profile 81
1- I '11> 1I. > Yn Backwater Subcrit.icul
. In fact, the flow may become so curvilinear or rapidly varied that the
theory and equations deve~oped in the preceding artiCle become inapplica-
ble. Therefore, Eq. (\)-13) cannot be used to describe or compute accu-
None
J.! 1i> (lIA)* > II' None
I
Yn
None
,
! r---------------,
-"
---
,'I, ,
.l 1 '
~'0;;W7_';w;wj&a0
Ml
--- -----
_ 2-
--- ------- --.
FIG. \1-3 ..Theoretical points of inflection on now profiles.
-----
bottom. 9-a).1 Similarly, Moui-et found that another point of
inflection exjsts on the flow profile when V"> y" > y, (Fig. 9-3).~
9-4. Classification' of Flow Profiles. 3 For the given discharge and
channel conditions t.he normal-depth and criticahiepth lines divide the
II space in aehannel into three Llones: .
,r.. ~.:....-·-----_._. <
I
Yh='ic~--- i Zone 1. The space ,,;bove the upper line
'~ ! Zone 2. The space between the two lines
Zone 3. Th;:; space below the lowel' line
Thus, the flow profiles may be classified into thirteen different; types
according to t,he nature of the channel slope and the zone in which the
flow surface lies. These types a.re designated as H2, H3; MI, M2, 1113;
CI, 02, C3; 81,S2, S3; and A2, A3;rvhere the letter is descriptive oithe
slope: H for h/)l'izontal, 11-/ for mild (sub-critical), 0 for critical, S for steep !
(supercritiCal), and A for adverse slope; and where the numeral represents
1
the zone number. Of the thirteen flow profiles, twelve are for graduJ1lly
_ , _ _ _ ..sL-
v~d Bow and one, 02, is for lltl.i£effll: fia w It should be noted that a
None continuous flow profile usually occurs only in one Llone. The general
"0.o ~ characteristics of th~e profiles are given in Table 9-1, and the shapes al~e
-----_ .. -- _______ "-1..--
\
f-----~-------i~--
Vi
r------- shown in 9-2 and 9-4. Since the profiles near the critical depth and
E 1c
~ Y Yo
l.:-~
Yo I~ 7/%! "
the channel bottom co.nnot be accurat~ly defined by the theory of gradu-
;!1·1~ . .
0-W//////////''''''#~
L~T/lP/7/.i/~ I 1 It is believed that the question of
points of inflection was first discussed by
Merten (13).
FIG; 9-2. Classification of' flow profiles. of gradually vari!)d flow. • This point of inflection occurs because the profile must have !J. horizont.al slope in
crossing the tra.nsitional profile and then bend forward tangent to the downstream
pool level (Art. 9-6). .
, It is beliP.ived that a comprehensive description a.nd c!llSsification of diff~re.n t flow
profiles were first given by Boudin [14].
r
228 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW ~l THEORY AND ANALYSIS' 229
ally varied flow, they are shown with short dashed or dotted lines, (0)
Various flow profiles are discussed below.
A, M P1'ofiles. SQ < Se and Yll >Y•. J
The -"11 pt'ofile the most well.. known backwater curve; it is
the most important of all .How profiles from the practical point of view.
ThiS profile oeem's when the downstream end of a long mild channel is
submerged in a l'eseryoir to a; greater depth than the normal depth of the
flow in the channeL This flow profile lies ill zone L The upstream end
of the curve is tangent to the normal-depth line, since dyldx = 0 as
y = y,,; and the downstream end is tangent to the horizontal pool surface,
Rince dy/dx = Sn as y c:Q. Typieal examplea of the 1111 profile are the
profile behind a dam in a natural river (Fig, 9-4a) and the profile ill a /"
/
/
The 11£3 profile starts theoretically from the upstream channel bottom,
at either a vertical-angle slope or all acute angle, depending on the t.ype
of uniform-flow formula used (Art. 9-3), fl,lld terminates with a hydraulic
jump ut the downstream end. This type of profile usually occurs when a
supercritical flow enters a mild channel. The beginning of the profile,
although it cannot be defined precisely by the theory, depends on the
initial velocity of the water. The higher the velocity, the farther
downstream the profile will begin. 'The theoretical upstream end of the
profile will intersect the channel bottom. At this end y = 0, thus the
velocity would become infinite. Therefore, the theoretical upstream end
of an M3 profile can never exist physically. Examples of the M3 profil.e
are the profile in a stream below a sluice (Fig. 9-4(3) and the profile after
the change in bottom slope from steep to mild (Fig. 9-4f) .
.B. S Profiles. So > S. and y" < Yo_
The Sl profile·begins with a jump' at the upstream and becomes tangent
to the horizontal pool level at the downstream end. Examples are the
THEORY A~D ANALYSm 231
230 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
profiles of flow behind a dam·in a steep channel (Fig. 9:-4g) and in a steep Following the principle used in the preceding paragraphs, it can be
canal emptying into a pool of high elevation (Fig. 9-4h). demonstrated that four types of How profiles are possible for a given slope
The 82 profile is a drawdown curve. It· is usually very short and rather [15-19J. Figure 9-5b, c, and d shows these fol' mild and st.eep
like a transition between a hydraulic drop and uniform flow, since it 8lopes. The positions of the depths y" and y,,.' are assumed constant in
starts upsti·eo.m with a vertical slope at the critical depth and is tangent
to the normal-depth line at the downstream end. Examples are the
profiles formed on the downstream side of an enlargement of channel
section. (Fig. 9-41.) and on the steep-slope side as the channel slope
changes from steep to (Fig.
The S3profile is also of the tra!Jsitional type, formed between an
issuing supercriticoJ flow .and the normal-depth line to which the profile is \
tangent. Examples are the profife on the steep-slope side as the channel I
slope changes from steep to milder steep (Fig. 9-4k), and that below a
sluic~ with the depth of the entering flow less than the normal depth on a·
steep slope 9-4l).
C. C P1·ofilcs. So and y ... = y•.
These profiles the transition conditioi15 between Ai and S
profiles. Assuming a wide rectangular channel,Eq. (9-17) shows that
C1 and C3 pl'ofiles Iwe curved and that the Clprofile is asymptotic to a
horizon tal line (Fig. 9-4m and n). When hha Ghezy fot'mula i~ used J
Eq. (9-18) will show that the two profiles are horizontal lines. The C2
p7'ofile the case of uniform critical flow.
D. H P1·ofili3s. 8 0 0 andy" = 00 •
. These are the limit.ing cases of ]..f profiles when the channel bottom
becomes horizontal. The H2 o,nd H3 profile3 correspond to the 1lf2.and
11{3 profiles, but no H1 profile can actually be est,ablished, since y ... is
,;1. infinite. Examples of H profiles are shown i!l Fig. 9-40' and p.
E. A Profiles. S~ < o. .'
d The A 1 profile is impossible, since the value of y. is not reaL The /12
and A3 profiles are similar to the H2 and H3 profiles, respectively. In
general, A profiles occur infrequently. Examples are shown in Fig.
9-4q and r.
F. Profiles in Conduits with a Gradually Closing Tflp. .For nny conduit
with a gradually closing top, the normal discharge will increase as the
depth of flow increases. It will increase first to the value of full discharge
at a depth yo' less' than the full depth yo. Thereafter, the discharO'e
will reach a m!)'ximum value Q,m at a depth Yn *. Further increase in
depth of flow will decrease the discharge eventually to the full discharge
at the moment when the flow surface touches the top of the conduit. FIG. 9-5. Flow profiles in a closed condui~.
9-5a .shows the variation of normal discharge in such a conduit.
fll the case of a circular conduit, the depth Yo'·"" O.82yo and y" * = O.938yo these figures .. It shuuld be noted that the critical depth in Fig. 9-5d is .
where yo is the diumeter of the conduit (Art. 6-4). Within the region of greater than .the normal. depths y,.' and Y.., but that its corresponding
IJ ya' and y = Yo, there a.re two possible normal depths for a given dis- . lower normal depth is less than Yfo' and Yn. Consequently, the corre-
charge, namely, the lower normal depth y" and the upper or conjugate , sponding critical slope should be less th!l.l1 the normal slope, and the
itorrnal depth y ,.'. . channel slope is considered mild.
(
[
(a) ~--_.'_.::::=:-
~
-"....
Cr'
---
... ~---
CI
///~~~~-~~~-:.
;
----.... -"-.
(q} ...~ .... -- -~ ..--~"-.----~
- - -.-~.--~-
- .:':'.:::.:..-::
~'
. ~e , JlicG/
Milder slope Slo,oe '! '::""~~\\':~
Mild. slope
I
I I (n)
(s)
Depending on
-.:.... Cl' aownst ream
~.
___ ."_-/:.~_.~~~~~~i.~~.
(P)
Critic . C"\
"'-" ~---:);- --1~~'--
01 s~ /. '\:\ .. - '0
Depending 'lIl OPe I Adverse. slope I " 1/1171777Tmn,.,!._
downstrecm LEGEND , I
MI
Dependinc;; on
downstream ,._:~mp t2. con~?: Thlck lines indicate water surJoce
~ (tJ ",,~y ~".---
~
(f) ---'---:::::.-_ _----:.---- "';'1:.~.:;:- .. ---- Jump FIG. 9·6 (Continued).
,~"
~
Sfs e ' :3
• P ./oPe ,se s\O?e
(>.a~e . Typical examples shown in Fig. 9-4 shduld be helpful in determining the
FIG. 9-6. Profiles of gradually varied flow in a long prismatic channel with 11 hreak in' type of flow profile in a given problem.
bottom slope. B. Prismatic Cha.nnel with Ii Change in Slope. This channel is equiva-
lent to a pair of connected prismatic channels of the same cross section but
9":5. Analysis of Flow Profile. Flow'"profile analysis is a proQedure with differen~ slopes. Twenty typica.l flow profiles in a long prismatic
used to predict the general shape of the flow profile. It enables the channel with a break in'slope are shown in Fig. 9-(3, These profiles are· '
engineer to leatn beforehand the possible flow profiles that may occur in self-explanatory. Howevel;, some special features should be mentioned;
a given chann~l la.yout. This procedur~ constitutes a very significant 1.' The profile near or at the critical depth caml0t be predicted precisely
part of all problems inchannel design for gradually varied flow. i:ly the theory of gradu.~lly varied flow, since·theflow is generally rapidly
A. Pi'ismatia Channel with Constant Slope. The flow profile in ~ long varied. . ,
prismatic channel with a constant slope:has been described in Ar~. 9·4. 2. In passing a critical line, the flow profile should, theoretically, have 0.
234 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW THEORY AND ANALYSIS 235
vertical slope. Since the flow is usually rapidly varied when the 4-5). If the downstream water surface is very high, it may raise the flow
critical linej the actual slope of the profile cannot be predicted precisely surface at the upstream control. When several st.eep reaches occur in
by the theory. For the same reason, the critical depth may not occur succession, the control section is at the upstream end of the uppermost
exactly a.bove '~he break of the ehannel bottom and may be different reach. Upstream control also occurs in long mild reaches, because the
from the depth shown in the figure. lVIl or lIlZ curves will approach the normal depth at the upstream end.
3. In some cases (Fig. 9-6g and l), the hydraulic jump may occur either b. DOWNSTREAM CONTROL SECTION. This occurs at the downstream
in the upatl'eam channel or in the downstream channel, depel1~il1g upon end in any long steep reach, because the flow will approach th.e normal
the relative steepness of the two slopes. 1 In case {I, for instance, the jump dep~h at the downstream end. If the downstream end of a mild channel
will occur in tHe dowllstream channel if the normal depth i~ this channel terminates at a free overfall, the control Section 'may be assumed at the
is comparatively smalL When the slope of the downstream channel brink where the depth is crit.icaL r
decreases and,. accordingly, the normal depth increases, the jump will C. ARTIFICIAL CONTROL SECTION. This occms at a control structure,
move upstream, eventually into the upstream channel. The exact sur.h as a v;eil', dam, or sluice gate, at which the control depth either is
f
location of the jump will be disclissed in Art. 15-7. known or can be determined.
4. If the upstream channel has an adverse slope (Fig. 9-Bq to t), the 5. Starting D,t the control depth at each control section, trace in each
discharge is fixed not by upst.ream channel conditions but by the eleva- reach a continuous profile. The position of the profile in each reach can
tion of the upstream pool level, which is the horizontal asymptote of the be corre~tly located with respect to the normal~ and critical-depth lines. ,I
)12 profile. The procedure of analysis is .to assume a discharge and to For this purpose, typical profiles described previously (Art. 94) should
determine to which case q to t the profile should belong. Then, compute be found useful.
the flow profile in the upstream direction and determine the pool level. B. When flo'''' is super critical in the upsi:.ream portion of a reach but
H the computed level does not agree with the given pool level, then repeat subcriticaI in the c1ownst,ream portion, the flow profile has to pass the
the computation with another assumed discharge until the computed level critical depth soniewhere in the reach. In crossing the critical-depth line,
agrees with the given leveL a hydraulic jump is usually crsl:'.ted in raising the wat,et surfa<;e from a low
5. Typical profiles (Fig. !H3) are illustrated for long channels in ,vhich depth to its depth. The exact location of the jump will be dis-
a uniform flow can be established far upstream and downstream. cussed later (Art. 15-7).
C. Prismatic Chann,el with Seueral Changes in Slope. ;For such channels
"""""ntu,,, 9-1. Th":l normal and critical depths of the flow in a channel have been
the general procedure of analysis is as follows: W'"'!,,'""_'" !Lnd ~,re shown in Fig. 9-7,Sketch ~he possible flow profiles.
1. Plot the channel profile with all exaggerated vertical scale. First loeste the possible control sections, such n.s tho~e for upstream con-
2. Compute y.,. for each reach, and plot the normal-depth line, shown trol U.C., downstream control D.C .. and artificial con~rol A.C. The artlficil.t.l con"
by dashed lines, throughout the entire channeL ' trol in this e:<ample is a sluice which b~ks up waler to form an 81 profile on the
3. Compute y. for each reach, and plot the critical-depth line, shown by 'upstream side. The formation of the hydraulic jumps in th~ rnidtlle and down-
. strea.m reaches is apparent, but the determination of their exact positions requires
dotted lines, throughout tile channeL further con~idera.tion. In the iowennost reach, for jn.s~ance, the J'{2 .and ].(3 profiles
. 4. Locate all possible control sections. At the control section,2 :flow should be computed first. Then, aompute the curve represellting the sequent dep~h
must pass through a control depth which may be the critica,l depth; of the M3 profile. ,The intersection of the sequent-depth curve and the lYf2 profile
the normal depth, or any other known depth. There are three types of gives the approximate position of ~he jump. A more exact value for the position of
cont.rol section: the jump ma.y be obt,ained by correcting the posit.ion for the length of the jump.
Various types of flow profile are sketched irl the ugure.
a. UPSTREAM CONTROL SIWTION. This occurs in any steep reach at the
upstl'eam end, since the flow in a steep channel has to pass through th$ D, Nonprismatic Channels and Chan'n,els wilh Spat£ally Varied Flow.
critical section at the upstream end and then follow .either the Sl or S2 In nonprismatic channels and channels with spatially varied flow, the
profile. Thecritical depth therefore, the control depth (see also Art. analJfsis of flow becomes complicated by the fact that the control section
. may occur at any section in the channel and its position cannot be deter-
1 Also depending on
nels. In this discussion
relative roughness and shape of the two connecting chan-'
factors arc assumed constant. mined easily. Consider three different channel slopes for three types of
:low: (1) continuous flow in aprisrnatic channel (Fig. g...ga), (2) spatially
\
• The term "control section" used here has a. broad meaning. It refers to any'
section at which the depth of flow is known or can be controlled to !l. required sta.ge. 1 Actua.lIy the computed critical depth is somewhat behind the brink (Ar~. 3-4).
-s.:~
236 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW THEORY AND ANALYSIS' 237
varied flow of increasing discharge in a prismatic channel (Fig. 9-8b),
a.
E
and (3) continuous flow in a nonprismatic channel having a constant'slope
.a but varying cross section (Fig. 9-8b). All channels have a free overfall.
M2
a. In the first .type of flow, the flow changes from sub critical to super-
--- ... _- E
.:!. critical as the channel slope varies from mild to steep. Accordingly,
Mild slope Z
the critical control section will be transferred from the downstream end
to the upstream end. It should be· noted tht1t the t,ransfer of the critical
control section occurs almost instant.aneously .. At the instant of transi":
tion/ the crit.ical flow takes place throughout the entire length of the
chan.nel (middle view of Fig: 9-8a), and any section in the reach is,
therefora, a critical sflction ..
In the see-ond and third types of flow, the transition of the state of flow
will take 'place gradually from section to section as the critical control
FIG. 9-7, Analysis of flow profile for .Exa.mple 9-1. U.C. = upstream control; section moves upstream, At any moment. during the' time of transition'
D.C. = downstream control; A.C. = artificia,1. control. (middle view of Fig. 9-8b), the flow downstream from the control section
is supercritical, and the flow upstream is subcritical. The determination
of the control section will be described in the next article.
9-6. Method of Singular Point. . The preQeding analysis of flow
Critical pl'ofiles was given primarily for prismatic cha,nuels. For a comprehensive
control sedion Critlcol
treatment of flow profiles, in either prisrnatic or nonprismatic channels
I control section
I [;ubCritical flow I'. with constant or variable slope, use has been made of advanced mathe-
~
matical approaches. 2 One a,pproach is the use of the theory of the singu-
lar point .. This theory was developed by Poincare [22] but ,vas first
~t Critical'
applied to flow studies in cha.nnels of variable slope by Masse [23]. The
method based on this theory has been further discussed. and extended by
!S b control section Jaeger [241, De Marchi [25], Hom-rna [26,27J,Escoffier [28], Iwasa [29],
, U [s Upercrj~.
critlca/
flow and others.
f',O, • flow 1ICoi
. For simplicity of discussion, channels with small slopes will be con-
1------- ------l
sidered. Let the numerator and denominator of Eq. (9-15) be repre-
CrJ t i co I
%
'C;:~~~".-L
conirol section Critlcol
.~~ sented by two functions, or .
Critical I Steep ~ "
I control section dy = Sol.- (Q/Q,,)2 = F 1(3:,y) or (9~20)
leD'.~_:~_
I
l Superr:rir'
flo", cal I
dx 1 - (Q/Q.)2 F2(X,y)
---- ....... ~,
Then, set each of these functions equal to zero, or
~~
(9-21)
Fl = 0 represents t.he normal-depth' line in a prismatic channel. In Eq. (9-20) gives dy/dx 3 D; that is, a flow profile must be hori:z.ontal'in
nonprif:lmatic channels, Fl 0 I'esults in a fictitious normal-flow profile. l crossing the transitional profile. Since the transitional profile is defined
It is fictitious because U1~iform flow in nonprismatic channels is unrealistic. by the condition that Qn Qr, its position is fixed by the channel charac-
Similarly, Eq. (9-22), P 2 0, represents the critical-flow profile. Since, teristics but, unlike the normal and critical profiles, it is independent of
Q< is independent of the channel slope, the concept of the critical-flow change in discharge.
profile is valid in channels, of variable slope. At ~his stage of the discussion, the reader must try to see clearly the
differences between the transitional, normal, and critical profiles_
At the singular point, y Y.j thl;l,t is, the fiow profile passes through the·
Yl A ,C B ' ' critical depth. Hence, there exists a critit.:al section.
I
I "
'j I: The slope of the water surface at the singular point is equal to the
---~--- l . ~I limi~ing value of the indeterminate formd.y/d';l; = % if this form is COll-
l-... _______ '" . ~~.-1- -~--;:::;:.::;:::;-
_.~ •.:__:,.' ..
v"ergent. By the differential calc·J.lus, this limiting va.lue can be cvnJuated
~~... ---... - . . --:-.. ~ ........ . :. . .~-- ...!........ ,*""".". ' / If' If"
@.,-'-- -----"-'1'-"" ~;,' ,. __ Reoillo w profile passing by
'/ j / \ / ' " " ,throJgh Pond osymptotic 10
;'I.L
,
tLLZ \'\ /,
1/,'
"
F,·O
--Flow p(o/ile pcssinq th(ouoh P (d )Y (9-23)
l , / . b\;t nc~ asymptotic fa F. =11' .
<
dx ,
: ' I 't I - - - -F,:Oor . quos,-normal
profile
' ' flow
, The above discussion can be illustrated by a simple example. Consider
I ----F2:O Of critical-flow profile
a wide rectangular channel 9-9) in which the flow changes from sub-
---Transitional profile . critical to supercriticaI according to the change in slope from a subcritical
------otherf!ow profiles SI in reach I to a supercritical 3 3 in reach III. . The slope in the inter-
mediate reach II is variable and may be expressed by SD = 3 1 + U';I; in
r
which U is a coefficient.. Somewllere in reach II, at which So = 3:,
a
,1
critical section exists. This section can be determined by the simul-
II taneous solution of FI 0 and F~= O. Graphically, this section lies at
the intersection of the curves FlO and F 2 = O. The cl'itical depth
can be shown to be
\
(9-24)
FIG. 9-9. Study of flaw profile ill 8. ohannel of variable slope.
[
I
~I
240 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
I THEORY AND ANALYSIS 241
prese~t e~ample by Eq, (9-23), the followingequntion can be obtained I Iu3 these operations are carried out, the jump GH is forced upst.ream until
(using Manning's formula): its height is finally reduced to zero, In this way the profile CP D is
realized. SUCh a pI'olile, hm'v'ever, is unstable, because a. very slight
1J: ·(~§o)
2
dY) 108 0 (d Y) = 0 (9-26) increase in level in the profile P D will entail a change'from the profile CP
( dx • dx , 3 dx c
to the proille AP and the space between the two will be filled with water.
This equation has two roots opposite in sign. The negative root will A general solution of the condition dy/dx FdF2= % for any kind
define a flow profile through the singular point P, wi.th depth of channel can be aohieved mathematically by the method of singular
decreasing in the direction of flow. Since the r_ow in the present probJeCljl point [31]. The result will produce four types of flow profile that can be
changes frorn. 8ubcl'itical tosupercl'itical; this flow profile is evidently the .developed theoret,ically around the singular point.l The four types are
profile of the flow under consideration. At x = ± this profile is
C() , • known as the saddle) noda.l, spiral, and vorlex. types, as shown in Fig. 9-11,
ttsymptotic to the profile of the quasi-normal flow, or FI = O. The other
root of Eq, (9-26) "till define a. flow profile also passing through P but not y
asymptoti'c to £1\ = O. Other profiles, which do not pass through
will intersect the transitlona.! profile with a horizontal slope, pass through
Pi = 0 with a hydraulic jump, and become asymptotic to the two profiles
that pass through P.
The flow profile through P but not asymptotic to PI =0 is
not the profile of the flow under consideration. However, such a
profile may become real under some other circumstances. In 9-10,
n . Saddle Spiroi
I
,
242 GRADUALLY, VARIED FLOW
l
Ii
THEORY AND ANALYSIS 243 .J
from sub critical to supercritical in a channel with slightly convex bed For purposes of dis,cussion, take the ,case of the backwater behind a
(8 1 < Se < Sa). dam as an example. When So < BL (Fig. 9-12a), it is appal~ent that the
In the nodal type, the,flow profile that passes through P a!ld is asymp- flow is always subcritical and that the corresponding b'ackwater profile
totic to F1 '= 0 indicates a continuous flow changing from super critical is of the' M1 type. When So > SL, the condition depends as follows on
to subcritical in f1 channel with slightly concave bed (8 1 > Se > S3). ,
1
the relation of Bo to lh.
J
In the spiral type, the flow profile that pa.sseg through P and is asymp-
totic to Fl ;"" 0 indicates a discontinuous flow 1 changing from supercritical II
to subcritical in a channel with sligMly concave bed (8 1 > Se > 8 a). I
In the vortex type, the, flow profile that passes through the singular
poiut is the point itself and has no hydmulic significance. A general
solution for the transitional profile in all four typ~ h<LS been given by I
, Escoffier [28J.
9-7. The Transitional Depth. A little more may be said about the
transitional depth,2 which has belm defined as the depth at which Q.. = Qc,
!In = Ye, and the slope of the flow profile is horizontal, or dy/dx = B,. -' (
Equate the right side of Eq. (9-13) to 8 0 and simplify t.he equation; then
(oj
I
_---"1 -=-..--T,'- __ _
..
"-- 1
-.. - __ a
(9-27)
\
~ )
Let K" = Q/V8o,K = L49AR%/n, Z, = Q/VU, and Z = A·,fIT.
Then, the above equation becomes " ' S //,
s UncriticO/.S/o pe
5-5 (Figs. 5-8 and 9-12), the transitional discharge can be represented by
a point on the curve. It is evideilt from the curve that, for a given slope
B~, whit::h is greater than the limit slope BLI there are two possible critical
discharges, say, Q., and Qb, both of which are transitional discharges.
FIG. 9-12. Flow pro.files expla.ined by a critical-slope curve.
The actUal discharge is designated by Q and the corresponding critical
slope by Be. '
I A. When the slope is close to the limit slope. In this case, the condition
, IHere .the 'upstream normal flow changes to tbe downstream normal flow at an will depend further on the magnitude of the actual discharge Q with
abrupt tr'ansition formed by a hydraul~{l jump. respect to the smaller and larger transitional discharges Qo and Qb,
, • See [f2], [II)], [28] to [30]. and [32] .• respectively. '
1:
I
.1·,
0,,) .1
'",,
244 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW THEORY AND ANALYSIS 245
\"- If Q < Q. (Fig. 9-12b), tIlen So < Se and Ye < y" < Ya < Vb. Since 9-7. f?ketch the possible flow profiles in the channels sbown in Fig. 9-13.
."
j
So < Sc, the flow is sub critical, and the profile should be of the 1VI1 typ~ .
However, the profile will contain two points Ta. and Tb at which the slope
is horizont.aL Bet-';veen these two points a p(')int of inflection apparently
exists. The depths at the two poihts are transitional depths Ya. and y~.
If Qa < Q < Qb (Fig. 9-12c), then So > S,and y. < Yn -< y. < Yb.
I" Since So > Sc, the flow profiles are of the S type. However, there will
i be a point Tb where the slope is horizontal on the Sl profile and a point
T a where the slope is horizontal on the 83 profile.
If Q. < Qb '< Q (Fig. 9-12d), then So < S, and Y. <Yb < Yo < Yn.
The transitional depths will intersect only the M3 profile, and the back-
water profile will be of the ordinary M1 type.
B. When the slope is fo.r r;.way from the limit slope. In ihis case, Q.
and Ya are relatively very smail, and their existence is practically insig-
t' nif]cant. If Q > Qb, the flow will be sub critical and the profile will be
of the M 1 type. If Q < Qb, the flow will be supercritical and the profile
.will be of the S1 type.
C. When Ihe. slope is very large. In this case, the large transitional
i-
. I
discharge Qb is considered to exceed the maximum expected discharge
(see Fig. 6-8). Thus, the flow is supercritical and the profile is of the
S1 type. The highest point of theS1 profile is very close to the down-
stream end.
The above discussion was developed for the case in which the point L of
the limit slope is below the curve of maximum expected discharge (Fig. LEGEND:
-------~- Criticol-c\eplh line
6-8a) and in which the channel sections !1re rectangulal' or trapezoidal or - - - -Noqnal-deplh line
similar to such forms. If the point L is above tbe curve of maximum
FIG. 9-13. Channels for Prob. 9-7. The vertical scale is exaggerated.
expected discharge (Fig. 6-8b), the larger l;ransitional depth of the flow
J will be greater than the maximum expected depth, or Yb > Ym, and the
larger transi~ional discharge will be greater than the maximum expeeted EI.1274
9 c 2. Show that the gradually-varied-fiow equation is'reduced to a uniform-flow FIG. 9-14. A channel profile for Prob. 9-8.
I formula if du/dx ... 0,
I 9-3. Prove Eq.' (9·14).
9-4. Prove Eq.: (9-15), 9-8. A rectangular channel (Fig. 9-14), 20 It wide, consists of three reaches of
9-5. Prove Eq. (9-16). different slopes. The channel has a. roughness coefficient n = 0.015 a.nd carries a
discharge of 500 cfs. Determine:
9-6. Prove Eqs. (9-17) and (9-18).
a. tbe norma.l flnd critical depths in ea.cb reacb
I
,:1
)
"
246 GRADUALLY VARIED ~'LO"'Y THEORY AND ANALYSIS 247
b. the possible (low profiles 11. Dwight F. Gunder: Profile curves for open-chruloel flow, Transadions, American
c. .the distance ;~ troln the outlet of the channel to the poiht where the backwater Socieey IJj Ci.-il Engineer", vol: lOB, pp. 481-488, 1943.
curvs terminate~. The .backwat,er curve is assumed. to be a horizontal line. 12. G. Mouret: "Hydraulique: Cours de rneca.nique appliquee" (It HydJ:aulies:
9-9. Prove Eqs. (9-24) to (9-26). Course tn Applied Mechanics "), L'Ecole Nationalc des Ponts et Chaussees, Paris,
9-10. A change in slope from 0.0016 to 0.0064 occurs in a wide rectangula.r channel. 1922-1923, pp. 447-458; revised lIB "Hydraulique giinerale" ("General Hydrau-
(Fig. IHI). The length of the transition is 10 ft, and the slope in .the transition rea.ch lics"), cours de 1'Ecole NatiQnii.le des Ponts et CtwLusseesi Paris, 1927-1928.
is So = 0.0016 + 0.00048::, where x is the distance measured from the beginning of 13. A. Merten: Recherches 'sur Ill. forme des axes hydra.uHques dans un !it prisma.tique
the change. 'The channel carries a discharge of 100 crs per unit width. Assume that (Studies on the form of fiow profiles ill. a. prismatic channel), Anna!e.~ de jl.:l18socic:-
a = 1 a.nd n ~ 0.02. Ucm de. In(16nieuTS Bortis des ~cole8 8pec.iales de Gand, Ghent, Belgium, '101.5, ser. 3,
a. Determine the control section. 1906.
b. Computethe slope of tho flow profile nt the contrqi section. 14. M. 'Boudin: De I'axe hydraulique des coms d'eau contenus dans un lit prisma.tique
c. Con~truct the tro.nsftional, normal, and critic!>l proliles .. et des dispositifs reaiisll.nt, en p~!l.tique, Bes formes diverses (The flow profiles of ......
'
d. Construct the renl and some other possible flow pI·oliles. w.ater ill a prisma.tic ch!1nnel' and actuI'1.1 "dispositions ill various forms), A nnales
9-11. Show' that the gradually-varied_flow cq\!ation for flow in a rechar.gular chan- des trcwaux pu.bliqucs de Belgique, Bru~s!'<l!;, vol. 20, pp. 397-555, 1861-1802.
nel of va.riabli!. width b may be (lli:pressed as 15. Pierre Koch: JuStification de l'etucle rationnelle du remous dans les aqueducs de
forme circulaire, ovoide <iu IIna.logue (Justification of the ra.tional study of back-
S. - Sf + (",Q'ylgA~) (dbldz) (9-29) water in oinmln.r conduits of ovoid or similar shape), Annall13 d.s P(}tl/s e/ cJlIluGs,les,
= 1 - ",Q'b/gAJ ...._........
pp. 153-202, Sep~ember-October, 19~3. .
16. L. Gherardelli: SuU'equaziOlle del mota permanente ill alvei prismatici (On the
All notation has been previously defined.
cqua.tion for steady flow in prismatic channels), L' Enerllia eleUrioo, Milano, vol
28, no. 4, pp. 185-189,April, 19tH.
REFERENCES 17. Gianni Formica: Nota sui profili di dgurgito delle correnti permanent! gradual-
mente variate· defluerrti in galleria cilindriche (Not.e on ba,ckwater curves of
1. J. B. Belanger: sur Ill. solutionnumiirique de quelques problemes relatifs gradually v1l.riedsteady flow in cylilldrico.! closed conduits), L'Energia eleltrica,
au mouvement. permanent des eallli: courantes" ("Essay on the Numerical Solu- Milano, vol. 29, no. 8, pp. 480-491; August, 1952; repdnted as Istiluto di Idraulica
tion of Some Problems Reletiv~ to the Steady Flow of Water"), Cn.rilian-Goe\lry, e CostrU~ioni idrauliche, ilfi!ano, Mp'lrIorie II studi No. 97, 14 pp.
Pa.ris, 1828. . 18. R. Silber: Sur Ill. forme deJl courbes des remous en gal erie COl~verte (On backwater
2. J. A. Ch. Bresse: "'Cours de mecJl.nique appliquee," 2e po.rtie, Hydraulique curves in closed condui.t), cxtrait· des Comples rendu.s des s~ance$ de I' Aoo.demie
("Course in Applied l\'Iechanics," pt. 2, Hydraulics), Ma.1let-Bachelier, Paris, .des Sciences, vol. 235,pp. 2377-2379, June 22, 1953.
1860. 19. R. Silb~r: ":fl]tude et truce des ecoulements permanents en canaux et rivieres"
3. Boris A. Bikhmeteff: "Hydraulics 'of Open Channels," appendix I, Historicnl and ("Study and Outline of Steady Flow in Open Chnnne~s"), Dunod, Paris, 1954.
bibliographical notes, McGraw-Hill Book Cr)mpany, Inc., 'New York, 1932, 20. A. Merten: Thoof<lmes fondamentaux d'hydrnulique fiuvia.1e (Fundamenta.l
pp.299-301. theorems of fluvial hYdraulics), Annales ,de I' A8sociation des Inglnieurs sOTtis
4~ Charles Jaeger: Steady flow ill open channels: The problem of Boussinesq, des Ecofes Speciales de Gand, Ghent, Belgium, ser. 5, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 200-210,
J Ot,rnal, lnetitution of Civil Engineers,. London, vol. 29-S0,.pp. 338-348, November, 1912.
1947-0ctober, 1948. . 21. L. J. Tison: "Cou:s d'hydrauliquc" ("Hydraulics"), Uriversite de Gand,
5. Charles Jaeger: "Engineering Fluid M.echanics," translated from ~he Germa.n lly Ghent, Belgium, 1953, pt, n, pp. 170-182;
P. O. Wolf, Blackie & Son, Ltd., Glasgow, H,56, pp. 93-97. 22. H. Poincare: Memoire sur les courbes definies par uno equation differentielle
6. F. Bettes: Non-uniform flow in channels, Civil Engineering and Public Works (Memoir on the curves defined by a differentia.l equation), Journal de malM-
Review, London, vol. 52, no. 609, pp. 323-324, March, 1957; no. 610, pp. 434-436, matiqul!3 pures et appliq1J.~es, Paris, vol. 7, pp. 375-422, 188L
April, 1957. . 23. Pierre Masse: Ressaut et ligne d'eau dans les cours d'eau apente.variable (Hydrau-
7.•(-Allen: Streamline and turbulent flow in open channels, The.Lond(}tl, Edinburgh lic jump and flow profile in channels (If variable slope), Revue gencrale de l'hydrau-
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal 0;
Science, ser. 7, vol. 17, pp. !ique, Paris, vol. 4, no. 19, pp. 1-11, January, and no. 20, pp. 61-64, April, 1938.
1081-1112, June, 1934. 24. 'Charles J!1.eger: Erweiterung der Boussinesqschen Theorie del! Ahlliisses iu offenen
S. Hunter Rouse and Merit P. White: Discussion on Varied flow in open channels Gerinnen und der Abflilsse ilber abgerundete Wehre (Extension of the Boussinesq
of adverse slope, by Arthur E. Ma.tzke,. Trallsadion.s, American Society of Civil theory of flow in open channels and over a round-crested weir), Wasserkraft und
W~serwirischafl, Munich, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 83-86, Apr. 15, 1940. (
Engineers, voL 102, pp. 671-676, 1937.
9. ShermanM. Woodwa.rd and Chesley J. Posey: "Hydraulics of Steady Flow in
Open Channels," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1941, p. 70.
25. Giulio De Marchi: Sui cambiamento di regime di una correnti Iineare a pelo
libero in Ull alvea. di sezione cost·n.nte (On the transition beLweell 5upercritical and
.~ I
10. Ivan M. Nelidov; Discussion on S~face curves for steady nonuniform flow, by sub critical conditions in free-surface gradually varied flpw in a cylindrical che.nnel),
Robert B. Jansen, Tra.nsa.ctions, American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 117, pp. L'Enerflia e!ettrica, Milano, vol. 27, no. 0, pp.125-132, March, 1950; reprinted as
1098~1l02, 1952. . Istiluto di Idrau!ica 8 COllt1"urioni ldrrJuliche, Milano, Memorie es!udi No. 82, 1950.
: ',~-
248 GRADUAl;.LY VARIED FLOW
Xl
.
= ['". dx =.lY'dX-dy dy
-,'" y.
(10-1)
o~~-~~~~~~~~~----~Y
4.40 37.60 \
125.72 3.19 2.167 16,360 . 232.3 913 ' 175 493 i
'MO~
4.20 36.80'119.28 3.08 2.117 15,050 214.5 1,000 191 684
4.00 36.00 i
112.00 2.96 2.052 13,750,197.5 1,140 214 8913
35.20 i
3.80
3.70
3.60
34.801
34.40
104.88
101.38
S7.92
2.84
2.77
2.71
2.006 12,550 181. 0
1.972 11,910 . 173.0
1.944 11,350 1155.0
I
1,430 257 1,155
1,750 l!,\} 1,314
2,260 201 1,515
3.55 34.20 96..21 2.68 1.929 11,060! 161 1 2,770 126 1,64.1
3.50 ! 34.00 \14.50 2.65 1. 915 10,800 157.3 3.480 /156 1,797 I
3.47 1 33 ,88 93.48 2.63 1.904 10,600 155.2 4,520 120. 1,917
3.4\1,
3.42
33.76 92.45
33.68. gl.aO
2.61
2.60
1.894 10,440 153.0
1.890 10,340 151,7
5,990 i 158 2,075
7,930 139 2,214
200i I
I
3.40 33.60 91.12 2.59 1.886 10,230 150.0 10,760 187 2,401 1 I
3,36 33.44 89.78 2.56 1.872 10,000 147,0 I II
',OOor . 151011
to 1 % greater than Ii. or 3.40 ft. For insta.nce; when !I 5.00 ft, the values in other IINI::!I ",I
t:::1 ~I ~!
columns of the table are
T 40.00 ft
A "" 150.00 fP
o !
0
(\J
<.0
r'l
11 II
I I I
4
I I
I -
..
5 Y
t<i r<i
R '" 3.54'ft
rm 2.323 . FIG. 10~2. A curve of y vs. dx/dy.
\
1
;:;.,
252 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW METHODS OF COMPUTATION 253 ..
Effect or
Ye6.r of
Type 01 change iu Veloeity Mnu mptions rOr· Refer--
puhll- InvOBtigo.tor
cba"nel kinetic formula . hydra.ulio expon.ents. 'cnce
catioo
energy
It should be noted tllll.t, when the depth approaches the no~mal depth, the incre-
1921 BIltic16 I
I
Approximate
trApezoid
Ignored
22'.1~'1I:·uSil>lJ
CMzy
N = 3. HI, M: = 3
[{:t .- ol"
•
A,.1R. where
0:::
- is a varilll}le and
[IOJ
dll/dz = eonet
mental area varies so greatly with the change in y value that it becomes difficult to KotallY Broad reo- Conaidered C'1lQ ,?3"lj N - 3.;1. 1>f -.8 1111
pirmimeter. In such Il. c.tl.Se, the area. may be computed by assuming it is a trapezoid.
For instnnce, the incremental area between y '" 3.42 a.nd 3.40 is t,,1 - (7,930 +
1928
1930 Seboldiaeh
I
tangle
IIras.d r~e· Ignored CB m 8' N=2+2m.~1-3 (12]
10,7(0)(3.'12 3.40)/2 187. . . tangle
1938 Mononobe AU.hape. 1 COlloli'idered OIl~S'" P 1£ UI;OD"\ A.!c tt tf°M:t lIS1
10-2. Method of Direct Integration. The differential equation of 1947 Le. Ail Conoidered Manning K: tt :rv~ AI cc lI CO I.l,at [14.15]
1~51} VQn 6egll'Olrn All Considered Manning K.: ct lI'~1 Z2 1% 1JJl [16]
gradually varied flow cannot be expressed explicitly in terms or y for all 1954 Keifur-Clm Ci.rc~lnr. but Con.idered M .. nning None (17)
.he method
types of chn.nne! cross section; hence, a direct nnd exact integration of th., mAY be ex·
e~llation is practically impossible. M..fl.PY. ~~~.!;l,!IlpJ.s. Jt~YJL_hrum_ma.dlL tanded t.o
other 3hB.pea
_i;l.~r to solY~t..~.~~ig.g,!Cl.r a few special cases or to introduce as~
_.Ji2ns~.:"!l.l:l~~..~.!!~~tioll ame~a bl~jQJnath~ma.ticaLintegrati.o.n.
Table_~~~2.~iv:~s_::\...~~.~~~X ..~xi~Hrlg methods of dii'eJ:;i.integ.I:aJ:.i.c>n, .. / the integration is carried out by short-range steps and with the aid of a
arranged chronologically.'" Although the list is incomplete, it provides !l varied-flow function.
generarJile}iofUie deveTopment of the dil'ect-in tegration method. Note In an attempt to improve Bakhmeteff's method, Mononobe [13] intro-
that most of the early methods were developed fOl~ channels of a specific duced two asllumptions for hydraulic exponents. By these assumptions
cross section but that later solutions, since Bakhmeteff, were designed for the effects 9f velocity change and friction head are taken into account'
channels of all shapes, Most early methods use Chazy's formula, whereas integrally without the necessity of dividing the channel length 'into short
later .methods use Manning's formula. . reaches. Thus, the Mononobe method affords a more direct and accurate
In .the Bakhmeteff me~hod [8] the channel length under consideration computation procedure wherebyresuH.s, can be obtained without recourse.
is divided into short reaches, The change in the critical slope within the
small; l'o.nge of the va.rying depth in each reach is assumed constant,1 and in kinetic energy to
the friction slope, or r in Eq. (9-14), i3 a.ssUI;ned cOMbnt in each
rea.ch. Since an increa.se or decrease in depth will cha.nge both these fa.ctors in the
, I In the Bakhme(eff method, Eq. (9-14.) is used. The coefficient r in this equa.tion sa.me direction, their ratio is relatively stable a.nd can-be IloBsumed constant for prall-
1S a.ssumed cOlUltllnt in the reach. Thus, it ca.n be shown tha.t the ra.tio of the change tical purpose!!.
254 GRADUALLY VARIED FLO"," METHODS OF COMPUTATION 255
to successive st.eps.· In applying this method to practical problems, it fCv,J) ';", . f" 1 dv
where J (10-7)
has been found !.ha,t the first assumption (see Table 10-2) is not very satis- )0 - V
factory in many cases. Another drawback of this method perhaps lies in
This is a varied-flow function like F(u,N), except that the variables u and
the difficulty of using the accompanying. charts, ."hich are not sufficiently \
N are ;'eplaced by v and J, respectively.l
accurate for pl'actical purposes. I.
. Using the notation for va,ried-flow functions, Eq. (10-'1) may be writt.en
Later, Lee Tl4] and Von Seggern [16] suggested new assumptions which
result in more satisfactory solutions. Von Seggern introduced a new
x = t [ 11 - F(u,N) + G:)
, 'M J 1
N Fev,J). + canst (l0-8)
varied-flow hmction in [t,dclition to the fUllction used by Bakhmeteff j
hence, aD additional table for the new functicn is necessary in his method. or x = A[u - F(u,N) + BF(u,J)] + const ( 10-9)
In Lee's method, however, no new. function is required. where
The method [18] described here IS the outcome of a study of many
existing methods.' By this method, the hydraulic exponents arE; expressed A =~:, B - _ (y,)M
- J
-, 1t = 't, J =
N . .-
y"N Yn. N - M+ 1
in terms of the depth of flow. From Eqs. (6-10) and (4-6), /{,,2 = Gly"N,
/(2 = G,yN, Z.2= C2y,M, and Z2 = C2 y M, where G, and C2 are coefficient,s. and where F(u,N) and F(v,J) are varied-flow functions.
If the;3e expressions are substituted in Eq. (9-13), thegradually-v.aried- .' By Eq. (10-9), the length of flow profile between tVTO consecutive sec-
tions 1 and 2 is equai to
. 'j
flow. equation becomes
(10-2) L = x~ - Xl
= A! (u, - u,) - [F(u2,N) - F(1I:"N)] + B[F(U2,J) - FCli"J)] I
-I
\
Let u = yly,,; the above'equation may be expressed fOl' dx as (10-10)
shoul<i Qe....§l!.b,dividlill. foy )ntegrf),ti::m; tl:!.el} .th~ J.IYcir al1lic e~p.o12~!lls Ln_ , .The prep:l.ration of ~uch a table wr,s undertaken !LId performed for the first ;time
dUrIng 1914-1915 by Lhe Hasearch Board of the then Russian Reclamation Service
e~gl:j~e~J~~9_h may be assu~~consta.nt. IntegratingEq. (10-3),
under the direction of Boris A .. Bakhmeteff, then Profes:;;')r of General and Advancc'd .
in the U.S.S.R. iIi 1928, the unavailable table,oopied in hand-written form, had been
which is known as the varied-flow- function. published in a second edition of [71 with values of N equal to 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.25,3.5,3.75, 1
4.0, 4.5, 5.0, and 5.5. Methods of computing the varied-flow-function tahle a.re
The second integl'al in Eq. (10-4) may also be expressed in the form of . explained in pp. 303-305 of Bakhmeteff's book [8J. An error in printillg should be
the varied-flow function. Let v = U N1J and J = N I(N - Ai 1); this + noted in that. book; that is, a nega.tive sign shoulci be placed in front of the ent.ire
integral can be transformed into right-side member of the equation printed neat the bottom of p. 305. Table D-1
given in Ap'pendix D is an extension of Bakhmeteff's table to almost triple its original
fv. U N- M .' J f' dv .J 5iz!). It was prepared by the author in 195~1954 for teaching purposes at the Uni-
)0 1 - UN du = N )0 1 - vJ = N F,v,J) ( 10-6)
versity of Illinois, and was published in 1955 [18].
\
./
.. ''1'.-- I
I
L
METHODS OF COMPUTATiON 257
256 GRADUALLY, VAllIED FLOW , ,
~.,,-..:~ In computing, a flow profile, f,!rst the flow in the channel is analyzed b
Example 10-3. Water flows from under a sluice into a trapezoidal channel having
= 20 ft, z =2, So = 0.0036, '" = 1.10, andn ,= 0.025. The sluice gate is regulated
J (Art. 9-5), and tho channel ,is divided into a numherofreaches. Then,
the length of each reach if! computed, by Eq. (10-10) from knmV'll or TABLE 10-3. COMPU'i·.uroN o~ TliE FI..OW PROFILE FOR EXAMPLE 10-3 BY TIiE
( assumed \lepths 8.tthe ends of the reach. Tile procedure of computation DIRECT-INTEGRATION MET,BOD
I is as follows: Q =,400 cis n = O.O~- 0.0036 '" - 1.1Q y; 2.22 fty. = 2.57 ft
----
, '1. Compute the normal depth y" and critical ,depth Yo from the given 1_
data Q and So (see Arts. 6-6 and 4-4). ' ' y
-'-~!
I 11 F(1_,N) , F(v,J) x L
~--
The above procedure is illustrated by the following examples: to dischllrge 400 cfs with a depth equal to 0.55 It at the vena contr~ta: C~mpute the
flow profile. If a hydraulic i ump occurs at the downstream end, suartmg Wlt~ a depth
Example'1O-2. ,i,rith reference to the chs,1l11EJI described ill Example 10-1, compute of 1.6 ft, determine the di,stancl; 'from the vena contro.cta to the foot, of the Jump,
the length oC the backwater profile extending frorn the dam site to an upstream .'3BC- SQlulion. From the given data, li. = 2.67 ft and y. = 2.22 ft .. Smce y.. > y" the
tion where the depth of flow is 1 % grea.ter than the normal depth. channelsiope is mild. As the depth of flow issUing from the slUIce !!;ate ls.1ess than
Sohaion. The given data are Q = 400 cis, b = 20 ft, Z = 2, So = 0.0016, a = LID, the critical depth, the flow profile is of the M3 type. . T '
and. n = 0.025. , Considering aflilverage depth of 1.61 Ct, the hydrauhc exponents are I\ 0= 3.43 and
1. FOlIo'wing Example 6-2, y,.= 3.36 £to Following Exa.mple 4-2 with a = 1.10, M = 3.17. Thus, J .. 2.72, N IJ = 1.26, lind (Ycly~)MJ IN = 0,442,. ' : .
y, = 2.22 ft. i Table 10-3 'shows t.he computation of the flow profile. For convenUl[lce m mter-
'2. The depth at the downstream end of the backwater profile is Y2 =,5 ft: At the
l
\
upstream end, the depth is Yl = 1.01 X 3.36 = 3.40 ft. The average depth may be
to.ken as 4.20 ft'3.nd ylb = 0.21. From Figs. 6-2 and 4-2, the corresponding hydraulic
exponents are fonnd to be N = 3.65 and 'llf = 3.43,
3. The vnJue of J = 3,65/(3~65 - 3.43' + 1) = 2.90. - -..:..-. - - ---..: ___ !!.D~L.
4. For each section, values of H and v are computed, as given in the second and third
columns of the following table: - ... - .... -
~-
--- --- ---
. I
I
I
'Y 'U I v : }i'(''',N) F(v,J)
5, The .varied-flow funct.ions k(lI,N) und F(v,J) are obtainbd from the table in
Ap~(lndix D ancl given in the fourth and fifth colmnns of the o.~ove table.
6, In Eq. (l0-9), A = y,./So =: 2,100 and B = (voly,,)MJ IN F 0.197. The length
of the backwater profile is" thereCbre,' i .
L = 2,100[0.476 - (-+0.877) + 0.Hl7 X (-LOBO)) ;" 2,395 ft
l
I
1
\
258 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW METHODS OF COMPUTATION 259
polating values af F(u,N) from the varieti-flOlv,function.tablervalues of u are assigned As the depth of flow varies from 5.00 to 3,4,0 ft, an average value of'y = 4.20 ft
at regular inter',:[LI:<. Values of x are thereby computed by Eq • .00-8), in which the may be assumed for the evaluation of Chezy's C. For a wide' rectnngular channel,
const-ant is assun1cd equal to zero. The last column gives the length of the profile Eq. (5-7) gives C = 75.13. Since y. = 3.36 ft a.nd So = 0.00113, A = 2,100 and B =
measured from t.he section untler considera.tion to the downstream enu, where the 0.715, Eq. (10-17) gives .
profile terminates theoreticlLily at the critical ciepth. x == 2,100[u - 0.7151"(n,3)] + const (10-19)
. The computed flow profile is 'plotted as shown in Fig. 10-4. The a~tual profile
betwee.n the bluic(!-gate opening and the computed profile is uncertain and,hence, is Assuming a constant of zero in Eq. (10-19), the computation of x is as follows:
. fitted in by eyc. The distance from the gate opening to thllsection oi the vena con-
tmcta is known as thecontraciion distance. For a sharp-edged sluice gate, this distance
has been assumeu equnl to approximately the hl:igl:t of the gate opening (Art. 15-7).
y I F(t':3~1 X
-------I---~---I .
If a hydraulic jump starts off at It depth of 1.6 ft, the distance from the jump to the
5.00 1.488 ) 0.260 \2,720
vena contracts. would be about 130 ft, as shown.
Example 10-4, Determine the profile of flow in a wide rectangular channel, using 3.40' 1.012 t 1. 360 . 80
---'----
the Chezy formula.
Solution. Fol' a wide rectangular channel, Fig. 4:-2 gives M = 3 and Eq. (6-49) The length of thB backwater curve is, therefore, equal to 2,720 - 80 = 2,640 ft,
gives N = 3. Thus, J = 3, v, = tI, and Eq. (l0-8) becomes about 10 % larger than the values determined by the previoLls methods. .
where q is the dischargl'\ per unit width of the channel. Thus, and F(v,J)_s, =
r a u lf - N
}o 1 + uN du =
J r
v d!,'
N }o 1 -+ vJ (10-23)
3
G'So
u,Y!f and J = N/ (N'- 111 + 1). --For evaluating these func-
Ye
YR3 = -g- (10-15) where v
tions a t.able [18jl has. been prepared which is Table D-2 in Appendix D.
Substituting this·expression for Y;/Yn', Eq. (10"11) may also be written \
Accordingly, the length of flow profile betwe~n two sectiqns 1 and 2 may
'- 1
x =
.
~0 T
L
u - (1 - C'So) 1"(",3) -I +const
g _
(10-16) be·expressed by Eq, (10-10), where A = -'y,,/So, B = -(y,jYn)MJjN,
and the varied-flow functions are replaced by those for' adverseslo pes.
or x = ,.f[u - B1"(tt,3)] + const (1U-17)
Example 1.0-6. Derive an expression for the flo;w pl'ofile ina horizontal channel.
where 11 =y,,/S, and B = 1 - C·So/g. z.... Solution. For horizontal channels, So .= 0, and'the differential equation is
The lengdh of flow profile between twoconsecutivc sections of dcp'ths?l' and y, is
~,.,
..... '1< dy -(Q/K)'
L = A.{(u. - UI) - B[F(u.,3) - 1"(uI,3)J) (10-18) (9-19)
c7t/. d2 = 1 - (Z,/Z)' (
!.,
METHODS OF COMPUTATION
261
260 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
normal
!IS depth equal ' to the critical. depth !I' (Art• 6-7) , the d'ISC1~arge may be
' expressed
, for the range of Yl to Y2; let Me be the M vaille at the critical depth Ye;
and let M be the average M value for tpe range Yl to Y7. Thus, Eq.
Q = K, VB, ' (10-24) (9-13) may be written
1
r
Substituting Eq. (10-24) i(l Eq. (9-19) and letting (K.jK)' = ( /)1'1 (Z,/Z)'
(yJy)Dl, and p = y/y" . " . y, y ,
=
\
~:!! '" S pM-N , (10-25)
dx '1 - pM Let 1t = y/y"Nn/N and, hence, ,dy = y,/J,IN duo Then, Eq. (10-27) may'
Integratinll a.lld solving for z,
_ y, (
X - R N _ M
pN-.lf+1
+1 -
'
N
pH+-\)
+ 1 + ~onst (10-26)
berBduced to
dx
__ y"N"IN
__
So
r1 ___
'
1_,
1 - UN
-;- (y/1'IM)M
--
y"N .. !N
-1t~r-,I!
- - du
1 - 'UN j
l (10-28)
This equation can be llsed for the computation of the length of fJ/)·v fil' h'
zontal cha.nneL ' . ~ , pro e In a Orl-
Following a procedure of integration and transformation simibr to that
, Channels with
• l'a'I'iablc Hydrauli-vETponen'"
. It sh ou~ld, b e llotec1 t h at
". applied to the solution of Eq. (10-3),
, the assumptIOn of COllstnnt hvdraulic exponent<:
... ~ l'n I-he • legomg d'ISCUS-
. J . v £0' •
x = ~
y N"IN [ 1. - F(u,N) + (y,M'IM)H J '] ,
~>.fN N F(v,J) + c.onst
(10-29)
N
'"
o
log K
l N"2tonli
------~:-~
18 ,.,/
where u = Vly"N,,{N, V = u NIJ , J = N /(N - M +
1), and F(u,N) and
F(;),J) are varied-flow functions. If the hydraulic exponents are con-
sbant, or N" = N and Me = 111, Eq. (10-29) obviously becomes Eq.
r I I (10·8).
The length of the flow profile between two consecutive sections of
I I I
I I I depths Yl and Yz can be computed by Eq. (10-10), except where A
log Kn I I I YnN.fN ISo and B = (YeM,IM IYnN.IN)!':J IN.
I I ChanrLeis with Gradually Closing Crown. For channels with gradually
I I
log Ze
! I closing ero\vn, the hydraulic exponents are variable near the crown, and
I the m'ethod proposed r.bove may be used. For more accurat_e results,
,8
el I !I
I however, the integration of the dynamic equation maybe performed by
I I I I
I
I
,.,"
I
I_
I
I
I
I
N
. log Y '-----.l.:-c--J_--LL"'-
>. .>..>.'»
log y
a procedure of numericp.l integration. Such a procedure has been
applied to circular c,onduits hy Keifer and Chu [17].
". "'''''''
0> 0>". 01 CJIo OJ. OJ. Let Qo be the discharge of a circular conduit, flowing full at a depth
2 !2E£ . ..2 2. .2 52
equal to the diameter do of the conduit and having the energy gradient
~~~'r;u~i~'e~;~~::~~~~iC plots of depth against Z and lIf, respectively, for vari[,ble equal to the bottom slope So, and let Ko be the corresponding conveyance.
)
Thus, (10-30)
sion ~s sa~isfactory in most rectangular and trapezoidal channels. -As
~escnbe~ mArts. 4-3. and 5-3, the hydraulic exponents may vary appre-
For a uuiform flow in the circular conduit with a discharge equal to Q
ciably with res~ect to the depth of flow ~vhen the channel section has
abr~pt changes m cross-sectional geometry or is topped with a gradually of the actual flow, Eq.(9-11) gives
closmg crown. In s~ch cases, the channelhmgth should be divided "into Q = Knv'So (10-3'1)
a number of reaches III each of which the hydraulic exponents appenr to
be constant. ' ' From the above two equations the following may be developed:
Referring to Fig. 10-5, it is assu~ed th:;Lt the hydro.ulic exponents in
the range o~ depth from YI to Y2 of a reach ~re practicaJlyconstant. Let
N n be the N value at the normal depth y,,;'let N be the average N value i
1
\
262 GRADUA"LI,Y VARIED FLOW METHODS OF COMPUTATION 263
,
where (ICo/KF is evidently a function of y/d o and, hence, can be repre- applications. The direct step method I is a simple step method applicable
sented by fl(u/do). to prio:matic channels.
Ji'r"omEqs. (\)-4) and (9-7), the following may be written: Figure 1O-6illustrates a short" channel reach of length I1x. Equating
the total heads at the two end sec-
ZC)2 0:(.221' aQ2 T /d o " aQ! (Y) (10-3.'3) tions 1 and 2, the following may be
(Z = 'qA3 =""Ci7 q(A/d o2)l = -([;Sf. C4
written:
where (1'/ d o)/ g(A/d 0 2 ) Sis appa,rently afunction of y/d o and, hence, can be
represented by hey/do).
Substituting Eqs. (10-32) and (10-33) in Eq. (9-13) and simplifying,
(10-40)
(10-34)
(10-41)
x _ do [ (v/do dey/do)
- So}o 1 - (Q/QoFh(y/d o) where E is the specific energy or,
aQ2 (v/e., Ia(y/do) d(u/d o) ] ass1_unillg cr.l = a2 = a,
-~)o 1 - (Q/QoFfl(y/d o) + const (10-35)
or V2
E=y+cr.- (10-42)
x = - do
So
.(x _aQ:~
do'
y.) +"const (10-36)
2q
where
T (y Q) .(Ii/d. -dey/do)
."
. (10-37) " of flow, 'V is the mean velocity, cr. is the energy coefficient, So is the bot-
X FI do' Qo =}o
= 1 - (Q/QoFh(y/d o) tom slope, and S,is the friction slope. The average value ofB! is denoted
and Y = F? (X, R) = o
-f.(u/do) dey/do}
(v/d (10-38)
oy Sr. When the Manning formula is used, the friction slope is
- do Qo )0 1 - (Q/Qo)2!t(y/uo) expressed by
These are the varied-flow functions for circular conduits, depending all (9-8)
y/d o and Q/Qo. They can be evaluated by a procedure of numerical
integration, say Simpson's rule. A table of these functions for positive The direct step method is based on Eq. (10-41), as may be illustrated
slopes, I prepared by Keifer and Chu, is given in Appelldix E. by the IDliowingexo..mple. .
The length of flow profile between two consecutive section3. of depth "Vl Example 10-7. Compute the flow profile required in Example 10-1 by the direct
and Ya, respectively, in a circular conduit may be expressed as step method. .
Solution. With the data given in Example 10-1, the step computations are carried
(10-39) out as shown in Table 10-4. The ,,&lues in each column of the table are expln.ined
as foll<JW5:
where A = -do/So and B = cr.Q2/d o• 5
, Col. 1. Depth of flow in ft, arbitrarily assigned from 5.00 to 3.40 ft
10-3. The Direct Step Method. In general, a step method is chal"ac- Col. 2. Water o.rea in ft' corresponding to the depth 11 in col. 1
terized by dividing the channel into short reaches:and carrying the com- Col. 3. Hydrn.ulic radius in ft corresponding to 11 in col. 1 .
putation step by step from one end of the reach to the other. There is a Col. 4. Four-thirds power of the hydrauli~ rn.dius
Col. 5. Mean Velocity in fps obtained by dividing 400. cis by the water area in
great variety of step methods. Som.e methods o..ppear superior to others col. 2
in certain n~spects, but no one method has been found to be the best in all CoL 6. Velocity head in it
If So = 0, then Q, = 0, Q/Q, = "", and the varied-flow fund-ions hecome mean-
" ,
; Col. 7. Specific energy in ft obt,ained by n.dding the velocity head in col. 6 to the
1
t depth of flow iI) col. 1 ~. : '
ingless. If S, is negative, Eq. (10-30) shows .that Qo> is negat,ive. Since the actual
discharge Q must be positive, (Q/Q.)2 bee"omes" negative. Thus, the integration 1 First suggested by the Polish engineer Charnomskil (22] in 1914 and then by
procedure must be done for negative values of (Q/Qo)l in the two varied-flow functions. i Husted [23J in 1924.
!
£.
,
f", >, \
, ,~- .: -,
.. --/
METHODS OF COMPUTATION 265
Col. 8. Change of sp.ecifi~ energy in ft, equal to the difference between the E value
in col. 7 and that of the previous step
CoL 9. Friction slope computed by Eq. (9-8) with n "" 0.025 and with V as given
in c'o1. 5 and R~i.in col. 4
Cbl. 10. Aver~ge friction slope between the steps, equal to t.he arithmetic mean of
the friction slope just computed ill col. 9 and tha.t of the previous step
Col. 11. Differe,nce between the b0ttom slope 0.0016 and the average friction slope
1 - CoL 12, Length of the reach in ft between the consecutive steps, computed by
(
Eq. (10-41) or by dividing the value of b.E ic col. 8 by the vahle in col. 11 .
f Col. 13. Distance from the section under consideration to the dam site. This is
equal to the cUlmllativ~ sum of th~ values in coL 12 computed for pr\lvious steps.
Th~ fiow profile thus computed is practically identical with that obtained by graph-
i~l integration (Fig. 10-3). .
.,.,... 'Example 10-8. A 72'-in. reinforced-concrete pipe culvert, 250 ft long, is raid. on a
slope of 0.02 with a free outlet. Comput,e the flow profile if. the. culv;;l't dischs.rges
232 ds, n = 0.012, and" = LO.
Sol'utian . . ,Fronl tl:e data, V' = 4.35 it and Yn = 2.60 ft .. Since y, > y", the chr.n-
nel slope i~ steep. As shown in Fig. 10-7, the control section is at the e.ntrance; water
will enter the culvert at the critical depth !lnd .thereafter flow: at a depth less than 'Y,
but grer.ter than y •• . The flow profile is of the 82 type.
Table 10-5 shows the computat,ion of. the fio\v profile, which is self-explanatory.
The computed profile is plotted Il.S shown in Fig. 10-7. Plotted also in the figure is
the energy line indicating the variation of energ:' along the culvert. The comp\,tll.-
tion has be~.n car~ied to exceed the length of the eulvert, so. that the depth of flow at
1 ~ ;g ~ ;g I.(') -..:tt 0 ~ e,p 00· r-... ...-I C"I .D C'l the outlet can be interpolated. This depth is fOHnd to be 2.81 ft, and the correspond-
~ 21 NMl!"Jt-...~;:S~~~~8~g~c::.
~ r--: u:cr: ~ c ~ 00 00 00 J:-..l"-..;! ~
'""""! ing outlet velocity is 19,4 fp3. It should be noted that, if the. pipe were fiowing full
~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J at the outl'et, the outlet veloCity would be only 10 fps.
~
~
<01 !:::;:E~~~~g;$~::g~...-IN(QC'-) t
'~r ~•~• •
~!:::, ~•~
• ~ ~, .
~ ~ MO'~ ~~ ~ I Note that, in either tpe direct step method or thE'l standard step method
which w:ill be described in the next article, the step computation should
! ./1
C'I') M::'t;l ~ ~
_ I 000000000000000 _ be carried upstream if the flow is suhcritical and downstrea.m if the flow is
supercritical. Step computations carried in the .wrong direction 'tend
~ €I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~.~ ~ ~ g;; ~
• • • • • • ".
C'\tNC'lMC"t')C"t')MM~~~''';~j;'';~
• '- ... C"I;I M gj "/
'"
inevitably to make the result diverge from the correct flow profile .
10-4. The Standard S!~Jl_~et~9d. Thill method is applicable also to
nonprismatic channels. In nonpril'lmatic channels, the hydraulic ele-
Jl:'""'i
3/ ments are no longer independent of the distance along the channel. In
natural channels, it is generally necessary to conduet a field survey to
I conect the data required at all sections considered in the computation.
!
rt; ;;01 The computation is carried on by steps from station to station where the
~I
hydraulic charactel'i3t~cs have berm determined.. In such c'ases the dis-
I
tance between stations is given, and the procedure is to determine the
J
'<!
--.1
~'
depth of flow at the stations. Such a procedure is usually carried out by
~I
trifl.l and error.
I In explaining t.his niethod it is convenient to' refer the position of the
J --.1I
) ." .~ water s\:rface to a hQrizontal datum. In Fig. 10-6, the water-surface
~I , elevations above the, datum at the two end sections are
{, I 264
Zl = So t.x + Yl + ~2 (10-4:3)
..
METHODS OF COMPUTATION 267
~I
~ ~
\OMtnHMC'O~t:OO
OlI""""l~t-O':I....-l~Ot-
. . .; ~ r--:
.
~ ~ M~ C-l I
...£l1annels. 4Jl.£is!!latic channel, howevelJ.~ill be used in trw following
'example in order to ~ the iI1ustration and to' aUows_oml?J!.risoll with
reSiiItSobtained by the other methods that have b.een: described. For
jN N 1'""'1 1""""1 ....-l'.I""""1....-l .-t'....-l
~
'1"""0000000<:'1'"'
M cq, en co CI'J 0 00 c.c l'-o
,"'IfI "dt r:v'l cr:, C1:I.~ C\l N C'l
I apphcatiOilto natural channels, .an example will be shown later (Art.
lO-G}.
Example 10-9. Compute the flow profile required in Example 10-1 by the standard
str.p method. As~ume that statiollS along the channel are j1x~d at the distances
I'"
QC'lOmo\l')oaor-<b
"r-r-<1:>,","'\t)~"""<j'
~ ~ ........ . determined in the solution of Example 10-7. The elevation at, the dmnsite is 600
m.B.!.
000000000
Z56
I
I
" ..f
,
268 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
Solution. The step computations are arrauged in tabular form, as shown in Table,
10-6. Values in each column of the table are explained as follows:
CoL 1. Sectionidcnbiiied by stiJ,tion n'lmber such as "station 1 + 55:" The
location of the stations is fixed at the disto:nces det~rmi!led in Exampie 10-7 in order . 0 0 0 09°.0 a 0 0 0 000
to compa.re t.he procedure with that of th~, direct step method.
Col. 2. ,Vfl.ter-surface elevation at the station. A trial value is first entered in
this column; this will be verified or rejected on the basis of the computations made 'in :. f6 ~ '[3;.~'~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ g ~ ~
0 0- 0 N C'l C'1.1""""1 C'1 N N
I""'"'f _ -I 1""""1
the remnining columns of the table. For the first step, this elevation .must be given :00000000000000
'or assunled. Since the elevation of the darn site is 600 m.s.1. nnd the height of the
dam is 5 ft, the first entry is 605.00 m.sJ. When the trial value in the second step 1
has been verified, it becomes the basis for the verifieation of the trial valu~ in the i
1I1lxt step,and so on. i
CoL 3, Depth of flow in ft, conesponding to the water-s'll'fll.ce elevation in col. 2.
+
l
!
For instunce, the depth of flow at station 1 55 is equal to \Vater-surface elevatioh
minus ehvation at the dam site'minus (distance.from the clam site times bed slope),
or 605.048 - GOO.OOO - 155 X 0.0016 = 4.80 ft. '
CoL 4, Water area corresponding to y in coL 3 r
CoL 5. Mean velocity equ!l.l to the given discharge 400 cf" divided by the wa.ttoi'
area'in col. 4
CoL Ii. Velocity head in ft, corresponding to the velocity in col. 5
Cnl. 7, Total head computed by Eq. (10-47), equal to the sum of Z in col. 2 and ~!::;~~~~g~f2~~~~t;::;~
the velocity head in col. 6 . u-; L~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ M M ~ M ~ M M M
Col. 8. Hydraulic mdius in ft, corresponding to 1J in coL 3 C'f':l 1""""1' m co u:; ~ t- ..... IX) Lr.J C'o':: ..... 0
-.::tt 0')
It)~M'''''OOl;:Qt-t-~t.D~tO~U'::I
Col. 9. Four-thirds power of the hydraulic radius
M~MMe..)~~NNC'1~C'i"l~~
Col. 10. FYiction slop~ computed by Eq. (9-8), with n = O.O~5, l' from col. 5,
and R~~ ]rom coL 9 C"l ~ ..... 1- a:: ~ C"l ~ 10 C"t c::: a a
C'l 00 co tn r- ~ co tf) 00 ~ I..Q ~ ",,:1'1 -*. M
a . . ;tt
CoL 11. Average friction slope through the re~.ch between the sections in each' ........ ......-I C-l M ...q-. (!:I co o-C"t ~ to co 0 C'\ lO
step, approximately equal to the arithmetic mean of the fdctloll slope just comp';lted
~ E It:I u-.) lfJ tn L.":J. IQ lfJ <0 c.o to lO lO r- 1- r-
0000000 00 '=100000
(O(()tD~ot.O(QtOtO~tOtOt.D~tO
i.n col. 10 and that of the'previous.step .
Col. 12. Length of the reach between'the sectioll.S, equal to the difference ill sta- ---~-----------------------
t-cot-c.oV":l~O-e::tl~CO[-......-I~~C"'-\
i
."
tion numbers between the st-ations ""
:;;- ~~;;;~~~~~t2~~;3~~~
) CoL 13. Friction loss in the reach, equal to t,he product of the values in cols, ] j i:>- is ......-I -f ......-I ~ .......-4 C~ ~ ~ (.'-1 C'l cr" C"";) M C"";) C"";)
II 000000000000000
and 12, ----
C") a.: ~ ....,.. C"t ~ co Lt':l O"J M 00 ~ r- co
Col. l~. Eddy loss in the reach, equal to zero l-
~ ~ t- U') L"':) t- !"""'4 ~ co lfJ M t- C"l U") co
~ co O"l ....... , eo"J: lfJ co OJ a ......-I ,,1 ~ ~ CC (r"
Col. 15. Ele\·ation of the total head in ft, This is computed by Eq. (10-49), that
~C'1NM~e...JMer)~~~.qt....;tt~~
is, by adding the values of hI and h, in cols. 13 and 14 to the eleva~ion at the lower end
of the reach, which is found in col, 15 of tli __ previous reach. If the vallie so ohtained -0 co C'l N ctJ 0 00 00 C'-1 .....-I 0 00 11";1·0 C'l
o 0 C'f':l t- C"l 0
00 M C1 ~ H;l ~ ~ co ~
does not ng'ree closely with that entered in col. 7, Il. new trial value of the water-surbee oc-i...;~~~~.....;r...:cr;~MN~"";
I elevation is assumed, Ilnd so on, until agreement is obtained. The value that le.1ds ' t....,~.;1JC'I.....-I....,oIoocn~O":IC":IO":ImCJ)
~......-I......-I_"""-f~......-I
I
270 . GRADUALLY VARiED FLOW METHODS OF COMPUTATION 271
initial elevations. AnothEll' example is the tracing of flow profiJes in a and the friction slope vary with the square of the discharge. Therefore,
tributary :;;trm1m for different stagp-s and discharges in the main river, or after the curves for one value of Q, say 400 cIs, in Figs. 10-8 and 10-9 have
in a river with a tidal estuary for different tidal elevations, or in ll, cana'! been computed, CUI'ves for othol' discharges, say 200 and 800 cfs, may be
t,wo reservoirs for changing reservoir elevations and 1lariable obtained t'ithel' by shifti!lg the curves horizontally (Fig. 10-8) or by shift-
The following are some time-saving methods which may the abscissas (Fig. 10-g). The distance by which either the curve or
help in the computation of a family of flow profiles. the abscissa should be shifted is determined by the square of the ratio of
A. C'um'Js of Geo'l11£tric Elements. When 11 number of flow profiles are the !lew to the original discharge: .
desired fOI' different stage and discharge conditions, it is best to construct
curves showing the geometric and hydraulic elements (Figs. 10-8. and
-l
-j
l
the cur~e fOl'. renc? 1...2 as shown in the figure is obtained. For simplify- !r n V1
2 2
the IdentdieatlOu of the curves, elevations at sections of oddnurnber '8 1 = 2.22Rl~~ (10-53)
are . represente~ ,by abs~i8sas and those at sections of even number by ! and
~ n2 V 22
~2 = 2.22R2~i (10-54)
ordinates: . ':Vltn the ,dlagram thus prepo.red, the flow profile for any
a,ssumed 1mbal elevatlOll can be determined, Taking the initial eleva-
tion as 605.00 and fonowing the dotted line in the direction of the 'arrows I
I
81 ( Q)2
1(1
(1O~55)
~ J
muit.iplying the functions by a factor (Q./ QF.
The Ezra method gives a graphical solution of Eq. (10-50). There are
.i 607~
u
,
two major parts of this solution:
L COMPUTATION ,o!..ND CONST1H)'C'l'ION OF Z + F(Z) CURVES. For each
:; chosen section in a charulel under consideration, several values of \Vi:J.ter-
C surface elevation are selected, and necessary geometric elements A and R
,2 606 ,- for each of these water-surface elevatiofL'> are determined ,and tabula~ed,
'This procedure is the same as in the standard step method.
.'"
Q
:;;tream sectioll, the value of Zz + F(Z2) ClLn be obtained from the appro- should start, may not be knovm ina natural stream; use of the step
priate Z2 + F(Z3) curve. Entering the curve of ZI F(Zl) for the next computation in this connection offers a special advant:1ge. If the step
upstream section with this value, the corresponding, water-surface eleva- computation is started at an assumed elevation that is incorrect for the --·1
l
tion is determined directly, This procedure is J'Elpeated from section to given discharge, the resulting flow profile will become mOl'e nearly correct
section, tracing the desired flow profile. after every step, provided the computation is carried in the right direct,ion,
For supercritical flow, the flow profile is traced in a downstream direc- Thel'efore, if no elevatiol1 is known within or near the reach under con-
tion. Starting with the value of .?I + Ji'(Zl) at the initial section and sider~tion, an arbitrary eleyation may be assumed at a distant section far
taking this value to the Zz + F:(Zlz) cw've for the next downstream sec- enNlgh away, above or below as the ca'se may be, from the initial sect.ion.
tion, the corresponding water-surface elevation is determined. By t,he time the step computation has been carded to the inith,lsection,
If eddy losses are not included in the roughhess, the term h. may be the elevations will be correct. A check may be made by performing the
expressed as k{O'V2/2g), where k is a coe.fficient described in Art. 10-4. same computation with another as,'lumed elevation at the dista,ntsection.
Accordingly, the procedure of computation should be modified. The comput.ed elevation at elle initial section is the correct elevation if
is
First of all, it necessary to plot curves of k(a V1j2g) the eleva- the second computed value agrees with the first value. The two values
.. ~
'o"
:> ">
0 E-
.0 -" 0
0
'"
~
\:.)
Channel
"
.!!~
"E~
~
e ... .. ...'""" 2
1,060
.". 1 745 . 3 Left ovor· 178
"<l
~c: ~,~ b~nk
cor r:Q
",,,
o·~
b
Chfll\nel 1.200
,,0 '""'~~ '-'
84.5
:0; ::: ~ c: 745.5 Left 0+·61 1 +W B9 92
:3 DVc.r ..
]~ .E:>:- " bnr.. k
l- I- <5
~ Ch.a.nnel 1 + SO Hi t ' 2 1,520 1.550 38,aOO DaL<k 1 Oil "'
I I
I .I t: 4 H:'L9 Channel 2 +IH 23 + 72 2.0S0 ~'. ltO 48,50(;: Lev •• 1 on;l
I J
a i BUllk 1 on
~t o~
I ~
<Il l,il00
"~f
I I >::
f I q il 37S.U5" 7.16.2 Lef~ over- 720 7l!.D 3,020 Levee 1 on 4
:<
..., bank
Cl Channel 2,040 2.080 47,SOO Bank 1 on 1
.:I
Z I, S8il
w
<:> ..,
f;
6 378,95 746.2 Loft. eyer·
I
720 720 3,020 Le"'eg-l on <1;
W >- br.nk
..J
~ Ch3une~ 2,080' 47,300 Bauk 1 on 1
~
~ 880 8.27G Levee 1 .00·4
01. 1.320 3~.700 Levee 1 on 3
~
.
'-
"0
>::
I{ansfls Riv~r
u 0
... It,·!iS50utL RivQr
:;: '-
i., 0- lD ovet- :12 + 80 4,4 + 10n3
"
OJ
;. '"
0
ol
E b.nk
Channel 44 + 50 5.7'+40 1.29()f 1,310 34,600
'"
...J U X
OJ Dike 57 + 40 62 -I- 29 460, 490 5,700 Levce 1 on-4
"t:l
1 <=: 2,430
t
>-< ·Fllirfax 384.00 '750.3 Left over- 5GO 640 5,010 1 levee ,ur·
,...;
,.... Bridge b~nk' {iLea. 3 pier
t
slIrtt\eas
0
,.... Chllnn~1 1,400
"
r£; RigMover- · ...... 1 125
bank
11 3SS.57
i
.. U.S. Army Corps of Engin.er~ (291.
t See Fig. 10.. 11 for location or iltu~1':l. seot.ions.
216 .1 1: Distance tlP,ttcam from l1i!etion O.
1
• I
j
278 GRADUALLY VARIED. FLOW
Example 10-10. Compute the flow profil;; in the Missouri River near Kansas City,
0
,,; '"
0
--0-
Mo., for a. design discharge of 431,000 ds. The plan indicating the locations of the ~
cross sections is shown in Fig. 10-11. The geometric elements of these cross sections '"
a.re shown in Table 10-7 for given water-surf!t.Ce elevations .. For other elevaLions, the -_....'"'"- -'
geometric elements are to be estimated from such data. l .
...
0
j
0
Solution. The computat.ions are tabulated as sho',vn in Table lO~p. The column ~
headings in the table are explained below: '"o.
0 .!! '"t";... ..'"
~
Col. 1. . Section number in conformity with the plan of Fig. 1O~1l "
0 --",- iii '"
00 8 .;::
Col. 2. Subsections, for which M.C. designates the main channel section and L.O. II 0 '"
~
§§§ .~
Col. 3. River mileage above the mouth of Missoud River Ii
~
0>
Col. 4. Water-surface elevation. The initial elevatiol1.of 752.25 at. seotion 1 was X xx X :;;"
...'"
h'
estimated from the rating curve of the Kansas City gaging station on the Hannibal
Bridge at Missouri River mile 3.77.58.
~ ">
p;j
<OM '"
<1l0"O:;
~ ;:!
:6
.."'""
. Col. 5. Water area. For instance, section 1 is subdivide'd into le;:t-overbank and :l
main-channel areas. At elevation 752.25, the area is determined for each subdivided "
.£
p..
area from Table 10-7 or from a curve prepared as shown in Fig. 10-12.
-0-
'"
'":
""'"
~"'I~
000
::::
<0 "" I
I
......
--;0-
",
(
'"
.,;
'"
",.
J
~I
...!::-
",.
A in 1,000 fi2 ",.
FIG. 10-12. A and R vs. \'liater-surface elevation for channel section No.1 of Missouri
Riyel" at Kansas Cit:!;, ¥o. (U.S. Army Corps oj Engineer•. )
d
~
~l
o· .0
~..:l
1.5.
·0
~,j
1 The plan and data used in this example were obtaine.d from [291. Some numerical·
;:
values, however, have been modified to suit the present purpose.
I'" I"" t
-I
METHODS OF COMPUTATION 281
280 GRADUALLY VAlli,ED FLOW
Col. '6. Wetted pcdmeter. :For elevation 752~2p a.t section 1, the wetted perimeter , The friction slope Sf in a short reach of length Linay be expressed as
is determined from' Table 10-7 or from Fig. 10-12.
Col. 7,' Hydmulic radius, obtained by dividing the area in col. 5 by the wetted - F
S, - ,
+ h~2L - hvI (10-57)
perimeter in col. 6. , '
Col. 8. Two-thirds power. of the hydraulic radius in col. 7.
'where F is the fall in water surface and h'J2 -' h~1 is the change in velocity.
Col. 9. The value of Manning's n. It is assumed ~hat the general rosses due to
contraction, expansion, find bend are included in the friction losses coniputed from head. If hvi - hVI is zero~r negligible" then S, = F /L, and the normal
the selected n values. ' disch[J,rge of a uniform flow by the Manning formi.tla is
Col. 10. The conveynnce K = 1.49 A R* /n
Col. lL The value of I(} / A'
Col. 12. Energy coefficient for nonuniform velo~ity distribution. From col. 5 to
Q = l.~~ _4RH (J)'Il (10-58)
col. 12, the procedure of computation is the same as that described in Art. 6-5. Tne
coefficients for the .subdiviLh,d channel sections are assumed equal to unity. For a gradually vlLl:ied :flow with backwater effect having a' discharge Qz
CoL 13. Mean velocity, which is e~luar to the section discharge of 431,000 ds and a corresponding F r in the same re!wh, it may be assumed ,that ft. form
divided by the water area in col. 5. Above section 5, the dischaJ;'ge is divided between'
the Missouri River (350,000 cfs) and the 1{ansas River (81,000 ds). The velocities
similar to Bq. (10-58) may be written, i.e., that
shoold be computed for the divided discharge.s accordingly. The division of discharg;e
is balled on a hydl'ologic study of the drainage basins of the two rivers.
Col. 14. Velocity head '
.Q~ = 1;9 AR>1 (~ys (10-59)
Col. 15. Total head, whi~h is equal t.o the sum of thc elevation in col. 4 and the
velocity head in col. 14 where the velocity- h ea d ch n.nges' d ue t 0 back"'ater
n
effect are also
Col. lB. Friction slope, which is equal to (Q/ K)'. The 1C v!Llue is the total neglected. From Eqs. (10-58) u.nd (10-59) I
value for the section under consideration. Thus, for section 1, S, = [431,000/
(290.1 X 100)]' = 0.000220. '1." (~)Z (10-60)
Col. i7. Average friction slope through the reach between the two sections, that' L'r = Q/v'F
is, the arithmetic mf!fLn of the friction slope just computed in coL to and that for the
previous step , ~vhere Q/ y'F is called the discharge for 1-ft fal!.1 !his equationC8,l: be
Col. IS. Length of the reach between the sections, that is, the difference in river used ill the flow-profile eomputntion if the stage-fall-discharge relatlOn-
miles between the sections as converted into ft
Col. 19. Friction loss in the reach, th!lt is, the product of the slope in col. 17 and shtp for uniform flow in the reach is known.
the reach !ength in col. 18 ' The stLlge-fall-discharge relationship f.or 11 selected reach may be deter-
Col. 20. Eddy. loss in the reach. The general losses are included in the friction mined froni. records of observed stages and discharges Cfable 10-9). The
loss cOlIlputed in ,col. 19. However, at the entrance of the KansaB River to the Mi,~. stages or water-surface elevations at the beginning section _of the reach
souri River, an additional eddy loss at the C1mfillence is expected. This is estimated
are plotted as ol'dinates, and corresponding values of Q/y'F are plotted
at, 10% of the increase in velocity head,or 0.10 X (1).63 - 0.13) = 0.05 ft.
CoL 21. Total head, which is obtained by t1.dding the SUIll of the losses hl in col. as ~bscissas, resulting in a sta.(je-ve1"!:;us~Q/....IF C'urve (Fig. 10-13). When
19 e.nd h, in col. 20 to the total head in the same column for the previous section. If any water-surface elevation ~\t the_beginning section of the reach fS given,
the value so obtained does not agree closely with that entered in col. 15, the water- the corresPQnding value of Q/ v'F can be read from the curve, and the
surf!lce elevation in col. 4 should be assumed again until a fair agreement is reached. fall for a dischrLrge Q. be computed by Eq. (10-60). The computed fall,
For the computation ot' water-surface elevations at sccHons1K, 21(, 6, and 7, see
when added to the water-surface elevation at the beginning section of the
Art. 11-10.
-reach gives the water-surface elevation at the end section of the reac.h,
10-7. The Stage-fall-discharge Method for Natural Channels. When whicl~ is also the water-surfaee elevation at the beginning section of the
flow profiles of a stream in its natural state, without backwater effect, are next reach. The procedure is repeated for each reach until the complete
available for a number of discharges, thestage-fall-discharge method ~ay ,required flow profile is ob,tained.
be used; this method has the advantages of simplicity and economy [29.]. : The stage-versus-Q/v'F curve is generally cOl~structed as an average
Similar rnethods'have been 'n.lso developed' by others [30-34].1 'curve for varying river conditions; such as rising and falling of stage,
1 Reference (30) describes the so-called Grimm Tllethod. It requires a trial computa- ,lIn a similar method devel~ped by Rakhmanoff [341 a term F /Q' is. us 7d in lieu of
tion which, however, can be avoided by using nomQgraphs, !lIl suggested by Stron. Q/ ~F. This term has the nature of /J. resistance factor and therdore IS given !I IIame
be.rg [311. ' of resistance'modulus by PavlovskiI [21, p. 1151.
282 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW METHODS OF COMPUTATION 283
fluctuating stream bed, and effects of wind, aquatic growth, ice, .and over- ·Col. 4.0bserveddischarges,at.the, A ..8J3. Btidgej i!lds
Col. 5. Discharge per I-ft faIl, or Q/ y'F, where Q:is,th'e discha.rge in col. 4 and F
bank flow .. Owing to these varying conditions, the plotted points 20re
is tilE; fa.ll in col. 3 .
often scattered; and a smooth line, giving consideration to the varying Using water-surfa.ce cle\'ations at section 1 as listed in col. 1 of the ta.ble and the
conditions, should be drawn through the points, representing the average CQl:responding values of Q/ ..\/ifi in
col. 5, construct 0. sta.ge-versus-Q; vF curve
condition of the-channel. Where sufficient measurements are available, (~'ig. 10-13).
data of doubtful accuracy should be rejected. In general, the more
recent meaSurements should be given greate: weight, as reflecting recent
channel changes. Other factors that should be considered in construct- 755 752,25 \ ··1- '
ing the curve are the relative accuracy of individual discharge measure-
ments; the ,flow condition during the measurements, whether rising, ~ 750 ---I-~-lf--,-~-
falling, or stationary; conditions affecting the stage-fall-discharge relation-
ship, such as the changes in channel roughness, levee bteaks, and shifts of
cha,nnel controls; and the existence of substantial local inflow between the crt
: 745 ,
I~ i
~i----~
stations.
The stage-yersus-Q/VF curve may qe extrapolated !].bove or below t.he
range of the observed data by extending the curve at its ends in accord-
!
~; 740r--r-
I II I
ance with the general trend of the curvature. Howe-.:er, any abrupt
change in hydraulic elements of the channel section will produce a, eor-
responding change in the curvature of the curve. In this case, a correc.-
'0 ..,
'0 735
L~
tion for the change, if known, should be made in extrapolating the curve. .12
c
-[- w-
~
corresponding to known stages, or vice versa, a.re desired in a stream. '" 730
By making proper allowance for variable conditions, satisfactory results
ca.n be obtained for reaches of large rivers 50 to 100 miles from the measur- "":."'g"
ing station. The data required by the methOd are often .les;:! expensive ~
. 725 I
the,n those required by the standard step method. However, this advan- 0
3; o I I I 1
,I
-r~! h
tage.is usually.offset by the inaccuracy of the-results, because the effecl of I I I
the change in velocity head 1s ignored in the present method. For this' 720
reason, the stage-fall discharge method is more· satisfactory for problems
. iriwhich the velocity is well below critical end decreases in the down-
stream direction. 715
0
1 50 100
I
ISO
I
200 250
I _ _I
300 .,,350
".,
".,
I 1
E:x:amplelO-ll. Compute the water-sudace elevation at section 1 of the Missouri Values OfQ/IFinl.o00 lJ~its
River problem in Example 10-10 by the sto.ge-fall-discharga method. The reach from
section 1 to section 5 istakea as the first reach. The water-surface elevations are FIG. 10-13. The stage-vs.-Q(V'F curve for Example 10-11.
available from stage records for gages located at sections 1 and 5. The discharges
have been observed at the A.S.B. Bridge located about 3,000 ft downstream from sec-
For a we.ter-surfaceelevation of 752.25, a value of Q/ -../F =33~,OOO i5 obtained by
tion 1. These data are tabulated in Table 10-9.' .
Solution. The data arid cornputa tions for the sta.ge versus discharge for a I-it-fall!
extrapolation. By Eq.
(10-60), the fall between sections 1 ancH is equal to (431,000/
355,000)' = 1.65 ft. Ad'ding- this va.lue. to the elevation at section 1, th~ required
curve are given in Table 10-9, which contains the following headings:
water-sufface elevation at section 5 is 753.90. This is about half a foot lower than
Col. 1. Recorded water-surface elevations at section 1
the elevation. compu~ed by the standa.rd step method; the difference results primarily
Col. 2. Recorded wo.ter-surface elevations at section 5
Col. 3-. Fa.ll in ft, which is equal to the differ~nce between elevations entered in
from the neglect of velocity-head changes in the present-method. " \
The computation may be continued for subsequent· reaches. A tabulation,. as
cols. 2 and 1
5hown in Table 10-10, is suggested for the computation if a. complete flow profile is
1 This example is taken from [291 with modifications. requil·ed. .
e.;.-,···
284 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW METHODS OF COMPUTATION 285
If .d~ired, the ,,:,ater-surface elevati~m; at the intermediate sections 2 to 4 rna be
obtaln~d by breakmg up the reach 1-5 Into four short reaches The profile 1 .~ effects of velocity-head changes and eddy losses, is required, the Ezra
at th . t d' . • e eva,.lons method described in Art. 10-5 should provide more satisfactory results.
e III, erme la/,,", sectlOns may be obtained by in'erpel-t'
, 1- , }
" Th.e stage-versus-
Ion.
Q/
. v F curves can be drawn for each section and the cbmputat'o b . d
B
I
727.4 728.3 0.9 69,500 7'6,200 Cols.5 to 14. These columns correspond exactly to those in Table 10-8 for the
727.8 728.8 1.0 76,000 76,UOO standard step method. The values in the top row for each elevlltion al'e for the mllio
730.2 731.2 1.0 97,200 97,200 cha!lnel, and those in the bottom row arc for the left-overbank section.
730.8 731.7 0.9 105,000 111,000 CoL,15. }'rictioii slope, which is equal to (Q/[()~, where Q = 431,000 cis and lC is
731.3 732.3 1.0 113,000 113,000 from col. 10
734.6 735.6 1 0 141,000 141,000 Col. 16. Value of .-8 , ClXd/2, where S. is the 'value from col. 15 and ClXd is the
735.8 736.7 0,9 157,000 165,000 upper value in col. 3
736,6 737.7 1.1 104,000 156,000 Col. 17. Value of S, t..x./2, where S. is the value from col. 15 and C.x" is the, lower
745,0 746.6 1.6 326,000 ' 258,000 value in col. 3 '
722.2 723.1 0.8 22,900 25,600 Col. 18. Value of F(Z,), which is equal to the sum of the value in coL 14. and the
724.6 725 6 1.0 45,400 45,·100 value in col. 16 _
725.0 726.0 1.0 49,900 49,9UO ('..01. 19. Valu~ of F(Z2), which is equal to the sum of the va.hl"- in col. 14 and the
725.3 726.4 1.1 52,300
I '19,800 value in col. 17
Col. 20. Sum of the values of Z in col. ·1 and F(Z,) in coL 18
Col. 21. Sum of t.he values of Z in col. 4 and F(Z,) in col. Ii)
10-10. ConiPUTA'I'I~N THE 10_11 BY
TA.BLE OF FLOW P'ROFILE FOil. EXAMPLE
THE ST,lGE-FA.LL-nrSCHARGE II-fETHOD
The second stP.p is to plot curves of Z + F (Z) against Z for each oross section, using ,
(Missouri River at Kansas City Mo' ~ections 1 to 5 f) values from cols. 4, 20, and 21 of Tl1ble lCl-11. The resultiug curves are shown in
.' ".' , '., = 431,000 ds) Fig. 10-14. .
Sea.
no.
River
mile
I
Length of
reach
~rater-silrface
elevation
I Q/-./F F. =~-2
The third step is to determine the water-surface elevations from the Z +
curves. At section I, for a.n initial water-surfaae elevation of 752:25, the value of
~. + F(Z~) is found from t.he appropriate curve· (Fig. 10-14) to be 754.14. Taking
F(Z)
(Q/ -./F)
i this value to the Z, + F(Z ,) curve for the next upstream section 2, the corresponding
1 377.58 ..... 752.25
r 335,000 1.65 water-slUiace elevation is found to be 752.72. Contiuuing the procedure for other
1.65 sections, the values are trD.Ced in the direction shown by thc dashed line in Fig, 10·14.
. "
5 378.65
......
5,655
. ....
753,90 I
.... ' ..
To be continued if desired' ...
The rcsults of the IV ater-surfac,e-elevation determinat.ion are tabulated in Table 10-12.
They are in very close agreement with those obtained by the standard step method,
Example 10-13.. Solve the problent in Example 10-12 for a discharge of 500,000 ds,
The corresponding initial wuter-surface elevatior. &t section 1 was estimated from the
10.,8. The ~zra Method for Natural Channels.' If flow profiles for a rating CUrve to be 752.30,
numbel' of discharges or stages are desired, the stage-fall.discharge Solution. The values of F(Z ,) and F(Z2) for Q = 500,000 cfs may be obtailled by
metho~ can be use.d most advantageously for a simple and economical but mUltip1ying the corresponding values in Table 10-11 by (500,000/431,000)' = 1.34.'
T~,1e values thus obt~jned are tabulated in.cols. 3 and 4 of Table 10-13, respectivel}',
approXlrnate solutlOn. However) if a precise computation, including the
and the values of ZI + F(Z.) and Z, + F(Z.) in cols. 5 and 6, t:,espectively.
TA.BLE 10-11. COMPllT.AT10N OF Zl + F(Z!) ANn Z2 +F(Z,) FOR E:u.MPLE 10-12
(Missouri River at Kl\llsas City. Mo.; Q - 431,000 cfs)
A p R I R% ". K Ie'
A' +F(Z.)
-~'.~,--
;;<
TAllLE 10-11. COMPUTATION OF Zl + F(Z,) AND z. + jt'(Z.) FOR l:i:::CHtI'LR 10-12 (conli'n"lJ.ed)
8ee.
no, + F(Z.l
0.24
1.111 1,45\ 753.11 753."'5
0.62 752,62
In~.LJII)<.orovl:t'U!;~I""·.1 H'OUI,,·u;onr'" x
7,900 7411,10.6 4.B3,O.Q50 11
I
0.58 ... 1 753.58
0.54
,.....---.
288 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
METHODS OF COMPUTATION 289
10-12. FO~ 10-12
TABLE 10-13. COMPUTATION OF Z + F(Z) ~'OR EXAMli'LE 10-13
TABLE COMPUTATIOl\ OF THE FLOW PROFILE EXAMPLE DY
THE EZRA METHOD
. (Missouri River at.Kansas City, Mo., Q = 500,000 cfs)
(Missouri River at ICan~as City, Mo., Q = 431,000 cfs)
-~
I
I
Sec. River 'ffater-surface Z F(Z,) F(Z.) z. + F(Z,) z. + F(Z.)
no. mile Z, + f(Z.) z, + F(Z,) elevation Z, It
no.
(2) (3) . (4) (5) (6)
• 377 58 . . . .. . 754.. [4 752.25 752 2.59 754.59
2 377.78 754.14 754.41 . 752 72
3 377.9,1 753 2.41 755.41
754.41 754.68 753.38
4 378.33 754 2.29 75G.20
754.G8 754.93 . 7154.15
5 378.65 754.93 764.43 2 752 1. 96 2.36 753.{16 75 1L36
75:1 1. 86 2.22 754.8G 755.22
754 1. 78 2.08 755.78 756.08
75ZL-____~_____L_ _~~L-~
756 The Z + F(Z) curves a.re then plotted (Fig. 10-15). These can o,lso be'obto.ined by
755 754 753 .754 755 756 a simple graphical metbod. In Fig. 10-14, straight lines Z = Z may be drawn along
Zl+F(Zll,ft Z2+F{Z21.ft
with the Z + b'(Z) c;urves. For example, referring to the curve for section 2, the
FIG. 10-14. 'Curves of Z + F(Z) for Example 10-12. intercept AB between the line Z "" Z and the curve for Z+ F(Z) is "qual t{) F[Z) for
Q = 431,000 cfs at the water-surface elevation of 754.00. This intercept A. B multi-
--,-----~----~--756,,----_.----_..------._--~ plied by 1.34 gives the wrresponding intercept A'B' in Fig. 10-15 for the same eleva-
tion but different discharge. In this manner, the point Bf Bud, hence, the Z F(Z) +
curves for Q = 560,000 cfs can be plotted. From these curves, the required water-
surface' elevations are determined, as shown in Table 10-11.
Sec. River
Z. + F(Zd z. + F(Z,) I Water-surface
no. mileage elevation Z; ft
.1 li77 .58. I 754.83 752.30
~
separately. It is assumed that the values of the roughness coeffident n do not ~ C"l Cr') -.;fI ...q.I
llJU")I.{)UJtI"J
t-t---t.... t-t-
include the effect of eddy losses and that the latter is to be computed ILS 50 % of the
change in velocity head when the velocity head is decreasing downstream or as 10 %
of the increase in velocity head when it is increlLsing downstream.
Solution.. Curves of Z + F(Z) constructed for Example 10-12 (Fig. 10-H) are \fJ~OOOM
C"Ir-~..-I-::t'
also applicable to this solution. The computation for the determination of t.he wD,ter-
NNM-,jI ....
surface elevation is tabulated in Table 10-15, in which the numbers in parentheses 4"Jto l..() L.r:! lO
l- t- t- t- t-
*;::;r::-~G~
755 -.- ........ -C'lM
I '-""-"~
__
+ ..-I'd'tt-G
-,j<",-,j<-,jI
r~
~
l-
I +
N'
,,< .;; - - ; - - .-;:N~.n.--::-,;<..--:......
::;-I
754 I
.8
c
a.,,.
·11"
c
~ ;8
u
(/)
c
u
'"
(/)
t
c
0
"
VJ
c
.9-
u.,
rJl ~\,I
-00'00
· 0000
0;
:g'"
~
.'.,
Il'l
'0
C
C1
'0
vl~ NI~
'" 753 ~ c 5 c0
:fi~~ :r;
'" ",,,
(J)(/)Ul U) "
-
I-
752
o "
"
~ \
]~
• <,0"
......
t'- LC
~t-O>
~
:8~£3~
OJ......-t
.. ..
-- <QoI C'-l -' C',?
..-I~t-C'J
indicate the order of the computation steps. The curves ~f 0.5,. V'/2g and 0.1,. Y'/2g ~ -.!'..,;t-,jl-,jl
~:I,CJlQtClJ)
are then plotted (Fig. 10-16). The:;e 'curves are used to correct for eddy losses, as .,.; r.. t- t-.. t- t-
explained previously (Art. 10-5). ' , ......,
+ ..-~ ~~
Starting at section 1 with a water-surface elevation of 752.25 (see step "1 in Table
10-15), the ,value of Z. + F(Z,) is found from the Z, + F(Z,) curve for section 1 as
S ": ~;;a ~
~
I----~~--=-=-=--I ~
754.14 (see step'2). The corresponding values of 0.5,. Y'/2g and 0.10: Y'/2g are found e:5~~~:g ~
from Fig. 10-18 to be 0.89 (see step 3) and 0.18 (see step 4), respectively. Taking the t-~l-or-cooo a
value of 754.14 to the Z, + F(ZI) curVEl for the next upstream section 2 (see step 6), ~~~~f.; JS
I----~-----------l~
the corresp6nding water-surface elevation is 752.72 (sEle' step 7), and: the value of " .,,; 0
0.5",Y'/217 is 0.78 (see step 9) and that of 0.laY2/217 is 0.16 (see step 10). Since the lJ.la
291
~.
293
METHODS OF COMPUTATION
292 GR.4.DUALLY VARIED FLOW
c. The dire~t step method .
) velocity is in~ren.sing downstream (or decreasing upstrenm), the eddy- los8 is 0.18 - d. The standard step method
\ 0.16 = 0.02 (see sLep 11). In order to include the effect of this eddy los5, add 0.02 to " . he section properties described in Example
754.14 (see step 2) which was previously found to be the value of .2. + F(Z.) a.t sec- 10-9. If the sl~pe of a challn~l ha~I~~; 001G on the upstrean1 sidl', to 0.01G9 011 the
tion 1. The resultIng v!l.lue is 754.16 (see step 13). Referring to the Z, + F(Z,) 10-1 has a break 10 grade changlllg hOI • th downstream side from the l;rcak to tt
BI
Curve for section 2 with this value, the "'ater-surface elevation is found to be 752.74 downstrenmside, compll:e the. flo~ ~ro ~he ontheenorInal depth. Use:
(see step 14). . section where the depth IS 1 % glea er an .
Repeating thll !l.bove procedure a.nd correcting for the eddy losses accordingly, the
,vater-surfllce elevations at all sections over the reach nre obtained. The gr[1.phical-integra t iol1 Ineti10d
a. . d
b. The direct-integr!l.tion metno.
c. The direct step Inethod
PROBLEMS d. The standard step method
. . h' ectioiJ roperties described in Exa.mple·
10-1. Show that the flow 'pro file in a wide horizon tal channel. may be axpressed ns 10-tO. If the slope of p- ch~nnel..h~vm~ to;6~ on th~ upstream side, to 0.00 tG on t,\le
10-l hll.S " bre~.k ln grade c!U\,lglll., hOffi · the downstream side frOIll the b:'eak to"
\. :c = "'uC' (v - '!y"
~) + const (10-61)
fii
downstream Sl. d e, com pute the flow pro f; on h el is !UlSLlllled uniform. U ~<l;
I criticnl section. The flow in the upstreo.m c ann .,.. . .
\
"there C is Chezy's resistance fa'ctor.
I
a. The,graphical-integration method
10-2. Show that the condition for the existence of a point of inflllction on the flow b. The direct-integration method
profile may be expressed as c. The direct step method.
d. The standard step method
(l0-G2)
10-11. Solve Example 10-3 if S, = O.OOlo,using:
1
294 GRl..DUALLY VARIED FLOW METHODS OF COMPUTATION 295
10-18. A prisma.tic trapezc;ida.1 earth spillway with 3: 1 side discharging. ll. Josef Kazeny: Berechnung der Senkungskurve in regclmassigen braiten Gerinnen
1,500 cfs. The bottom of tlie spillway is horizontal and is 200 ft long a.nd 75 it \i'ide (Computation of surface curve in uniform broad channels), Wasserkrafltmd
in the reach between a downstrea.m critical control section and the upstream reser. IVasseT'lUirtschafl, Munich, vol. 23, no. 16, pp. 232-234, Aug. 15, 1928.
voir. Manning's n is estimated to be 0.035. Using any method given in this chapter, 12. Armin Schoklits!:h: "Wasserbau" ("Hydra.ulic Structures"l, tmnslated from the
determine: Germ2.n by Samuel Shulits, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, 1.934, vol. 1, p. 105.
a. The flow profile between the reservoir a.nd the control section 13. NagahQ MonoDobe: Baclt-water and dnJp-doWD curves for uniform channels,
b. The friction loss through this spillway measured in it Tra11.s(!clioM, American Society of Cilri! E71gineer., vol. 103, pp. 950-989, 1938.
c. The elevatio11 of the pool level in the reservoir 14. Ming Lee: Steady gradually va.ried flow in. uniform channels on mild stopes, Ph.D.
10-19. A prismatic tntpe20idal earth spillway with '3: 1 side slopes and a bottom thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1947.
width of 75 Jt is discharging 1,500 cfs. The spillway h!ls Il horizontal bottom upstream 15. Ming Lee, Harold E. Babbitt, and E. Robert Baumann: Gradually varied flow ill
from a. critical control section for a distance of 90 ft Itnd an advene slope of 10: 1 foro.n uniform channels on mild slopes, University of IUinoUl, Engineering Ex-peri'lnenl
upstream distance of 100 n. from the reservoir. Manning's 'II. is ,0.035. Using any Statio'!), Bulletin Se7ifUl No. 404, vol. 50, no. 28, November, 1952.
. method given in this chapter, determine: 16. M. E. Ven Seggern: Integra.ting the equation of nonuniform flow, Transactions,
American Society of Civil Engineer~, yol. 115, pp. 71-88, 1950.
a. The flow profile in t.he spillway 17. Clint J. Keifer and Henry IIsien Chu; Backwater functioIls by numerical integrll--
,b. The energy line in the spillway tion, Transac&·'or.a, American Sodelv of Civil Engineers, vol. 120, pp. 429-442, 1955.·
18. Ven Te Cho~': Integrating the equn.Liol1 of gradually varied flow, paper 838,
10-20. Solve the problem in Ex::o.mple 10-10 by the standard step method, io~ a
ProceedillflS, American Society of Civil Engineers, voL 81, pp. 1-32, November,
design discharge of 500,000 ds.
1955. Discussions by Clint J. Keifer a.nd Henry Hsien Clm, Robert Y. D. Chuu,
10-21. Carry out 'the computation in Example 10-11 by brep.king up reach 1-5 into
,\\ iV[3.Sashi Hom-rolL, Allan N,,::wman, anel Kolupo.ila, pa.per 955, Journal,
four short reaches at tho intermediate sections.
., , Hydmulics Division, vol. 82, no. HY2, April, 1956; corrections on p. GO.
10-22. SOlve the problem in Example 10-11 by the stage-fall~discharge method for
Discu'isions by R. Silvester and Alfred pa.per lOlD, vo\. 82, no. HY3,
a design discharge of SOO,OOD cis.
pp. 13-21, June, H)56. Closing disoussioll by Buthor, paper 1177, vol. 83,
10-23. Solve Example 10-1 by the stage-fall-discharge method.
no. HYl, pp. 9-22, February, 1957.
10-24. Solve Example 10-1 by the Ezra method.
19. I. I. Levi: GidraV'licheskie pokaz!1teli rusla i i1th prilozhenie k teorH nerl).vw.merno·
10-25. Solve Example lO-i'by the Ezra method if Q = 500 cIs.
go dvizheniia zhidkosti v otl,rytykh kanalakh i r\lslllkh (The hydraulic exponents
of channel;:; and their application to the theory of nonuniform flow in open chan- .1
REFERENCES nell, 'Vestnik lrrigat.sii (Herald of Irrigation), Tashkent, U.S.S,R., no'. 2, pp. 35-49,
1925.
1. A. J. E. J. Dupuit: "Etudes tht\oriques at pratiques sur Ie mouvement des eaux"
("Theoretical and Pmctical Studies on Flow of Wo.ter)J), Paris, 2d ed., 1863'.
20. Ar~hur E. MatzkfJ: Varied flow in open cha.nnelsof adverse slope, TnL7l,.saclioM,
Ame"ica'il Society.of Civii Ell!Jineers, vol. 102, pp. 651-660, 1937.
-j
2. J. A. Ch. Dresse: "Cours de mecat:.ique appliquee," 2e j;:artie, Hydraulique, 21. M. D. Chertousov; "Gidravlikll.: SpetsiahlyI Kurs" ("Hydraulics: Special
(tr Course in Applied Mechanics," pt. 2, Hydraulics}, Mallet-Bachelier, Paris, 1860. Co Ill'se i,), Gosenergoizd3.t, Moscow, 1957.
3. F. Grashof, "Theoretische Maschinenlehre" ("TheoreGic~,l Course on MD.·' 22. V, J. CharnomskiI: Zadachi na ustallovivsheiesi" neravnomerlloie tecbenie vody
chines"), Leipzig, 1875, '(01. 1. v otkrytykh ruslakh s priamolineinym i trapetsoidalnym pOJlerechnym secheniem
4. M. Ruhlmann: "Hydromechanik" (" Hydromechanics "), LeipZig, 1st ed., 1857 ; (Problems on stea.dy nonuniform flow of water in open channel> with straight,-
Hahnsche Buchlumdlung, Hanover, 2<1 ed., 1880. lined trapezoidal cross dec~ion), Trudy Va.J·shauskago Polittkhni.ch~kago lnslitu.l.a,
5. G, Tolkmitt: "Grundlagen der Waaserbaukunst" ("F'llndamentals of Hydrau- Warsaw, 1914. . .
Hc Engineering"), Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, 189S. 23. Alva G. Husted: New method of computi\lg bo.ckwater and drop-down curves,
6. U. Masoni; "Corso .di Idraulica Teoriea e Pratica" (" Course of Theoretical o.nd En(rineering News-Record, vol. 92, no. 17, pp. 719-722, Apr. 24, 1924.
pro.ctica.\ Hydraulics"), 2d .;d., Naples, 1900. 24. H.R. L"o.ch: New metl10ds for the ~olution of backwa.ter problenL~, Engineering
7. Boris A. Bakhmeteff: "0 Nern.vnomernom Dvizhenii Zhidkosti v' Otkrytom News-Recul'd, voL 82, no. 16, pp. 768-770, April, 1919.
Rusle" ("Vo.ried F10w in Open Channels "l, St. Petersburg, Russia, 11112. 25. Arthur A. Ezra: A direct step method for computing. water-surface profiles,
8. Boris A. Bakhmeteff: "Hydraulics of. Open Channels," McGraw-Hill Book Com- Transactions, American Society of Civil vol. 119, pp. 453-462, 1954.
pany, Inc., New York, 1932. 26. Fra.ncis F. :&Scoffier: Graphic ·calcula.tion of ba.ckwater eliminates solution by trial,
9. Philipp Forchheimer: "Hydmulik" (" Hydraulics"), 1st ed.} Teubner Vcrlags. Engineering News-Record, vol. 136, no. 26, p. 71, June 27, H)46.
gesellschaft., Leiptig and Berlin, 1914. 27. N. Raytchine a.nd P. Chatelain: Determina.tion graphique de 11\. ligne d'eau et .j
10. E. Baticle: Nouvelle methode pour la d6termination des combes deremous (New calcul des remous (Graphical determination of backwater curves), La Houil.le i
method for the determination of. backwater curves), Le Genie civil, vol,71l; no. 23, blo.ncke, Grenoble, 5th yr., no. 3, pp. 373-379, May-June, 11l50.. I
Dec. 3, pp. 4.88-492, 1921; no 24, Dec. 10, pp. 515-516,1921. 28. Josef Frank: Graphische Berechn'lng von Wasserspiegel-Linien (Graphicll.l calcu-
1,
~.
I·
I
296
GRADUAT,LY VARIED FLOW . ~t
]ation of water flow profile ) S h ' ,; , : I
Ii
65-71, Aug. 5, 1!J33. s, c we1Zen/iche Bauzeitung, Zi\\-jch, vol. 102, no. 6, pp ..
29. Hydrologic and hydraulic analysis' Com t · r
channels, U:S, A rmy Corp~ of En'gine/?7'S p~atlOn 0: backwater curves in river
CDnsinlction,.pt. CXIV ehap. 9 M 19~2 nqmeenng klanual for Civil lYorks
30 C I -" " 1Iy, D. , i
. . . urJmm;.Baclcwll~er slopes above dams E ' . . rI
no. 23, p. 902, June 7, 1928
31 . I . H. Stemberg:
' .
Thc nomograph as a aJ'd . .
. ' nqmeermg News-Record, vol. 100,
.
I' CHAPTER 11
I
. E7!.{Jineeririn vol 9 110 6' pp 365· 36 (ln J In. computing backwa~l' curves· Civil
. .""'" -;- ulle 1939 ' PRACTICAL PROBLEMS !
32. Sherman M. Woodward and Che~ter 'J Po' '. ,:
Open Channela," .John Wiley & Sons I~c
33. L. E. Jones: The QIy'Fteoh' .'
;;Y: ....
y Hydraulics of Steady Flow in
., ,e\~ ork,1941;'PP.103_107.
t
FIG. 11-1. Delivery of a canal with subcriticl!.l flow IJ.nd C0l15tIJ.Ilt YI,
. . ,
The value of thi~ discharge is Qn = /(" v' So, where I{,. is the conveyance
of the cross section with the depth Yz equal to YI and where So is the
bottom slope.
,
~
I
r I
-1
2. FLOW OF MAXIMUM DISCHARGE. When Y2 is equal, to the critical ,. 1, z Deli,ery cu"~: o;/(yzl
! ---'-------:--------,---1----- .--~-
I "1
~,=
depth Yo of.section 2, the discharge will reach its ma.ximum possible value,
since Y2 cannot be le~s than Yo and tlw head is at its mfLximum. If t.he I. d MZ"p'orile 'I
. conslonll 0""':'" \
downstream pool level B falls below the depth Ye, a free overfall at that I ! ~- -. -----..--- N
depth will occur. This discharge, as indica.ted on the delivery curve, is J _ -t ~ J .
~, ~--T-i-- ----------I c
equal to the critical discharge at section 2, or Q, = z .. vg, where Zo is the
k' I ~%~ !
section factor of cross section 2. -----.:....
-.-- l
-.__ l ,/_ _ ,_UJ__01 :
I
0
For the determination of the maximum discharge, a trial computation ---__ ' - , r-- 0 '0"'°< -~
is required. The procedure is first to take a series of discharges, beginning
from Q" and going upward. Then, making Yz = Ya in each case, deter-
---..,. 0
FIG. 11-2. Delivery of [1, cane.l, the lellgth of which exceeds the length df tbe falling
mine the corresponding YI. The discharge that makes YI equal to the ID~~ .
given d'epth at the upstream end is the Qm ... required ..
3. FLOW OF .l1.fl PROFILE. When Y2 > 11", the flow profile is of the 1];I1 .1
. shorter. Therefore, for practical purposes, it may be assumed tha\ the
type. The upper limit of this curve is a horizontal level, indicated by maximum. possible discharge in a long canal or 0, canal of not-tao-small SoOpl!
az; at this condition the discharge is zero, since the head, or difference
. is eqtwl 10 the normal discharge. .' .
between the pool levels, is zero. For Y2 > Y., the fiow will l:everse its B Case of Constant yz. This is the case In whICh t.he watel le~el at
direction .. The lower limit of the 1111 profile is, apparently, the uniform- 'the 'downstr'eam end of the canal, or the depth Y2, is const~nt, whlle ¥l
flow surface an. For any intermediate flow between these two limits, the fluctuates. The corresponding delivery curve Q = fCYI) IS shown III
depth Yz and thp. corresponding discharge can be determined by a trial
flow-profile computation. The procedure is first to assume a. discharge Fig. 11-3.
less than Q,. and then to compnte the corresponding depth Yf. Conse-
quently, the delivery clirve can be plotted. :
4. FLOW OF 1112 PROFILE. When Y2 < y", the flow profile belongs tQ
the .1112 type. The lower limit is, evidently, the critical flo\y surface ac.
The Y2-Q relationship can he determined by the procedui'e described
above for the lIfl profile.
From the delivery curve, it becomes evident that the portiori NC of the
curve' is very steep, so that Qm.., exceeds Qn by only a very small amount.
It will be seen that this is true in most practical cases except for very Ehort
or very fiat canals. Referring to Fig. 11-2, it is assumed that the end
point d of the limiting 11{2 curve is loeated at a depth O.99Yn. If the
length L of the canal is greater than the length L' of the limiting J1'2 pro-
file,' then no change in Yz between Yeand Vn will affect the condition
upstream from the point dj that is, the discharge will rema'in the same.
As long as L > L', the maximum discharge QJD.x will be pra.cticaUy equal Fro. 11-3. Delivery of 3. canal with subcritical flow and constll-nt y,.
to Qn, that. is, the portion NCoi the corresponding delivery cllrvewil! be
practically vertical. The flow-profile equation indicates that the length 1. UNiFORM FLOW. When :111 = 'yz = Yr., the flow is u.niform, the flow
of the flow profile is :inversely proportiOlial to the bottom slope; the profile. nb is parallel to the channel bottom, and the dlschar~e Qn cor-
smaller the slope,the longer the profile, and vice versa. For this reason, responds to point N on the delivery curve. The value of Qn IS equal to
reducing the slope will have an effect similar to that of making the canal
)
'!'
r,
I ~I'
... PRACTICAL .PROBL'EMS
301
300 GIL'l.D1:ALLY VARIED FLOW
, _ ,_ . The Q-constant curve intersects this line at t?e point N
'- K" .where Ie, is the conveyance of cross section 1 with dept.h Y1 = Y2 1/1 - 'Y2 .- V,,· ~ which is the norml1,l depth for the given discharge Q..
and wher~ Su is the bottom slope. where Y1 V2 :- Yhn, wh'lch y is equal to the critical depth y. of
2. }I'.fow of Maximum DischaTge. When YI reaches a depth Yn< that cor-
at-
The curve 15 t e curve on
2 for
r g
agiven discharge and on which Y1 is the corresponc :n
1 ·
responds to a clitic111. discharge at section 2, the discharge becomes cdrosshse~ IOn L It is apparent that 112 cannot be less than Yo 0,£ sectIOll
tion
ept . a se,c .. . Q H"'l1ce the Q-constant curve termmates at
maximaL Any depth Yi > Yrn is out of consideration, because it would
2 for the given dIscharge, ~, ' t ' ,2 fthe discharge
sill1ply raise the flow profile mb to the position shown by the dashed line the point C 011 this curve that makes V2 = y. at sec 101. or
m'b' and, consequently, require an increase in the downstr~am depth ·Y2.
The~o.lue of (J •.• ~ is equal to the critical discharge at section 2, or Zc -iii,
Q.
where LIe is the section factor at section 2 for a depth to Y2.
3. FLOW OF M"l PROFILE. For Rny depth 1:/1 < Y", the flow profile
belongs to the Ml type, and the is less than Qn. The lmve"t
possible limit for YI is y.; at this condition the flow profile is horizontal and
the dL':!charge is zero.
4. FLOW OF 1\-12 PROFILE. For any depth Yl varying between Ymand
Yn, the flow profile. belongs to the 1112 type, and the discharge is less than
Q,,,"x b:llt greater than Q~.
C. Calle of Constant Q. This is the case in which the delivery of the
canal is constant,while the pool levels at the two extremities of the canal
fluctuate.
1. UNIFORM :now.. Referring to Fig. 11-4, various possible flow pro- .
files are sketched.. "Vhen YI = y., = y", the flow is uniform, and the
surface is a straight line ab pal-aIlel to the char~nel bottom. This normal
depth 11", cu.n be determined by the Manning formula for a con~tallt
discharge Q.
2: .FLOW OF 1111 PROF'ILE. For positions above ab, the flow profile
belon'gs to the 1\{1 type. The upper limit of the 1111 profile is a horizontal
line; at this. position 112 approaches Yl + SoL as a l~mit. As this c0nditiol1
ilS approached, the difference between pool levels and hence the head, or
velocity of flow; decrease, However, the water area increases as the
depths increase; whereas the discharge, as a product of them'e[j, and the
velocity, cnn still be kept consts.nt and equal toa given value. .
3. FLOW .OF .312 PROFILE. For positions below ab,the flow profile is of
the JlII2 type. The 10we.'3t possible position. of the JJ12 profile is a'b'; at
this position y~ is equal to the critical depth corresponding to the given
discharge Q. . . FlO, ll-? Delivery of l\. canal withsubcritical flow and constant Q.
The Q-constant Curve. The relationship behr~en the depths Y1 and 1'2
for const~nt Q can be plotted (J:"ig. 11-4). The resulting curve CN P is rr.
The Z line is a straight line drawn parallel to the lh~e fl;om a point on
known as the Q-constant curve. Several auxiliary e:urves have also been . . d' t S T from the orilrin O. ThIS hne represents the
the Y~ aXIs at a is ance I)J.J. c . fil H
constructed to make clearer cert,ain chamcteristic features of the Q-con- d
' . -
con ItlOn Y2 - Y l ,
+ SJ." or the upper limit of the lJtil pro e. enee,
t f 11 f m the left
stant curve. . , the Qcconstant curve apPl'oaches this line asymp 0 1(\a y 1'0
I The N line is a straight line drawn from the Qrigin of the coordinates when both YI arid Y2 become vel'Y large. . ,
Q
and inclh1ed at an angle of 45 with the coordinate axes. This line is the The coordinates Vl and Y2 of any point P on the Q-collstant curve 101 [l.
locus of the normal depth for all discharges. For any point on this line,
-. I
\
302 GRA.DUALLY VARIED FLOW PRACTICAL PROBLEMs 303
given discharge Q ·call. be .determined by a .flow-profile computation. 3. As the tailwatel' level rises further, the jump will move upstream
Geilerally, when points C and N and one or two other points are locatcd,
the Q-constant curve can be drawn in smoothly.
maintailling its height a~~d form in the uniform-flow zone nb, until'
reaches point n. From there on, the jump will move upstrecun on the en
it -I
By plotting a series of Qcconstant curves for various discharges, sueb CUl've, gradually ciiminishing in height. The height, of the jump becomes
as the claShed lines, a general chart can be obtained, representing. all zero when it reaches the critical depth at e. In the meantime the flow
possible flow conditions in the given canal. profile reaches its theoretical limit, cb l l of the SI profile.. Be~ond this
11-2. Delivery of a Canal for Supercritica\ Flow. When the slope of limit the incOiriing flow will be directly affected by t.he tailwater, and the
the canal is steep, that i:o, greater than the critical slope, the flow in the entrance acts as a submerged weir. III practical calculations, the'hol'i-
channel becomes supercritical (Fig. 11-5). In practical applicf.tions, zontallil1e Cb'" may be +,aken as the practical limit of the tail water stage.
8teep canals are usually short, such as the raft and log chutes th~t are This wi\] avoid the compntation of bUlb" and will also provide a margin
used ~LS spillways. If t.he canal is too steep, so that an ultrarapid flo\\" of safety;
develops, then the flow is no longer steady. A study of unsteady How in
canals is beyond the scope of this chapter.
11-3. Problems Re.1ated to Canal Design. Knowledge abollt the
delivery vf a c<onal, as described in the preceding articles, has useful
.[
o
-
t ______! __ ~----'~z
i=.:::::.:::::::~ ~ _ I , t:.y
.
-=.--=
J
-·-,.ily'
_I
,
/'
c~~-·=tt- /-=~~~f-~:-=~'F r~\~:
-,_,,// / I~_ ----,.-.- ! ! 11>-
~
-- _' U Omin Ome.· 0
Conal bof!om of
jncrec!;ed slope Service discharge = Q
.•o:.~'
.[
I
'304 GRADUALLY VARIET,> Io'LOW P~ACTICAL PROBLEMS 305
• case of constiUlt Yl, A. in' Art. 11-1, in which the l~pstream depth is kept upstream-pool-level position A. The ditTerE)llCe fJ.y between YA and YI
constant while the dOWllstream depth fluctuates. The delivery curves in mny beset by judgment or may depend on 'the design of the entrance.
Fig. 11-6 will explain how the fiuetuation in the downstream end depth, , 3. FREE ENTRANCE; When water enters a mild-slope canal freely
caused by the variation in the service discharge demand, can be redlacec1. (Fig. 11-7d), the depth YI is related to the static pool level A by the law
The method is 'simply to increase the bottom slope of the canal. ,This of energy. The relation between the depths Yl and YA can be expressed by
, increases th~ normal diseharge, and the delivery curve will change in posi- , ,VAl
tion from ZNC to ZN'C'. It is apparent that, for the same range of Q",.~ YA '= Yt
,
+ h. + ayg (11-1)
to Qmi., the fiuclu:1tion in depth fJ.y' is reduced and becomes lestJ tha~ fJ.y.
where aY A 2/2g is the velocity head of the npproaching fiGw, which is
uSltaliya small quantity arid can be ignored. Hence,
Y... = Yl + h. (11-2)
For subcritical flow, the term h, is the head loss due to friction and may
be expressed in terms of thE) velocity head at section 1, that is,
TI i ~
h, = C'-2 (11-3)
g
(al
where. C. is a coefficient which has an average value of 1.25 for a well-
rounded entrance. l Solvili.g for TIl from the above equation,
1
VI
, -vc: v'2Yh.
=, ~- (11-4)
(b] Q = V 1 .4 1 =
.
Jc:
,~
Al ;;2(Jh. =
v~
. ~ Al 'V2g(-V.{ -'~ Yt) (11-5)
FIG, 11-7. Outlet and entrance conditions.
In most pract.ical problems, the depth YA, instead of YI, is given. For
B. Outlet and Entrance Conditions. In the pl;eceding artides, the example, in the C[l.se of the constant upstream depth, A iJ:l Art. 11-1, the
delivery of the canal was related to the depths '!it and Y2 at the ends of the depth YA would he given as constant. For any given condition of YA,
canal; but the conditions that accompany the'inflow or outRow of the the relation between Q and Yl can be established by Eq. lI1-5). A curve
water were not c.onsidered. representing this relRtion can therefore be constructed. By means of
1.. OUTLET. "Yhen the canal empties into a reservoir, an amount of this so-called inflow-discharge-rating c'Urt1e, the reiations.among YA,YI, o.nd
kinetic energy equal to a V z2j2y, carried with the flowing water, is Q can pe detei-mined.
expected tO'be restored as a potential energy. TIlUS, the pool level should For supercriticalflow, the flow, at section 1 is criticaL, The problem is
be higher by this amount than the depth at the outlet of the canal (Pig. simplified by the fact that the rf',lation between Yl and y.{ is practically
11-7a). This energy, however, is usually dissipated entirely in eddies fixed, irrespective of the entrance friction loss.
and whirls. In pl'fl.ctical computations it may be ignored, and Yz may C. Elimination of Hydraulic Jump in a Steep Canal . .. As pointed out
be taken equal to YB, If the o,utfiow is accompaiied by a hydraulic drop in Art. 11-2, when the tail water-pool level is higher .tho.n th~ critical depth
(Fig. 11-7b) and if YB<Y2, the depth Y2 is equal to the critical depth y. of in ~ st~ep canal, a hydraulic jump will develop in the callal (Fig. 11-5).
section 2, irrespective Qf the pool-level position B. Such a;hydraulic jump is objectionable and dangerous, par,t.icularly
, ,
when
2; REGULATED ENTRANCE. When the entranc~ is regulated by a sluice 1 Dat~ the losses in entrance structures may be found in some hydraulics text-
OIl
or some other device (Fig. 11-7t), the depth 1h is independent of the books, handbooks, or other literature [21.
306 GRADUALLY VARIED' FLOW
l
I PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 307
,
I to this design, the channel starts with a 140-ft-wide rectangular concrete section.
the canal is a raft chute or some other structure intended to transport a i
The 140-ft ,base width extends from statio'n 10 -/- 00 to the sill at station 10 + 45.
floating raft from I,he upstreail1 reservoir to a downstr~am pobl. Bakh- ! From station 10 + 45 to station II + 45 the walls converge on circular curves to a
meteff [1] suggested that the design of a neutTalizinO' Teach (Fig. 11-8) i base width of 60 ft. From station 11 + 45 to st.ation 15 + 82.50 the walls convei'ge
might be a solution. In this reach the bottom slope of the channel is II in a straigh t-line transition to a. base wid th of 25 ft. The channel below the transition
made equal to the critical slope. According toa corresponding case of consists of a,'rect.angula,r concrete section with a constant width of 25 ft. Compute the
liow profile in, the spillway channel for' a design discharge of 6,200 ds. The control
j
Cl profile in Fjg. 9-2, the tailwatcr lcvels will be approximately horizontal for this discharge was designed to occur at theinlet sill station 10 + 45. Use ex ,= 1
lines l \-vhich intersect the surface of flow in the canal without causing any and n = 0'.014 in the computation.
disturbance. At the point of intersection, theoretically, there is a jump Solution. In t.his probiem the flow is supercritical, for the COIl trol sectib,n is placed
o'f zero height. at the upstream stat.ion 10 + '15., The critical depth RI, this section is equal to Yo ;",
,'l' (6,2007140)'/32.2 = 3.93 ft. The critical depths at other stations may also be
computed. If the' computed depth happcns to be greater than the corresponding
-I
critical depth, the flow will be subcritical.
The coinputation of the flow profile is given in Tnble 11-1, with the fo!lcwing
s' headings: '
B
Col. 1. Station number
Tailwaler
Col. 2. Length of reach in ft, w11ich is equal to the difference between the two
station llumbel's at the two ends of the reach
CoL 3. 'Width of the channel inft
Cols. 4 to 16. Same ns the st.eps from cols. 1 to 12 in Table 10-4, except t.hat an
extra column for So (Col. 14) is provided since So is not constant throughout the whole
Fro. 11-3. Elimination of hydraulic jump by Bakhmeteff's neutralizing reach.
2
1 'When the Chez), formula is applied, the lines are theoretically horizontal.
The data for this example are taken from [3]. For additional information, the
require some type of tramition structure to and from the waterways.
The function of such a structure is to avoid excessive energy losses, to
-I
following is extracted from this reference: The spillway was designed to pass the maxi-,
mum probable flood H),OOO cfs with the maximum water surface 5 ft below the top of
the dam. 1;'he wide inlet sill would provide maximum sill elevation for retention of safe distance downstream from the dam for the release of spillway flo"/s. Do\vn-
debris with ininimum height of dam. The invert slope was designed such that con- stream of station 13 -/-' 95, the tr:l.!lsition and the channel were designed to carry the
trol, or critical depth for 19,000 cfs, would occur at the relatively narrow base width design flood of 6,200 cis with a minimum freeboard of 1.5 ft. The channel alignment
of.55 ft at stati?n II + 22. Establishin control at t~is narrow w.idthwould mini- below the transition would provide for transition spirals, and the channel invert would
9
mize the formatlOn of large waves produced by the rapidly convergmg walls. For a be banked through all curved reaches to maintain uniform depth of flow.
1 A procedure for computing the flow profile in steep chutes with a correction: for
design flood of 6,200 ds, waves would have:no adverse effect, because a relatively large
freeboard WQuid be availo.ble. The spillw~y transition was developed to' carry 19,000 air entrainment has been proposed by L. S. Hall [4]. For a simple correction, :the
cfs with 2.5 'ft of freeboard to st.ation 13 -+- 95. This station was considered to be a Douma formula, Eq. (2-15), may be usad.
g.j?;~~=
~'-
0,1>'" '
SPILLWAY
~ .~
C1>
'~"
>
~I;
~~
~I;'
.~.'"
~
~I~ .
..ci
PROFl~£ \. SPILLWAY
,-.
TA,llLE II-I. COMPUTA,'l'ION OF THlil FLOW PROFILE IN A NONl'RlSMATtC CHANNta, FOR i!:XA.MPLE 11-1
(La Tuna. Canyon spillway, Lo~ Angeles County} CaliL, Q 6,200 cfs)
Station
~~ I b
)j A I R l/}i V a:V'/2g So ., Sf i AX
(1) , ,(2!_~L
. sidei'! of the canal. For the same 1'e<1.30n, the trend. of practice in the be I?xpressed as
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation [5J has been toward simplification, with the
(1l-7)
top edges of walls and the intersections between wa.rped walls and floors
, designed in straight lines. Further simplification of an ela.borate form
is permitted, however, only when a close control of water areas and
'oNhere co is a coefficient of outlet loss.
The average safe design values of Ci and Co that are recommended are as
-I I
J
'"
,r,
PRACTICAL l'ROBL:fj)M!; 313
312 GRADUALJ;.Y VARUJD FLOW
f
!
c
'~ 51.40~~~~-~--~~~-.~-.,~~~~--~f~~~~~-,~_J-
e
Q "'" 51.30
:;; 57.2 0 ~-f.---+-7"'-I~' '"
'"
."
I
o o cO o
I
:- -,
o
U"l
C
.n 0oJ '"
oJ
'"+
:+o T +, + + +
WATER SUR.FACE PROFILE
'"
+ 1'1
+
HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES
o on -L-J" Hume Canol
~ '" 0
5,0.0009 ,,'°,01 4 $'0,00039<'- "'0.018
+ '"
+ + + +
r'1
+
" "
+ +
ll'l
"'6.0 0.315 V'3,24 Ci'315,
WATER SURFACE PROFILE
PLAN
PLAN
I-
\
" CD
~~~~~~~~~~~~
iii< N
SECllON ON CENTER
'" W Top 01 bonk
line
SECTION D-O
)
314 GRADUALLY VARIED FL01V PRACTICAL PROBLEiHS 315
D. Elimination of H ya7'auUc Jump. Existence of hydraulic jump in a . head from l' - 2.715 fpl! to 5.98 fps is equal to tlk. = 0.553 - 0,117 = 0.436 ft.
Neglecting the chnpllel frietjoll fol' the time being, the total drop in water surface is,
transition may beeomeobjectionable if it hindel's the flow !\.nd consumes thet'Afol'e, LlO X 0,436 0 ..480 ft. .
useful energy. When the transition leads [rom 'a supercritical flow to a For a. smooth Itnd continuous .flpw, the theoretical flow profile'may be u.sswlled 11.[ ,
sub critical flow, the, hydraulic jump may be avoided by carefully propor-, two equal pll.rn.bolas, !.IJ.ngent to ea.ch other o.t point B ,\nd hori~ollt,al, respectively.
tioning the transition dimensions (Example 3-4). a,!; A and C, Strictly spellking, the parabolas should be tangent to the water surfaces'
In an example illust.n~ted by Hinds [7], a transition- from a segmental in the canal and the flume, but !l. small deviation of these water surfaces from the
horiwnt.at is not important in ~he present example.
canal to a circular tunnel wus desigrled for flow from one subcritical flow A number of sections are then aele(;t~d a!.:mg the transition, where the /lOll' prolile
stage to anothej· (Fig. 11-12). In the libel'!11 altowance \v'as made will be computed and the stnlctund dimensions determined.
3~ Cc.mplilatio'll of the Flow Pmfilc Inch,diug Friction. The computation ]" shown in
~Qer9Y line
Table J 1-2 with the following heo.dings:
energy rne
Cd. 1. Number for stD-tioll1; eqtHI.l!y spaced every 5 ft aud lneiLsured in the
energy line
direct.ion of flow, '
d water .st.,foce
Col. 2. Drop in water surface. The tolal drop in \I'D-tel' surface from A to C,
neglecting friction, is OA80 ft. The drop from it to t.hemid-point B of the antisym-
mckicill reversed p~\,l'abola is made equal to half th-e drop, or 0.240 ft.
CoL 3. Change in velocity heo.d. Assuming thnt the conversion loss i~ distributed
Tunnel over th" entire l~ngth of the transitiQl). in proportion'{'o the change in velocit,y head,
vo.l:Jes of tll~, are obtaine.cr by dividing value.<; of t!.lf' in col. 1 by 1.10.
-I
Col. 4. Tot.[11 velocJ;,y heD-el, equal to the cumulative v?Jue of t!.h, ent~ring the
FIG. 11-12. A faulty transition design. (Af!,r J. Hind¥ [7].) preceding coiumn . , , '
Col. 5. Veloci(" in ips corresponding to .the velocity head in the preceding column I
I
for tramitions and friction losees, and a safe coefficient of roughness was Col. 6. Water area in ft~, equa.l to th~ d~"charg~ 314.5 cfs divided by tbe velocity I
used to determine the depth of flow in the tunnel. After construction, in the column
CoL 7. Half the' top width in ft, obtained from the cross sections or the sketched
however, the transition losses were found to be practically negligible; so plan 11-10). The piau m~}' be chos@ either ~rbitmrily or by trial untilsatis-
the actual normal depth of the floY! the tunnel entrance was factory reslll!;s !l.re obtained., The choice of a proper shape for the plan is a matttlr
cOl1sirler::.bly less than the assumed vahle. As a result, an objectionable of judgment ..
hydraulic jump was observed inside the tunnel. Actually, the transition' Col. 8. Half the bottom width in It, obtained f"om the, ~ketched plan
should have been proportioned to avoid the jump on the basis of negligible tV.)!. 9. The dt'pth of flow ill it, equal to A/CO.aT + 0.5/;)
Col. 10. Hydraulic nlrliu& in ft
t.ransition losses. Since the structure had already been constructed, the CoL 11. Til'.! friction slope, computed by Eq. (9-8) with n = 0.014 for all sections
hydraulic jump was iinally eliminated by bolting cross timbers to the in the tmnsition If
channel bottom, thus increasing the friction and bringing the normal Col. 12. The friction head, equal to 'the dist.a.nce between stationli, or 5 ft, multi-
depth up to above the critical depth. pliedby the avernge of the friction slope of the section and that of the preceding section
Col. 13. Cumulative frir:t.ion head in ft
Example 11-2.' It is required to design an inle:t st,ructure connecting an earth ca.na.l Col. J 4. The water-surface elevation, including the Ilffect of the ch~,l1ncl friction,
huving 8, bottom width of 18 it and side slopes of 2: 1, to It rectangular concret'l flume equal to 57.41 - 'Zhf. The flow profile thus obtained should be free from
12 it {} in. wide, The hydrauli9 propert.ies of the cana.l and the flume arc given (Fig. objectiona.ble irrllgularitics;' if not, the plan ma.y ')B t\:tered. It shOuld bG lloted,
11-10). The design discharge is 314.5 cis. hQwever, that, a slight change in th<! elevation of waier .;;udace at a. given POlot may
Solulion. The design procedure~ involves thll following steps: ' cause an r.ppreciable chltr.ge in the dimeMions of the skucture,
L Delermimr!ian of the LmgU; of the Tra:ll..'l1:tion. The length of the transition is COl. 15. The elevr.tion of the channel bottom, equa.l to Z - y
detllrmined so that B, straight line joining the. flow line !It the two ends of the transition 4, De(enlll:rmiion of Situct.Ul'd Dimerl$ions. After t,he arbitl'lirilr 6kf:tched plan
will ma.ke an angle of a.bout 12.5" with the 'axis of the strnetlll·e. This length in the for'the tral;sition.is fOl~nd to be satisfactory, th~ s,tructnral dinlensions may be dlJf.er-
design is found to be 50 ft: 1 .
mined ns given under the following headings of Tnble 11-2;
2. DeterminatiDn. of fhe Flow Profile Neglecting Frict.icn. For the type of stl'uctul'e CoL 16, The side slope z =' (Q.ST - 0.5b)/y
under contemplation, the inlet loss be safely assumed to be 10% of the change in Col. Ii. The elevation of tile top of lining. The l'ecommend<3d heigl'lt of lining
velocity head, or 0.1 ail-". ,The total in water surface is, thel'efOl'e, equul to L1 above the witter surface for a discharge of 314.5 cfs is o.bout 1 ft (Fig. 7-]). Draw a
ah. pillS the drop necessa~y to overcome channel fridiOn. The change in velocity strci.ight line above the computed water sui-face at an distance of approxi-
* Thi.~ example is taken :from [2J. ma.tely 1 ft. From this line the elevation ZL IS obtained.
PRAC'l.'ICAL PROBLEMS 317
CoL 18. Height of lining; in It, equa.l to ZL -Zo
Col. 19. Computed value of half the width atthc top of the lining, equal to O.5W
ZHL + 0.50 .
Col. 20. O.5W to nearest 0.5 in.
316
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 319
3. In the design of the crutlet structure, the theOl<etical rise in water
surface from the head wall to the enrl of the transition, .neglecting recovery
0.'
~
t
... h~
snould be equal to the total' cha.nge in velocity 'head LlI.,. The
fio'''' profile in the illustrated design is made as a simple parabola.
c,
'"(; 4. In the desig'n of the outlet structure, the bottom slope need riot be
- I
J t;:;
;:'
tangent to the slope of the closed conduit at ~he headwall as it was in the
a.
::>
0 ,-,
case of the iulet, unless the, siphon velocity is high and the transition
il3 steep,
0
Z
:.:: 9!.
0
c.. ~
11-8. Backwater Effect of ii Dam. It is often necessary to
~-;
U;
W the probable damage caused by backwater due to an obstacle in a
I-
UI
tr say a dam.. To study this problem, a so-cR.lIed back~vater !'!lwelol}~ wrve
U {
is usually found 1,0 be useful. This curve represents the locus of the
"
:§
r.I 0Z
'I:
t)
'..J
~
t;
::1, upstream end point of the backwat.er cttrve (1111 profile). Theore~icalJy --I
65
i=5:
speaking, the backwater curve extends indefinitely in the upstream direc-
.;
+0 <.l
WI-
>- C tion; hence, it has no npstreiln1 end point. For practical purposes, how-
(0 ' .9
.<;:l
Ii)
ever, the end point rilay be selected at the place where the rise in water
C!
;:! surfH.at) begins t.o cause dama.ge. This can be at a place where
..,
+'
the depth of flow is equal t.o a certain fraction of the normal depth,
'::l"
:;:; dependlng on the 112.ture of the problem, !1bout 1 % higher thun the
0
"0
nor111al depth, or y = ·1.01Yn. When!1 freeboard is allowed, the end
c
..,m point is at 11 place where the dept.h is equal to the normal depth plus the
,2;) freebon-rd.· .
e
It is apparent thi"~t the backw8.ter envelope cUl've starts at 11 point
where the stn.tic pool level in the reserv;oir at zero inftow intersects the
channel floor. As the inflow, to the reservoir increases, the end point of
the backwater curve may moYa either upstxea.m or downstre~;'l1l, depend-
ing upon many facto!'s, sueh as condition of the channel, shape of the
cross section, presence of flood plains, effect of tributaries, and possible
change iiI reservoir level. When the reservoir level is kept consto.nt and
when the channel is prismat.ic and has a simple cross section, it is most
likely that the end pl)lnt will move in a downstream direction as the dis-
charge is increased. Increase in channel roughness usually results in
dowllstre.un movement of the end point, since its effect is to reduce the
. length of the flow profile. The presence of flood plains has !l. similar -\
effect. In field studies, however, a.n approximate point of tangency of
the nonnal-clepth line to the backwater curve is often taken as the ena
point.. This point is determined simply by cye observation from the
druwing of flow profiles. The end point defined in this way generally
shows an upstream movement when discharge increaBes. Prior to a. study
of the backwater effect . thel'efore, the upstream limit of the bnckwi1ter
'effect should be properly defined in ol'der to meet the particular need of
th,~ given problem. l .
"\
I Sec. ISland [9) for further discussion.
1
318
320 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW PROELE:&!S 321
11-9. Flow Passing Islands. When flow in u stream is divided by a from the plotted c.urve at which the curve is Intersected by a.dashed line
long island (Fig. 11-14a), the division of flow between the two channels bisecting the coordinate axes. The dashed line represents the condition
may be determined \Viti). the aid of f1o-w~profi)ecomputations. that the two computed elevations are equaL In the meantime) the com-
In the case illustrated it is considered that the flmv throughout ·all puted elevation at point Afar chfml1el 1 is plotted against the discharge
channels is subcritic!Ll. The pl'Ocedure is to assume nrsta set of dis- Q1 (Fig. l1-l4e). From this curve the correct discharge Ql may be
charges Ql and Q2 for the divided flows such that the Sum ~f the dis- obtained for the correct elevation. The corresponding discharge in
charges is equal to total discharge Q.. Then, compute flow profiles channel 2 is, therefore, equal to Q2 Q Q1.
in the two ch:mnels each side of the i.;;land to u point A where the If the dividfld flows are supel'critie~\l, the control point will be at A;
flow is divided. Since the flow is subcritical, the computation should hence, division of flow will depend on the entranee condition of the divided
channels. During the normllJ-flow eonditioll, it may be assumed that nil
flows ~\re uniform, and division of flow may be roughly determined from
the following I'elations: Q1 1(1 vs;., Q2 = K2 -VS;, and Q = Q1 + Q2.
11-10. River Confluence. SVhen the flow-profile computation is
carried upstream through the confluence of r.· river and its bributary, it
(a) is neeessary to determiQ.e the water-surface elevations immedIately
uostream hom the confluence. The procedure for solving this problem
is' illustrated in 10-10 fOl'the confluence of the Missouri and
Kans&s Rivers. In this example, a dischi.rgeof 81,000 cfs from the
, Kansas River is combined with 350,000 cfs from the Missouri River to
, ,,
give'a total discharge of 431,000 cfs immediately below the confluence.
,,
Cross sections lK and {) are located immediatelyupstl'eam fromthe con-
fluence of the two streams (Fig. 1O-1l). In Tr.ble 10-8, the hydraulic
elements, ;'elocity heads, ancl total heads are computed separately at
the two sections. The velocit)~ head at cross section 5, is, compnted for 11
total discharge of 431,000 cfs. This value is divided between the cross
I· sections 6 and lK corresponding to th9 dischal'ges of 350,000 cfs f.l1d
i 81,000 cis, respectively. The friction slope at each cross section is com-
Wo!er-surface elevation at Discharge in chonnel No.1 puted fol' the discharge of 81,000 cfs at cross section IK and fOl' 350,000 ers
poinl A from compuletior. , Q
i at cross section ().The friction head loss hJ is then computed, using
tor channel Na.2
(bj id
thA average of the friction from cross sections 5 to lK in the
Kansas River and from cross sections 5 to 6 in the Missouri River.
FIG. ll-l·t Solution fOI' flow passing an island. At the confluence, eddy loss is usually high, In Example 10-10, this
is estimated as 10% of the increase in velocity head from cros~ section
proceed upstream from the d~wnst,eam point B Where the divided flows II{ to 5, or 0.10 ({l.G3 0.13) 0.05 ft. The total energy in cross section
unite again. The initinl water-surface elevation at puint B may be .5 is, therefore, equal tohJ+ h~ + H = 0.10 + 0.05+ 755.0,1: = 755.HJ.
determined from the curve at this statiori for a total discharge Q. Subtracting the velocity head' from this value gives 755.19 - 0.13 =
The computed water-snrh1ce elevation at point A tor channel 1 is then 755:06, which should be equal to the assumed watel'-sul'faceelevation ab
plotted against the sa,me for channel 2. A ct,U've may, therefore, be cross section lIe. ,
dl'a\vn (Fig. 11-14b) fo1' several assumed sets of :dischal'ges Ql and Q2 of Th~ above method should bli:flpplied to sub critical flow of relatively
different proportions. :Since the flow is divided ~t point A, the two com- low velocities l1Qt exceeding about 10 fps. At high velo'cities, the eddy
puted water-surface elevations at this point fOl~ the channels should be 10sses'al'e high, and the error il1~olved in the estimation may become quite
\;!qual if the assumed qivisiol1 of flow is correct.: Thus, the elevation at appreciable. -
point A corresponding to this correct division of flow may be obtained The problem of riYer confluence may be further illustrated by an exam~
322 GRADUALLY VARlED FLOW PRACTICAL PRDBLE.IS ,323
pIe given by Sto~;:m' [10], using the Junction of the Ohio and Mississippi flow condition is expected to develop; at thifi time the depth at the pla.ce
Rivel's (Fig. 11-15). The initial conditions of the uniform flows in the of flood initiation becomes Y2, but ~he depth far upstream in the Missis-
Upper l\::Ii.~ssippi, the 'Ohio, and the Lower Mississippi Rivers are, River remains Ynl. As a general rule, the backwater effect in a long
respectively, as follows: the normal depths, Ynr, Yn2, and tina; the channel sr,ream resulting from even fairly large discharges of its tribntaries aoes
slo'pes, SOl, S02, and Soa; and the roughness coefficients, nI, n2, and n" not vel"y far ,upstream. Therefore, the backwater curve in the I
Fwm these da,ta the normal Qnl, Qn2. and Q,,3 call be computed. Upper Mississippi Riyer should be l'elatively short. At the final steady- .. I
Now, ,a flood wave is assumed to initiate in the Ohio River at a place L flow condition, steady b:l(',kwater curves will be formed in the Ohio and
Upper Mississippi Rivers. Downstream in the Mississippi River, the
depth will change from Y1l3. to Ya, but the flow may beasslimed to
remain uniform.
initiation of flood
ThE:; flow involved ill the [I.bove-mentioned problem is considered to be
subcritical, which is the usual COl.'le and can be verified easily by a campu-
t,~tiol1 of the Froude numbers. At the final steady-flow condition, the
following conditions are evident: (1) the discha.rge in the Upper Missis-
sippi River remains the same, or Ql = Qnl; (2) the depths of the three
channels at the junction n.re all equal to Yi at x = 0; and (3) the Slim of
Upper Mississippi River Lower Mississippi River
the from the Ohio and Upper Mississippi Rivers is equal to
the discharge in the Lower Mississippi River, or QI + Q2 Q3. By
assuming a value of Vi> Q3 may be comp:lted un1t.hell
Point of
floDd
Since YiJ Q~, and Y2 ~are ilow known,. the leng!;h L 01 the backwater curve' ')\
can be computed. If the computed L agrees with the given L, the
assumed Yi is the correct value. Otherwise, new vulues of, Yi should, be
assumed unt.il a correct valLle is obtained. This is a trial-and-error
solution:. Ii solution may 0,180 be obtnin<3d:byassurning Q2 at the begin-
ning l1l1d ~heclr.ing finally for either Vi or L.
PROBLEMS
11-1. A rectangular channelS ft w'ide and 500 'ft long connects two reservoirs of
va,rylng surface levels (Fig. 11-16). Assuming 3. frictionless channel, construct the
Q-constant curves of Yl J(y~) for Q = 10, 50, 100, 150, a.nd 200 cfs, The loss at
t,he channel ent.rance is negligible,
FIG. 11-15. A junctiDn problem of the Ohio a.nd Mississippi Rivers,
~T
miles upstl;eam from the junction and to such that' the Ohio River rises
y.
rapidly at that point from the initialnormal depth Y,,'J. to a final maximum
depth Y2. The point of flood initiation is shown at:l; -L on the
coordinate axes, where:r; is the dista~1ce .measured from the junction along
1 ~T Ya
the channel. The wave of the flood thus originated will move down the
Ohio River to the junction and CI:eate new waves, which travel both
11
upstream and downstream in the JVlississippi River, and also a reflected
wave which travels back up the Ohio. After n certain time, a eteady- FIG. 11-16. Profile of It CMlld for Prof,.. 11-1.
324 GRADUALLY VARIED FLO," PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 325
11-2. Construct the Q-constuut curves of YA = f(vB) for Prob. 11-1, The entrance d. Slope of the neutl':J.lizing reach
discharge ,nt\y he eomputed by Q = 3bf]1.l where b is the channel width a.nd H is the e. Length of the neutralizing reach
tot.a.l hettd. f. Length of the !'iteel' reach
11-3. A tmpe;;oidal channel connecting two reservoirs 2 miles Ilpart has b = 50 ft,
z = 2, fr = 1~ n = 0.025, and So =; 0.004. The upsireamdepth V, is mninto-ined 11-14. COl'rect the flow profile computed in Example 11-1 for air entrainment,
consLant !).;ld equal to 6 ft (Fig. 11-1). Construct the d'olivery curve Q = f(y.), Eq. (2-15).
11-4. COllstruct the delivery curve Q = f(ytl for Prob. 11-3 if the downstream 11-15. Solve EX:ll.mple 11-1 for Q = 19,000 cfs.
depth:v~ i.; lTIaint(Lined constant and equal to 6 ft (Fig. 11-3). 11-16. A trapezoidal earth spillway with 3: 1 side slopes is 190 ft long from the
11-0. Assuming a variable y, in Prob: 11-3, construct !l. curve of Y, against Q", .. for reservoir at Sta.. 0 + 00 to the downatream critical control ·seetiol'!. at Sta. 1 + 90.
0. range of diEcharge varyiag from 0 to 2,000 cfs. Th~ bottom of the'spillway at Sta. 0 + 00 is 95 It wide and conV'erges unifol'luly t.~
il-6. Assuming v1l.riable depths !/t and y, in Prob. 11-3, construct the Q-constant a width of 75 ft c.t Sta. 1 + 00. The bottom width of 75 ft ill constant from Sta.
curves for·dischal·ges having tile normal depth equp.l to 2, 4, G, and 8 ft, respectively. 1 + GO to Sta. 1 + 90. The bottom slope of the spillw!l.Y between Sta. 0 +
00 and
11-7. Sulve Prob. 11-3 if tht: reservoirs l\re 2,500 it ap:.i,rt. Sta. 1 + 00 is ad verse, and is - 3 % between Stu. 0 + 00 and Sta. 0 + 8!J ane! - 20 %
II, 11-8. Solve Prob. lJ-4 if the reservoirs Me 2,500 ft c.part. between Sta. 0 + 80 and St.... 1 + 00. The bottom of the spillway is horillontal
11-9. SolvePI·ob. 11-5 if the reservoirs !lre 2,500 ftapart. between Sta. 1 + 00 and Sta. 1 + 90. Manning's n = 0.03.5. Determine: .
11-10. Solve .Frob. 11-6 if the reservoirs are 2,500 it llpRI't,
11-11. Construct the delivery curn Q = f(YB) for Prob. 11-3 if the upsLream reser- n. The flow p::-ofiles for discharges of 600, 800, 1,000, 1,200, 1,500, and 1,800 crs in
voil' depth Y II ia Dlaintained con~tant and equal tc B ft. The fzee ·entranoe is wtlll- the spillway ,
rounded, or C, - 1.25. /), Curve showing dis(.\harge \'5. elevation of pool level in the res,ervoir
11-12. Construct tbe delivery curve Q = f(Y,J) for ·Prob. 11-4 if the downstream c. Friction loss in spillway between the reservoir and the control sectioll ror I.l. dis-
resp.rvc-ir depth YB is maintained constant and equal to 6 ft. C, =1.25. charge of 1,500 cfs .
11-13. A rectangu~ar ra.ft. chute 20 ft widc, as descril::ed by Bllkhmeteff [lj, is to be
built between levels A. and B(Fig. 11-17). The design conditions ,,,'e: 11-1"{. Revle\v the design of nil O\lt.let tl'll.l)sition from Ilume to canal (Fig. ll-ll).
L The'ta.ilwatm· fluctuates by 8 ft. The flume r..nd canal are the same as those described in Exnmple 11-2.
2. The depth ill Lhe steep reach is kept to a minimum nav'igl1ble depth ~f 2.5 ft. 11-18. Review the design of ihe siphon inlet and outlet transitions (Fig. 11-13).
:l. The (lvCl'nge velocity should not exceed 14.7 £p8. GiYen th.e hydraulic properties: A = 01.52 it', R = 2.89 ft., SQ = O.OOOS, nnd n =
4. The dischal'ge should be kept below 750 ers, 0.0225 fa! the canals; and A = 38.48 ft2, R = 1.75 ft, So = 0.0012, and 11 "" 0.014 for
5. The roughness coefficient n = 0,03. the circular siphon ba:reL
6. The entrance discho.rge is computed· by L\ weir formula Q _ 0.4 .yzg b·y", l.~. 11-19. Compute and construct li bnckwater envelope curve for the backwater'
caused by a 5-ft dam in the channel described in Example 10-1,
11-20. A dil!charge of 1,000 cfs is divided between two rectangular channels exoa-
vated in rock. The chnnneis are later joined !J,gain (Fig. 11-14). Channel 1 is 10 ft
wide and 200 ft long. Channel 2 is 15 ft wide lend 150 ft long. The·bottom of chan-
nel2 is on the llverage 'about ::l ft lower than that of cho-llnel 1. Assuming n = 0.035
...,.,,---l(.-8'
aml a tot'll drop of water surfa.ce between the dividing !lnd joinip.g poillts of the chan7
nels equal to 5 in., compute the divided uniform flows ..
11-21. Wi~h reference to the problem shown in Fig. 11-15, the following data are
assumed: Yr.' = Yn~ = 1/ .. 3 = 20 ft, SOL = So. = 0.5 ft/mile, S03 = 0.49 ft/mite,
? ~----'-:-~ n, = n •. = no o.oa, the widths of the Ohio and Upper Mississippi Rivers = 1,000
ft, the width of the I,ower l\{ississippi Riv~r = 2,000 fti II> = 40 ft, and L = 50 miles.
FIG. ll-17. A raft chute for PI·C'b. 11.13. All rivers are assumed to have rectallgular channels. Determine the junction deptl\
and the flow profiles ill the rivers after the flood flow approaches a .stead); condition.
Determine the following items by the Manning formula and by any method of flow-
prolile'computation as described in this book:
REFERENCES
a, Slope of the steep reach
b. The entrance depth y. 1, Boris A. Bakhliletefi: "Hydraulics of Open Channels," McGraw-Hill Book
c, Length of the flow profile in the trnnsition teach Compo.ny, Inc., New York, 1932, pp. 143-215.
326 GHADUALLY VARIED FLOW
2. Julhtrl Hinds: The hydraulic design of flume and siphon ~ransitions, TrcT.nsadions,
America" Society of 'Civil Engineers, vol. 92, pp. 1423-1459, .1928. '
'3. "C;vil Works: Flood Con~rol in the Los Angeles Area," TIl[) Engineer School,
For~ Beh'oir, Virginia, 1950, E206.00 (4-50) ML, pp. 22-28 and plate 10. CHAPTEIt 12
4. L. S~alldi6h Hall: Open channel flow at high velocities, in Ent.rainment of air ill
flowing \\'flter: a symposium, Transactions, Ameriwn Sodetv oj C;~il Engillec",3,
vol. lOS, pp. 1394-1447, 1943. SPATIALLY VARIED FLOW
5. Fred C. Scobey: The flow of water in flumes, U.S. DepC!1'lmenl oj Ag"ic7l!t1l7'e,
Techniml B1t/lelin No. 303, December, 1933.
G. Hrdraulic design d!\1;a, appendix I of CanalS and related structures, U.S. Bure(1.(L
oj Reclamalion, De~ign and Cons/rllction .liJ(l.n1Lal, Design Su.pplwtent No.3, 1952,
vol. X, pt,. 2, paragro.ph I-13. '
12-1. Basic Principles and Assumptions. Spatially (gradually) varied
7. Julian Hinds: The hydraulic jump and erit,ical depth iu the design of hydraulic flow, ~'s previously defined (Art. 1-2), has a nonuniform discharge result-
S~r\)ctllres, Engineering Ncws-RsClJrd, vol. 85, no. 22, pp. 1034-1040, Nov. 25, ing from the addition or diminution of water along tbe eourse of flow,
1920. The added or diminished water will cause disturbance in the energy or
8. WallD.ce M. La.nsford and WilliD.1n D. Mitchell: An investigD.tion of t.he backwater moment.um content of the flow., As ftres'ult, the hydraulic behavior of
pro(ile for steady flow in pi'isnl:t~ic channels, University oj Illinois, En!1ineering
EXpcTl:lI1cnl Stalion, Bulletin Series No. 381, vol. 46, no. 51, lViD.1'ch, 1949.
a spatially va,rlcd flow is more complicated than that of a flow of constant
1.1. Willi"'ffi D. Mitchell: Sf,age-fall-clisoharge reiatioils for steady flow in prisma~i~ discharge. Furthermore, the hydraulic behavior of spatially varied flow,
ehfl.Tln<:.ls, U.S. Geolo!!ica.18urvey, Wa.ler Su.pply Paper 1164,1954. with increasing dischai'ge is different in certain respects from that of
10. J. J. St.oker: "Witter Waves," vol. IV of "Pure and Applied Mathemat.ics," s'imilar flow with decreasing discharge, Therefore, the two types of
Interseience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1957, pp. 45G-461. spatially varied flow will be discassed separately.
A. Flow with Increas~'ng Discharge. In this type of .spatially varied
flow, an appreciable portion of the energy loss is due to the turbulent
mixing of the added water and the water flowing in the channel. In
most caEes, this mixing is of relatively.high magnitude and uncertainty.
Because of the resulting high and uncertain losses, the momentum equa-
tion will be found more convenient than the energy equation in solving
this problem. From a practical vie~vpoint, the high energy loss seems
to mz.ke channels designed for such Bpn,til1lly variedflbw hydraulically
inefficient, but physicl1l circumstances sometimes make the lise of lltlch
structures desirable.
A substantially correct form of the fundamental differential equation
for spatially varied fiowwith increasing discha.rge was probably first
established by Hinds [1] for the design of lateral spillway channels. A
more complete equ:Ltlon, ho,vever, was developed by ,Favre [2,3], including
a friction term and a componentof.lriflow velocity in the direction of the
I1xis of the channel. The methodG developed by Hinds and Favre are
applicable to any channel, prismatic and nonprismatic, but the procedure
requires 8, step computation with successive approximations. For pris-
i
matic rectangular channels with ulliform 'illflow throughout the channel
i length, the differential equation of the flow has been \ntegm,ted by
Camp [4] and Li [5J. Li also treated prismat.ic channels of sloping walls.
Theoretical and experimental studies of the ,flow were also made by .j
De Marchi [6], Citril~i [7], Forchheimcir [8], Schoklit.'3ch [9], and others.
In practical applications, the theory has cOi'ered a variety of problems,
327
,
-I
I
! ,
'.
328 GRaDUALLY .vAniED FLOW SPATIALLY VARIED FLOW 329
from the study of flow in roof gutters [lOJ to the design of wash-water problem' anll-Iytically by assuming the energy line to be parallel to the
troughs in water-treatment plf1nts [11,12] and of side-channe1 spillways spillway crest and to the channel bottom and also by assuming the flow
on dams (Fig . .12-1). profile illong thl'l spillway crest to be linear. Theoretica.lly, De l\farchi
B. Flow with Decreasing Discharge.. Fundamentally, type of [16,17-J proved that the energy head alt.ng the spillway crest is essentially
spatially varied flow may be treated as a flow diversion where the constant and that the flow profile is curved, rising in sllbcl:itical flow and
diverted. watel; does not Ilffect the energy head. This concept has been dropping in supercritical flow. This theoretical investigation was fur~her
vedfied experimentally by Gentilini [18]. Theoretical and practical
studies of the floYI were also performed and advanced by Favre [2,19],
Nimmo [20], Noseda [21-23], Schmidt [24-26], Mostkow [27,281, Ackers
[29], Allen [30J, Collinge [31], Frazer [321, and many others,
In the derivation of the spa,tially-varit;d-flow equation in the next
::uticle, the followin,g assumptions will be made:
1. The flow is unidirectiona1.. Actually, there are cross currents
) present in the form of spiral flow, particularly in l::tteral spill way channels,
The effects of these cm'rents and of the accompanying turhulence cannot
\ be easily evaluated, but will be included in computations if the momentum
'pl'illCiple is used. The lateral unevenness of the water surface, as a result
of cross currerlts, can be ignored.
2. The velocity distribution across -the channel section is constl:U1t and
uniform; that is, the velocity distribution coefficients are taken fiB unity.
Ho\\'ever, proper values of the coefficient£! may be introduced, if necessary.
1 3. The pressure in the flow is hydrostfl.tic; that is, the flow is parnlleL
i The flO\y at the o,utlet, however, may be curvilinear and deviate greatly
from the parallel~fio"T assumption if a hydraul;c drop occurs. In such.
cases, proper values of the pressure-distribution coefficients may be
introduced, if necp,.<;sary ..
4. The slope of the channel is relatively small; flO its effects on the
pressure head and on the force on channel sections are negligible. . If the
slope is appreciable, corrections for these e~ects may be applied.
FIG. 12-1. The side-channel spiilway (·n the Arizona side of Hoover 5. The Manning formula is used to evaluate the friction loss due to the
upstream. (U.S. BUTeau of Reclamation.) shear developed along the channel wall.
6. The effect of air entrainment is neglected. A correctioll, however,
verified by both theory and experiment,. Therefore, the use of the energy
may be applied to the computed result when necessary.
equation will be found more convenient in solving this problem.
12-2. Dynamic Equation for Spatially Varied Flow. The discussion is
The theory of spacially varied flow with decreasing was
given sepo.rately for flow with increasing discharge and flow with decreas-
probably employed first in the design of lateral spillways or side-spillway ing discharge. ..
wehs. This type of structure is usually a long notch installed along the
A. Flow with Increasing Discharge. Refening to the lateral spillway
side of a cha.nnel for the purpose of diverting or spilling excess flow.
i channel in i2-2, the momentum passing section 1 p~r unit time is
Laboratory tests on such structures w~re first made by Engels tI3] and
by Coleman :and Smith [14J.I Forcl~heimer [15J has approac.\1ed th~
1 Engels's ex~eriments indi~f.lted a rising and those by Coiemnn and Smith, on the
1» QV
g
contra.ry, a dropping flow profile along the spUlwa.y crest. This confusion \vas lEIter
expla.ined by De :!vI.arahi [16] as resulting from the f8.Ct thu.t flow was sllbcritical iil
Engels's but supercritical in Coleman and Smith's experiments. where w is the unit weight of water, Qis the discha.rge, and V is the veloc- ,
330 GRADU.'\LLY VARIED FLOW SPATIALLY VARIED FLOW 331
ity. Similarly, the momentum "' ..,""',' ... section 2 per unit time is , The total pressure on section 1 in the direction of flow is ,equal to the
ullit hydrostatic pressure at the centroid of the water area A multiplied
~{] (Q + dQ)(V + dV) by the area, which is equivalent to the moment of A about the free sur-
face multiplied by W, or
where dQ is the added discharge bet\veen sections 1 and 2. The momen- = wiA
tum change of the body of water between sect.iolls 1 and 2 is, therefore,
equal to ' where z is the depth of the centroid of A below the surface of Row.,
Similarly, the total pressure on section 2 is
~ (Q + dQ)(V + dV) - :!£ QV ~o [Q elV
g
+ (V + dV) dQJ
,
(J f!
P2 w(z + dy).t1 + ~ dA dy
Let W be th€ weight of the body of water between the sections. The
component of W in the direction of flow is where dy is the difference between the depths of the two sections 1 and 2.
Neglecting the term containing diffel',mtials of higher order,
W sin f) =
::
u;So(A + J1: dA) dx = w8 QA d,o;
-~.
w(z +dy)A
where slope So is equal to sin IJ and th.., term containing the product of
is dropped. The resultant hydrostatic pressure acting on the body of water between
sectiolls 1 and 2" is
p. - P z = - w A dy
Equating the momentllln change of the water body to' all t;he external
forces acting on the body,
w
' "
- [Q dV
(V
g '
+ + dY) dQ] = P1 - P2
.
+W sin f) FJ (12-1)
dy = 1(
"f! . V dV +. AV dQ ) + (Se - S,)dx (12-2)
where q. = dQ/dx, or the discharge per unit length of the channel, !Lnd D .1
The frictional force along the channel wall is equivalent to the pressure is the hydraulic depth, Ifnonunlform velocity distribution iu the
due to friction head multiplied by the average q,rea (see Art. 5-4) J or channel section is considered, an energy coefficient can. be introduced in
the equation, or .
Ff = w(A + Y2 dA,)Si dx = wASf dx dy So - Sf - 2aQq.lgA 2
dx, --1= aQ2/ qA2D (12-5)
where the product of the differentials is dropped,
.Jo
If.-
S/ne'
GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW SPATIALLY. VARIED FLOW 333
This is the, dynamic equation for spatially varied flow with increasing Adding this term to the right side of Eq. (12-6) and differentiating) the
discharge. Theoretically spealdng, a momentum coefficient should be resulting equation will be identical wit.h Eq. (12-5).
used in the equation. However, the energy coefficient is' used because 12-3. Analysis of Flow Profile.. In discussing the analysis of the flow
: '
the friction slope Sf is evaluated by a formula for energy loss, such as the profile, a simple example will be given first.
i MaIming formula. l When q. = 0, this equation becomes the dYnlimic
I .Example 12~1. A horizontal rectangula.r lateral-splIlway chan,nel hus a free-overfall
equation for' gradually varied flow of constant discharge. outlet. The inflow is ulliformly distributed along the channel with a rate of fl. per
B. Flow with Decreasing Discharge. ,For t.hc analysis of this type of unit length of the channel. Derive the equation. of the . flow profile, ignoring the
spatially varied flow, the energy principle is directly applicable. Let z friction [ass.
.be the distance of toe bottom of the channel section above a horizontal Soltttion. In this problem the ru.te of inflow is '1. Q./L, where Q, is the dilscharge
datum (not shown ill I~i.g. 12-2); tIH') total energy at a channel sectiou is at the outlet an.d L is the channel length. ThUlS, dQ = <i.'dx and Q = <i,X. Let !The
/ the chaunel width; then A by and V Q/A = <i.x/by. Also, S. = S, = O.
I CiQ2 Substituting these expressions ill Eq, '12-4) and simplifying,
H = z + y + 2g112 (12-6)
(12-9)
Differentiating this equation with respect to' x,
This ill a linear differential equation of the first order.
dlI _ dz + dy + a (2Q dQ 2Q2 dA) (12-7) equation is
The genera! solution of this
dx - dx dx 2g A2 dx - AJ dx
gb'll'
x' - - - +1:11 (12-10)
Noting that dJI/dx = -Sf, dz/dx = -So) dQ/dx = q., and 2q.'
(dA) (ddxY) -_
~,! =
dx,dy
TdiY
dx
where I: is an integration con.taIlt which may be determined by the bOUl,da,y condi-
tions of the flow profile,
At the outlet, x = L lIud 11 Yo, Thus, Eq. (12-10) gives
the above equation may be reduced to b'y.3)
1(LZ + lJ2'1.
c (12-11)
r
! dy _ So - Sf - aQq.luA2 11. ~
which is' the dynamic equation jorspat'ially varied flow with deer'easinu (
1 +_1
2F.1
).JL_
y. ('J!)3
y.
(12-12)
_ _-;,.. discharge. It should be noted that this equation differs from (12-5)
where F,' = (12-13) '.
only in the coefficient of the third term of the numerator.
Now it is interesting to know [33] that the momentum principle can
It is apparelit that F, is in the form of n Frqude number oi the flow at the outlet.
also be used for the derivation 'of Eq. (12~8). In 11. spatially varied flow, When free overfali occurs at the outlet, the :!low is critic",l; therefore, F, = L The
with decreasing discharge, no momentum is added to the water. Follow- equation of the flow pre file becomes
a ,procedure similar to the derivation of. Eq. (12-5), the term con-
11 (11)~
taining dQ may be dropped from Eq. (12-1); the resulting equation will v. -H -y.
%- (12-14)
be identical with Eq. (12-8).
_~ Likewise, the energy principle can also be used for the derivation of where depth y. is the critical depth at the outlet for Q,.
When the outlet is submerged, ~he depth Yo ill determined by the downstream aur-
Eq, (12-5). In applying this principle to spatially varied flow with fa.ce elevation, and Fa can be computed from tbe knowledge of y, and Q,. For each
incre~sing discharge, the energy due to the added discharge dQ per ele- value of ~/L, Eq. (12-14) wilIgive two real positive solutions. However, only values
mentmy lellgth d:r: should be added to the total energy the course of y/y. ;?; 1 are true solutions, because the energy in flow rous~ deal-ease a.s the. flow'
of the flow during the time interval dt. This kinetic energy per pound of proceeds dov.;uatream andy aallllot be less than'll •.
water is equal 'to The above example illustrates spatially varied flow in horizontal chan-
mass X velocity2 (w dQ dt)(a V2) nels of rectangular -cross section. Similar analyses can be made for
g X unit weight of water X volume IJw(A d:c) channels with parallel side walls having irregular bottoms and for chan-
1 This is merely a practical interpretation, which lul.s no theoretical basis. nels with sloping side walls. For channels with sloping bed, hbwevel', a
?, '
SPATIALLY VARIED FLOW 335
334 . GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
by the dashed line. , In region A, F. 1, and the flow condition is
general explicit '"rtuatio:1of thefhw profile such as Eq. (12-12) cannot be
governed by the upstream depth YU' In ot,her words, the water 8urfac~
obtained. If no hydraulic j\lmp occurs in the channel, the flow profile
l recedes in the downstream direction, and only the value of y" is of interest
cn.n be computed directly by the method of numerical integration
in determining the channel dimensions, Values of y,./Yo for region A
(Art. 12-4)) starting from a known control depth of flow. have been computed by numerical integration and have been plotted as
Li [5] hns performed an analysis of. spatially yaried flow in channels of
solid lines (Fig. 12-4). The computation was made on the condition
sloping bed ,by means of numerical integration. The results of, this
that y"jy, ~ 1 at x/L = 1-
n.nalysis can be, summarized in a general diagram (Fig. 12··3). For
It cnn be proved that, when dF/t1:x ;:> 0, G < %(1 + 2F.'). This is
channels wIth parallel side walls, the clbgra,rn i.~ shown in Fig. '12-4.
represented by the line dividing, regions A and B in the diagram
1
(Fig. 12-3),
I
(
I
i
G
Value of G
FIG. 12-3. Types of spatia.lly varied flow as determined by F, nnd G.' The diagram FIG. lZ·4:-SO"luiioDs for channels with sloping bed and par:>ilel side walliJ. (After
is shown for [\, channel of an arbitntry sec~ion. Fvr rectangular channels, the line W. H, Li [5].)' , .
dividing regions Band Cis G "" 1 + F.; for trio.ngular channels, it is G '" 2. The
dashed line in each channel is the critical-depch line.
Region B. This region: represents the condition' where the flow is
This diagr8;m indicates the relo,tionship between the Fl'oude number F, subcritical throughout the channel but where the value of F will first·
and the value of G SQL/y.. It consi.sts of fOUl" regions, representing increase as the flow proceeds downstream, reaching a maximum 'value .
less than unity, an,d then decrease. It been found that the line di:vid-
four conditions 01 flow.
Region A.This region l'spresent.s the condition where flow is sub7 regions Band C can be represented approximately by G = 1 + F •.
critical throughout the channel and where the value of F increa.se!; as the This line indicates all the cases in which the maximum value of F reaches
unity. '
flow downstream; that is, dF / dx > O. The symbol F l'epresents
the Froude number of flow at a. section a distance x from the upstream Regicrn C. This region represents the condition at which there is
end of the channeL The value of F can be computed from Eq. (12-13) supercritical flow in the downstream portion of the channel and a hydrau-
by replacing F 0 with F and L with x. Since the flow is subcritical; the lic i:ump in the channel. It h(l.s been found that super critical flow occurs
depth of flow at any section is greater than the critical depth, as shown when G is greater than approximately 1 + F.. The hydraulic jump will
fo:-m only if the outlet is sufficiently submerged. As the jump occurs,
, L The profile can a.lso be computed bra gra.phica.l method developed by Ca.mp ;4],
the control section will be shifted into, the channel, and the elevation
which requires trial adjustments~
I~
336 GRADUAIJLY VARIED FLOW SPA.TIALLY VA.RIED FLOW 337
of the \,rater surface at the outlet will not affect the entire flow profile. 'For an advanced theoretical analysis of spatially varied flow, the
'The flow profile upstream from the method of singular point (Art. 9-6) may be
. jump cannot be determin!ld froni the
,( : value of YO) but it can be determined Example 12-2. Analyze the flow in iii rectangular ch:wuel .of .small slope with a
bottom mck (Fig. 12-6) and derive the equation of the ,flc\v profile.'
\ from the critical depth yaand the
position of the critical section Xc. A SoluiiOn. The flow in a channel with bottom rack is a case of spatially vaded flow
.with decreasing discharge. The ra.ck is usually made of parll.lJel bars 01' perforated
dimensionless flQ~" in the screen. There arC va.rious application;s of such 0. device. For exo.mple, the channel
sllpercritical reach ('[;~ig. 12-5, ill may be' an "intake" to withdraw'w{l;ter
which A" and A .!we water areas, from, say, a mountain torrent, or a "skim-
respectively, of the critical section , mer." to reduce the ,volume of wa~er re-
quired to transport, say, fish.
and the section a distance x from
A~s;lming '" = 1 !l.nd 8 "" 0, the speoific
the upstream end of the ch~nnel) has Bn"rg'y at any section of the channel (Fig.
been computed by numei'ica[ inte~ 12-6) is
gratioll. This curve can be used to V' Q'
FlO. 1,?-5. Dimensionless flow profile in
compute the flow profile below the E =. '11 +"
~g
= 11 + 2gb'11 2 (12-15)
Btipercriti!\a~ reaches in a sp .. til1!ly-
varied-liow cht,nnel of sloping bed and critical section and. above the hy-
parallel walls, (After W. H. Li [5),) , draulic jump. . For a spatially vaxicd flow with de-
creasing discharge, the specific energy
The positi'on of a critical section can be considflrcd constant aiong the
(0'
in the lateral-spillway channel can be determined by the method of singu- channeL' Thua, dE/dx = OJ or, from
lar point (Art. 9-6), Eq. (12-15),
Regio-n D. This region represents the flow,condition Fo.t which there is dll, Qy( -dQ/dx)
supercritical flow throughout the downstream portion of the channel but dx = !lb'y' Q1
(12-16)
where the depth of submergence at the ouMet is not enough to
create a hydraulic jump in the channeL Thus, the value of Fa is not where -'--dQ/d:!; is obvio'Jsly the discharge
withdrawn through a length dx of the
determined by the depth of su'bmergence. The dividing line between
rack. Equatil:m (12-16) is the general
regions C and D (Figs. 12-3. and 12-4) was obtained by numerical inte- dynamic equation for the flow under
gration on the condit,ion of a millimum depth of required consideration.
to prOdtlCe a hydraulic jump at the outlet. This Jnllllmum depth 'is The disc.harge through'the rack de- i~l
. equruto the depth neeeSS1J.ryto set the downstream pool level at a seq).lent pends upon the ei'fective head on the rack. FIG. 12-6. Channel with a bottom rack .
When the direction of liow through the (a.) Partin.! withdrawal; (b) complete
depth. A depth of submerge'nee greater than this. minimutn depth wlll
ra.ck openings i« nearly vertical (A, withdrawaL
force the jump to move upstream into the channel, and the oondition of below), the energy loss in the process is
flow Ifill be represented by region C. negligible' and, thus, the effEctive head on ro.ck is practically equal to the spe-
When the slope of the channel is extremely steep or when the value of cific ellergy E. Mostkow 128J found that this is true of racks such as those
G is very large, the flow ,vill become unsteady. The limiting value of G composed of parnllel bars. On the other hand, when the direction of flow through
that will keep the flow in a steady condition has not determined. the ra.ck openings makes ..n appreciable with the verticai (E), the flow will
impinge all thfl sides of the openings, in a loss of energy e.nd a change in
In the above a.nalysis, the' effect of friction has This direction of the flow from inclined eyentually to vertical. From experiments,
has been verified as justifiable for the design of wash-)vater troughs and :MostkQW found tha.t this is true of as those composed of a perforated
side-channel spillways. For effluent channels around 6ewnge-treatment screen and that tile corresponding energy is approximately equal to thE velocity
tanks. however, the effect of friction may increase t~e upskeam depth
1 There hav~ been many investigations o~ this problem.
Yu ~s :much as 10%.* ' Th.e actual iflaw phe-
nomenon is lather complicated, particularly *'hen the slope of the rack is tll.ken into
$LJ 15] has computed curves repre:;enting the increaSe of !/Y relmitof friction in consideratiqn. : For details, see [21J to [23J, [26j to, [28), and [34J to [381. '
horizontal channels. . • This assumption was found to agree with the experill}ents [21J.
),
I
SPATIALLY VARIED FLOW
338 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
SUbstituting'Eq, (12-24) for ~dQldxand Eq, (12-18) for Q in Eq. (12-16) and
hea.d of the flow over the rack. It may, therefore, be Msumed that the effective
head on the racle is [lqual to the !!btic hee.d, or the depth of flow. over the rack. simpliiying,
dy 2ee ',/iJ[1?=-Tj)
A. }I'or VeNieal ,"'low lhrough Ih~ Rack. In this case the discharge through a length (12-25)
'1 ;h "'" 3y - 2E
ax of the rack may be expressed by
l
(12.17) Integra.l.ion of this aqUlltion gives the eq1!ation of the flow profile as l
where ~ is the ratio of the opening area to the total area of the rack surface and c is
I x = ~ [~i sin-I (1 - 2lt) - %~ "VE
-/!J. (1 1!_)] + 01 (12-2B)
! EO E E
~ }~ -J~ - % ~~ ( 1 .. ~) ] + ~2
the coefficient of discharge through tb:e
. From Eq. (12-15), the (Iischarge is or x = [ 1 (12-27)
Q by (12-18)
I
1
C05-
The integration eon.stants in the above equ:1.tion may be evaluated by the condition
I
Substituting Eq. (12-17) for -dQldx and Eq. (12-18) for Q ill Eq. (13-16)~nd that 11 - !II and x = O. Then, when 11 = 0, Eq. (12-26) wi!! give the length of the
rack required for!!. complete withdraw!l.1 of the main flow througll the I'l'l.Ck, or
simplifying,
(12-19)
-E
.c
[v ~1I1E
/1! - 'Ei!l) - ..,',.sm- (. 1
( 1 - - ~
'~
1 2Y ,)
E
+ (12-28)
tntegratioll of this equation gives tlle equation of the flow profile o.s A and B described above, the entraDce to t11";' reach of the rack
TM'J>Trjm"as (I. broad-crested weir. Thus, Q, = c'bE"', where " may h!l.ve
x= J1 (12-20) a.ll value of 2.80. Also, Eq. (12-13) gives Q, = bYt V2g(E 1h) and
<c .E Q. Thus, the discharge of. a partial withdrawal from the :nain
flow Q.. = Q, Q" or .
For !I = y, and x = 0, the integra.tion cOI~stant is determine<;i from Eq. (12-20) as
C = (E/ec)(ydB) \./1 - 1/dE. Thus,'
(12-29)
x = ~ (!L!
.,; .E E
y (12-21)
For a complete withdrawal of the main flow through the rRck, it is evident that
Wilen y = 0, Eq. (12-21) gives the length of the rack I'equire,d for e. complete with~ Q", Q, = c'bE,·6, from which .E = (Q,/e'b),', Thu8, E may be computed if the
incoming discharge Q" b. and c' are given. ,
(\iawal of the main flow through the rack. or .
'The v~lue c of the coefficient of dischll.rge throug;h tho mcl. cpenillgs actually varies
considerably along the rack. For fJx"mple, typical values dcf,ennined experimentally
E
EC
(!L!E (12-22) were found Lo vary from 0.435, for a grade of 1 on 5, to 0.497, for a horizonkl.l slope of
the racks of parallel bars; and from 0.750, for Il. grade of 1 on 5, to 0.800. for a hori-
By Eq. '(12-18), the above equa.tion may be reduced to zontal slope of the racks of perforated scrsnns [271. III general, the value is higher for
racks of screens than 'for racks of parallel bars. The value is higher for
(12-23) horizontal racks than for inclined racks. The local value increases as the; ftow depth
L, on the rack increases if the bars are parallel to the direction of the main flow bilt
decreases with the depth if the bars are in transverse direction, '
. where QI is the discharge through the ent.ranceto the reach of the rack and is also The n.nalysis of this problem may be further extended by considering t,he effects of
equal to the wit.hdrawal discharge Q" through the rack. the streamline curvature, the nonuniform velocity distribution, and the bottom slope,
B. For Incl:ined Flaw IArough Ill.e Rack. In this case the discharge through a. length and by classifying various types of the flow protil€s thus created. In general, there
dx of the mck may be expressed by are five types of flow profiles, which are similar to those to be described in the neXt
exampie,
_dQ_.eb (12-24) . It may to note that, when a critical state of Row exists OIl th·" upstream
ax side of the rack, the critical depth will occur u.t a. section somewhere upstrea11l frOl:n
1 This equS:tion may also be derived by:means of Eqs. and (i2-18). By
.cbz V'iiE, By ~ Equat~on (12--26) is given by Mostkow [27J and Eq, (J 2-27) by Noseda [2Il. THe
Eq. (12-17), ~he discharge through the ratck of
tw.,' equatIOns are·mc.tbematically idellticll.l. The relatitlnship between the integra- .
Eq. (12-18), Qw = Q,,.- Q = by, V2g(E -7 !II) - by Eq'tating these
two expressions for Q.., Eq. (12-21) is obtained.
tiol! constants ill 0 1 = Ot ,..EIS.c, +
'.
340 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW SPATIALT,Y VARIED FLOW 341
the entrance section. This phenomenon is, therefore, similar to that of a free over- consta.nt, or S, = So. Since the channel is horizontal, So = Q. Thus, assuming
fall (Art. 3-4). The ratioYliV" of the entrance depth to the critical depth -decreases a = 1, Eq, (12-8) gives an equatiou identical with Eq. (12"16), or
\I'itll increase ill the value of • and of the rack slope. Typical average :atios vary
from 0.70 to 0.90, which correspond approximately to the valuGs of VilE frGm 0.47 dy Qy( -dQldx)
to 0,60. ' (12-16)
dx = .Ilb'y' ~ Q'
Example 12-3. Analyze the ftow through a side weir in a prismatic horizontal
rectangular channel.l The discharge over ailY given length of tho weir can be computed by a weir formula,
Solution. The tlow th;:cugh a side weir is a case of spatially varied flow wit.ll
decr~asing dischD.rg~ (Fig. 12-7). Ac- ~..!!!. = _ dQ "" cV2a (V - s)1.' (12-30)
cording to Frazer [32j, the foHowing five dx dx
_--'-'T~
typm; of flow profile can be produced:
where c is the discharge coefficient and s is the height. of the weir sillll.bove the bottom
of-th~ channel. The sill of the weir is pa,'allel to the bottom -of the channel. Equa-
- 'J'ype a. CritilJ~j conditions a.t or near
tiQn (12-18) also is applicable to the present problem. Tl1us, the discharge at -any
the entrailce with supercritical flow in the
weir section, the depth of fiow decreasing section is
along the weir (Fig. 12~7b) Q = by -/2U(B - 0 (12-18)
Type b. Depth of fiow greater than
critical at. the entrance with subcl'itic,ll where b is (·he width of _the channel and E b the specific energy.
flow in ttl''! weir section, the de-nth of flow With Eqs. (12-30) and (12-18), Eq. {12-16} becomes
increasing along the weir se~tion (Fig.
{OJ ay 2c-V(E - y)(y - s)3
12-7c)
Type c. Type a flow at the beginning ax = II 311 - 2E
(12-31)
of the weir selJtion \vith a hydraulic jump Integrating Eq. (12-31) nnd solving for ."
occurring in the w'Jir sect,ion, and type b
flow after the jump at a lower- specific-
energy level owing to jilin p losses (Fig.
x= ~c F (1)
E
+ canst (12-32)
(e)
12"7d)
(1) 2E - 3~ ..JE - y _ 3 sin-1 - IE - Ji
===tl ~----:-
'. YIJYJ=:=::::J~J2 .
7'ype d. Depth of flow less than criti-
cal at the entmnce with supercritical flow
where P
\E
=
E-s V-s'V y - s
(l2-33)
in the \veir section, the depth of flow F(y/E)'is a varied-flow function which WiLS first solved by De Marchi [16J.
j --,-'-- decrell.Sing along t-he weir section (Fig.
12-7e) 12-4. Method of NumerIcal Integration. This method wj1J be applied
'l'ype e. Type d flow at the entrance fir.st to fl, flow with increasing discharge and then to a flow with decreasing
section with a hydraUlic jump occurring discharge. .
in the weir section and type b flow aiter A. Flow with Increasing Discharge. Considering the differentials as
the jilmp a.t a lower specific-energy level
owing to jump losses (Fig. 12-7f) finite increments, Eq. (12-1) may be written
The last two types of flow are possible ~ [Q 6.V + (V + t..Y) 6.Q] -w lo-"Y Ady + wSo !o~% A d:1;
if the approach fiow is 5upercriticaL Iu
a conventionai analysis, it is assumed
that tt,e velocity thro-ugh the side w~ir is
- wS, (Il.'l: A d:c
in general at right !Ingles to the weir.
. }o
This aSaumption is more satisfactory fo'r -wA 6.y + wSoA 6.x - wB,A 6.x (12-34)
FIG. 12-7, Variolls flow pl'ofilesalongaside subcritical flow than for supercritical
weir.
flow. In supercritical flow the velocity
,,,here A is the average area. Since the discharge varies. with the finite
will be high and the angle that the over- increment of the channel length, the average area may be taken as
flow' makes with the weir will be smidL Consequently, types d and e canno-t easily A = (Ql + Q%)/(V 1 + V 2). Also taking Q = QI and V + 6.V = Vz
be analyzed succe~sfully. Furthermore, the discharge in types d ~nd. e flow is con- and simplifying,
trolled upstream, where additional consideration in the analysis is required.
In the present problem the specific energy along the side weir may be assumed
1 For detailed studies of the side weir, see [241 to [271 and [2D I to [32].
SPATlALLY VARIED FLOW 343
342 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
The dl'OP in water-surface elevation between sections 1 and 2 (Fig .. TABLE 12-1. COMPl.rTA'l'ION OF CRITICAL DEPTHS FOR EXAMPLE 12-4
12-2) may be expressed by
Substituting Eq, (12-35) for l1y in Eq. (12-37) and introducing !l,n
8
10
112
150 I
18
20
'3.11
3.75.
14.15
1.5.53
1,585
2,330
4.01
4.63 --I
energy coefficient a for nonuniform velocity distributbn,' the drop in 12 192 224.36 16.75 3,216 5.22
water surface is 14 238 24 4.95 17.86 4,252 I 5.76
16 I
288 25 5.541 18'.88 5,440 6.29
&~'=O:~(I~~r~+Q~2)(6V+ ~:6Q)+Sf~.1; (12-38) 18 "342 28 5.11 II 19.82 5,780 6.82
20 I
400 30 6 67I 20 .71 8,284 I 7.31
Example 12-4. * A trn.pe~oidlLl lateral spillway channel 0100 fl long is designed to ,0 (2) (3) I (4) (5) (8) (7) (8) (9) (10) 1 (11) (12) (13) (14)
1
I
carry a varying discharge of 40 ·ds/ft. The cross section has a bottom width of 10 fl -:-:~~I-· ----.--------j-.---- --.--------
and sid~ slopes of H: L The longitudina.l slope of Lhe channel is 0.1505, starting at
0+ 10' 10 400 400 3.4 '10.01 10.'0 400110.0 .... 2.25 Q.03
an upstream bottom elevation of 73.70. Assuming n = 0.015 and a = 1, compute the 0+25 1.5 l,pOO 1,4GO 5.2 12.5 22.5 RuO 2.5 4.2.5 3.41 0.05 4.30 4.30 - )
flow profile for the design discharge. o T liO 20 2,000 3,000 9.2 ' 14.91 27.4 1,000 2.4 4.9l 4..i0 0.08 4.99 9.29
Soltdion. The Erst step is to determine the control section frQf\l which the Row 1 + 00 50 4,000 5,000 13.5 1 17.6 32.5 2,000 2.7 ·B.77. 5.63 0.16 6.93 16.22
profile c'omputation can start. The control section !nay be determined by the method 1 + 50 50 8,000 10,000 16.9119.31 36.9 2,000 1.7 5.21 5.53 0:16 5.37 21.59
2 + 00 50 8,000 14,000 1 19.7 20.61 39,\1 2000 1.3 4.33 7.23 0.15 4.48 26.07
of singular point. (Art. 9-6). In this example,. however, a method developed by
Hinds [11 is·.employed. The corr.putation is shown in Tables 12-1 and 12-2.
Table 12-1 shows the computation of critical velocities and discharges correspond~
2+50 50
3+00150
3' + 50 50
10,000
12.0001
14.000
18,000 '122 I 21.B:
22 ,000 242/22.4'[
26.000 25.2 23.2
42.2
44.0
45.6
2'00011.0 8.74 7.S3
2:000 0.813.30 8.H
12,000 0.8 3.04 882 '
0.15
0.15
0.15
3.90 29.97
3.45 33.43
3.1.9 3fi.52
I
ing to a number of arbitrarily ASsigned depths, shown in col. 1. The critical velocities 4+00 50 10.000 30,000 28.0 23.8 47.0 12,000'10.612.7319.25 0.15 2.88]39.50
1 1 1 1
in col. 5 correspond to the. critical velocity heads in col. 4. The hydraulic mdii are
also computed and reco.rded in this t~ble for use in computing friction lo;;~e.s. \
Co\. 5. Critical depth in it, interpolated from Table 12-1 corresponding to the dis- .·1
Table 12-2 shows the computation of the drop in'water surface necessary to ma.in- t
tain a flow at the critical depth throughout the full length of the channel. The charge in col. 3
column headings are explained as follows: . Col. 6. Critical velocity in fps, interpolated from Table 12-1 corresponding to the
discharge in col. 3
Col. 1. Distance of the station alO1'lg the channel, in ft
Col. 2. Increment of the distance .
Col. 7, Sum of the velocities in
the previous sta.tion and in the station under con··
sidera.tion
Col. 3. The inflow discharge, equal to x times 40 cfs/ft . Col. 8. Increment. of discharge tlQ = Q, - Ql
Col. 4. Sum of the discharges Ql of the previous station and Q, of the station under Col. 9. Increment of velocity t. V = V, - V,
consideration Col. 10. Drop in water suriace due to impact loss, or
1 The use of an energy coefficient instead of a momentum coefficient has the same
1
,i ,
J'
Col. 1 L Criticl\\ hydraulic radius in ft, interpolated from Table 12-1 corrc;:;pond'- 0""U'.l"''''' .... 000::>""0> ....
~C'lC'40000 ~ C"l'~ ~ CJ)
ing to the di.schmge in col. 3
t-r-t-l.Ce'to ~<6u:ice>~
Col. 12. Friction loss, be.sed on :&t. (9-8) with n. 0.015, V from col. 6, and R
....... M (,,', \0 ~?"'"'
from coL (ll), Since this is ll. minor item. compared with tlie impact loss, it may be :::g:s~~g
ignored if desired. 000000
.. .
M 1""""! ........~ 0 0
..
oeoco
Col. 13.. 'The I,ctal drup in water surface 6y' Ay,: + h,
COOMC~OO 1..... ~'l..... C'\I N
CoL 14. Cumulative drop in water llurface C'3 ....... rl~O{,O
~~~~c:
~<.OtOtOu?-.i c,ot-t-t-C()
Thecumulati:"e drop in water surfaee is plot~ed as the heavy dashod line in Fig. 12-8, Ci)C:~"""'~(D ~~t"CeoOCJ
starting from !l.U a.rbitrary eleva.tion 120' ft from some station at x = 10 ft. The NQ ....... OOCO ~~ ....... .-;~
1_ t""' r- \1:1 C'l 0. "'t'tlCO<oCOID
critical depths from col. 5 of Table 12-2 are then ptotted from the dashed line?s ShO'Uil
by the dotted line.. It is a.pparent that this dotted line represents the bcttom of II ....... 1.C"OO\Qot'- a r:Q (0 O'J ':"')
co r- ~' ct) r..:::; en ....
lOC";It.OC'fllO
.
~~~L.)~c..i H
'
N¢'l~N-C-'1
Oischor~e In cfs.
00000
~_8~~~g_
....... N C"1 'C'1 c,~,
OM¢'tt-(H
100 en ~'0l'Q) 00
~ l"':'c-.i ~ C')
, 90 .... "'lOU'.lCO
I
L t!l
00000
I
~ 00000
L..":)... 0,..c:.
0_ 0_
,$ "'00,""
m ...... _N
jt\-~--~------~
oo(>?.;f:1
O~LOC"lt'-OO...-i
· .
l",",OOCi)t"--('I':>~r-
. . . . ~
'"
>. l'_, ~ - ' t-
~ ~
,.0
:;i'>o\;l'j"'I':TI lJ") N OiIct~r-
....... - ....... M '1""""1
g ,....~NN
',B
000
-0
-0
a
a
0
~
.,.,'"
<oo.ncQU")04?
. N .......
e'8" I--<o-~-.-"'-,_-----1
C"?X>I-l""""'.MtOr-
¢I~ «: 'ZO t'- ..-! t- '-di
~- ~8:;;;;;
~C)C'1'C'-,C'll"""'i,....c ~ M~M~
DislonCi '.1:0ng c~onnel length In It
] 1----·----------------, ~ 1--------------:
;rome for EXllmple 12.4. g8g~~~~~
.....- Ol.OCf')"I:t'
F~G. 12-8. Computation of tlow :3 '.;s a
, .
t:;:; e '§
....c
r...: ~ L..j ~. c-i ~ ~ cO
,..... ............................ .,. . . ;....
~
1..... (,0 CD
1;'- CO ~
.,.... ~ ....... C'1
....-i
. fictitiolls channel in which the flow at the givl'..rt dis~ht\rge condition is critical at e~ery 1--'--1 J3 1-0--'-0-0-""-"'-,.....-00.--,.....--1 ::l.
section throughout the full length of the channe!. The c!l.I.Shed·line is. the correspond- t.Ol"--o:c:r;C'!~~
CO-..:ttM""t'O'l,....tC'1~
'"
W.
ing water surface. A tangent parallel to the bottom of the actual channel can be <:or-r-.~t-C).jooco
drawn to the dotte~ bottom line of the fictitious' critical-ftow channel. The point ·OOt-OOI'..Ot-~
of tangency, at Iyhich the two bottoms have the same slope, gh'es the location of,the ~~~~c:~~~
critical'section, which is found at Ste.. 1 + 64. It is evident that the slope required
"'t-t-r-LOC'<laO
to ma.inta.in critica.l flow to the left of this section i~ greater than the actulll slope ~and 000000
....... 1;'-¢'.1r-c-,1LC";l
that to 'the right it is)esa, which is the con<;lition ne'cessary for the formlLtion of.!l. con- O~~OO~M
~,""cQ¢'lN1"""f
trol. If more than qne point of tangency is possible, the one giving th'e lowest posi-
tion of the ta.ngent ,viii be likely to control., It is:also p08~ible to ha.ve two or more · '"
• to
control sections with'hydraulic jumps 'between. :
Having located th~ control section, the tlow-profife comput.ntion can be carried: ou,t '<"0
'" 0
OlQCO
tOC'l"""'O'
<f'
(Q
0000
tQ 0 L..":l 0
as shown in Table 12-3. The computation proceeds upstream from the control sec- ++ ++++ + ++++
C'lMM~
tion for the subcritical flow in the upper part Qf the channel and -downstrenm for, the 0000
345
SPATIALLY VARIED FLOW 347
346 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
supel'l~ritical flow in the lower part of the channel. ' The procedure of computation ally, this method can be applied equally well to any type of varied-flow
is the same.as thnt explained for Table 12-2, except that the wllter-ourface drop /J.y' equation for flow in prismatic as well asnonprismatic channels.
in col. 4 is finally (Obtained when it agrees with the computed Ay' in col. 17. This is 12":6. Spatially Varied Surface Flow. An important type of surface
shown for the computation at SLa. 1 + 00. In cols. 3 and 5 are elevations of the chan- flow encountered frequently in engineering, problems dealsvrith runoff
nel bottom and the water surface, respectivelJ. 'The value of Ay~ between :z: = 1{l
and x = 0 cannot be computed, but it is arbitrarily fLssumed to be twice the velocity
from a plane surface as the result of rainhdL Apparently" this is a
head at X = 10 ft. The final flow profile is constructed as shown in Fig. 12-8. The problem in spatially varied flow with illcreasing discharge and can be
accuracy of the computatior.. will depend on the length and' number o(subdivisions treated as such; it may, however, be very complicated, becoming a three-
assum<ld. dimensional problem if the surface is CUl'vedin space, as in the case of
B. Flow 'with Decreasing Discharge. For spa,tially varied flow with
a road pavement that has a cambered transverse profile and a longi- -1
tudinal slope. The theory of SlHl,tially varied flow was first used in
decreasing discharge, an equation for numerical integration similar to
sudace flow by Keulegan[40], and the equation thus derived wa.'3 applied
Eq. (12-38) can be obtained. Referring to Fig. 12-2, the velocity and
disr:harge at section 1 are as.sumed as V and Q and at section 2 as 11 - t. V 1
and Q - t-.Q. The momentum lost because of diminished discharge
may be taken as w t-.Q (V - Q V /2)/1}. Adding this lost momentum to
the momentum at section 2, and following the procedure described for II
the flow with increasing discharge, the equation for numerical integration
can be shown to be
(12-40)
.'. .~ ..
i
Iy.
two equations and simplifying, 3. The depth is theoreticnJly constant when the transverse profile of
the road is a parabola with its vertex at the crown, that is, when n = 2.
y (12-43) When the road surface is formed by straight lines connecting the crown
and the' that is, when n 1, the depth becomes smaller near the
This is the eguation for the flow profile, which is generally applicable when crown and greater toward the sides.
x is not too iarge. The value of k has to be determined experimentally 4 .. The effect of the longitudinal slope on mean velocity and friction
since it depends 011: the surfaoe charaoteristics, slope, type of flow, and velocity is to increase the l11.ean velocity and the friction velocity of the
viscosity (in the.case of laminar flow). The value m depends on the type fl0W. This effect is greater near the crown of the road for larger nand
of flow; it is approximately % fqr turbulent and 3 for laminar. greater neal' the sides for smaller n.
For tmbulent flow, the differential equation for the surface flow, from
Eq. (12-4), may be written .
dy
(12-44)
dx
'I"here F2 V 2 /gY. If the raindrop momentum is ignored it can be
shown that the coefficient 2 in the numeraotor will becom~ 1 [of. Eq. (12-8)]. ~.~.------- L -----
For analytical studies, the profile of the surface flow can be computed by
;Fm. 12-10. Cross section of road for surface-flow analysis.
the method of numerical integration. The control section of the flow
profile can be uetermined by the method of singular point or by a criterion
developed by Keulegan [43]. 5. The effect of the longitudinal slope is practieally negligible \vhcn this
For laminar flow on a road surface, I wagaki [<12] has performed a.n slope is very say, less than 0.002 under the normal condition of
elaborate matherna~ical analysis, in which the continuity and momentum H/L 0,02.
equations are applied to n, three-dimensional element of the flow .. By 6. In order to minimize erosion due to raindrops on unpaved road
consielering a, general case in w.Uich the velocity D,nd depth of the flow do surf!:we, the -iongitl2dinal slope should be kept as small as possible.
not change in the longituuinal direction of the road surface. he was able To maintain a unifol'm gra.de of erosion, a cross section witl1 n = 1 is
to derive a differential equation as follows: ' ·IJl'eferable;
PROBLEMS
ely Fl
(12-45)
ilx - F~ 12-1. A rectangular wash-water trough 20 it long a.nd 1.32 ft wid~ l)<1rries a dis-
where (r)"-l p
charge at· a slope of 0.065 to a. free-fall outlet. If the measured upstream depth is
0.34 ft, I)ompute the discharge by means of the chart in Fig. 12-4.
!. 12-2. An formula for calculating the discharge capacity of rapid sand-
6q.2X
and - --g;;2 filter wash-water tronghs,has been developed by Miller [Ill by asSuming a parabolic
flow profile at a maximum discharge. The formula is
The notation is given in 12-10. The transverse profile of the road Q "'"' 1.91b(y.. -+ L tan 8) (12-46)
surface is represented by y -H{x'/L)1t. Equation (~2-45) was then where b is lhe width of the rectangular channel in ft, y .. is the upstream depth in H,
applied to a numerical example, and fio,,, profiles were computed by the L is the channel length in ft, and IJ is the angle that the channel bottom makes with
isoclinal met.hod. From this investigation, the following conclusions the horizontal. Using this formula, compute the discharge required in Prob. 12-1.
were obtained: 12-3. A rectangular wash-water trough 30 ft long is required to ·cal'l'ya discharge
1. 'The flow profile is independent of the longitudinal slope of the road of 8 cfs, having a free fall at the outlet. Design the trough for the least o.mount of
material required fOT theconstl'uction·(neglecting the end wall and making the total
1 surface. wall and bottom wall of the channel a minimum). Assume:
I· 2. In case of natural runoff, the flow profile is approximately repre-
senteel by the .curve dy/dx· 0 except for the part neal' the crown of the a. A horizontal channel
I road. a. That the channel has a slope
j
-I
350 GRA.DUALLY VARIED FLOW SP_~TrALLY VARIED FLOW 351
12-4. Compute el;e flol\' profile in Prob. 12~1. Assume 4. Thomas R. Camp: Lateral spillway channels, Tmnsactions, Am.eric<l.n Society of
Civil Engineers, vol. 105, pp. 6C6:-6i7, 1940.
a. A horizontal channel 5. Wen-Rsiung Li: Open channels with nonl1niform discharge, Transactions, Ameri-
b. A channel with slope equal to 0.0(35 can Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 120, pp. 255-274, 1955.
12-5. Derive the equation of the flow profile in Example 12-2 if a is not equal to 6. G. De Marchi: Canali con portatll progressivament.c crescente (Chs.nnels with
unity. increasing discharg~), L' Energia dettriea, lIfilano, vol. 18, no. 6, Jlp. 351-360,
12-6. A horizontal bottf)In rack made of perfor:ttcd screr.r, is. designed to divert July,. 1941; reprinted as Is{.it,~to di ldra1LlicCL e Costruzioni ldrauliche, Alilano,
water from a channel . . Determine the length of the rack req1:lired to withdraw the Memorie e stlLdi No. 45, 1941.
total main .fioll' of 26 ds from the channel. Given:. = 0.5, e = 0.8, c' = 2.80, 7. Duilio Citrini: Canali rettangola,ri con'portata e larghezza, gmdualmente variabili
b = 3 ft, and y,/E = 0.60. (Rect.angular chaunels with gradually va.rying discharge and width), L'Elwrgia
12-7. Solve tb.e preceding problem if the rack i~ Illade of pam!lel bars. elett)'ica, l11ilano, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 254-262, May, and no. 6, pp. 297-301, June,
12-8. A side weir is ased to ciivert the excess of a storm flow of 75 cfs from >\ 'IS-in.- Hl42; reprinted !IS lstiluto di Idmulicc e Costnlziorii ldmulicite, MilaM, lvlemorie
diameter sewer. The sel'!er has a grade of 1 in 400,a iull·flow eapacity of is cis, and e stud·, No. 52, 1942. .
an unrestricted outlet. The dry-weather flow is 5 cis. Detimnine (a) the height of 8. Philipp Forchheimer; "Grundriss cI~r Hydraulik" ('IOutlin~ of Hydra.ulics "),
the weir sill, and (b) the lengt.h of the weir, assuming a = 1. It is ,.Iso assumed that Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig and Berlin, 1920, pp. 93-95.
tile top width of the water s.re:t is const2.nt and equal to the diameter of the sewer; so 9. Armin Scholditsch II Handbuch des Wasserbaues" ("Handbook of Hydmulic
the equations derived for recta.ngular channals can be applied. Engineerir.g"), Springer-Verlag, Vienna, 1950, vol. 1, pp. 136-142.
12-9. Solve the preceding problem if '" = 1.20. 10. K. Rilding; Bcij: Flow in roof gutters, Journal of Research, U.S. N ali[t/~al B1l1'eall
12-10. By converting increments to differentials, show that Eq. (12-35) is ident.ical of.Standards, voL 12, no. 2, pp. J93-213, February, 1934.
with Eq. (12-4). . 11. C. N. Miller: An appro:o::irnate·formula for calculat.ing the design capacit.y of rapid
12-11. Determine the control section in EX!l.mple 12-4 by the method of .~ingular sand filter wash watel- trottghs, app<mciix B in J. W. Elhns: "'Vater PurificnLiQn,"
point. . . McGraw-Hili. Book Company, Inc., New York, 1928.
12-12. Demonstrate analytically tha.t Rinds's method for the determmatlOn of 12. M. F. Stein: The design of wash water trou~;hs for mpid sand filters, J01lTnal,
control section is identical with the method of singular point. America.n }Vaier WOl'ks Association, voL 13, pp. 411-415. Discussion by Clifford
12-13. C~mpllee the flow profile in the channel described in Example 12-4 carrying N . .[I.liller, pp. 415-417, 1925.
a varying discharge of 50 cfs per foot of ch!l.nnellength. . 13. Hubert Engels: Mitteilungen (HIS dem Dresclener Flussbau-Laborat.oriUll1 (Report 1
12-14. Compute the flow profile in Example 12-4 by the isoc!inalmethod.
12-15. Verify Eq. (12-40).
of the Dresden Hydraulic Laboratory), Zei(8chrift des Vereins dB!ltscker lnr;o7t1:-
citre, Berlin, vol. 6!,l, nn. 24, pp. 362-.:s65, Jun~ 15; no. 25, pp. 387-390, June 22;
!
12-16. Shol~ that the flow in a rectangular prismatic channel with a lateral spill- no. 2(3, pp. 412-416, June 29,1918; tlnd vol. 64, no. 5, pp. 101-106, Jan. 31,1920,
way may be expressed by also Forschllllgm,.beiten auf dam Gebiete des I 1!>JenieuTwe~ens, Berlin, nos. 200 and
,----zy 201, 55 pp., 1917. 1I.
Q -= b \) (Hy' -- 1/3) ~ (12-47) 14. G. S. Coleman and D(~lilpstcr 'Smith: The discharging c~"pacity of side weirs,
lnstil.ution of Civil Engineers, LondO'll, Seleeied Engin~,;ring Papar~, No. G, 1923.
where b is the channel width, y is the depth, H is the constant energy head in th.e spill- 1.5. Philipp Forc·hheim.~r, "Hydraulik" ("Hydraulics"), Teubner Verla.gsgesdlschJ.ft,
way section measured above tile channel bcittom, and a is the energy coefficient: Leipzig and -Bm'lin, 3d cd., 1930, pp. 406-409. .
12-17. Artificial rainfall of a constant intensity "qual to 3.6 in./hr is applied on a
concrete pavement ha.ving a slope of 0.0'.1 and a roughness coeffkient n = 0.025.
16. G. De Marchi: Saggio di teona del funzionamento degli stramazzi lateraJi ·1
(Essay ·of the performance of lateral lVelrs), L' Enc,.gia electrica, 11:[ ilano, vol. 11,
Compute the flow profile, ignoring the raindrop momentum. Assume that: no. 11, pp. 849-860; November, 1934; reprinted as I stitllto di ldraulica e Coslruzioni
ldrauliche, Milano, Mamorie e studi No. 11, 1934..
a. The lower end of the pavement is a free-fall outlet. 17. G. De. Marchi: Profili longitudinuli della superficie lib era delle correnti permanenti
b. Ther~ is a dam % in. nigh at a dista.nce of 5 ft from the lower end of the pavement.
lineari con port,a.ta progressivamente crescente 0 progressivumente decrescentf!
entro can ali dt sezione costante (Longitudinal flow profiles of linea.r steady flow
REFERENCES with increasing discharges or d"creasillg disclIarges in prisma.tic cha.nnels), Ri~erca
scieniifica. e ricostruzion.e, Rome, nos. 2 and 3, pp. 202-216, February-March,
1. Julia.n Hinds: Side channel spillways: Hydraulic theory, economic factors, and 1947. Also published as Des formes de la surface libre de courants permanents
. e)cperiment.al determination' of losses, TTansactions, American Society of Civil avec debit progressivement croissant (ItI progressivement decroissr,nt dans Ull
Enr;ineers, vol. 89, pp. 881-927, 1926. canal de section constante, Revue g~ntrale de I' hydraulique, Paris, vol. 13, no. 38,
2. H. Favre: "Contribution o.l'etude des courants liquides" ("Contribution to the pp. 81-85, 1947.
Study of Flow of Liquid "), Dunod, Paris, 1933. . . 18. B. Gentilini: Ricerche sperimentali sugli sfioratori longitudinali (Experimental
3. E. Meyer-Peter and Henry Favre: Analysis of Boulder Dam spillways made by researches on side weirs), L' Energia elctt1:ic~, .Milano, vol. 15, no. 9, pp. 583-595,
Swiss laboratory, Engineering Ne1J)s7Record, vol. 113, no. 17, pp. 520-522, Oct. September, 1938; reprinted as lsti/'4/0 di I draulica t; Costruzioni ldrauliche," :Milano,
25, 1934. Memorie e studi No. 65, 1938. .
1
I
I!
~-
19. H. Favre: Sur ip.s lois regissant Ie nlouvement des flu ides dans les conduites en J. Orth, E. Chardonnet, and G. 1'I~ynareli: Etude des gri1~es paul' pris~s d'eau cl.u
, charge avec }l.<lducLioll Io.terale (On the laws governiilg the flow in :CDnduits with 37. type "en dessous" (Study of bottonl'type W[I,ter-intake gmls), La Houdle blanche,
iaterai disciwrgej, Rev1,e '((niver-selle des mines, Liege, vol. 13, sel'. 8, no. 12, ,pp. G'renoble 9th Yf .. 110. 3, pp. 343-·351, June, 1954. , .
502-512, December, 1937. 38. Josef Fr~nk: Hydraulisch~ Untersucbungen. fUr das TiTOler Wehr (Hyc\J'aulic
20. W. H. R. Nimmo: Side spillwo.ys for regdating diversion canals, Tmnsactions, B.nalysis for the Tirol weir), DeT Bm!~llgenieuT, BerliIl, vol. 31, no. 3,pp. gO-lOl]
Amel'ica.n Society oj Ci..'il Engineers, vol. 92, pp. 156r-1584, 1928. 1956.' i b' I' I ' .
21. Giorgio Nosedo.: Operution and design of bottom int.ake Tl!.cks, P"oceed-ings of the 39. P. Wilh. Werner: Wasserspiegelberechullg von Kana~en el g elC lmagSlg?l'
6!h Genei'al 'Meet'iny, Intwno.tional A.ssociatio'n of Hydrl.LlI/·ic Hesea'rch, The Harjue Bewegung lind veranderlichcl' Wassennenge (ComputatIOn of .water surface Il1
i955, vol. 3, pp. Cl7-1 to Cl7-ll, 1955; repTinttd flS Ist'Unto di ldm'alica e Cosln!- channels wi.th steady flow aad variable discharge), Dte Bautechmk, Berilll, vol. 1[),
.ioni IdmuliciJ.e, Milario, 11femorie e stud'i No. 130, 1956. ' 110.23, pp. 251-252, May 30, 1941. ' , . " .
22. Giorg-io Noseda: Correnti perinanenti con port,.to. progressi'lamente dec\'escente, 40. G. H. l{euleg[l,u: Spatially variiLble discharge over a slopmg plane, 'lransacltons,
defluenti su gl'iglie eli fondo (Steady flow with graduallydecl'easing discharges on Arnorican Geophysical Union, pt. VI, pp. 955-959, 1944. . '.
bottom intake mcks), L' En~r(riu. eleU'ricu. r l"'filatl,(J, vol, 33, no. 1, pp. 41-51, January, 41. C. }'. Izzard: The surface-pn)file of overllJ.nd flow, Transaclwns, Amenca.n Geo-
10.56; reprilltecl as Istituto di Idmul'ica e Costr,,~'ion'i Idra1l/i"h6, 1I1'iiano, Memorie e physical Union, pt. VI, pp. (J59-968, 1944. . ' .,.
8t1l(/;i No. 132, Hl56. 42. Yuichi Iwagaki; Theory of flow on road Eurface, Jl;ie7ll0lrS of the Faculty OJ EngmcBr-
23. Giorgio, Noscda: Corrt!!'.ti permanenti eon portat<t prllgressivament,e decrescente, ing, Kyoto Ur..il,ersity, Japan, vol. 1~, no. 3, pp. 139-14:, JulY~ 1951. . ,
defiuellti su griglie di fondo: Riee:-c!1, sperimentale (Steady flow with gr!l.duo.Uy ~,3. Garbis H. '1Celliegan; Determination of critical depth III sp[l,tl.all y varw,b~e flow,
decl'eMing discharge on bottDm intake racks: Experims:nt!l.1 results), L'E?w·yia Proceedings of the !lid Midwestern. Conference of Fluid Mechamcs, The Ohto State
eieUriCll., !lIilano, vol. 33, no. (1, pp.565-588, June, 1956; Teprinted as ]:;!ituio di University, ETl.gineeTing Experiment Station, Bulletin 149, Septem.her, 1952, pp.
Id"a'ltb!ca e Cosln,~ioni IcZrauliche, Alilano, il-lemo1'ie e St'lldi !'lo. 13,J, 1950. 57-80.
24. Martin Schmidt: Zur Frage des Abflusses liber Streichwehre (Dlseharge \lver side
weirs), Tecfmische Un'ilJel'si~{;U Be1'l'in-CharlaUenb1Lrg, Ins/itut jiil', Wasse"bau,
Milteihmg 41, 19M.
25. 1\'h\1'tin Schmidt: Die Bel'echnung von Streichwehren (Computation of side
weirs), Die Wasserwir!schaft,Stuttgart, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 06-10,0, January, 1955.
26. Martin Schmidt: "Gerinnehydraulik" ("Open-channel Hydraulics"), VEB
Verlag Technik, Berlin, and Banverlag GMBH, Wiesbaden, 1957, pp. 188-19B.
27. M. A. Mostkow: "Handblch der Hnlraulik" (" Handbook of Hydraulics "), VEE
Verlag' Technik, Berlin, 1956, pp. 21)4-208 and 213-221.
28. Michel A. NIostkow: Sur Ie calcul dcs grilles de prise d'eaa (Theoretical study of
bottom type water in~ake), La Houille blanche, Grenoble, 12th yr., no. 4, pp. 570-
580, September, 1957.
29. Peter Ackers: A theoretical consideration of'aide weirs as storm-water overflows,
Proceedings, Instil.'l1tion of Civil Engineers, London, vol. 6, pp. 250-269, February,
1957. .
30. John WilEam Allen: The dis~harge of w~,ter over side weirs iIl cireular pipes, Pro-
ceedings, Inslitu'ion.of Civil Engineers, London, vol. 6, pp. 270-287, February, 1957.
31. Vincerit Knight Collinge,: The discharge c!l.pacity of side weirs] Proceedings, Insti-
tlltion oj Civil Engineers, London, vol. G, pp. 288-304, February: 1957.
32. Willil1Ln Frazer: Thc behavibur of side weirs in prismatic reCltangular chdnnels,
hoceedin(ls, Instit'lliion of G-ivil Engineers, London, vol. 6, pp. 305-328, February,
1957. ,
33. Ven Te Chow: Discussion of Flood ,protect-ion of canals by lateril spillways by
Harald Tults, paper 1077, Proceedings, American Society of C~vil' Engineel's,
Journal, HydTa11Zics Div'ision, vol. 83, no. H.Y2, pp. 47-49, April, 1957.
34. l!'. Gl1~ot: De Watervang met liggelld rooster (Channel with bottom grid), De
Inveniimr in Nederll;ndsch-Indie, no.:7, 1939.
35. M. B~uvard: Debit d'uIle grille pat en .dessous (Discharge passing through a
bottom griq), La Houille blanche, Grenoble, 8th yr., no. 2, pp. 290-291, May,1953.
,36. J. Kurjtzma~ll and M. Bouvard: Jt~ude theorique des grilles de pri,ses d'eau du
type ':'en dessous" (Theoretical study of bottom-type water-intake grids),
La H ottilie blanche, GreIloble, 9th yr., 'no, 5, pp. 569-574, September-Oc:tober, 1954.
~
>
"d
S
l:"'C
~
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~
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._ _ L . ,
----
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CHAPTER 13
INTRODUCTION
. _. ___..::;;- O. 'Eieparation zones, eddies, a.nd rollers that may occur in rapidly
varied flow tend to complicate the flow pattern and to distort. the actual
velocity distribution in the stream. In such cases, the flow is actually
confined by one or more se.e..aration zones I:ather than by solid boundari!"""
13-2. Approach--tontheProbiern. Th~th~ that assumes a parallel
flow wit.h hydrostatic preSSUl'e distribution is known in classic hydraulics
I'
I as the Breslie theory;1 such .a theory is used for uniform flow and gradun.lly
varied flow. This theory, of course, does not n.pply to rapidly varied
floW', even wit.h continuous flow profile, For rapidly varied flow of con-
tinuous fiow' profile, cln.ssic hydraulics has shown that a mathematica.l
equation of the flow can be established on the hasis of an inviscid- (i.e.,
frictionless or nODviscous) n.nd potential-flow condition [1-4]. A direct
1 Thill is 50 called because of. the early contribution by Bresse to the solution of the
d,rnamic equutioll for gradually varied flow (see Exa.mple lO-4).
357
I
358 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW INTRODUCTION 359
solution of the mathematical equation will require further knowledge of· some permanent flows with curV'sd filaments), thesis, Universite de Lausanne,
Lausanne, Switzerland, 1937. . .
the CUl'vatUI'C of the flow. In·the classic theorll of Boussinesq [5], the 7. H. Alden Foster; Construction of the fiow net for hydraulic design, Transa.ctions,
curvature is assumed to illcr'ease ~arly from the channel bed to-.th.e America,n Soci-.ty of Civit Engineers, vol. 110, pp. 1237-1252, '1945 .
. cllt'ved flow 8Urrace~ and the problem IS sOlved by the moment.11ill prir_ 8. E. W. Lane, F. B. Campbell, and W. H.· Price: The flow' net and the electric
~-Elt-he theory of Fawer [6], the curvature is assumed to vllry analogy, Civil Enqinael'in{/, pp. 510-514, October, 1934.
exponentially with the distance from the channel bed to the free surface, 9. Fnmz Prasil: Uber FHlssigkeitshe\\'egungen in RotationshQhll'i!.umen (On fluid
motion in rotational vacuums), Schweuei-isc/le Buuzeitung, ZUrich, vol. 41, no. 18,
and the problem is solved by the energy principle. Modern approaches
to the solution of an inviscid potential flow often resort to a graphical
pp. 207,201); no. 21, 233-237; no., 22, 249-251; ·no. 25, 282-283; and flO. 213, 293-
295, May-June, 1903. ·Also, '''l'echo.ische Hydrodynarnik" ("Technical Hydro-
I
.i
method ~r to a ilUmericnl method of approximation. A popular graphical dynamics "), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1913, p. 61; 2d ed., 1926, pp_ 2!il-:236.
method is Row-!let £malysis [7,8}, which was first suggested by Prasi! [9] 10. E.G. Barillon: Note sur les ravons de courbure intervenant d&ns la construction
and later genel'alizerl BarilIon [10]_ There are many numeTical des reseaux hydrodynan~iqlles (Note on the radii of CUl'V'ature invol~ed in the COIl-
struction of hydrodynamic networks), R"uue ge.nerdZe de l'hydrauliqu.e, Paris, vol. 2;
methods; of these the method of relaxat.ion [11) is hi~quently used. no. 8, pp ••111-415, 1936.
The above-mentioned theories and methods of am,lysis for ra.pidly 11. John S. r.-IcNown, En-Yun Hsu, and Chio.-Shun Yih: Appli~tions of the relaXll.-
varied flow with continuolls profile can be found in many hydmulics tion .technique in fluid mechanics, TTil1tsQ.c!i01tS, .'imerican Society of Ciliil Enqi-
textbooks an::! in the references listed here. Despite such developments, nee"s, voL 120, pg. 650-669, 1955_
a satisfact.ory general solution of this type of problem has not yet been
obta.ined. Practical hydraulicians, ther.efore, have long ago come to
l'ego.rd the various phenomena of mpidly varied flow as a number of iso- ,i
lated cases, each requiring its own specific empirica;l treatment .. In the J,
following chapters, trpicai problems of rapidly varied flow are treated
mOl'e or less in this. way. In most cases, the experimental results are to
be used empirically. The physical aspects of the flow will be int.el'-
preted fJ.ualit~f;ivelYJ whenever possible, according to thl') principles of
energy, momentum, and geometry, and sometimes by dimensional.
analysis.
REI<'ERENCES
k = A (liY+ B ;
FLOW. OVER SPILLWAYS
+C (14-3)
B 0.411 1.603
C 0.150 0.45 ~
D 0.57 - O.02(10mp exp (lOrn) (14-8)
FIG. 14-1. Derivation Of nappp. profiles over S!larp-,jr~stcd weir by the' principle of where m h;,/H - 0.208, and h. is the velocity head of the apPl'o,\ch
projectile.
Bow, For high w.;;irs, the velocity of appro[\,ch is relatively small and
principlo, it is assumed that the horizontal velocity co~por,ent of the flO\.y call be ignored. Thus, the constants become .4. -0.425, B 0.055 ,
is constant anu that the only fOl'ce acting on tlie nappe is gravity. In C 0.150, and D = 0.559. Experimental data hays, indicated that
! time t, a particle of water in the lower surfl1c~ of the nappe will travel a th~se equations ~re not valid when x/H is leS8 than ab011t 0,5 and that, for
) horizontH.l distance ;1;' from the face of the weir, equal to • h.IH > 0,2, additional data for verification are needed, For xl}! < 0.5,
x voi cos ( J . . (14-1) the preSS1ll'e within the nappe in the vicinity of the weir crest is actually
ab9ve atmospheric because qf the convergence of the streamlines. Con-
~"h~reu~ is the velo~ity at the point where Xi = 0, and IJ is the angle of sequently, forces other tha~ gravity a.t'e acting on ,the nappe, which
mChno.tlon of the velocity Vo with the horizontnl. In the same time t the makes the principle of the Pfojectile invalid. .
particle will t.ravel ~ vertical distance y equal'to )
/ . I It should be noted that tJie above theory anq. equations apply ollly if
Y = -voi sin !J + Yzgt + C'
2
(14-2) the approach flow is sub critical. For supercritical flow, or F > I, t.he·
360
1
RAPIDLY V AllIED FLOW FLOW OYER ·SpiLLWAYS 363
nappe profile becomes essentially a function of the Fl'O(lde number rather nappe, however, usually occurs in overflow spillways and measul'ingweirs.
than a functiol\ of the boundary geometry as described above [4, p. 633) .. This means a. reduction of pressure beneath the nappe due to the removal
Many experimental formulas for the discharge over sharp-crested weir of air by the overfalling jet. This reduction of pressure will calise
have been developed.! Most such formulas can be expressed in the undesirable effects, such as (1) increase in pressure difference on the spill-
general form.2 way or weir itself, (2) change in the shape of the nappe for which the spill-
Q =. CLHl.i (14-9) way· crest is generally rle"igned, (::\) increase in
discharge, sometimes ac('.ompanied by fluctuation
where C is the discharge coefficient, L is the effective length of the weir or pulsation of the nappe, which may be very
crest, and H is the measured head above the crest, e.tcl1Uling the velocity obi ectionable if the weir or spillway is used fol'
I
!
head. The effective length of the weir may be computed by measuring purposes, and (4) unstable perfoi'rnance
L = L' - O.~NH (14-10) . of the hydraulic model. .
01'. the basis of experimental studies on spillways
where L' is the mea~ured length of the crest and N is the numbet· of con- with gates (Fig. 14;-2), Hickox [l1J developed the
tractions. For two end contractions, N = 2. For one end contraction, following equation giving the quantity of air re-
N == 1. When 110 contractions are present nt the two enus, N = O. quired for aeration in cubic feet per second per foot FIG. 14-2. EXlJerimental
According ~o a well-known weir formuia of Rehbock [10], the coefficient of length of weir; setup for studying fi.era.-
C in Eq. (14-9) is approximatety . tion below the n2.ppe.
(14-13) Dashed lines indica.te
H
C = 3.27 + 0.4011: (14-11) the condition of fun
aeration. (A/tel' G. H.
where H is the mea.~ured head in ftover the top of Hickox [Ill.)
",here h is the height of weir. IVIeasurements by Rouse [4, p: 532] indi- the gate ; p is the reduction of peessure in feet of
cate that this equation holds up to Hlh = 5 but can be extended to water to be maintained beneaththe nappe; and C is a coefficient depend-
H Ih = 10 with f~Lil' approximation. For If Ih greater than about 15, the ing on the ratio of the discharge beneath the gate to the discharge over \
.I
weir becomes a sill, and the discharge is controlled by a critical section . the top of the gate. The ratio is represented by a dimensionless value
immediately upstream from the sill. The critical depth of the section is
approxim.ately equal to H + h. By· the critical depth-discharge r,~la (14-14)
tiol1snip, it oan be shown that the coeffir.ient C is )
+ hH)!.6
where y is the height of the opening below the gate in it and H" is the head
C = (
5.68 1 (14-12) on t.he center of t.he gate in ft. for 1.1ngated weir or spillway, (f = O.
The transition between weir and sill (betw~en Hlh = 10 and 15), how-
The va.lues of C are as follows: . .\
'-1-.5-1 ..~1 2.5+
I
" I 0
ever, has not yet been clearly defined. .
Experiments have shown that the coefficient C' in Bq. (14-9) remains .-.-c-/ 0.077
0.5
0.135
\ 1 0
0.175.[0.202 I 0.220 0.225
approximately constant for sharp-Grested well'S under varying heads if
Intermediate values can be interpola.ted from a cUl've constructed with
the nappe is' aerated.
the above va.lues.
14-2. Aeration of the Nappe. In the preceding article the ovedalling
. 14-3. Crest Shape of Overflow Spillways. Early crest shapes were
nappe is considered aerated; that, is, the tIpper and lower napp'e surfaces
usually based On :i simple parabola designed to fi~ thE; trajectory or Hie
are subject to full atmospheric pressure. Insufficient aeliationbelow the
falling nappe, as already described in Art. 14-1. From 1886 .to 1888
IFor a genera) description of shnrp-crested-weir experiments and formulas, see [6J. Bazin [12] made the first comprehensive lahoni.tory investigation of nappe
For further studies. of the discha.rge characteristics of sha.rp-crested weirs, see [71
shapes. The,use of Bazin's data in design will produce a crest shape that
a.nd [81.
2 Th.e derivation of Il theoretical weir-discha.rge formula. ca.n tie found in ma.ny
coincides with the lower surface of an aerated nappe over a shmp:-crested
hydra.~lics textbooks. The first mathematica.! analysis on discharge of weirs was weir. Theoretically, the adoption of such a profile, generally kilown as
performed by Boussinesq [9]. the Bazin profile, should cause no negative pressures on the crest. Under
..
FLOW OVER SPILLWAYS 365
364 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
For intermediate slopes, approximate va-lues of I( and n may be obt~ined
actual conditions, however, there exists friction due to roughnes.'!! on the.
by plotting the ,11bove values the correspqn~ing slopes a~ld ,mter-
( surfi1ce of the I;;pillw2,Y. Hence, negative on such a profile
polating from the plot the required values for any given slope wlthm the
cannot be avoided. The presence of negative pressures will lead to
danger of cavit<1tion dama,ge. In selecting a suitable profile, avoidance plotted range. . . .
\ The upstream face of the spillway crest may sometllnes be deslgned to
of negativ6 pressureS should be considered an object-ive, along with such
Eet back, as shown by the dnshed lines in The shape of the crest
other fadors as maximum hydl'aulic efficiency, pr~.cticability, stability,
1 n.nd economy. ConsequeJ1'~ly, the Bazin profile hus been variously modi-
fied, and many o~her profiles for design purposes have been proposed. l
From 1932 to 1948, ext.ensive experiments on the shape of the nappe
over a sharp-crested weir wete conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Recl:1ma-
tion. 2 On the basis of experimental data including B".zill'S, the Bureau
hn.s developed coordinates of nappe surfaces for vertical and various slope-
faced weirs. This information is indeed invaluable for accurate an[\,lys(3
and precise of SpillWity overflow sections .. For practical purposes,
how~ver, t,his infol'llll.lGion can bo usedrnore simply without essential loss
of ace\U'acy, thrQugh modifications that wiil be described below:
On the basis of the Bureau of Reclama.tion data, the U.S. Army Corps
I of Engineers hn.s rleveloped sever<11 sta.ndal'd shapes at its Watel'ways
I Experiment Station. Such . 14-3), designated as the WES
lltandal'd spillway shapes,3 can be by the following eq llntion:
y (14-15)
where X and Yare coordinatei.l of the crest profile with the origin ::It t,he
highest point of the crest, He is the design head e:cch~din(J the velocity head
of the [\,pproach flow, and IC and n nre parmneters depending 011 the slope
of the upstream face. The values of J( [,nd n fl.re given as follows:
Slope of ups/rem" fave K n
VerticaL ............ 2.000 1.850
3· on 1.. . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.936 1. 836
3011:2 ...........•.. 1.939 1.810
3 on :1. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1. 873 1.776
~ EKamples of othel' well-known pmfile;; a;:8 (1) the CreG.ge,· profile [13) developed FIG. 14-3 .. The WES-standard spillway shapes. (U.S. A"my Engineel's Wa;~e1"lDa.ys
from a mathematica.l extension of Ba.iH's data, (2) the modified CnilJ.gcr profile [21 Experiment Slatioll.)
based on t"e U.S. Bmeau of Reclaniatioll dfJ,tn from Di!m-er tests [II, (3) the LClnB-
Davill projile [l4J Q!lsed on the U.S. Bure!L\\ of Reciall1aLicn data from Fort Collins will not be affected materially by such details, provided the modification
tesLs'[l] and the datn of Bazin [12] ,l,nd Scimel11i [15], t4) theSci·,.i;emi profile l151, (5)
with at least one-ha.lf the total head H. vertically below the origin
the SmetmtCl Ill)], (!l) the J)¢ Marchi profile [17J, and (7) ~he Escande profile. [18] ..
For" good of various well-known profiles, see \19]. of coordinates. This is because the vertical velocities are srrmll below
• See. [11. The main project WIlS sta.rted in 1936, nnd the test.s were conducted in depth and the con:esponding effect on nfl.ppe profile. is negligible.
the Bureau's Hydl·ll.ulic Laboratory in Denver, Colo. Earliee experiments conducted Discharge of the Overflow Spillway. The dl~charge over a
by the Burea.u were performed in H)32 at the Colorado Agricultural Experbllent Sta- spilllVay can be computed by an e~ttation in the fo:'m ~f Eq. (14-9), Ilor
tion,' Fort Collins, Colo. The former are usually referred to as the Den.ver tests, the
btter as the Port Collins tests.
spillways designed for the WES shapes, the equatlOn IS
'From [20],· Hydraulic Design Charts: Ill-I, WES 4-1-52; and· 111-7 to 111-9, . (14-16)
WES 2-54. The development of the WEB standard shapes is described. in [21].
366 RAPIDLY VA.RIED FLOW FLOW OVER SPILLWAYS 367
whel:e H. is the total energy head on the crest in ft, 'inclUding the velCl()ity to show the effect of the approach velocity on· the relationship between
head in the "pproach chani1el. Model tests of the spillways have shown H.!~ld and C/Cd for spi.lIways d€;si~l1ed for WES shapes having vertical
that the effect of the approach velocity is negligible whim the height II of upstrea,m face. For spIllways havmg sloping upstream face, the value
tho spillway is greater than 1.33H,!, where Hd is the design head excluding of a can be c.arre.cted approximately for the effect of the upstream-face
the approach velocity head. Undel' this condition and with the design slope ~y m?-itlplymg C ~y a correction factor obtained from the attached
chart 111 !lg. 14~4. ThIS correction was developed from the Bureau of
I
1.3
ReclamatIOn da.ta flJ.
1.04
1.03 1.2
.......
0 1.02 lot Hd " 17.7'
.E
u
EJ. 983.:.3i~~,.;..;....."._
c: 1.01 3.54
r r
.o:!
of-
v 8.95' '.6S
::'
15 1.00 23
u
r.... Axis of
0.99
crest
/ ....
0.98
0.2 0.4 O.S 1.0 1.2 Point of to;;;e.1CY
X=35.9' Y=:3-2.7'
0.6
Ha~veloclty head
Hdd design head e~clucinil Ha
0.5 H.: total head in~ll.dlng Ha
Ha 1 -- .
0.4 HdI_
E1.
0.\ 1---1--:7""'1
FIG. 14-5. Design of an overflow-sp.illway section: I
a
0.70 0 •.80 0,85 0.90 0.95 1.00 a~x:am~le 14-1: Detcr~ine the crest elevat.ion and the shape of an overJlow-spill.
C/Cd in which Cd 4,03 l~ .sect!O? havmg a. vertloal upstren.m face and a cres~ length of 250 ft The d ;
discharge 15 75 000 cfs Th t . , . as.gn
1 000 0 d h' . e ups ream water surface at design discharge is at El .
FIQ. 14-4: Hllad-discharge relation for WES-etandard spillway shapes. , . .an t 0 avera~e channel floor is at EI. 880.0 (Fig. 14-~) .
h' I · fl'l1
r 1'bl8 •;\sSltffiing
Sol,l!MIl.
d a 0 .
a 19l Over ow BpI way, the effect of approach vclocity is
n(:goalgx 2"Oa)n ~ d = 4,03. By the discharge equation, H.u = QICL = 75 0001
. head (that is, h/Hd greater thanL33 and H, Hd, for the approach
.velocity head is negligible) the coeffidentof discharge C has been found to
i
. 0 = /4,1 and H, = 17.8 f t . '
The approach velocity is V = 750001(250
I ' t h d' H' a. I .,' X ~
' 20) .
)
= 2.5 fps, and the COrrespond-
!
be Cd. = 4.03. ng :e OOlJ as. IS a ':" 2.5'/217 = 0.1 ft. Thus, .the design head is Hd _ 17.8
In low spillways with hiEd < 1.33, the approach velocity will have 0.1 - 17. ( it] and the height of the dam is h "" 120 17.7 = 1023 ft Th' h' ht'
IS greater thai 1 33H d' . . IS eIg ,
appreciable effect upon the discharge or the discharge coefficient and, ' ' I I . . d! an , ll~nce, tIle. effect of approach velocity is negligible. '
. B Th e ares!; e_evatlO n ls.at 1000.0 .~ 17.7 "= 982.3. . .
consequently, upon the 1U1PP';) profile.' A dimensionless plot (Fig. 14-4) y Eq. (14 15), tbe C,Est shape IS expressed by}' X 1•• s/23 C d' .~ f tl
based on the data of the Waterways Experiment Stl.).tion [20] cn,n be used shupe t d b hi . . oor Ina""s 0 1e
compu e y T, S equatIon tHe plotted as shown in Fig. 14-5.. The crest shupe
368 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW FLOW OVER SPILLWAYS 369
upstrCftm from the orir~in of ~!le coordinates is constructed accordin~ to the d.imensiorus head is greater thp.ll about twice the height oLthe spillway above the
recommended in the chart of Fig. 14-3. The design of the straight portion ,0£ th~ upstream bed.. Such spillways are often found in earth dams.
spillway sudacebdow the crest section depends ~n the stability requireme;ut and 011 In using the Br:dley curve, it is necesilary to' know the coofficient of
the features of the sti;Iing basin at the toe of the spl11w!l.Y. Aslope of 0.0: lis assumed
discharge for the design head. If this coefficient is unknowl1, but the
for the straight pOl·tioll of the downstream spillway surface.
spillway shape 18 given, 11 method 1 suggested by Buehlel' (23] may be used.
14-0. Rating of Overflow Spillways. ThE:; profile of an overflow B'T this method,' based on an equation derived by BrudeneU the
way can be designed fol' one head only. This head is the' design head, c~e:ffici6nt of discharge is computed by the ~q'.lation
which genel'ally procbuces s. lower nappe of flow that 8,grees closely with . . (He)V'12 (H-17)
. the spillway profile. The spillway, however, must a,lso operate under C = 3.97 JJ;,;
~ other heads, either lower or higher than the design head. For lower
where H, is all operating head and HDis the theoretical design head,
I heads the pressure on the crest will be. above atmosph~ric but still les:i!
including tho approach velocity hea-d, for a standard profile havh1g a
th.anl~ydl'ostat.ic. For higher heads, on the other hand, the pl'essu~e w~n
be lower than atmospheric, and it may become so low that separatlOn ~lr
flow will occur. Model experiments indicate, however, that the design
.S
head may be sufely exceeded by at
Vi
, . . 1.B least 50%; b~yond this, harmful cavi- :;:
u
I a;
tation may develop [4, p. 535J . -!'.
,6
For spillways designed for WES 3<
o
ru
shapes, the curves given in Fig. 14-4 .0
.,
I
I can be used to deten:nine the coeffi- '"co
I cient, of dischai'ge for heads otherthah -;;
'6
!.
,
, the design head. ThllS, a rating 40~---4-~-4-----i-~4-~-4----1
OAI--~:':-:I~I 73'
''"" shapes, Bradley [22] has developed ~,
FiG. 14-7. Stand~rd spillwa.y :3hapes for different valuesof H D • (After B. Buehler [23J.)
universal curve (Fig. 14-6) showing
0.2~~~1 the relationship between FI ,/H D p.nd vertical upstl'eam face. it should be noted that II D is the theoretical
I •I C/C D • The term HD is the design design head of the standard profile for which the Brudenell eqtmtion was
015 0.80 O_BS 0.90 Q.95 1.·)0 !.O~ 1.1'; head including the approach velocity.
Volue of Ihe 'Olio clc o developed; therefore, it may not be equal to the actual design head used
head, and CD is the corresponding
I\ FlG. 14-6, Coeffident of discharge of . coefficient of dil:charge. The term
by Bradley or defined for other profiles.
The valtte of HD may be obtaiu.ed from a chart (Fig. 14-7) showing the
f overflow spillways for other than the He is the total head other thaD. the
design head: (t1fl~r J. N. Br,~dley . d standard profiles. The profile of the given spillway as.desiglled or built is
(22].) , design head, and C i~ ·the corre~pon - firfit drawn on a piece of transparent paper on the same sc:ale as the sto.nd7
. ing discharge coefficient this curve ard profiles. This paper lS laid over the chart; then the value of Ii D
i~ well supported by tests of some 50 overflow spillway crests .of variot~s associated with the standard profile that gives the best fit is selected. F01'
shapes and operating conditions. It can be used to coltlputeapproxl- a. given profile, the H D values that give the best fit may be different on the
the'mting Clll'ves of most overflow spillways. upstream and downstream sides. The higher of the two indicated v.alues
The dashe.d curve'in Fig .. 14-6, supported by date, from 29 exIsting spill- of lIo $ould be used. FQrexample, the profile of a spillway is shown by
ways, applies to spillwttys with overfal! suppressed. This is rile type ~f the dashed line on the chart.' The higher value of HD is approximately,
spillway the fiow over which is affected by downstream cha~mel condi- 45 ft, 0!l the upstream side, of the crest. ,
tions' it odcurs when the'downst:ream slope i~ flat and the approach depth 1 A method for the sawe purpose is also proposed by Bra.dley [22]; this Inechod DJs
is shdllow. The spillway in such a hase is usually so low that the design , the giveri profile to existi'ng profiles of known dischll.Cge coefficient.
I '
1
370 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
1
FLOW OVER SPILL'\.I'AYS 371
Using the chart and Eq. (14-17), the rating curve of. a spillway of given COO.ft'O!NATE'~ Fan. U1>?ER N A.PPln W'J,:Tn No Pume •.
profile can be cumputed; ,
H IH; '0.50 11:1 IRa - 1.00 : HIll. c 1.33 '
According to comparisons with actu,al model tests, both the Bradley , X Ill. 1 }'iil, ,X/H.', Y/ X/lid Y/H.
and Buehler methods have been shown ~,o give highly'accurate
at all but very low heads. At low heads of 5 ft or so, the computed dis-
--=!.O
-O.ll
1- .4!lol-=t:or::. o.
0 -1. 0
-0.484:,1-0.81-0.9115 -0.8 -1.185
1:210
.-0,0 i-OA75 -0.6 -Q.893 -O.G -1.151
charge may be as low as 8% below the actual value. For pra.ctical pur- -0.4 '1-0.460 -0.4 -0.865 -0.4 -1.UO
pOSGS, however, both methods fire sufficiently accurate.
14-13. Upper Nappe Profile of Flow over Spillways. The shape of
-0.2
0.0
0.2
l
:-0.425: -O.21-0.S21i -0.2, ,1,,-'1.01;0
:-0. 3n 0.°,-0.7551 0.0:.,1-1.000
'-0.300, 0.2, -0.681. 0.2 '-0.019 l
upper nappe profile of flow over 8 spillway crest is significant in the desigu
0.4
0.6
o,s,'
-0.2001 0.'1,-0,580, 0.41-0.821
1-0.075 0,61-0,465; 0.6 -0.71)5 'I
of spillway abutment Ivalls and for the selection of pivot elevation ot, 1.0
0.015, 0.81-0.320[ 0.81",-0.569
0.258, LO -0.145 l.O'-OAlI
tainter The WES shapes for high overflow spilhlrays with vertical 1.2
1.4"
0.470
0.7051
1.2 0.055, 1. 2 0 >220
1"1
0.29{j 1.4 :"'0,002
1.-
upstream face have been investigated, using model by the U.S. 1.6, 0.972. 1.6 0 ..;!l3, 1.0 0.240
Army Engineers Waterways Experimant Sta.tiOll. Figure 14-8 shows the 1.8 i 1. 269[ L~~!~l:~ 0.5$1
• Baaed on CW 801 t •• 1rs for negligible v.looioy
shapes and coordinates X r;,nd Y of the upper nappe profile obtained from of a-pprnne h. .
such tests for negligible approach velocity, fo], conditions with and with- COO1lDINATEB FOR UpP£n NAPPE A~ CENTER Ll,i'iE
OF BAY W1Tii 'tYPE 2 I'lER5~
out piers, and for three different head ratios. The tenn Hd is the design
he!'.d excluding t.he velooity head, and H is the operating head other tha:n
the design head, also excluding the velocity head. Profiles for inter- -1.0 -1.230
mediate head mtios may be interpolated .. Owing to thecontrac~ion ,-O,g -.. 1.215 '
-1
-0,6 -1.194
effect of piers, !J. pronounced hump between X/Hu. -0.5 and 0 occurs -0.4 -1.15'<;
I
all the upper.nappe profile along piers when the discharge is high .. Upper -0.2 i-I. 122
0.0. -1.071
nappe profiles fill' three gate bays adjacent to abutments are in Fig. 0.2 i-1.015
0.4 ;-0.944
, 14-9, showing the abutment effects on the nappe profiles. 0,6[-0.847
It should be noted that the upper nappe surface is exposed to the ~:~ I, 3Sfj
atmosphere and,hence, subject to alteration due to wind and air CUlTents o
and the absorption of surroupding air. As s. result, the flow is aerated 1.2'r-
1.4 -0.102
1.6
.
0.172
and the surface becomes wavy and unstable. The upper-nappe-shape _ _.......:.._ _...L..._---'-_ _-L_I~.8 0.465
coordinates given in Figs. 14-8 and 14-9 only the ideal cases, '* BUild on C\Y 801 test::. f?r negligible velod~y
of a.PJ;n"'ou.ch.
where air plays little or no part. The upper nappe surface for slt'ping COORDlNATl!::S FOR Ul'PISE NAPPE Al.QNO PlERS.
upstream face should have a lower elevation than that for vertic.'1.1
.upstream face. Hence, the given coordinates may also be 1.lsed safely for
spillways with sloping upstream face for which the actual data are not yet
.J
-1
available. -0.6 -I 209
-0.4 1.218
14-7. Effect of Piers in Gated Spillways. Piers are needed to form -0.2 -1.244
the sides of the gates in gated spillways. The effect of the piers is to con- 0.0 -1.103
>
tract the flow and, hence, to alter the effective crest length of the lSpill-
0.21- 0g5O
0.4 -0.821
0.6 -0.689
ways. The effective length of OM bay ,of a ga.ted spillway may be 0.8 -0549
expressed as ' LO -0.SS9
1.2 -0.215
L = Lo - J(NH. (14-18) 1.4 0.011
0.208
where Lo is the clear span of the gate bay between piers; K is the pier con-
traction coefficient; N is the number of side contractions l equal to .2 for
1 These tests are d~signa.ted as II General Spillway Tests-OW 801." The informa-
tion given here is from [201, Hydraulic Design Charts 111-11 to 111-15 WES 9-54. FIG. 14..8. Upper. n!\ppe profiles of flow over WEB spillways with a.nd without piers.
(U.S. Army En[f<neer:; Waterway/! Expel'iment Slation.) ,
-i.5
-10
.., -0.5
"x
)::-
a
0.51------+--++..
1.0
I Left abutment
'-11---- LEGEND
I Bay No" 1 I
- - - Left side of bonk
center line of b\"y
~===:::J~0.205 Hd
-"'«""'-
x'C ..
o.5 1 .
'- "
r
0.5
BAY" NO. 2
1.0 L _ - L_ _L.....L_·L._ _" _ _-'-_---'J._---'"
1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 " 0.5 LO 1.5 2.0
X/lid
LEGEND"
Left side of bonk
- - Center line atbay
Right side (>f boy
on pinE>
each gate bay; and H. is the total head on the crest including the velocity
head. In comrl1lting the discharge through gated spillways,the effective (/)tJ>
~
<\l
f-f- :r:
length determined by the above equation should be l.lsed. The discharge (/)z
wl!!
a:u
I-
~ 'E.,..
<\l
cpefficient, however, is assumed the same in both gated and ungated (.J u:: z H
W
3"- Il:l
spillways. g~
--1
The pier contraction coefficient varies mainly with the shape and posi- "-u a:: '":;"
tl
a:z W ~
tion of the pier nose, the head condition, the approa.ch depth of flow, and wo Q.
>-
...
of-
u LI.. "
<!
the operation of the adja.cent gates. The approxim~,te J( value given by , Q « ,0 S::
we::
Creager and Justin [3, p. 120] r1lnges from 0.1 for thick, blunt noses to f-f- I-
0.04 for thin or pointed noses and is 0.035 for round noses. These values
«z u
e>O W
t
U LI.. ...."'"
apply to piers having a thickness equal to about one-third th8 head on, §E5 w i!'.
;r-
LI..
n. ~
the crest when all gates n,re open, When one gate is open n.nd the adja-
cent gates are closed, these values become roughly 2.5 times larger. ...~'
ducted tests (General Spillway Test cW 801 [20]) on different forms of, 0
:::;
pier nose for spill ways of the liVES sha.pe. On the basis of these tests, a ~
round-nose pier is recommer.ded for general use with high heads. The
I,
[(value for the round-nose pier plotted against the ratio of He/ Hd with
variable distances upstream from the crest is shown in Fig. 14-10. The
effect of other nose shapes 011 the contraction coefficient is shown in Fig.
t
14-11. The he.ight of the test spillways was 6.67Hd, which had negligible
velocity of !l.pproach. Under the testing conditions, these da.ta are
applicable to high spillways and to the condition that ,the adjacent gates
are open. For low spillways with appreciable approach velocity, the
,i
I I I
,I
pier'contr[Lction coefficient fOl; the round-nose pier with various approach
J
,
depths is shown in Fig. 14-12. III .. he abs~nce of adequate data, pier con- i
traction coefficients for other nose shapes for low spillways may be I I
obtained by proportioning from the data for high SpillW8,yS (i.e., from
Fig. 14-11).
14-8. Pressure on .Overflow Spillways. If the spillway profile is
designed exactly in the shape of the lower nappe of a free overflow, the
pressure on the spillway crest under the design head should be theo-
retically nil. For practical reasons, however, such an ideal profile is
generally modified so that low pressures will develop under the design
t
head. As the spillway must be operated under heads other than the
design head, the pressure will increase under the lower heads and decrease
under the higher heads. Assuming a two-dimensional irrotational flow,
the pressure on the spillway crest may be accurately determinedanalyt-
icnny by a numerical method, 'graphically by flow-net analysis, or instru-
~~.~~~~J-J-J-~~~~~~.-L-L-L~O,,-L-L~ ~o~~-L~-L-L-L,~o3
mentally by an electronic analogy.l More exact determination of the i
pressure, however, will depend upon model tests. !I PH/'H 'poal{ uo!sap o. ~saJJ uo poa~ JO O!'O!,l
ISee references given in Art. 13c2, A pra.ctical procedure for the r!l\axation method
appFed to the problem under cDnsideration is given in [25]. '
,\ .
I
375
"0
Z
:r:.~
-0
.c:
.,
0 Type I
Type"
C
.!?
1:1
.,'"
.
E
~
~ J
~I
<>
~ c
"" 0
1
"0
''""
.J:.
'0
0
"15
tr
----.---..~ .. "-.-,-.-
1,4
1.2- '5<II
.J:. Hd ~ design head
c
.ffi'
"
:L ~ 0.0
~ 1.0
:L
.t:f
0
"'c:
.J:.
'"
"iii O.S
i
i5 0.5
0
l' "~''"T'~'
\1\
.0,5 Hd rod.
'"
-0
u
'~ -1.0 0,2 Hd rod
qt=:r
r",-"
.2
1ii ~ , Axis of \-1 Type 2 pier
<.<>
-:j
-1
u
~
c:
0
0,6: ,g
Il:.
-1.5 r.'.
-2,0,
'reO Ij~
'0
-a,5L-LL
0
'"
.J:.
'0 I I ! \ I I I ! I
~
0 0.4 -' -1.5 -\.O -O,el O. 0,5 1.0 \.5 2..0
a:: Ratio of horizontal distonce to design head
0.2
,
FIG., 14-12. Coefficient •
of contractIOn for t'] Ie TOUD d - Dose piel' in lbw dams. (u.s. A,rm!l EngineeT8 Waterways Experiment S!atiot~
[201, H!ldra1~lic Design Chart 122-2, WES 4-1-53.)
j
FLOW OVER i:lPILLWAYS 379
378 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
.\
The pressure distributions on a spillway crest with and \vithout 0.6
piel's under three different head ratios, based on OW 801 tests uf WES
shapes [20], are shown in dimensionless plots (Fig. 14-13). Pressures for· 0.4 l
intermediate head ratios can be obtained by interpolation .. M
~
\ \'''' r----., >-...<.; KIKa" 0.50
/ \
'\ --
-t· 1'8 -
0.5 , 0.2
i'., J ~ »-.
I
1\
01
~ '" i
0.4
\ !.I ~Ii~
w .", H/Hd ;'.00 I
-b~50 ~:~ 0 \
l
0.3
.",1r 0.2 t
'" 0.1
~ 1~ r\V
- "- ~
.... r--
H!Hd·i.QO
-",
'<>-
!
I
/v
iO
-0.2
\
"./ i". ,./
H/Hd· I .33 r---." ,.".. r-.- ;-- r--- - c-:- -I~
·t- -\
(
....;-'" a o.s
-, I -0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.2 1.4
j!i -o.~
,.0-.. ""'"
-0.2
r<-
-K --+- l--
i
Horlzonto! distonce
Dasign head
~----------1~T-YP-e-2--Pi-er-{-F-i9-.1-4-_-ln-----1-·-------J+.-
\Hd
(-1S....)
-0.3 V H!Hd"1.33
'-1-- 1--- --
.\
-0.4
r V f I
I ');.
hJ , I
-0.5
-0.2 o 0.2 0.4 0.6 o.S 1.0 12 l.4 I
Horizontal dislance (X)
Design head Hd
. i
_-t--__ ~ R~0.2 Hd
I 1'"\ 1 -\
R· 0.5 Hd I."
., . l' ~ ~
, I~
IV -\
I
Net.: Dota tJosed on CW 60! tests
i'~ -.I
FIG. 1'1-13. Cres~ pressur9l! on WES high overflow spillways (continu.ed). (b) Along
)5 center line of pier bay. (U.S. Army 1!l11.glneers Waterways Rxperiment Station [20],
HydrClulic Desiqn Chart 111-16/1; WES 3-55.) . . I
! wiD result in ovel'design of the spilhvay, particularly for high dams ..'
[
Nole: Dala based on CW 801 !esls
Suc.h overdesign is an acceptcd procedure, providing an additional factor
FIG.14-13. Crest pressures on WES high 'Jverflow spillways. Ca) No piers. (U.S. of safety.! . .
Army Engineers H'ale)'u'ays Expe"imenl Slation [20], Hyd1'rJ.ulic Design Chart 111-16,
WES 9-54.)
The pr'essme teduction on the upstream face of a vertical weir has been
determined both theoretically and experimentally by Harris [26). On
Because of the conversion of static to kinetic. energy as the water flows. the basis of OW 801. tests for ungatad WES-shape crests of vertical
over the spilhvay, the hydrostatic pressure on the upstream face of the upstream face and of U.S. Bureau of Reclamation tests of pressure on a
spillway crest is actually red\lced. This reduction in pressure is not
appreciabl'e, but, where the moment arm is lon·g; as in high: dams, the 1 Actually, the effect on structural stability due to this pressure reduction COID- is
effect on stability· may be worth considering. The usual method of pensated to a large extent by the moment of the horizonto.l component of the nappe
analysis by assuming straight-linepressllre distribution nea~ the crest. pressure on the crest surfaqe.
shul'p-crestecl wdI' under the design head, the resultant of the reduced
pr~~sure is f?~lnd t~ be approximately 12,9Hd 2 lb per unit length of the
spIlLway, actmg hOrIzontally at a distance of O.161Hd it below the top of
the crest. . . ,
I
Uj
1:)
'" 0 '"
Ol
~12
.0.
" c
li:./JJ '"
v; '"a:i'"
~ -0.'2
104
I Rotlo, Hr"
,f ! 3.2 ,L~ 3.4 3.5
Dischorge coefficient, C
FIe,;. 14-14.Cufl'es for determination of tIle discharge coefficient of drum gates.
(After J. N. Bradley [27].)
8f
!
Bradley [27J has made a comprehensive stu.dy of the drum gate, using 440
il
I
i ,I
I I'
Ii
I
I .;::
NL1/-;
data obtained from 40 hydraulic models of existing drum-gate structures .a()n i! II ! tnlr--4.-.-17
I ! I
, of various sizes and scales. . The results of this study are showl1 by a ,I II
" if II J V
family of curves (Fig; 14-14) where C is plotted against fJ with the r,atio 360 II i /1 :I:
IV I
i' I 11 -01 I 1/ I
H.lr as a parameter. When H.lr .0, t~e ~ate becon:es a straIg~t -",,,l : '''ll~_ ... ' I /1 I
inclined weil~, and the cOI'l'espollding dashed Ime III the family of curves IS 'l ! I ~1: :r: I I , / '/ /
based on Bazin's data [12J. The curves extend dowmvard to f) =;0 -15°.
The discharge coefficients in the regi011 between.6 = -150 and the gate
280' -
# :'7.1/!i
1 f I ;;;
!
IiI/ I /
I If I/, -
.. I---
~'--.>L~.
-~.-
:>n()
N!...:......c.tn!+
-- -
T
curves of the gate, The comput.ation of the ratmg curve when the gate IS lit 1."1, -
completely down is the snme as that for a spillway with an ungated crest .~,
:.;,,-,:1: 1
,
~
(Art: 14-5). . ~r- II I z
14-10. Flow at the Toe of Overflow Spillways. The theoretIcal 12C :--- XI I 17
velocity of flow at the toe of an overflow spillway (Fig. 14-15) may be
f II / ; W' I . !
~
80
compllted by . ~
=--=:---:---=-- 40
V2g(Z, + H" - Yl) (14-19) ..
j' I 1 I ! I I
0 I-- ---1 i
where Z is the fall, or vertical distance in ft from the upstnam reservoir 0 10 20 30 40 50
I r I f
60 70 80 90 100 1/0 120 130 140 150 160 170
level to the floor at the toe; H .. is the upstream approach velocity head; Valocity (V), fps
and Yl is the depth of flow at the toe. Owif).g to the energy 10s8 involved
in the flow over the spillway, the actual velocity is always less than the
FIG. 14-15. Curves for detennination l)f velocity. at the toe of spillways with slope5
1 on 0.6 to 0.8, . I
theoretical value, The magnitUde of the actual velocity depends mainly
on the head on the spillway crest, the fall, the slope of the spillway surface,
pUrpi)SeS, although it can be refined by addition~l experimental informa-
and the spillway-surface rouglll1css. 1 By reasoning ~d experi~ellts it is tion which may become available in t.he future. . - \
sho\"n that the deviation of the actual velocity from ItS theoretical vahle
Experiments by Bauer [30J indicate that friction losses in accelerating
beconles larger when the head is smaller and the fall is greater.
the fiow down .the face of a spillway may be considerably less than the
On the basis of experience, theoretical analysis, and a limited amount
. normal friction loss in fl0W with well-developed turbulence. Therefore,
'of experimental information obtained from prototype tests oil Shasta and
the friction loss is not significant on steep slopes; but it woulcJ. become
Grand Coulee dams, the U.s. Bureau of Reclamation [29) has studied the
impcrta.nt if the slope were small, For this reason, the chart in Fig.
I Bile [28J lor fUrther 'information,
I The theoretical velocity defined by the Bureau is V, =. V2(!(Z ...:. O.SH) .
FI,QW OVER SPILLWa.YS 385
384 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
14-15 i,~ not !1pplicable to slopes finttcl'than 1 on 0.6. For fb,tter slopes, . 14~12. Submerged Overflow Spillways. Spillways and weirs are sllid
the problem nmy be analyzed by the method described in Art. 11-4. to b~ slJbmerged ,vhen the tail water is higher than the crest.. As sub-
At the end of the sloping spill W[\y surf&ce, the flow cho.nges its direction flow. is usually unstable , having considerable disturb::mce
. rather abruptly and therebjr produces appreciable centrifugal pressures. immediately do\vnst;eam, such a spillway or weir is unsatlsf3.Cltory for
In order to create a smooth transition of the flow [Lnd to prevent the
impact of the falling watar from scouring the foundation, the surface at
the spillway toe is usm'l.lly designed as a cUl'ved bucket [31]. To be
thoroughly effective the bucket should be t[~ngel1t to the foundation or
neady so. The radius R of the bucket, measured in feet, may be esti-
mated approximately by the following empirical formula:
R 10(VH.4H+!&,;{Z.6H+EiJ (14-2u)
where V is the velocity in fps of the flow :1t the toe fl.l1d 11 is the head in ft,
exclucHng approach velocity head, on the spillway crest. The design
.bucket pressure and the maximum side-wall pressure sh,mld be equal to
the centrifugal pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure corresponding to
the tai!water depth. The centrifugal pressure may be compnted by
Eq. (2-8) for known radius of the bucket and velocity of the flow .at the
toe. Determination of the bucket pressure, however, can be made more
~.ccurately by flow-net analysis or by the relaxation method, or, still more
precisely, by rnodel tests. The results of such determination un ve indi-
cated that theclIect of the bucket ·curve on pressure actually extends
even beyond the ends of the curve. .
The flow leaving the toe of a high overflow spillway is a high-velocity
jet, containing a Hnge amount of energy capable of causillg heavy scour-
ing. Unless the· downstream approach is resistant to such scouring,
measures to D.void the danger of scouring should be takeli. in the design .
. Popular methods :11'C design of a ski-jump spillway, utilization of sub-
merged taiIwater as a bl'ake, and use of a hydraulic jurr.:p as an energy
dissipator. ..
14-11. The Ski-jump Spillway.. In this type of spillway the toe is
"'''';;1.",.'''''' in the form of a large specially shaped lip or bucket 'which
of
throws the whole jet flow into the air. P,nt of the energy in the jet is
dissipated in the air, but in any case the in.lIs back into the river
channel a.t a. safe distance from the dam. This was fin,t proposed
Fl~. 14-16. The ski-jump spillways of l' Aigle Dam.
-
(CDuT/esy 0/ P. Danel, Els.
by Coyne [32,33]. Figure 14-15 shows a typical ski-jump spillway. : In
NE YRPI C.)
this design, the spillway-bottom slab is also the roof of the power house
which is built against. the downstream side of the dam. The slab is accurato flow meMurements. Studies on submerged Iound-~rested w~irs
heavily reinforced in order to ta\l:e the lon.ds due largely to are useful however, for they will furnish iuformationneeded m the de~.llgn
the centrifugal pI'essure of the jet acting ori the spillway toe. l of low ov~rfiow dams which may be occasionally subject to submergence.
1 See [34] to [36] for fmther information. \Vell.known ski.jump spillways are ;Extensi ve studies on au bmel'ged round-crested weirs have be~n per-
ill5tailed in Ca:;telo do Bode Dam in Portugal; !lond the Mar~ges, Bart, l' Ag1e, Saint- formed by the U.S. Bureau 9f Reclamation [l,37J.I In these studies: ~he
.fj;tiel'lne-Cantales, ll.\ld Cltastang Dams in France. Each of the last three dami has tlow is classified into four distinct types according to the fiow condItIOn
two ski.jump spillways. 'The jets from the two spillways mllY meet and collide in the
o.ir, thus dissipating a large amount of energy. 1 Other well-known studies are reported in [38] to [401.
'"
b \
.,,
\
\
\
VI \
("
...
*"b
\I \
I
no
:::00
II _ I \~ \
I
\Jll
rrln1 I
Ul"l1
<II -I:;) I,
'"i"::: Ul~
n1 . @-o, ---..
I I
--
I
-~
I'
I
..
2. b --~
~ -1
(J)
~
~
-T. ~~:d
+d hd
Y-'>-i---I~-+--·-+·-.."..l1.5~
.He
0.201
,1 I •
2.14 1.75
o 2 :3 4 5 6 4 5 6
X/He
(0)
0.049
0.OS3
0.142
2.14 0.$55
-1.0
3 4 5 6 4 5 6
.tv) (d)
FIG. 1~-18.
Typical pressure (dashed lines) and surface (solid lines) profiles for flow over submerged overflow dams. (Selected
from U.S. Bureau of Reclamation data [1J.) (a) Supercriticn.[ flow; (b) flow involving hydraulic jump; (e) ftow with!l. drowned
hydraulic jump; (d) flow a.pproaching complete submergence.
388 UAPlD!wY VAlUED FLOW FLOW OYER SPILLWAYS 389
secoD~, will be required fo,' aeration beneath the nappe to (1 pressure reduction of
prevalent on the dowl1strel1m apron; (1) snpel'critical flow, (2) su bcritical
2 it? Compute the load 0'.1 the weir after this aeratiol1.
flow involving hydraulic jump, (3) flow accompanied by a drowned jump 14-3. If the channel floor is at El. 975.0 instead of E1. 880.0, and other data remain
with diving jet, and (4) flow approaching complete submergence. the s3-me, determine the spillway section required ill Example 14-1. A trial-and-
Submergence of spillway or weir will reduce the coeflicient of discharge erro, procedure is required for the determination of the value of C.
of the corresponding ullsubmerged flow. The BUl'eA.u of Reclamation's 14-4. If the upstream fa.ce has a slope of 3 on 2 instead of veriic!J.I and other data
remain the s",ne, determine the spillway section required in, Example 14-l.
test results on this reduction, expressed in percenta.ge of the discharge
14-5. Determine the rating curve of tlHil spillwl!.y developed ill Exarnple 14-1.
coefficient for unsubmerged flow (Fig. 14-4), have been presented in a 14-6, AD o,-erflow spilhvay of unknown profile designed br a total hC!l.d of 14.5 ft
chart for the four types of flow mentioned abov€;. This chart in a slightly has a crest length of 64 ft and a coefficient of discharge equal to 3,48. Determine the
modified form (Fig. 14-17) was further checked against other datal by the rl>ting curve' by the Beadle.)', curVe. '
u Army Engineers Waterways Experiment StatiOll. 2 It was found thltt 14-7. If t,he spillway in the preceding problem has a profile shown by the dashed
line in Fig. 1,*-7, detennJne the rating curve.
the, chart is also applicable to t·he determination of coefficients for WES
14-B. CompuU! ~he upperm.ppe profile of the fiow over the spillway designed ill
,shapes under submerged conditions. EXl1mple 11-1, assuming"'!):!:! piers. '
In the chart (Fig. 14-17) h,J is the drop from the upper pool to the tail·· 14-9. Determine'the wall lIcigh',s for the overflow-dam seetion designed in Exam-
water elevation, H, is the total hend above the crest, and d is the tailwil.ter ple 14-1, assuming six b!l.Ys formed by WES round-nose piers and a maximum oper-
depth. The genera.! pattern of the curves shows that, for low 'ratios ating head 35% higher than the design head. ' ,
(h.J + d)/ H" the flow is of type 1, or supercritical, and that the r(~duction 14-10. Determine the discharge over the spillway section designed in Example 1"-1
if the spillway has six bays formed by WES round-nose piers. ,
in coefficient is affected essentially by this ratio o.ndis practically inde- 14-11. Detecmine the pleasure on the crest of the spillwn.y designed in Example
pendent of hd/l-I.. The cr-oss section BE in the upper right-hand corner 14-1, fOJ: operating head equal to 0.5u, 1.00, and 1.33 times the design head; assume
of the chart shows the variation of (hd + d)/H, at hdill, = 0.78. For (a) no piers and (b) six bays fOl'med by WES round-nose piers.
large 'm.lues oi (h,l + d)/H., on the other hand, the reduction in coefficient H~12., A drum gate (F:ig, 14-11)) 50 ftlong alld 20ft in.radius is installed on top of!l.
high overflow spillway., Determine the rating curve of the gate: i.e., discharge VB.
is [1ffected esseu~ia.lly by the ratio ad/H,. Under this condition. for values
of hatH, less than 0.10, the flow is of type 4, the jet is on the surface, and
no Jump occurs. For values of hd/H. greater than 0.10, tho flow of is
type 3, or accompanied by a drowned jump with diving jet. The cross
section AA shows the variations of ha/H. at (h. + d)/H, near 5.0. Sub-
criticr.l liow, or flow of type 2, occurs in, the indicated on the cimrt.
Other regions for transitior1D,l flow conditiollS are also shown.
The typical pressure and surfa.ce proiiles for, submerged spillway flow
are shown for different values of (hrl + d)/li. and A4/H. for folU' types of
flow (Fig. 1<1-18). These were selected from the data of the Bureau of FIG: 14-10. The drum gate for P~ob. 14-12,
Reclanul.tion. They aTe useful in the design of spiJlwaysfor stability.
elevation of the hlgh~st point of the gate suna.oe. The position of t.he highest point
'of the gate surface and the value of (J may be determined graphically.
14-13. Estima.te the depth a.nd velocity of flow and also the radius of the bucket
PROBLEMS a.t the toe of the spillway dp,signec.l in Example 14-1.
14-14. Determine th., discharge of the spiihvay designed ill, Prob. 14-3 if the tail-
H-1. A vertic[L1 sharp-crested weir, 20 ft high and 60 ft long, is built as a.n overflow water elevation is at El. 990. Would a hydraulic jump be possible at the toe of the
spillway without eud contractions. When the head is 20 ft above the crest of the spillway?
weir and the nappe i$ completely aerated, compute (a) the nappe profiles, and (/» the
hydrostatic load acting on the weir.
l!!-2. During te~ts on the o.er!ltioJl of the spillway described in the preceding prob- RE;FERENCES
lem, negative presSure~ under tlie nappe of 9.7 it of wCltel' were observed. Compute
t 1. Studies of crests for overfall da!llll, BO'l,lder Canyon Praject Final Reparl$, pt: VI,
the increase ill the t,otalload on the weir. How much air, measured in cubic feet per
U.S. B~Lreat' of ReclamatiDn, Hydraulic Inve.tigalions, Bulletin 3, 1948.
1 Dat,;). given iI, [41] to [4.-1J. 2. Juliall Rin.ds, William P. Creager, alld Joel D. Justin: "Engineedng for Dams,"
2 From (::JOJ, Hydraulic Design Chart 111-4, WEB 4-1-53.
I John Wiley & Sons, Il1c., New 'York, 1945, voL 2, pp. 358-361.
I
Ji
i
,f. FLOW OVER SPILLWAYS 391
390 RAPIDLY YARTED FI,-OW
l
tions of the 4th Congress on Lal·gs Dams, vol. 2, Pl'. 105-124, International Commis-
.3. William P. Crea.ger and.Jor.l D. Justin: "Hydroelectric Handbook," 2d·ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1\)50, pp. 362-363.
sion on Large Darns of the World Power Cbnfcrence, New Delhi, India., January, I
1951.
4. A. T. IppeJJ: Channel transitions n.nd controls, chap. VIII in Hunter ROllse 20. "Corps of Engineers Hydraulic D'"sign Criteria," prepared for OlIiGe of the. Chief
(editor): "Engineering Hydraulics:" Joh!'. vViley. & Sons, Inc., New York, 1950, of Engineers, U.S. Army Corps or Engineers, Wat.erways Experiment Station,
pp. 49G-588. ' . . . . . Yicksburg, Miss., 1952; revised in subsequellt years.
5. Fred W. Blaisdell: Equ!\tion of the free-fallIng nappe, Proceedtngs, American 21. John C. Harrold: Discuss-ion on Equn.&i.on of the free-falling nappe, by Freel W.
Society of Civil Enginee1'S, vol. 80, separate no. 482, 16 pp., August, 1954. Blaisdell, P:-oceeding~, American Socie(~ of CivaEngineB1's, vol. 80, sp.para&e no.
6. Horace William I\:ing, "Handbook uf HydrE:.ulics," revised by Ernest F. Brater, 624, pp. 16-19, August, 1955.
'Hh ed., McGraw-Hill.Book Company, Inc., Hlf,'!, sec. 4, pp. 1:-67; 22. J. N. BradlEY: Discharge cQefficients for irregular overfall spillwaYB, U.S. BIL1'CaU
7. Carl E. lCindsvaterancl Rolla.nd W. Carter: Discharge characteristics of rectan- oj Recla.mation, Engincering Monograph No.9, March, 1952.
gular thin-plate "'eirs, .paper 1453, PI'ocecdings, A. merican Society of C1:vil Enoi- 23. Boo Buehler: Discussio'l on Rating curvp.3 for flow over drum ga&es, by Joseph N.
neers, Journal, Hyd"aulic~ D·iviGion, vol. 8a, no. Hye, pt. 1, pp. 1-'36, December, Bl'adley, Tran.~ac1.ions, American Society oj Civil Engineers, vol. 119, pp. 421-428,
1957. 1954.
8. P. K. E:andaswamy and Hunter Rouse: Characteristics of fl.)w over terminal weirs Ross N. Brudenell: Flow o.er rouurled crests, Engincering Ne1ll8-Rec01'd, "oJ. 115,
n.nd sills, paper 1345, Proceedings, American Society of Civil Engineers, J ollrnal, no. 3, p .. 95, July 18, 1935.
Hudl'aulics Division, vol. 83, nQ. HY4, pp. 1-13, August, 19.57. 25. M. K, GanguE and S. K. Roy: On the st.1.ndardization of the relaxation tl'eatment
9. J. -Y. BQussinesq: "Theorie approchee de l'ecoulemellt de l'eau sur un d8\'el'.~oi;: en of systematic pressure comput[l.tions for overflow spillway discharges, liTigation
mince paroi at sans contraction latentle" ("Theoretical Approach to the Flow over and Power, '1'h~ Journal. of ihe Central Board'of Irrigation and Power, vol. 9, 110. 2,
a Knife-edge Weir wit.hout Side Contraction n), Paris, 1907. pp. 187'--209, New Delhi,India, April; 1952. .
10. Th. Rehbock: Discussion on Precise weir measurements, by Emest W. Schoder 26. Charies 'V. Harris; An analysis of the weiI' coefficient for suppressed weirs, Uni-
and Kenneth B. TlJrner, Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 93, ven":t!! of W(Jahington, Engineering Expm:"!enl Station, Bulletin 22, ·]:.923.
pp. 1143-1162, 1929. . . 27. Joseph: N. Bradley; Rating curves for 110w over drum gates, Tmnsa;;Cilms, Amer-
11. G. H. Hickox: Aeration of spillways, Transa.dions, Am"'ican Society of Civil Eng·i- ican SoCiety of Ciua Engineel's, vol. 119, pp. 403-420, 1954.
neers, vol. 109, pp. 537-556, 1944. 28. H.obert B. JansGn: Flow characteriRtics on the ogee spillway, paper 1452, P"oceed- .
12. H. E. Bazin: Experiences nonveiles sur l'ecoulement en deversoir (Recent expcri- ings, American Society of Civil EnOl:neers, JOIL1'1lal, Hydmulics Diviiion, vol. 83, .-i
m·ents on the !low of water over weirs), lIIemo·ires et documents, Annc!le, des pants at I
no. HYS, pt. 1, pp. 1-11, December, 19.57.
chaussees, seL 6, vol. 16, 2d half-yr., pp. 393-148, 1888; .~er. 6, vol. 19, 1st half-yr., \
29. Research study Qn soilling basins, energy dissipators, and associated appurtp.-
pD. 9~82, 1890; ser. 7, 1'01. 2, 2d haH-yr., pp. 445-520, 1891; ser; 7, vol. 7, 1st no.nce~, U.S. Bu.refJ.u of Reclama.tion, Hydraldic Report, No. Hyd-3fl9, June 1, 1955,
h~lf-Yl'" pp. 249-357, 1894; ser. 7, ,rol. 12, 2c1 half-yr., ?p. 645-731, 1896; and ser. pp.41-43.
7 vol. 15, 2d quarter-yr., pp. l51-264, 1898. English translation of the first part 30. William J. Bauer.: Turbulent boundery la.ye\' on steep slopes, Trcnsaction.l, Amer-
h~ Arthur Marichal and John C. Traut'~ine, Jr., Proceedingl, EngiMel'8' Club of ican Society of. Civil Engineel·s, vol. 1U), pp, 1212-1233, 1954.·
Philadelph.ia, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 259-310, 1890; VDJ. 9, no. 3, pp. 231-244, 1892j and 31. J. H. Douma: Discussion on De5ign of side walls ia chutes and spillways, by D. n.
voL 10, no. 2, pp. 121-164, 1893. Ba.zin's data were reprinted almost eutirely Gumensky, Tranlluclio1lS, American Society of Civil Engineil1·s. vol. 119, pp. 364-
by G. W. Rafter in Report on special water'-Supply investigation, CongresS1;onaZ 368, 1954.·
Documents 41*6 and 4147, WlI.Shington, D.C., pp. 571-950, lQOOj o.nd Hydro[ogy 32. A. Coyne: Latest development of do.ms and hydro-electric power stations in
of the State of New York, 'l'few York Sta-/e 1l1~se141n, B1(.lletin 85, Albany, N.Y., France, paper read before a joint meeting of the Insti&ution of Civil Engineers and
1905. . the British Section of the Societe des Ingeuieurs Civils de France, Loudon, Nov.
13. William P: Cre·ager: "Engineering for Masonry Dams," John Wiley & SOllS, Inc., 25,194i. Editorial review entitled Development of dams in France, Engineering,
New York, 1929, p, 106.. • vol. 164, no. 4274, pp. 613-614, Dec. 26, 1947. .
14. Calvin Victor Davis (editor-in-chief): "Handbook oi Applied Hydraulics," 2d ed., 33. A. COYM; Barrages-usines de I' Aigle at de Ss.in t-:f;tienne-Can tales (Dams and
McGra"'-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952, pp. 259-263; Sec. 7, Spill- hydr.oplants of Aigle and Saint-Etienne-Cantales), Trava1~x, Paris, vol. 34, no. 185,
ways and Streambed Protect jon Work~! by Emory W. Lane and Calviu V. Davis, pp. 194-215, March, 1950. .
pp. 253-289. . . . 34. R..Mo.itre and S. Obolensky: Etude de quelque~ caracteri,;tiques de l'ecoulement
15. Ettore S.cimemi: Sullo. forma delle vene tracimanti (The form of flow over :weirs), dans Ill. partie aval des evacu!l.teurs de surface (Study of some flow oharacteristics
U Ene?'gia eleUrica, Milano, vol. 7, no~ 4, pp. 293-305, April, 1930. in the downstream part of spillways), La Houille blanche, Grenoble, 9th year,
16. J. Smetana: Etude de la surface d'ecoulement des grands barrages (Study of flow no. 4, pp. 481-511, July-August, 1954.
profile of hrge dams), Revue generaLe ·del'hydrauliqlle, Paris, vol. 14, no. 46, pp. 35. F. Auroy: Les eV2.cuateurs de crue.s Uti barrage de Chastang ,(The spillways. of
185-194, July, 1948; vol. 15, no. 49, pp. 19-32, January, 1949. Chastang Dam), Transactions of the 4th Conqresson Large Dams, vol. II, pp. 661-
17. Giu'lio De Mn.rchi: Riccrche sperimentali .sulle dighe tracimanti (Experimental f·8G, International Commission on Large Dams of the World Power Conference,
study on overflow dams), Annalide?: lavori pubblid, Rome, vol. 7, 1928. New Delhi, January, 1951. .
lB. L. Escande: "Barrages" ("Dams"), Hermann & Cie., Paris, 1937 .. 3S. E. A. Elevatorski: Trajectory bucke~-type energy dissipators, paper. 1553, Pro-
19. Anton Grzywienski: Anti-~vacuum profiles for spillways of large dams, Transa~-
I
J,
ceedings, 'Arnerica.n Society of Civil Enrr.ineers, J oul'nal, POlljf!;'l' DiVi8jon. voL 84"
no. POl, pp. 1,,17, Febru:::ry, 1\)5B.
37. J. N. Bradley] Studies of flo'\v characteristics, discharge a.nd pressure relo.tive to
submerged dams, U.S, Bm'ec.u of Redamalion, Hydm,tiic LabonJ./.lyry Repor! 1-82
HH5. " '
CHAPTER 15
38. Report of the Board' of Engineers on Deep Waterways, U.S. Board of Engineers,
pt. 1, p. 291, 1900, "
~~\). R. E. Horton: Weir experiments, coefficients and formnl!\S, U.S, Geologica.! S1:11!8y. JUMP AND ITS USE AS
W(ltel"S'llP1I1V CLnd 111''i~'Q.lion Paper 200, 1907. ' '
ENERGY IHSSIP ATOR
40. Glen Nelson COltl The ~ubmerged weir as a measuring device, Univers'ity of Wis-
En!/ineeri"g Blation, Bulietin 67, pp. 48-75, 1928,
41. II. J. characteristics of I'lllbn:terged spillways, Master's thesis,
Colorado Agl'ic.tll~ul'a1 a.nd Mechanical College, Fort. OolliIlS, December, 1951. ,
42. i\I. Bar Shan;)'] Pressure distribution on downstream face of a. submerged weir, 15-1. The Hydra1!1ic Jump. The hydraulic jump was first ;,o"D"f'i",~
Master's thesis, Sta.te University of Iowa, Iowa City, June, 1950. experimentaU}' by Bidone [1,2], an Italian, in 1818. 1 This led [3]
43. Spillwa.y and lock a.pproach, Jim Woodruff Apalachicola River, Flol'idp":
Model investigation, U.S, Army Engineers lVaierway;s Experiment S'(.!lio~ :i'cch-
(1828) to distinguish between mild (subcritical) ::md (supercl'itical) .
, nual Memera1Ull/lI. 2-340, Mal', 1952. , . I slopes, since he had observed that in steep channels hydraulic jump is fre~
44, Morgantown spillWay, Speciaf tests; lIl).published report, U.S. Army Engineers quently produced by a. b!l.lTier in. originally uniform flow.
Wliterwaye Experiment Station, Vicksburg, lVIis"., 19:'*9. abundant studies 'were made and the. results were quoted by many
writers. Outstanding contributors to OUI' present knowledge about the
hydraulic jump a,reBresse (1860) [4], Darcy.a,nd Bazin (18fi5) [5], Ferri':'
day and Merriman (1894) [5], Gibson (1913) [7], Kennison (1916) [8].
Woodward and Riegel-Beebe (191'7) [9], 1(och and Carstanjen (1926) (lOJ,
Llndquist(1927) [I1J, Safranez (1927) [12], Einwachter '(1933) [13,14],
Smetana (Hl34) [15,16J, Bakhmeteff and Mat;1ke (1936) [17), Escande
(H)38) [18], Citrini (1939) [19], Nebbia (1940) [20], lCindsvatel: (1944)
(21], Blaisdell (1948) (22J, Forster and Skrinde (1950) [23], Rotlse, 8iM,
and Nagaratl'l.am (1958) [2'1J, and mallY others. 2
The theory of jump developed in early days is for hOl'izontalor slightly
inclined channels in which the weight of water 1."1 the jump has little effect
upon the jump beha:/ior and hence is ignored in ~he analysis. The results
thus obtained, however, applied to most cha.l1uels encountered in
engineering problems. For channels large slope, the weight effect of
water il). the jump may become so pronounced that. it must be i.nc,luclecl in
the analysis. .
Practical applications of the' hydraulic jump are many; it is used (1) to
dissipate enel'gy in water flowing over: dams, and o,ther hydraulic
structures mid thus prevent sCQuriug: downstream from the struotures
(Art. 15~8); ,(2) to recover head Dr raisethe water level all the dovvnstream
side of a measuring flume El.nd thus maintain high wate,l' level in the
~ The experit'nellt was made ill Paris in 181;8 and re'pul'ted the following year in [11,
The hydraulic jump is also known as a, sta:n.di1lg wave. In French, it is called Ie ressm,1
hlldra.tdique . . In German, ,it is der Wass6rsprung. III honor of Bidone, the; hycil'Alllic
.;jump in Italian is named il sail a di Bidone (the jtimp of Bidone).
) =For a, compreltsnsive review of the studies 011 hydraulic jump, see [,25], For a
1 mathematical trea.tment of the sllbject, see (251.' ,
I M3
394 RAPID!,Y V AEIED FLOW HYDRAUUC JUMP AND ITS USE AS ENERGY DISSIPATOR 395
channel fo).· irrigation or other water-distribution purposes; (3) to increase '15;..2. Jump in Horizontal-Rectangular Channels,l For supel:critical
weight on an a.pron and thus reduce uplift pressure under a masonrystruc- flow in a hodzo'utal rectangular ch~nnel, the energy of flow is dissipated 1
tul'e by raising ~he watel' depth on the apron; (4) to increase the· discharge' through frictional resistance [l,long the channel, resulting in a decrease in
of a sluice by holding back tail water, since the effective head will be velocity and an increase in depth i n · '
reduced if the tailwater is allowed to drown the jump;l (5) to indicate the direction of flow, A hydraulic ~"'"
jump will form in the chan:nel if the ~ .,.-... ..........--..~-.....-___
..",..---
Froude number Fl of the flow, the
flow depth. YI; and ado,vnstream :'i7~/'/I/m/ff&///;W/'///'//'/I7$)'/7#/
. , 1"1' 1-1.7 Undular jump
'depth 1/2 satisfy the equation
(3-21)
~
14
12
t /
I
1--1----I'----+---+---1I<--t--r-t--r-
r---t---t---"-T--l-V+-+I---I-+-I---1---1.
I
, -I
I-
r--- design for hydraulic jumps. ~
';J-?~ ,,~&.
~: ;:~"";y ~ ,--" --
15 7 3. Types of Jump. Hydraulic W~%'?///ff),/m7/./,1?/,'l"///,I//I////&/Ih'
jumps on horizontal floor are of F,' 2.5, 4.5 Os.cillali~g jump
f
o i' _-,-,"_"
L-.--'-_-'--_-'- '---"--_~~"_'_~_L __~ hence no jump can form. I
o 2 4 5 B 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 For Fl = 1 to 1.7,· the water sur-
(
I
face showa undulations, and the jump
FIG. 15-1. Relation between FJ and y,jy,·for a hydraulic jump in a hQrizontal ~ectan- is called an undulm' J·Hmp •.
gular channer. . . For Fl = 1.7 to 2.5, a series of small
rollers develop on the surface of the .F IG. 15• -~. Q V .
anons types of hydraulic
special flow conditions, such as the eJiiistence of supercritical flow or the jump, but the downstream wa.ter sur- jump.
presence of a control section ::;0 that a gaging station may be located; face remains smooth. The velocity 1
(6) to m\x chemicals lIsed for water purification~ and so forth [28J; (7)" to
aerate water for city water supplies; and (8) to remove air po.ckets from
throughout is fairly uniform, and the energy loss is low. This jUIl'Ip
may be called a weak Jump. I
water-supply lines and thus prevent air locking [29J. For FI = 2.5 to 4.5, there is:J.ll oscillating jet enteririg the jump bottom
1 This principle hRS been applied by Saugey [27] to an interesting device known as
to surface and back again with no periodicity. Each oscillation produces
fall increaser. The device is intended to increase the effective head, in a 'yater-power
1 FOT hydraulic jumps in trape1:oidal channels, see [30J and [31J. For jumps :in
plant during periods of flood by holding b!\ck tail water from the outlet of the draft
closed conduits, see [29]- and [.32). For a general treatment of nonrectangular channels,
tube by a hydraulic jump. see [33J. .
"'·"--1-
396 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW HYDRAULIC JUMP AND ITS USE AS ,ENERGY DISSIPATOR 397
a~large wave ofirregul/1,r~period which, very commonly in canals, can ydEJ, is .the relative seqtwnt depth. All these ratios can be ,shcnvn to be
tra,:e! for mi!Gs doing unlimit.ed damage to earth banks and ripraps. dimensionless functions of F 1. For example,
TIlls Jump may be called Em. oscillating jump.
For Fl = 4.5 to 9.0, the downstream extremity of the surface roller hi ,II + 8F 12 3 (15-2)
and the pl)int at'which the high-veloci.ty jet tends to leave the flow occur El = +2
F12
at practically the same vertical section. The action and position of this Since the relative loss, efficiency, rel2_tive height, and relative initial.
jump are lea..o:;t sensitive to variation in tai1wate1' depth. The jump is ' and sequent depths of a hydraulic jump in a ·horizontal rectangular
well-balanced and the performance iS3.t its best. The energy dissipation' channel are functions of F 1, thcy c[',n be plotted, F 1, resulting in a
ranges from 45 to 70 This i llmp may be called a steady jmnp.
For F 1 = .9.0 and the high-velocity jet grabs intermittent slUgs
of \Vater rollmg down the front hce of the jump, generating Wlwes down-
strenm, and a rough surface can prevail. The jump action j,~ rougb but
effective since the energy dissipation may reach 85 %. This jump may
be called a .slronq j11mp.
!t should be noted that the ranges of the F'roude number given .above
for the various typea of junip are not clear-cut but overlap to a certain
extent depending on local conditions.
The ratio 6.E/E 1 is kno,"-u as the relative loss. Fw. 15-3. Cha!:a.cteristic curves of hydnwlic jumps in horizontal rectangular channels.
Effic'ienc'!J·. The ratio of the specific energy after the jump .to tha.t
before t.he jump is defined as the efficiency of the iump. It can be shown set of characteristic curves (Fig. 15-3), 'With reference to these curves,
that the efficiency is the following interesting features ma.y be noted:
Ez (SF l 2 + 1)'1> - 4F 1z + 1 1. The maXinmltl relative height J'4/E1 is 0.507, which OCClll'S at
El = BF;2(2 + Fl2) Fl 27~ .
2. The m!:.ximum relaLive depth yz/E1 is 0.8, which occurs at vrf El = 0.4
This equation indicates that the efficiency of a jump is a dimensionless and F1 = 1.73. Experiments have shown that the tral1sition from an-
function, depending only on the Froude mnnber of the approaching flow. nndular jump to a direct jump takes place appro:dmateJy D.t'this point
The relative loss is equal to 1 Ed E 1 ; this also is a dimensionleas Fl = 1.73.
function of F 1. . .
3. When Fl 1, the flow is critical and YI Yz %E1 •
He1:ght of J1~mp.The difference between the depths after and before 4. When inol'eMes, the changes in all characteristic ratios become
the jump is the he£(!ht of the j11mp, or hi = Ya - Vl. Expressing each gradual.
term as a ratio with respect to. the initial specific energy, . The characteristic curves will provide the dcslgnel' with a general idea
about th~ range of conditions under which the structure is to be operated.
Yl
El FOl'instan'ce, in the design ofu sluice involving a jump below the
gate, such curves will show clearly the formation.of the. jump f~r diifel-el:t
where hi/El is the relativ8'he1'ghl, VdE 1 is the 1'elativeinitial depth, and gate openings under a given head. The above dlscusslOn applIes to hOrI-
398 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
l HYDRAULIC JUMP AND ITS USE AS ENERGY DlSSIPATOR 3[}9
zontal rectangular channels. For horizontal nomectangular channels, r The experimental data Oil length of jump can be plotted conveniently
similar curve,~ may also be pl'epa,red. with the }<'roude number PI against a dimensionless ratio, L/(Y2 - yD,
The theol'e~ical curves for y2/ Eland hi/ E 1 have been verified experi- L/Yl, or L/yz. The plot of F 1 vs. L/y I is probn.bly the best, for the result-
mentally by Bakhmeteff and Matzke [17], who found that these curves, ing curve can be best defined by the data. ' For practical purposes, how-
give values of yl/ Eland hi / EI about 3 to 4 % greater than the experi- ever, the plot of Fl YS. L/Y2 is desirable, because the resulting Qurve.shows
mental values. I The characteristic curves were also checked with U.S. , regulariflY or a fairly :flat portion for the range of well-established jumps.
A curve of FI vs. L/Y2 (.Fig. 15-4) based on the experimellt11] data of six
7
I- I I i I I I I I ! I test flurries has been prepared by the Bureau of Reclamation. In com-
! I I I I I I ! I I paring this curve with the well-known Bakhmeteff-Matzke curve [17], pro-
I--
--
nounced disagreement was found. Investigation of 1;he matter has Jed
1 ,
6 ~
, , to the belief that this disagreement is due to the scale effect involved in ,(
1/
I-I-- ,
"I F:-:' !-.
r-
B8,khmeteff and Matzke's experimental data. This scale effect means
that the prototype ::I,etion wn.s nOG faithfully reproduced in the model.
I
L
5
II
, r--L=-i
ROII.r~
b-- I-- -+- =i -~~
I-
The curve shown in Fig. 15-4 was cleveloped primarily for jumps occur-
Y; yll ,..;'P~::- __-- Y2
VI~'''''''''-'''''''''''''
?:?r" /~/.'I'I// /. ~ /. .'1'.""
-r ,I- ring in rectangular cha.nnels, In the absence of' adequate data,' this
curve ma.y also be applied approximEl.tely to jumps formed in kapezoidal ·1
4
T
~tld\llor
1/ I I I I 1/ I" I I I ! I 1 channels.
15-6. The Surface Profile. Knowledge of the surface profile of a
li-'eolOS(;illtlliJiCj
j !
lUI'fIP4fTlP jlimp Sleady lump Sirang- jump
f.'
s,,'rlacp.·7
lurbulenr.e only
f..-Vlo.,,)'
----- f.. --- - ---- -- --- ---
8esl perto~rnOl1ce --A~''-P'Ob''--T -- £;-p-.n;';';~~i~19b~i;.-'-;;J
per lotm:Jnt;;e rough SudClce c:ofloilior.s
jump is desirable in designing the freeboard' for the retaining walls cif the
stilling basin where the jump takes place. It is important also for deter- I
3
o
T
2 3 6
I /I! I 9I I 10I I III I 12I , IJI I ,.I I I I I i I I l-C
IS 16 11. IS IS 20
mining: the pressure for use in structural design, because experiments have
F"V.!m, shown that the vertical pressure on the horizontal Hoor under a hydraulic' '. \
'-"l
400 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW·. HYDRAULIC JUM? AND. ITS USE AS. ENERGy 'DISSIPATOR 401
A' •
ever, the length of the jump should be considered. The following will
illustrate the locaGion of a hydraulic jump in three typical cases (Fig.
--c"~
............. Fl.
15-6) :
Case A shows the jump below a regulating sluice in a mild channel.
The profiles A Band CD c.an easily be identified as of J\lI3 and M2 type,
respeet.ively. The methods of computing these profiles are discussed in
Chap. 10. The curve A'B is a plot of the depth sequent to AB. By
1'Ol~·~-n
0.9
-J
I
'i
F,o 1.98~
F,=2.92"
CIJse A
0.6
0.4 i--j---,/C-I:t'7"-+''<--+---+
.. 0.1 f.-...I"IA--+-~t-
1 3 4 5 7 8
x /h j
FIG. 15-,5. DimewSlouless snrface profiles of hydraulic jumps in hOl'izontnl channels ..
(Based on Bakhmeic.tf-Mal .• ke (lata [17J.)
the position of pI, the length of the jump can be estimated. By trial
Case C
and error, a horizontal intercept bet,ween the curves A'B and CD can be
found equal to the length of jump. For instance, the horizontal distance F1G. 15-6. Location of a hydraulic jump.
EF is equal to the length of the j'Jmp corresponding to the dept,hyz at F.
It becomes apparent thHt the jump will fOl'm between G r.nd F, Slllce .the ;
depth at F is sequent to the depth at G und the distll,nce EF measures the When there is a hydraulic jump below a sluice, the issuing flow from
the sluice will form 0. jet that possesses a vena. conti"acta, '1'he distance
length of the jump. It may be noted th~t, if the length of the jump were
not taken into account in the analysis,the jump would have been con- L, from the vena contract,!L to the sluice opening is usually short. Hegitrd-
. iug this distance, there is.a generally adopted rule which stc'l.tes that the
sidered to form at the upstream ]Joint F', resulting in an error represented
vena contracta is located approximately at a distance h from the sluice
by F'F. In case A, it can be s£en that, by. increasing the downstream , opening. l
{ water depth or raising the curve CD, t~e jump can be moved up~tream.
i J., The downstream depth may be raised to such a height that the ju~p will
1 This rule was first used by Agroskin [41J. It is baseq. on the assumptions that
eventually be ;drowned out.in front of t~e sluice. Decreasing the' down- ~ Row from a sluice correspond,S to one-half the flow from a. drclliar orifice and that the .,
1 stream depth PI' lowering CD will move the jump downstream.' . 'lena contracta in the flow fro'm lJ. cil'cular orifice is located approximately at a, distance
) The above discussion applies also to the lo!!ation of a jump fOI'med at I)f half an orifice diameter from the orifice, The rule of half orifice diameter was
the foot of a weir 01' overflow spillway, . originated by Weisbach [421.
1
402 RA.PIDLY VARIED FLOW ,
.\
JUMP AND ITS 'USE AS ENERGY DISSIPATOR. 403
CIUl6 B shows the jump in a channel having a break in the bottom slope
tha.t changes from steep to mild. For simplicity, it. is assumed that the
flow is uniform in the channel except in the reach between the jump and
the break. The jump may occur in either the steep channel or the mild
II is
I
bR~
. ~~Cc»' -
I 5f-. <-
approximately to less than y/, the jump wili start to move into the mild if / I , i
i
channel: In this case, the jump can be located a.s described in case A,
Case C shows the jump behind an ove"fiowban'ier.' Theoretically, a 2~ !I !
I
I
I
I
i
jump will form if the depth at the barrier is greater than .the depth Yl' \/ \1
~E'~_
I
downstream.is uniform: If the How downstream is not unif,Qrm but gra.dually varied,
then the depth a.t the intersection F' of the downstream profile with the curve A'F'B
should be taken as 'iI" This i.;;. also an approxima.tion, because the aqtua.l depth lJ1
should be at F, the position of which is as yet unknown. .
. lOwing to the difference between," and 13, the computed critica.l depths indicated . I
;by the specific-energy and specific-force CU.J:VBs are not precisely identica.l. However,
the discrepancy is so small that it cnn be ignored. .
FIG. 15-8. Location of a hydraulic jump.
405
404 RAPIDLY VARIED ']i'LOW ''''P AND ITS USE AS ENERGY DISSIPATOR
HYDRAULIC JU "'- ,
.After the lrmgth of jump is determined, a hOI'izonta,i intercept EF equal to 9.6 ft t.han Y2. This means that the tailwateI' depth in' ?l1se '1 is decreased .
iq found uetw",m the ourve A'fi"B and ·eF'D. The hydraulic jump will, therefore, As a result, the jump will recede downstream to a pomt ",-here ~q, (3~21)
occltr between G and fi', A.~ shown in Fig. 15-8, the jump appears to start at a dis-
. tance of about 140 it fronl the. vena oontracta. Since the location of the jump is
is again satisfied. This case must, if possible, be aVOlde~ lD deSign,
determined, the n.pPI:oximations menf;ioned above can be checked, and more exact because the jump, repelled from the . apr~n, will take place
determination can be made by repeating the procedure if desired. Such verification either on the ;oose rubble bed or, still m entIrely unprotected
seems unnecessary, \iowel'er, Oil account of the approxima.tions 'involved in the theory
aud other aspects of the prohlem, .
406 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW HYDRAULIC JUMP AND ITS T!SE AS ENERGY DISSIPATOR 407
B. Tail'W((,ter Conditions. In the above discussion it is assumed that, jump will occur on the protected apron is to use sills to create a stilling
the tail water has a celtain fixed position, whether its depth YI' is equal to, basin (Art. 15-9).
less than, or greater than the sequent depth Yi. In most practical prob- Class 3 represents the cot'ditions in which the jump rating curve is
lems, however, the tai~water fil.!ctuates, owing to changes in discharge of always at a lower stage than the tail water rating curve. This means that
flow in the channel. In such cases, a tailwater rating curve is U!lUaHy case 3 in Fig. 1.5-9 occurs at all times (i.e., the tail water is higher than the
available to show the relation between the tailwatcl' stage Yz' and the sequent depth) and that the jump will move upstream and will probably
discharge Q. In a similar way, a jump rating curve may ~e constructed be drowned out at the Source. Consequently, little energy wilt be dis-
sipatr:!d. An effective method to ensure a jump is to build a sloping apron
.~<>ilL
y~;;equent de'plh,
above the channer·bed level (Art. 15-16). The slope of the apron can be
Coso. I Cose 2
such that proper conditions for a jump will be developed on the apron at
-'~rJU~"p
yi'toilwa:er depth
"'0 1 Clfin g aJl discharges. Another method is to provide a drop ill the channel floor.
~ \'
alJd thus to lower the tailwater depth (Art. 15-10).
Class 4 represents the conditions in 'which the jump rating curve is at a
~
'"m, '" "",'
toilwcler rating
: , /;
~ I
Tailwoter
roting higher stage than the tailwD,ter rating curve at low discharges but nt a
~ ~ . .
lower stage at high discharges, An effective method to ensure n jump is
Discharge Q Discharge Q
to provide a stilling basin for forming a jump at low discharges and to
combine with the basin a sloping apron for developing a satisfactory jump
at high discharges. . I
Cose :3 Cose 4 Cose 5 Class 5 represents the conditiona in which the jump rating curve is at a ·1
->-," lower stage than the tailwater rating curve fit low discharges but at a higher
'C
<:
'C
<:
stage at high discharges. An effective method to ensure a' jump is to
>.
N ":::' ":::' increase the tail water depth sufficiently high by providing a stilling pool,
thUd forming a jump at high dischatges.
'"'"co
~
'" '"
'" "'" C. J'urnp Types. In~, view of the various types of hydraulic jump
" ~ "
(;,
'" Disc horg e 0
'" Discharge Q
df;lf!cribed in Art. 15-3, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation [34,35J gives the
following practical considerations:
FIG. 15-10. Classification of tailwater conditions for the design of scour-protection
1. All types of jump are encountered in the design of stilling ba5ins.
works.
. 2. The weak jump requires no baffles or special consideration. The
Ollly requirement necessal'Y is to provide the propel' length of a pool,
to show the relation between the sequent depthY2 and the discharge Q; which is relatively short.. This can be determined from Fig. 15-4.
Because of the difference in the relative positions of the two rating curves, 3. The oscillating jump,.frequently encountered in the design of canal
Leliavsky (43] has suggested that the design may be considered according structnres, diversion dams, ::mcl eVen outlet 'Yorlcs, i.s difficult to handle.
to five different classes of condi tions (shown respectively by fLVe cases in If possible, jumps in the 2.5-to-4.5 Froude-number range shollid be
Fig. 15-10): . avoided. In many cases use of this jump cannot be avoided but, in other
Class 1 represents all ideal conditions in which the two rating curves cases, aitering of dimensiot's ma'y bring the jump into the desirable range.
always coincide. This means that case 1 in Fig. 15-9 exists at all times Baffle blocks 01' appurtenances are of little va:lue. Waves are the main
and that a jump will form at the desired place on a protective apron at source of difficulty; hence specially designed wave suppressors may be
all discharges. . Conditions of thisolass are mrely encountered naturally. used to cope with them.
Class 2 represents the conditions in whic.h the jump rating curve is 4. No particular difficulty is encountered in steady jumps. Arrange"
always at a higher stagetha,n the taiIwater rating curve. ThiS means ments of baffles and sills to be discussed later will be found valuable as a
that case 2 in Fig. 15-9 exists at all times (i.e., the tail water depth is means of shortening the length of the stilling basin.
lower than the jump sequent depth) and that the jump will form at a 5. As the Fronde number inereases, the jump becomes more sensitive
certain place far downstream. An effective method of ensuring that the to taihvater depth, For Froude numbel;s as low as 8, a tailwater depth
i
I
~.
" SENERGY DISSIPATOR 409
EniDRA.ULIC . JUMP AND ITS USE A " ,
408 RAP'LDLY VARIED .FLOW . ..,. . ·scont~olled by the sill, however, cannot be
greater than the sequent depth is advisable to make certain that the jump exact pOSItIOn of the Jump. a d l t d this positio.n can be repre-
. d 1 f cally In the rno e s u YI . t
will stay on Hm apron. . cletermme ana Y .1 ,. X .d· The ratio is taken as constan
sented by the ra:10 between. an "uY2~iellt to ~nsure a complete jump.
in each tes~1 hav!llg a m~gn~tud~till~ basin should be made at lea~t
6. When the Froude number is than 10, a stilling basin using
as
the jump a dissipator may no longer be the most economical dissipatiun
In the deSIgn, the lengt .0 a ~ gh' er· the length of the basm
device. In this case, the difference between the initial and sequent
depths is great, and) generally spe&king, 8, very dj'lep basin with high equa" 1.w
.' X.'. }i'<lr economiC reasons, 0',1, ev I .
tim!., however, the theoretical analysis cannot predIct the quantitative (A.jler Fm'Bte1' "'Id Bhinc/e [23J.1
result very closely. For useful design information one has to rely upon
• . T 'd d th t the high bottom velocities
~:!~~~~ ~:~i:S~:~:~:!~:;;:I v:lue ;ollsidered safe for the
e..~perimental studies.
. Dimensional a::mlysis shows that the relations the Froude. mtatyh' be down- .
a ee .
number Fl or F of the approachingflo\~) the height 12 of the stream channel condit.ion. . . . . of ex )el'imental data
approaching depth Vl, the depth Y2 upstream from the aill, the distance X A Control by Sharp-c1'e$ted Wetr. On the baSIS dI- 1 d ·d'a-
from the toe aLthe jump to the sill, and the downstream depth 1/3 may be . .., d Sk 'nde [231 have eve ope a h
an d th'Coretical analYSIS ' l' orst.er
. an . n (1) Froude numb ei'F 0 f
expressed as
:l
, (Fin- 15-11) showing the relatIOns D.mong· .' d h
glf.l.Dl o· , b tween the well' heIght h an t e
=, ~ ( F, ~, ~:) (15-3) the appr~achln~ ~ow, (2~ ~;) ~~:l~ati~ between the distance X fram
approachmg dept Yl, an. d th dep! tIl y upstream from the Well',
t?e
h' to the well: an e 2 "
This function can be determined quantitatively by model studies. The toe 0 f t e Jump. 1 . f the effec. of a (TivBJ;l weir for known
This pe~mrts an ana !~IS 0 ,.- "h t the norm.:'l.l tailwater
1 This isan \Ipturned bucket provided a.t the toe of !I. sp'illway to deflect the ov·er- anproach and tallwater condItions, pIovlded t a. 'st.t that iil pro-
flow up :through the tailw!l.ter. If tlle ta.i1water is high enough t:o submerge the • . ff t th discharge over t he, Well' Cle} <,
bl~cket, :Ii. roller wiU form downstrelj.m from the bucket and tend to mo~e bed materials
toward the dam. thus preventing Eel'io~!s scour at the toe of the dam:. Onthe other
:33
~~X:~ ~o;: +O~.;5~~ Or~inarilY, ul1su'bmerged conditions pteya~l ,over
h!lD.d,if ~he ta.ilwater is low, the overflow will be thrown up and alit so th!lt it will . 1 This condition was first observed by Bazin (see reference [12] of Chap. 14) find
strike a solid-rock channel, if any, at a safe distance below the dam; See [44), [45]1 . later demon:;trated theoreticn.l1.y by Bakhmetcfi [27]. , .
p.nd Arts; 1<1-10 and 1 4 - 1 1 , · . .
)
410 RAPIDlJYVARIED FLOW HYDRAULIC JUMP AND ITS USE AS ENERGY DISSIPATOR 411
a wide l;allge of Thus, v.lvl in Eq. (15-3) can be dropped. mental data, this curve may be usecL as. a guide in .proportioning
If submergence occurs, the jump is forced upstream with possible drown- (l.stilling basin broad-c;rested weir as. jump control, provided
ing as a .result, Yl < (2Y2 + h)/3.
In the diagram, any point is represented by a pair of coordinat~s A broad-cre.~ted weir has certain advantages in comparison with some
(F,h/Vl)' If the point lies within t,he curves, hydniulic jump will occur, other types of control. It has greater structural stability than a sharp-
with its relative position indicated by the corresponding interpolated crested weir and usually requires lower cost of exc[1.vation than an abrupt
value of X/Y2. Points lying above and to the left of an interpolated curve rise.
represent the conditions under which the weir is t,oo nigh, so that the
jump will be .forced upstream and possibly drowned at the sonrce.
Points lying to the right,of the curve repre'sent the c011ditiol1s under which
the weir is too low, so that the jump will be forced dO'wllstreal1l and
possibly washed out. Y{hen the weir is as low as this, it ma~r be crossed , i 4
only by a single undular surface rise, forming a standing swell (Fig. 15-6).
For design purposes, it, is proposed that the curve X/Y2 = 5' in the
diagram be used. Laboratory expedence has shown that the highest
required weir does not necessarily occur under conditiollSOf maximum .F
.2
.S1
discharge [20]. Consequent.!}', the highest required weir should have the 1:;
largest required value of h within the expected l'3.l1ge of as ~ 2r---~+-----1-----~~~~--~-····~············---r----~-----1
+ )
~.
q 0.433 (
~ 'H:;'
. Yz h
(15-4)
F'IG. 15-12. Analytical relations between F and
Forslar and Skdr.de [23J.)
"-hit for a broad-cre~ted weir. (A/tel'
J
'USE' AS ENERGY DISSIPATOR
tH3
HYDRAULIC JUMP AND ITS
412 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
Jump troyels upslreom -
jump will be forced upstream and may finally be drowned. If the point
1 is at the right of the curve, the rise is too low, and the jump will be forced
I downsti'eam toward the' abrupt rise and mayfinnJly be wil.shed out.
If a point (F,Y3/Yl) lies in the diagram below the line Y3 = 1'" then the V1-
normal downstream flow is sl.lpercritical. A jump is followed by a critical
section cre..'Lted over the crest of the abrupt rise, so that the rise acts as a
weir, and the design diagram (Fig. 15-11) for the sharp-Cl'ested weir may be
. used.
v,
Y, ----+-
,
~.
l
\ Volue s of F 16~ .
FIG. 15-13. Experimental relations among F, YJ/V I, and 7t/y, for an abrupt rise. (AJter
Forster and Shhule [23].) i4n~~-l
For design purposes, the diagram (Fig. 15-13) can be used to determine 12 ~"'--+---+-----t-.--
the necessary length and depth of stilling basin when V 1, Yr, and Ya are
known. It is proposed that a point (F,1/3/Yl) be first defii,led for condi- ,;::- 10 f-.----+---j--.-
tions at or near maximum discharge and tha,t the corresponding value of ;,.
hjyl be determined by interpolation .. By repeating this procedure for
other discharges within the expected range of discharge, a largest required
value of h enD be obtained. This value should be used for the highest
required rise. A minimum height. of rise necessary to prevent the jump
from being washed out can also be thus determined.
15-10. Control of Jump by Abrupt Drop. The control of hydraulic
'"
i :1--~qL___;~..w~-~ -f ----+----t-------1
~"i-3-~.:--
jump by sills is useful if the downstream depth is smaller than the sequent
depth for a normal jump. If the downstremu depth is btrger than the
sequent depth for a normal jump, a drop in the channel flooi' must be
used in order to ensme a jump. This condition occurs generaUy at the
end of the expansion of R supel'critical flow.
.'
OO~~'~"--~--~2~-~~3 4L----::---;:s
5
7 8 9 10
For Il. given appro<lching Froude number, the do\vnstream depth of a F=vl/fol
drop may fali in any of the five regions as sh9Wl1 in Fig. 15-14tt. The , . I f
• 1 • I f ns among F Y';YL, and lI'Yl or an
lower limit of region 1 is the depth at which the jump will begin to travel FlO 15-14. Experin1antal and analytIcal Ie a10' .
Il:Dr~pt drop. . (After E. Y. Hsu [471.)
upstream. The uppe.r limit of region 5 is the 'depth at which the jump
I
i
414 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW.
I HYDRAULIC JUjI,lP AND ITS USE AS ENERGY DISSIPATOR 415
will begin to· tr:'L\'ci do "'llS cream , Evidently, the drop does not control ing velocities, the sill is usually dent::Ltcd to perform the additional func-
the jump in these two regions. The jum.p is stable and the drop is effec- tion of diffusing the residual portion of the high-velocity jet that may
tive for its desired purpose only in regions 2 and 4. The intermediate reach the end of the basin.
region 3 represents an undular state of flow without a breaking front. Baffle piers are blocks pla,ced in intermediate positions across the basin·
By applying the continuity and momentum equations in an analysis floor. Their function is to dissipate energy mostly by impact action.
similar totlutt made for the broad-crested weir (Example 3-2), HSll [47J The baffle piers are very useful in small structures with low incoming
has shown that, for region 2, velocities. They are unsuitable,· however, where high velocities make
c!witation possibie. In certaiIl circumstances, they must be designed
(15-7) to withstand impact from ice or floating debris.
There are many generalized designs of stilling basin that use a hydraulic
and, for region 4, jump as the means of energy dissipation.! Three typical designs will be
described in the subsequent artides: -
F2 = liYa/Y1 [( ~ + 1)2 _ (J0.)2l (15-8) 1. The SAF basin. This is reCl)mmended for use on snutll scructUl'es
. 7't 1 - yJivl \ Y l 1 l 1 J such as small spillways, outlet works and small canal structures whBre
These equations have been verified by experimen lcs. 1 The rebtions FJ = 1.7 to 17. The reduction in ba~in length achieved through the use
among F, Y./Yl, and h/Yl are shown in Fig. 15-14. of appurtenances designed for the basin is about 80% (70 to 90%).
In Fig. 15-14, each curve for a given h/YI has two relatively straight 2. The USBR basin II. This is recommended for use on large struc-
limbs connected by a short straight portion near the middle. The left- tures such a,s large spillways, la.rge canal stnlCtures, etc., for FJ > 4.5.
side limb represents the condition corresponding t.o rl~gion 2 and the right~ The jumwand-basin length is reduced about 33 % with the us~ of appur-
side limb represents the condition corresponding to region 4. This dia- tenances.
gram may be used for design purposes to determine the relative height of 3. The USBR basin IV. This is recommended for use with jumps of
drop required to stabilize a jump for any given combination of discharge, FI = 2.5 to 4.5, which usually OCCll!' on canal structures and diversion
upstream depth, and downstream depth. dams. This design reduces excessive waves created in imperfect jumps.
15-11. StillingBasins of Generalized Design. In important works or It should be noted that these designs are only typical examples and
works that involve a lflrge number of stilling basins, generalize.d desigll:> t.hat caution should be used in
applying them to stilling basins under
.)
for the basins are often necessary fol: economy a.nd to meet specific entirely different design conditions.
requirements. 'These designs can be developed through years of experi- The principle of the stilling basin applies also t.o the design of a canal
ence and observations on existing structures, or by model investigatiolls, drop (.01' canal fall), which is a sti'ucture built to secure the lowering of the
or from both. The basins thus designed are usually provided with water surface of a canal and the safe destruction of the energy so liberated. j
special appurtenances, including chute-blocks, sills, and. baffle piers. The canal drop is sometimes designed with a contracted width like the I
The chute blocks ~Lre used to form a serrated device at the entrr.nce to Parshall flume. Such a drop is known as a fiumed drop, which can eco-
the stilling basin. Their function is to furrow the incoming jet and. lift a nomically be built together witha crossing bridge and used as a meter or a
portion of it fr0111 the fioor, producing 11 shorter length of i ump thail would regulator as well [50,60-63].
be possible without them. These blocks also tend to stabilize the jump 15-12. The SAF Stilling Basin. This basin (Fig. 15-15; SAF denol;es
and thus to improve its performance. "Saint Anthony FalLs") W2.S developed at the St. Anthony Falls Hydrau-
The sill , either dentated 2 or solid, is usually provided at the end of. the lic Laboratory, University of l\iinnesota, for use on sma.lJ ,drainage struc- \
,.
i
stilling basin. Its function is to reduce further the length of the Jump tures such as those built by the U.S, Soil Conservation Service. The I
and to control seoul'. For large basins that are designed for high inconl- design rules summ[Lrized by the investigator Blaisdell [22,64] are as
follows: (
1 A simplified analysis and further experiments were also·made later by Moore and L The length LB of the stilling basin for Froude nuinbers between
Morgan [481. FI = 1.7 and FI = 17 is determined by LB' = 4.5ydF1G.76.
1
, The dentnted sill or serrated baffle is also known as the· Rehbock sm; because it
was first patented by Prof. Theodor Rehbock after it was developed from experiments 1 For mOl'e info!'.mation see [9], [25J, [34], [35], [43J, and [49J to [,58J. For designs
made during 1924 to 1927 at the Technical University of KarLsruhe, Germany. developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, see 1591.
I\
,
i·
j
·416 . RAPIDLY .vARIED FLOW
HYDRAULIC JUMP AND I'rs· USE AS ENERGY PrSSIPA'J,'OR 417
RECTANGuLAR STILLING Bil.SIN
HALF-PLAN
2. The height of the chute blocks ::md floor blocks is y 11 and the width
. and spachlg are approximately 0.731/1.
3. The distance from the upstream end of the stilling basin to the floor
blocks is L11/3. .
4. No floor block should· be placed closer to the side v;all than 3y/.8.
5. The floor blocks should, be pbced downstream from the VjJ"~""'''50
between the chute blocks.
6: The floor blocks should occupy between 4{J and 55$ of the stilling-
hasin width. .
, \ 7; The widths and of the floor blocks fOl'divel'ging stilling
I
j, basins should be increased in proportiOll to the increase in stilling-basin
I
width at the floor-block location.
8. The height of end sill is by c. O.07y 2, 'tV here y 2 is the theo-
retical sequent depth corresponding t,Q 1f1.
g~ The depth of tailwater abov6 the stilling-basin floor is given by
yl = (LlO - F 1 2/120)Y2, for 1.7 to 5.5; by YI' = O.85Y2, for
F1 = 5.5 to 11; and by 'Y2' = (LOO FN800)Y2, for F1 = 11 t'o 17.
l. 10. The height of the side wall 1lbove the maximum tailwater depth
to be expected during the life of the structure is given by z = Y2/3.
II. Wing walls should be equfll in height to the stilling-basin side walls,
The top of the wing wall should have i1 slope of 1 on 1.
12. The. wing wall should be placed at an angle of 45° to the outlet
center li.~1e.
i3. 'l1.e stilling-basin side wail~ may be parallel {as in 1} rectangular
stilling basin) 01' they may diverge as an extension of the transition sidl;)
walls (as in a trapezoid~l stilling basin).
14. A cutoff wall of nominal depth should be used at the end of the
CENTERLINe: SECTION
stilling basin. .
15. The effect Qf entirained air should be neglected in the design of the
stilling basin.
15-13. USER Stilling Basin II. From intensive studies of many
existing structures and laboratory illvestigations, various tYPElS of general-
ized design of stilling basin have been developed by theD.S, Bureau of
Reclamation [34,35}. L"SBR basin I is the basin· created by a· jump
occurring on a flat floor with no appurtenances. This can be designed
easily by following the principles descdbed in the' early D,l'ticles of this
chapter. However; such a basin is usually not very pructic!).! because of
TRAPEZOIDA;"
its expeI)sive length and its lack of control. USER basin IIi is designed
RECTAN GULA~ STiLLING BASIN
for a pu~pose similar to that of the SAF basill, but it has a higher factor
i DOWNSTREAM ELEVATION '
of safety, which is neceSS!1ry for Bureau use. The pel'forrhance of this
it
Fw.·15-15. Proportions of he SAF ba.sin. (U.S. Soil C~senlation Service [64J.) basin in~icates that the jump-and..:basilllength can be reduced about 60%
. with the appurtenances, as compared .vith 80 % for .the SAF basin.
Therefol'e, the SAF basin is shorter and more economical but, in cons&-
<II. II -I
.5
VI -\
F "--
I~
(c I
1
(a]
28 I
26 1--..
A.7Q~
j; ",i
."'-:;;' !
i
1<9;.
17
/
24
V I 1 OJ/
i .
I'
I
I . /Sj/
22- / I'0/ .
20 ~. -- ' -:;c-=--
I
(J, +8F}-; L",
!
I I
ii-r-
;} / / 0'/
I?~
1'/ /[ i
18
I i
I / 0 I
/ .j
I \// i/// /,/
I I
~6
14
1/
I .£ ///
I
I
2 4 6 'S 10 12 14 16
'< Mi~fml,lm
12 11# . :'/.1
/
-W depth F,' Vj
./gD,
10
, 1/;, ~?~
'/
/ !
(dl 1
i
10/'/
II
8 :0 /,1
/_M
~'
6 ~
/
I
4 \~ .. ,- f-~ .. ;.........-
"/
2r-#"
o
0
)
·2
!
I
4 6
i
(3 iO 12
..• t----.
14 16 18 20
.l
-F ~ ~~
V,
1 .,.tgi),
(b)
FIG. 15-16. Design curves and proportions of USBR ba.sin II. (U.S. Bureau of
Reda.;nation [34].) fa} Definition of 5j·mbols; (b) minimum. tailwatet depths; (c)
i
length .of hydraulic jump; (c) n.pprotimate water surface and pressure profiles (conju-
gate depth = sequent depth); (e) recommended proportions.
420 RAPIDLY VAlUED FLOW ilYDRAULlC JU¥P AND ITS USE AS ENERGY DISSIPATOR
quene!!',. has ~ lower safety factor. USER basin V is us6d where struc~ improves the peiorruance in narrow b!l.Sins; thus, the minimum width
tU~'al er,onOlll,te8 dl~ti1.~e th6 lise .of a sloping a.Pl'Oll, usually on high~dam and spacing of the dentates is governed only by structural conside~·ations.
s~dlways. ~ he ?nnclple of deSign for hydraulic on sloping apron 6. It is not lleCeSS::l.rv to the chute blocks and the sill dentates.
:Vlll ~e descl'lbed 111 Art.. ,lS-16. USBR basins II and IV will be described In fact this practice is ~s1:ltl.llY inadvisable from' a construction standpoint.
III tillS and the next articles; respectively.
7. The verification tests 011 basin II indicated no perceptible change in
. USBR basin II was developed foJ' stilling basins in common use for the stilling-basin action with respect to the s!ope of the chute preceding
hlg~~dam a,~1(t eUl'th-dam spillways and for large canal structures. The the basin. The slope of chute ":I1l'ied from 0.6: 1 to 2; 1 in these tests.
. ba,sln contall1S {:hute blocks at the upstream end and a dentated sillnel1r Actually, the slope Of the chute does have 9.n on the hydraulic jump
the do:vl1stl'eo.m end. No baffle piers are used because the relatively high in sorile cases. l It is recommended tqat the sharp intersection between
velo?ltles the jUl,:\lP might canSe cavitation on· piel;". The chute and basin apron be replaced with a cltrve of reasonable i'adius
detailed and the data for COn1FJUtutiollS al'e shown in Fig. 1.5-16. (R ~ '1,0,) when th'l slope of the chute. is 1; 1 or . Chute blocks
The rules recommended for the design are as follows: can be incorporated on the curved face as readily as on the plane surface".
1. .s~t apron eleva.tio~l to utilize full sequent tailwater depth, plus ~n On steep chutes the length of top surface on the chute blocks should be
acl~led mctol' of sdety 1f needed. The dashed lines in Fig. 15-16b are made sufficiently loug to deflect the Jet.
gmdes dn1wl: for vtl,dous ratios of actUttl tailwaterdepth .to sequent The above rules ,,,ill result in a safe, cOl1servaUve stilLing basin for
depth. ,::itud1es of exis~il1g in:dicate that most of the b,usins wer<, with fall up to ZOO ft and. for flows up M 500 cfs per foot of
de~lgn~(l for sequent. tallwatel' depth or 1,,8s. HowBver, there is a. lilI:cit, basin width, provided the jet entering the basin is I'easonably uniform
WhlCh.l~ ~overned by the curve labeled "Minin~um TW depth." TillS both in velocity and in depth. For g,Tet\ter falls; larger unit discharges, 01'
curve IndICates the point at which the front oithe jump mo\'cS [l:\~Tay from possible asymmetry, a model study of the specific design is recommended.
the chute blocks. In other words, any additional lowering of the tail- 8. The approximate water-surface and pressure profiles of a jump in
. water depth would cause the ju:np to leave the 'basin; that would the basin are shown mI5-1M.
pro~uce u "sweep-out." For design purposes, the b!l.Sin should not be
deSIgned for less than sequentclepth. For additional safety, in fact, the Example 15-2. Pruportion a USBR llr.illing basin II for th.e overflow spillway
designed in Example 14-1. The tailwater elevation is at El. 920.0.
Bureau recommends that f, minimum safety margin of 5 % of be added Solt,lion. Entering Fig. 14-15 with a h<;ad of 17.7 ft over the crest and !l. tot-al fall
to f,he sequent depth. .
of 120 ft. the velocity of fiow at the toe of the spillwa.y is 79 fps. Thus, the depth of
2. Eosin II may be effec.tive dow::l to u Froude number of 4, but the flow is 7;,000/(250 X 79) = 3.8 ft., !J.nd the Froude nuraber is 79/ v3.8v = 7.13.
lowcr values should not be. t.aken for granted. For lower values, Entering Fig. Hi-HliJ with f\ = 7.13, the solid line gives the ratio of '['IV depth to
W~:we supp!'esSlOll are recommended. Dl as 9.7 .. As TW depth and sequent ta.i1wawl' d~pth D. a!e identical in this case,
D.= 9.7 X 3.8 = 36.9 ft. The miniImnu tll.ihvater line for basin II on Fig. 15-11lb
3. The length of basin can be obt~'l.ined from the length-of.-jump curve shows that 2. margin 'of safety of about 4 % can be' expec~ed for the I).bove Fronde num-
III 15-16.::.. . . .
ber. The elevation of th~ basin floor ia placed at EI. 8~3.1. j~hus, the tobl fall will
4. T~e height o~ chute blocks is equ!!.l to the depth Dl of flow ent.ering be 116.9 ft, but this will not change the flow velocity o.ppredr..bly.
the bl1S111. !he Width and spacing should,be approximately equal to D ; Should it be desired to. provide a IDru:gin of safety of 80/0, the following procedure
l
however, tillS may be varied to eliminate the need for fractional blocks. ma.y be fol!owed. Consulting Fig. 15-16b, th6 li~8 for minimum TW depth for basin
II gives TW depth/D, = 9.2 for F, = 7.13. The tnilwater d~pth a.t which sweep-out
. A· s'pac~ eqll~l to O.5D l is prefemble along; eMh wall to reduce spray and
mamtam desJl'able pressul'e..'!. . is incipient is TW •• = 9.2 X 3.8 = 35.0 ft. Adding 8% to this figuro, the stilling
basin should be positioned again for a tail water depth of 35.0 X LOS 37.S ft 'or
.5. The heighc of the . sill is equal to O.ZD~, and the rilaximum l.OZ4D.. The ba.sin floor will be placed at EJ. 882.2.
wI~th and spacing recommended is approximately O.15D 2 • In this 1 The slope of the chute has little effect on the jump as long as the velocity distribu-
deslgn a block is recommended adjn.cent to each side wall (Fig. 16-16e). tion and depth of tiowa.re reasonably uniform on entering the jump.. If the chute is
The slOPe of the continuous portion of the end sill is 2; 1. In the case of long and fiat, the velocity maybe concentrated in one part of the flow section, result-
1111rrow basi~" whic!.l would involve only a few dentates according to the ing in an asymmetric8.1 jump with strollg side eddies. The operation of suell (l. .jump
a.b?v~ rule,' It IS adVisable to reduce the width and th.e spacing; provided is expensive and should be a.voided in ail stilling basins. Also, when the angle of
divergence of the chute is too la.rge for water tp follow properly, the jump will become
thiS IS done pr'oportionally. Reducing the . .vidth and actually of
rough and uncertain its position.
i
j
I
422 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW HYDRAULIC JUMP AND ITS USE AS ENERGY DISSIPATon 423
The length of basin can be obtained by entering the curve in Fig. 15-16c with 15-15. The Straight Drop Spillway. The aerated free-fallillg nappe in
F, = 7.13. Tllll~, LID, = 4.16, or L = Lll = 4.Ui X 36.9 = 154 ft.
a stralght drop spillway (Fig. 15-18) will reverse its curvature and turn
The height" wid th, and spacing of the chute blocks as recommended are D I; thus the
dimension can be 3 £t 10 ill. The Might of the dentated sill is O.2D" or 7 ft 5 in., and smoot.hly into snperclitical flow on the apron. '. Consequently, a hydmulic
th~ wicl~h anc1 spacing of the dent,ates can be O.ISD" or 5 ft 6 in. jump may be formed downstream. Based on his own experimentai data
15-14. USER Stilling Basin IV. When F 1 =2.5 to 4.5, an, oscillating
jump WIll be produced in ,the stilling basin, generating a wave that is
difficult to dampen (Art. 15-3). USBR. basin IV (Fig. i5-H) is designed
to combat. this problem by eliminating the w~ve at its SOUl'ce. 1 This is
Imlmllllll//TIIlI//IlIII/I?/dIlIII/llwm
,..j---;---- L -..j
and those of Moore [4.0J and Bakhmeteff and Feodoroff [65J, Rand [6l1J
found t.hat the flow geometry at straight drop spillways can, be described
by functions of the drop numL'61', which is defined as 1.,
o
Fractional space'
D=L
gh 3 (15-9)
- VI = mox.tooth 'Hid Ih OJ
o where q is the discharge per unit width of the crest of overfall, 9 i's the
; - 5 p oce,: 2.5w
acceleration of gravity, and h is the height of the drop. Tho functions
Top 'surface on 5° slope are
~d = 4.30Do.27 (15-10)
J
Vv
h = 1
_. OODc·.22 (15-11)
li'IG. 15-17. Pro,portions of USBR basin IV. (U.S. B1}.realt of Recla.ma.tr:on [34].)
~!l = 0.54Do.m (15-12)
achieved bv intensifying the roller, which a.ppears in the upper portion of ~2 = 1.66Do.27
. (15-13)
the jump "(Fig. 15-2), with directional jecs deflected from large chute ~
'blocks. The number of chute blocks shown iil Fig. 15-17 is the minimum where La is the drop length, that is, the distance from the drop waU to
required to serve the purpose. For better hydraulic performance, it is the position of 'the depth YI; Y'P is the pool depth under the napp'e; VI
desil'fl.ble to construct the blocks narrower than indicated, preferably is the depth at the toe of the nappe or the beginning of the hydraulic
O.75D 1 , and t.o set the tailwatel' depth 5 to 10% greater than the sequent jump; and Y2 is the tailwater depth sequent to Yl. The position of the
depth of the jump. The length of the basin is made equal to the length
of the jump in a horizontal stilling basin without appurtenances and, ! depth Vl can be approximately determined by the straight line ABC which
joins th.e point A on the apron at the position of Yl, the point B on the -1
chus can be determined from the curve in Fig. 15-4 (i.e., also equal to \
the l~ngth of USBR basin I or L 1 )., Basin IV is applicable to rectangular
I axis of the nappe at the height of pool depth, and the point C on the axis
I of the nappe lIt'the crest of the fall. The fact that these three points lie
cross sections only.
liThe Bureau has also developed alt!lrnative designs to substitute for basin IV, such
II
on a straight line was also verified by experiment.
For a given height h and discharge q per unit width of the fall crest, '
,1
ns the drop energy dissipator (Art.' 1&-15), wave suppressors, and the impact-type the sequent depth Y2 and the drop length La can be computed by Eqs.
energy dissipator [34,35]. (15-10) and (15-13). On the one hand, if the tailwater depth is less than
I
."
424 425
UAPIDLY VARIED FIJOW ,HYDRAULIC J;UM:P AND ITS USE AS ~NERGY D1SSIPATOR .
I)
~f
r) Y2, the hydraulic jump will recede downstream. On the other hand, if
the tailwater depth is greater thanY2, the jump will be submerged. As
where Q is the total: dischnrge in cfs, W is th,e width
N is the number of spaces, g is the graV'itatiollnl: acceleratIOn, and YlIS the
a space !n ft,
the trtilwater level rises, the spillway crest may be finally submerged. depth of flow in th(~ canal upstream. . ' . .
The spillway will still be effective if the submergence does not reach the 15-16. Jump in Sloping Channels. In the ~nalYSls of ~y:l1'auhc ]~,mps
control depth Oil the spillway crest. The upper surface of the submerged in sloping channels or channels having ap?recla~le slope, It IS essentld.l to
nappe lllay be assumed as a straight line tangent ito the, upper surfn.ce of consider the weight of water in the jump; III honzontnl chann~ls ~he effect
the free nappe at the point w~lere the nappe plunges into the tailwater. of this weight is negligible. Thus, the~momentum form:llas lor Jlll~pS.O~
The upper surface of the free nappe may be represented by the general horizontal floor cmmut be applied straIghtforwardly to Jumps on ~'P~l!lb
equation given in Art. 14-l. floor As will be shoi,vn in this article, however, the momentum P~l!lCIP.\~
In the above discussiun it is assumed that the length of the spillway can be used todel'ive a~l equation analogous to E~. (3-21), :VlllCh WI
(J {)l"eBt is the same as the width of the approach channel. If '~he crest . . 'ical functio'l that has to be cleterDlll1ed
COIl t am an e m p l l " h expenmentally.
I de
\ length is less than the width of the approach challll81, the {)ontl'ltction at Enrly studies on hydraulic jumps in sloping c anne ~ wel'~ ~~a
) the ends of tlle Spillway notch will be so great that the ends of the nappe by Riegal and Beebe [9J and by Ellms [72,73], Later I1lVestlg~'LlOn~
;
may lane! beyond the stilljng~basin sidewalls and the eoncentration of were m:'de by Bakhmeteff and Matzke [74] nnd also by YameIl an
!) high velocities at the center of the outlet may cause additional scour in Kindsvnt.er [75J. . '. f
r ' the clownstrBam chnnnei. It is, therefore, important to design the IIydril.ulic jump in sloping ch11l1ne!s may occur I~l ::anous orms, ~s
npproach end properly by shaping the approach channel to reduce the shown III . F'jig. I'"J 10
-. Case
• 1 is a typical form , but It IS not common
. , III
effect of end contractions. ~se" ' 4 kn. own as drowned-out Jumps,
;
n!;se:1rch, Iowa City, Iowa, was interrupted by his death in 1937,. ~he Y~rne~l datfl.
-
L a- 4.1Q were lent to the Tennessee Valley Aut,hority in 1939 for all extenSIV<llnvestlgatlOn by
WN V2gYl (15-14) l'Gndsvater.
R,A.PlDLY VARIED FLOW HYDRAULIC JUMP .AND ITS USE AS ENF.RGY DlSSIP.:o\:rOR 427
426
Since d 1 = 111 cosO and d~ .= Yz cos fJ, Eq, (15-18) may also be written
simplifying,
(~y _ (ZGZ + 1) ~ + 2G2= 0 (15-10)
~ = HC vi-+ 8G2 - 1) (15-19)
G
(15-17)
Yl .'
'-I
where
. !
(
The above two equations ai'e analogous to Eq. (3-21). Since G = f(F1,f)),
these equations indicate that ddd~ l:md are functions of FI I,nd fJ •
I
TI 'e is a general belief [70J th,l,t J( and L/(dz - d 1 ) vary primarily with
leI d h tl at G is a function of F I and 0, or. G = f(F 1,8). .
F I o.n l ellee, h. 'Nith Eq. (3-20) for level-floor Jump" a
If Eq. (1.5-16) IS .' r'd t Following the solution
. '1 'ty between the two equatlollS :8 e\ 1 en . , -
SImI an ' ( - 16) . . .. ltlv
for Eq. (3-20), the solution of 10- ) IS appa.eI •
(15-18)
H(V1 + 8CP - 1)
Co se I
\6 17 Ie '9, 20
FIG. 15-20. Experiment!!.l relll.tions I::ietween F, lind lIz/Y, or d,/d J for jumps in sloping
cha,nnels. '
\
I
f
i)
428 RAPIDLY VARIED FL>OW HYDRA.UL>IC JUMP AND l'.rS USE A.S ];}NERGY DISSIPA.TOR 429
(USER basin V) nee extracted fromrecommendntionsmade by the IT.S. 6. The slc;rpe of the chute upstre:1mJrom a stilling basin has Uttleeffect
)
Bureau of Recla.l1u1tion [34,35J: on the jump u.s long as the distribution of velocity and depth of flow are
I 1. Determine an n.pron arra.ngement that will give the greatest reasonably uniform on entering the jump.
: ) , economy for the mtiximum dischn.rge condition. This is the governing 7. A snlall solid triangular sill with a sloping upstream surface, placed
factor and the only justifica.tion for using a sloping apron. at the end of the apron, isthe only appurtenanGe needed. This serves to
lift the flow as it leaves the apron and thus acts to conUol scour. Its
dimensioas are not critical; the most effective height i" between 0.05
and 0.10 of the vertical distance Qf the sequent tailwatel' elevation above
the bottom of&he toe of the jump, and the surface slope Chll be 3: 1 to 2: 1:
6
\ '
I 2l-+-I-;!'+-I-1-
. )
Section A'A
FIG. 15.,22. Oblique hydf/mJic jtlmp .
'0 . ;: :3 4 5 6 7 e 9 10 Ij 17 18 19 20
.,
F, • 1r,/:I9d, 15-17. The Oblique Jump. When a supercriticn,l flow is deflected
I
FlG. 15-21. Length in terms
Bw'el:l1< of Redwnalion [34J.)
or seq'.le~t depth of jumps ill eloping chllnll~ls. (U.S, II"
inward to the course of the flow by a verticalbounchtry (Fig. 15-22), the
depth of flow '111 will increase abruptly to a depth Yz along a wavefront
CD which extends out from the point of boundary discontinuity at a
2. Position the apron 80 that the front of the jump will form at the
upstre~llll
end of the slope for the maximum discharge a.nd tnihva~el'
I wave angle {3 that depends in magnitude on the angle of deflection (J of
condition.
3. The portion of the jump to be confined on the stilliilg basin is a
II the boundary. This phenomenon resembles a normal hydraulic jump
but with the ohange in depth occurring along an oblique front; hence it
may be called an obl'iq(~1i hydra'l.#c j1tmp.l When 8 = 0., oblique jump
1 i uecision for the uesigner,. depending on the qUlllit.y of the rnatel'in.l in the becomes the familiar nydraulic jump in which I;he wavefront is normal to
\, river bed and other conditions. The average ovel'-o.ll apron is about 130 % the direction of ftow, or (3 90.°,
f
of the length of jump for the U1:1xi::num discharge condition. Referring to the relationship of velocity vectors before the .iump in
4. With the apron designed properly for the maximum discharge COll- Fig. 15-22, the velocity normal to the wavefront if:1 V"I VI sill fJ w11ere
: dition, the next 8t~p is to be certain that the tailwater depth [1.ud basin
: length available for energy dissipation are sufficient for, say, one-quarter,
one-half, and three-quarters of capacity. .
!I .
V lis the velocity of flow before the jump. The Froude number normal to
1 For original infonnlltion see [781 and [79J. Tho oblique hydr!Lulic ju'mp or oblique.
sta.nding wave is also known as the shock wave, by analogy to the C:1.Se in :mpersoniv
5. A hCll'izontnl apron will perform on par with the sloping apron for flow of gases, The basic development of thi:5 subject was aacDmplisherl by Rouse and
high Proude numbers, if propel' tailwater is provided. White .[SDI.
t.
'-1
I
By the condition of continuity 'VI V"I = Y! Y,,2, 'the above equation 08,n be
written _
Y2 tan f3 (15-23)
Y; = tB.n «(3 - 8)
Elimino,tingudUl from Eqs. (15-21) and (15-2:3), a relationship involv- ~. I
ing F 1; 0, and .13 is obtained: \
15-20. Poggi [81,82] has proposed ll. ladder of cascades; as shown in Fig. 15-25.
Design thi.s structure for the given datu.. 'fhe profile of the spillway crest is assuTIled
Er.ergy line of ,"YES shape. . .
·--::;;:------:-------------·r 15-21. Derive an equation of the upper sLlrface of the free n!~PJle over n. straight
1~
'" ,
777m7J7.7777~. . 5' drop spillway. (H1N'l': See Art. 14-1, and note tr.at h. . . J11 = ~.3.)
1
. . l' lli~22. A straight drop spillway is used io. a ditch to cffcet a drop of 6 ft in t.he ditch
I
I
-----~ grade!. The dit~h is 14 it wide ami carries a nniform flow of 330 cfs. The spillway
ha.s a crest length of 12.5 it and takes a hcad of 4 ft for the given discharge. The
normal depth of flow in the downstream ditcn is 4 ft, but uncler flood conditio!lll back-
! water from a stream may mise the tailwater so that its level is 1.5 ~t above the spillway
l; FIG. 15-24. A canal falL
crestl Proportion the struchlre aSiSuming [l.ny type of stilling b~sin. The upstrenm
I
a.pproach to the ~pillway is properly desiglled, and the velocity Head on the spillway
crest' may be i g n o r e d . ' ;
~oss of 5 ~t by hydraulic jump. Determine the position of the hydraulic jump assuro- 15-23. Solve Prob. 15-13 ifthe floor slope of the stilling basin:is 0.10.
mg negligible channel friction and ignoring the effect of cha-nnei sLope on the jump. ·15-24. Solve Prob. 15-11 if the sloping effect or the channel is'zonsidel'ed.
(HINT: Use the result obtained ill the preceding problem.) 15-25. Design the stilling basinfol" Example 15-2 'on an apron with a slope of 0.15.
I
t
434 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW HYDRAULIC JUMP AND ITS USE AS ENERGYDISSIPATOR 435
15-26. In a flow 23'08 fps in velocity and 0.70 ft. deep, an oblique hydraulic jump is r 14. J. Einwachter: Wassersprung- und Deckwltlzenlange (The length of the hydraulic
produc.ed by [l. deflecting vertical wall making a 15° angle with the direct.ion of the jump and of the surface roller), Wa38erkrafl wui Wasserwirtschaft, Munich, vol. 30,
flow. Detet'mine (u) tha wave angle, (b) the sequent depth, and (0) the energy loss . no. 8,pp. 85-88, Apr. 17, 1935. .
15. J. Smetana: ExperimentaIni st.udie vodniho skoku (Experimental study' of
hydraulic ,jump), C. 2-143, 1933; and Experimentalni studie vodllfho skoku
REFERENCES vzcluteho (Experimental study of drowned hydraulic jump), ZPl'ri.uy lTe;'ejn~
mouvemcnt permanent des eallX COli l'a.ntes " ("Essay on the Numericai Solution of (Theoretical and experimental study offlow through sluice gates), Revue g~n~ral.~
Some Prohlems Relati';e to the Steady Flow of Water"), Ce.rilian-Goeury, Paris, de l'hydmldique, Paris, vol. 4, no. 19, pp. 25-29, no. 20, pp. 72-79, and no. 21, pp:
1828. 120-128,1938; vol. 5, no. 25, pp. 21-34, no. 26, pp. 65-77, and 110. ·28, pp,131-139,
4. J. A. Ch. Bresse: "COIU'S de mecanique appliquee," .2e partie, HydrauiiquB 1930. / . "
(" Course in Applied Mechanics," pt. 2,' Hydraulics), rl'fa.llet-Bachelier, P"':'is, 19. D. Citrin~; II saito di Bidone (The hydraulic jump), UEnergia eletlrica, Milano,
1860. ' . vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 441-465, June, and no. 7, pp. 517-527, July; 1939. Conr,ains a
5. H. Dtlrcy and H. Bazin: Re~herche$ exp~ri!llentale's relatives aux remous et a la resume of work done up to Hl39.
propn.gatiop. des ondes (Experiment.al research 0v; l)ackwater and wave propa.ga-
t.ion), in vol. II. of "Recherches hydrauliques" ("Hydraulic Researches"),
20. Guido Nebbia: S11i dissipatod a saitO di Bidone: Ricerca 5perimentale (On dis-
sipation by hydraulic jump: Experimental researches), L' Energ£a elellrica, 11/ilano,
-\
A.c.ademie des Sciences, Paris, 1865. vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 325-356, June, 1940. .
13. rvlansfield l'vlcrriman: II A Treatise on Hydraulics," John Wiley & Sons, New York, 21. CM] E. ICindsva.ter: 'rhe hydra.ulic jump in sioping channels, Tran$acliolls.
and Clul.pman'and Hall, London, 4th cd., 18\)4; 10tlr ed., 1916. Also see R. American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 109, pp. 1107-1120, 1944.
Ferriday; The hydraulic jUn:lP, ETI(!in.cer'ing New8-Record, vol. 34, no. 2, p. 28, 22. Fl:e~ W. ~:Iaisdel1; D.evelopmen~ and hydra.ulic design, Saint Anthony Fall~
July 11, 1895. . stIll!llg baSin, Tra.nsacltons, AllImcan Soc!el-y of Civil Enllineer8, vol. '113, pp. 483-
7. A. H. Gibson: The formation of stB.nding waves in an open strea.m; paper '4D81, 520, 1948. . .' '
Minules of Proceedings of the In3iitlttionof Civil Engineers, London, vol. 197, pt.' 23. John VIT, !orstel' an~ Raymond A. Skrinde; Control of the hydraulic jump by sills,
lII,pp. 233-242, 1913-14. . Transacttons, Amer1cun. Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 115, pp. 973-\)87, 1950.
8. E. R. Kenn'ison: The hydraulic jump in open channel flow at high velocitles, 24. Hunt.er Rouse, T. T. Sia.o, and S. Nagaratnam: Turbulence characteristics of thll
Tmnsactions, Ameri::an Society of Civil Engl:neers, vol. 80, pp. 338-353, 19i5. hydraulic jump, paper 1528, Proceedings, American SoC::ety of Civil Engineers
9. Sberman M. Woodward: Theory of thehydl'[lulic jump and backwater curves;
and Ross i\L Riegel and John C. Be.ebe: The hyifraulic jump as a means of dis-
J01l1'1lal, H.ydl·,w.lics Divi$ion., vol. 84, 00. HY1, pt. I, pp. 1-30, February, 1958.'
25. Til: st~Il.dmg wave or hydraulic jump, GO:Jernmen1. oj Tndia. Central Boal'd of
-j
sipating energy, Iffimni Conser1Jan.c!' Distdel; Technical Repor!, pt. [] L, Dayton, hrtgai:.on and Power, Publication 7, Simla, India, 2d ed., Aug. 15, 1950. ,
Ohio, 1917, pp. 63-118. ' 26.J. O'IDe Mello Flores: Le re.ssaut (The hydraulic jump), La Houille blanch~,
10. A. ICochand M. Carstanjen: "Von der Bewegung des ,"Vassers und den dabei Grenoole, 9th yr., 1'.0. 6, pp. 811-822, December, 1954.
auftretenden.KriHten" (" On Flow of Water anrl the Associated Forces"), Springer-
i
27. Boris A. Bakhmcte/I; "Hydraulics of Open CI1[mnels," McGraw-Hili Book Com-
Verlag, Berlin, 1926. I po.ny, Inc., New York, 1932.
11. E. G. W. Lindquist: Anordningal' ftir effektiv energieomvand1ing vid foten av
iiverfalls{\:1mmal' (Arrangements for effective energy dissipation at the toes of
dams), "Anniversary Volume," Royal Te.chnical University, Stockholm, Sweden,
I
:r
28. A. G .. Levy and J. vi. Ellms: The hydraulic jump as a mixing device, Journal,
Amencan TValenuork.$ Association, no. 1, pp. 1-23, January, 1927.
29.~. ~. Kali.nske and James M. Robert,son: Closed conduit flow, in Entrainment of
,
1927. . . 'I all' In flowmg water: A symposium, Traltsactions, American Sociely of Civil Engi-
i
12. I{urt Safranez; Wechselsprung und die Energievernichtung des Wassel's (Hydrau- . 'neers, vol. 108, pp. 1435-1447, 1943. .
lie jump !tnd energy dissipation of water), Del' BcJ.1tingenieur, Berlin, vol. 8, no. 49" 30. G. H. Hie-ltox: Graphical solution for hydraulb jump, Civil Engineering, vol. 4,
pp. '898-905; no. 50, p. !J26, 1927. \ no. 5, p. 270, May, 1934. ' ,
I
13. J.Einwachter: Berechnung der in der Wehrbreite gemessenen Liingenausdehnung 31. C . .T. Posey and P. S. Hs{ng: Hydraulic jump in trapezoidal cha.nnel!';, En[line(!'l'ing
von Dechialzen (Computation' of expansion of rollers with respect t.o width of News-Record, vol. 121, no. 25, pp. 797-798, Dp.c. 22, 1938. .
weir) Wa.sserkraft und Wasserw}rlschafl, Munich, vol. 27, No. 14, pp. 157-159, 32. E. "y. Lane and C. E. Kindsvater: Hydraulic jump hi. enclosed conduits, Engi-
alld no. 21, pp. 245-249, 1932; vol. 23, no. 17, pp. 200-202, Hi33. I neenng NeTvs-RecQrd, vol. 121, no. 26, pp. 815-817, Dec. 29,1938.. .
!I •
',',,'
I
I
r\
438 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
~ 0,40 ~
':;; I
'iii
! 0,30 !-I-I--~""
I ~ 0.20 f---+",..,f--
J. ~ I
, ~ 0.10 1___ 1-_,-1_.1... a----'-J...----I
15 (b) PalOmal.' R; !£=1.00 Clnd j~:0.50
u 0 L-~,__~~~b~,_~.__~o~~J'__~
023456780 0,25 0.50 0.75 1.00
4
Reynclds' number R (mult:plied by 10 ) Rotio of ongle of curval"r.
1.20
1,10
:
'\
1.00 1---
..:! 0.90
.,
g 0.80
! ~
1
~~ 0.70 , \
I ~
!, 'E 0.60 I
to
~l~"~
, l-J
'1/ I, ~;:; 0.50
Case :0 I u
a 0,40
0,20
water slll'f3.ce l'is~s above the critical-depth line, a hydraulic jump will be
~~~.
Case 3 illustrates 8upercritical flow when the normal depth is only
. .
( 0,10
2.
3 4 5 6 7 8 0.50
I
0.70
3.00
0.90
it
110 1.30
J
slightly below the critical depth. The wavy surface in the upsti'eam ReynOlds' numbe, R (multiplied by 104 ) Depth-brealh rolio t
channel is due tothe fact that the water surlace is raised above the critical FIG. 113-:2. Experimental parametric functions of the coefficient of curve resist.a.nce.
depth, so-that an unClular jump is produced. (Aft~r A. Shukry [2J.)
The total enel'gyloss due to curve resistance can be expressed in terms
445
FLOW IN CHANNELS OF NONLINEAR ALIGNMENT
444 HAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
where l' is the mean velocity in the section and Ie is the coeffiCient of
Clll've resistance. The coefficient fe varies cOl1sider(tbly with each of the
parameters R of the approach flow, ?'e/b, y/b, and 8/180°. Fumilies of
tal SURfACE LEVELS
curves for these parameters based all the experimellt,~ made by Shuki'Y
[21 (see [9] (tnd [lOJ for other studies) are shown in Fig. 16-2. The curves
CM be used to determine approxim[,tely the value of to in sm.ooth curved
channels. For allY given c(tse, fe is obtnined by first fixing its v(tlue with
respect to two variables and then adju~tillg with respect to the third and'
fourth vm·j(tbles.
Example 16-1. Given R = 55,500, "c/b = 1.30, y/b = 0.8, and 0/180° = 0.556.
~n ~
Determine j"
Sohltion. First, keeping y/b = 1.00 and 0/180° = 0.50, it is found that, for 701
~ ij<~/
.. ~~~-=-:-~-- ---=-~=:q. -
R = 55,500 and ",/b = 1.30,f,'~0.200 (Fig, 16-2c). Then, keeping l'clb = 1.00 and
8/180 0 = 0.50, it is found that, for R = 55,500 and y/b "" 1.00, j, = 0.230 and ~hnt,
for R = 55,500 and y/b 0.80, j, = 0,275 (Fig. 16, 2b), Adjusting the condit,ion of
~I ~'iJO-f-... L ~--
y/b = l.00 to that of u/b = Q,80, the conected coefficient = 0.200 X 0,275/0.230 = 0/ ~~-1Z----z=::J= ' 60--1-
,1
0.239.' Now, keeping y/b LOO and relb = 1.00, it is found that, for R = 55,500 and
8/180· = 0.556, j, = 0.245 (Fig, 16-2a), Similariy, adjus~ing t,lle condition of if.!I R~o,,~,; I
Ii ("'s$'O{) • \ I
5
8/180· 0.50 to that of 8/180° = 0.556, the finally' corrected coefficient = 0.239 X _~ _ ':I{\j-',!<:!
a 7~ (b) FORWARD VELOCITIES
:) 0.2'15/0.230 0.::\55, say, 0,26,
1 ,/~/ _~_Cer,terhr<eoffl\Jme ---PQ/:I':~~~~~~l~
:I The above procedure of interpolation is shown in Table 16-1.
I\ :~ \ 9 10 I ,~
TABLE 16-1. DETER~f1NA'rloN 01.' THE 'COEFFICIEN'r Ol' CURVE REsrSTANCE ~ ~\'\, s 20 ,07'0==?O-!~--___t:\oO~
. --
:.'!
BY L~TER['()LA'I'lON
~ -----7'J~
,f-~:"L-1_- -~-~ep
1_ -==--_-~~
'" " ..... .
(4) 0.80 0.50 55,500 1,2·0 0.239 :j3y interp"O!ation: (1)[(3)/(2)J and velOCItIes III em/sec (-R 0.~3;8315~S\"I'e~.e subscript ..1 refers to conditions at the
(5) 1.00 0.556 55,500: 1,00 0,245 By Fig, 16-Za 77.8 em/sec (= 3,55 fps), A - I , ",
(6) 0.80 0,556 55,500 1. 30 0.255 i By interpolatioll: (4)[(5)/(2)1 inlet-approach section of the bend,
I
throngh the separation poiut 3, For different bends ,under vm'~~us C~ll"
16-4. Superelevation. Studies on the supen;.hiVl1.tion in water surface;
d't" .. of flow the- point of maximum surface depresslOn cl and th~ pcmt
arO'lllld a curved chuimel are many [11-14J. From the experimental I lOn::; .' 1 t d (s given in To,ble 16-2, The positlOllS of
results obtained by Shukry (Fig, 16-3), it oan be seen thn.tthe path of the of separatlOll s ,v ere oc(t e , \ . . 1 9 1 IJ
the two points n,l'C given in tenils of the ratios of theIr ang es , d (tl1C d"
a
thread of maximum velocity in ourved channel deviates fr0111 it-snormal . d f th inlet of the bend to the total angle fJ of· the ben .
course at,
a section opstream from the bend. At point el, the puth almost measure rom e ' 1 1 ff t 1 b a i n g the
These positiolls were found to be only slig It y a ec ec y v r.Y h . ,
touches the inside wall of the chunl1el and the ,,'ater surface attains its t 'U/ b Hence fol' pmctieal pmposes, Table 16-2, ",hlO gIves
minimum level. Beyond point el, the path gradnally moves outward par~~e e l l ' f . /1. ~ 1 00 can also be applied to other values of y/b.
until it orosses the center line of the flume at the section that passes pOSItIOn va uea or y v - . , .
446 RAPIDLY vARIED FLOW
FLOW IN CHANNELl:! OF NONLINEAR ALIGNMENT 447
In using the table for interpolation, the procedure i.'> similar to that for The average forward velocity is
f. values (ExlUllple 16-1).
f' (C/r) dT = C T,
--1
TADLE 16-2. LOCATCONS OF PorN~'S OF MAXUlUiI<i SURl"ACE DEPRE8SCON V. ~~--- ~---ln-
(POINT d IN FIG, i6-3) "-ND ,POINTS OF SEP .... RA1'ION (POIN'l' 8 IN _1~o - Ti ~·o -
To( ri
(16-5)
}'IG; 16-3) FOR VARYING PARAMETERS, EXCEPT THAT y/b = 1.00*
and the average depth of flow is
R = lD,500 ,i~ = 21,000 t~ = 31,500 I~ = ~2,500 IR = 73,500 . {" V dT " (E - CZ/2g1· 2 ) dl'
Parameter Ym =~-~- = :C.'.'~__~~_ _ __
9d/9
I
I (J,/6 .i 8d/ O [ e,/e I ed/B I 0,/8 1 so/a !8,/e 1·8 d /8 I 0;/& 'l'o - ri
C2
T-:;J - 1';. -)
r./b (A) 0/180° = 0.50, a constant
= E - --- (16-6)
2(JT ,1';
3.00 0.000
_____
t iO.OOO
1 _ _ ....
t 0 . 044. t 0.056 J t 1 0 . 167 t
1 1
.. .. 1 (16-7)
6/180° (B) I'c/b = 1.00, a cons~ant
If Q, 7'." !'" and E are given, the r::onstant C can be determined from Eq.
0.Z5
0.50
0.111
0.111
0,222
0,250
0.333
D.IS\)
0.667 0.3:131 0.6'37 o.400 I O. 7.lD 0.556 O. 8S9
0,500 0.250 0.611 0.306 0.889 0.6137 1.000
I (16-7). The velocity pond depth at any radius l' are then obtained by
Eqs. (16-3) and (16-4). Thus, the superelevation t.h of the water surface
-1'
0.75 0.1'18 0.333 0.185 0.445 0.296 0.556 0 .. 371 I 0.926 0.4'i.5 1. 000 can be shown to be
1.00 0.051l 0.778 0.111 0.778 o 167 0.805 0.278 I 0. 833 1 0.33311.000
I
, 1
(16-8) I'
.. Alter A. Shukry [Zi.
t No separation.
For the practical application of the above equations, the position of
I
point d is first deGermir.ed with th~ aid of Table 16-2. Thespecific
'The forward-velocity distribution and the water-surface profile at the
energy can be c.omputed at any section A in the approach challliel by
section of ma.xinllun surface depression may be estimated by the assump-
tion of a theor.etical free-vortex distribution of velocity. Th.is assump-
tion holds as long as the flo'w is ,mbrr'itical. (16-9)
By the law oj free-vortex' motion, I the following expression can be
where CIA is the energy coefnciept and II A. is the mean forward velocity.
written:
The specific energy at, the radial section passing through point d is
v. = -
c (16-3)
- l'
where L is the channel length between sectiCYl1 A and the section COll-
where v. is the forward ftlo.mentf.l velocity in the curve at a ra.dial di'stanc.e
~aining point. d; Sf is the friction slope, which may be either determined
l' from the center of curvature, and C is the so-called circ'ltlat1:on constant
experimentally or computed by the M~nni:ng formula; and h f is the. energy
in a free-vortex motion.
loss due to curve resistance, which may be determined a.'> showni in Ex-
Let E be the speGiEiq energy at a.ny section and y the depth of flow at a
ample .16-1. The coefficient 0.4 was found to be practically constant
distance l' from the center of curvature; then for any curve.
!J 2 .11le above m~thod was found to be. reasonably accurate as long as
Y
.
= E _..2-
2g (16-4)
the angle of the c1.irve was greater than 90° .. For smaller angles, Sl~ukry -\
assumed that C varies lineatly 'with e from rV.. at e = 0 to its full
1 For an elaborate ·ma.thematica.l ,analysis by the l.aW' of free-vortex motion see 1121.
v::dl1e at. 0 = 90°. Therefore, for an.y angle e less than 90°, the Clrcu-
,II
448 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW FLOW IN CHANNELS OF NONLINEAR ALIGN?tENT 449
(
lation constant can .be multiplied by a correction factor equal to ;;ection (Chap. 17), These wa ~res, fonniilg a disturbance pattern tha~ .
i can persist for a .consideral:>le distance downstream, are ci),u:;ed by the
o+ (1 turning effect of the cUl'ved walls, which does not act eqmtlly on all
stremnlines in the channel section. In a curved channel, the outer wall,
where iT.. is the xnean fonval'd velocity in [l, straight channal. which turns inward to t.he flow', will produce all. oblique h}'dmujc jump
Supereievation in CUl'vcd channels nuty also be detcl'l"nined less rmd a corresponding pnsitive disturbance lirie or positive wavefront l .
aCClU'ate but simpler formul!t8 which lire bilsed on the application of (Art. 15-17). The inner vIall, which
Newton's second bw of motion to the. <::6ntrifug:11 action in the Cl1l've. turns away from the flo\v, will de-
Assuming that all filamental velocities in the bend are equal to the mean velop a oblique expansion - t { .............,"--
velocity V, and tllat. all streamlines have a radius of curvature rc, the waue and a disturbance line
transverse water surface can be shown to be a straight line, and a simple or negative wavefront l (Example
formula for sllperelevation can be obtained: 16-2). The disturbance lines thus {aj
curvature of the outer wa.ll starts at the beginning point. A and is propa- 1 Actuo.lly th~ locations of the first maximum and minimljm do not oceUl' exactly
gated along the line AB, which an initial wave angle /3 with the on the ra,diaf line OC but slightly on the left side nnd right side of DC, respectively
(Fig, 16-5). 'However, the error involved in the l15surnption is negligible. This
tangent extended beyond point A; In the meantime, the initial dis-
assumption applies also to the locations of the subsequent maxima. lLnd minimn..
tu~bance produced by the i~'ll1er wall is propagated along the line A'B. ~ A det&iled study of the complete surface contours is possible by means of the
The. two p'ropagation fronts meet at point B. . Upstream. from the bOWld- method of ch!l.t!l,cteristios (23]. .
.\
I
.~
r'
(- .
. 452 r
RAPIDLY VARIED i"LO'" ~. FLOW IN CHANNELS 'OF NONLINEAH ALIGNMENT 453
ely, l:espectively. Assuming YI = 1/2 = y lor an obliq\.\e hydraulic jump [ depth Y I. Equ[1.tion (16-21) is, however, involved and inconvenient for
of infinitesimal height dy, Eq. (15-21) bccomes l . ' .
I prar.:tical usage, even with the aid of a graphical c.hal't such fl·S that
I
i
I develope.d by Ippell (23]. According to Knapp and Ippen [21-241,
1 V
Fl = F = -.-- = - - (16-1.5) adequate results may be, obtained by .the .much simpler equation
. sm ,6 . vfiiY
Substituting y for YI Rnd y + ely for Y2, Eq. (15"~3) may be reduced to
I y= -
V2
g
.
sin l
(
,6 +-)
8'
2
(16-22)
. Ii sec~ {f tan e
I
ay = ~--~----
. tan f3 .:- tan e (16-16) This cqu[1.tion was developed as a result of actwd flow mensurements. 1
In using Eqs. (16-21) and (16-22), the angle eis positive for depths along
For a small angle, tr,ri e may be replaeed by de, and ,tilll (; in the denomi- . the outer' wall and negative for depths a.long the inner Wl~IL The depth
nator is negligible compar'ed wit.h tan (f. Thus, Eq. (l6-16) becomes at the first maximum heights of the cross-wave disturbance may be
obtained by using the value of 8 computed by Eq. (Hi-H).
11
ely = -.-~,-- de (16-17) In cross section GD (Fig. 1 (}-5), where the first maximum height of the
. 8m f3 eos fj
cross wuve occurs at the outer wall, the line ala represents the theoretical
By eombining Eqs. (16~15) tind (16-17), the following is obta.ined· position of t·he wat~r surfacein the channel cross section if the channel
were straight, line b' 6 the theoretical positioll of the water surface 011 the
V~
dy = --- tan (3 de (16-18) curVE: if the flo';" were subcritical, and line e'e the actual water surfacc on
g
the curve when the flow is supercriticaL It is evident that b is higher
. According to assumption 4. above, the specific energy may be COIl-' than a and b' is lower than a' by ail. amount equal to half the supe.rdevn-
fHdered constant. Since E = y + V2/2g, Y = v/2g(E ;- V). Sub- tion, or 6.h/2.By Eq. (16-11), this amount is Y?b/2TcY. According to
stituting this. expression for V in Eqs. (16-15) and (16-18) and then elimi- t.he experimental investigations made by Ippen and Kn[1.PP [21,231, e is
nating fj by Eq. (16-15), the following is obtained: higher than- a by an amount eqlml to_about 6.h, or highcr than b by about
(',.h/2. The positioll el is lower than b' by ['.bout t::.h/2. Similar conditions
ely '2(E - y) vY exist in other cro.3S sections where maximum height of water stll'face
de = v2E - 3y . (16-19)
occurs at the outer w8.1l.
I The exact solution of Eq. (16~19) for 9 gives In cros.'3 sectio:l FG, where the minimum cro~s-w(we height OCCll1:S at
I
I
_
8 -. ,/<.,'
-v u tan
-I I - -3y- - - bn- I - -1- -
,
\j 2E - 3y '.
31Y
''';3 '\ 2E - 3y
I + cons
t (16-20)*
the outer w<.111, thfj actual water 'surface is identical with 11.' a because the
. effect of the disturbance .cross wave is prnctically offset by ,the super-
., elevation. Simibrly, in other cross sections where the wave height is
Sillce 2E' = y(2 + Fi) (why?), Eq. (16-20) may be written minimum at the outer wall, t.he water 13urfILce aSSUlIles (\, position as if
the flQw were in a straight channel.
' .. ;, ',/3· 1 The distance .fiG along the wall represents a half wavelength, which
8 = '\/ Q tan- I --==
y F~ - 1
.- tuu- 1 - - - " ' - = + const
VF2 - 1 .
(16-21)
.,. sustains a central angle 8.. This length may be approximated by AG'
':<
This equation can be used to cll.lculilte the change in depth along th . ~ 1 On the basis of !l.Ssumption 4 and, hence, of the conservation o{ energy, the velocity
walls at the begiuning of the curve. The integration constant Clll1 be in any stl'eamline must chani!;e as the depth changes, since E='y + V'/2g must be
con,~tant. The flow E1,l'Ound the outer wall, boing the deepest, should be the slowest.
determined by the condition that, for e = 0, the depth y is the initial
Actual measurements, however, indicate on the contrary tl\r.t the velocity around,the
, This equation ill believed to be tl'Ue only for supercritical flow in wide rectan"ular autc,. w(Lllli~lllains constant or even increases slightly, whereas f\long the inner W:L1l
channels ... For bro~d ~ppli~atians, Erigelund and Munch-Petersen [28] have devel~ped the velocitj"'decreases. It is believed th:.t this dispD.rity is due to varyhig effects of
. Ii. generahzed equatIOn, which h!l5_been found in good agreement with experimental the channel irictian, which actua.lly render ass~ll1ption 4 invalid. Consequently, it
d~ta covering considerable variation of the Froude number (even for F' eqtla\ to or is rell.soned that a constant velocity may be assumed. Equ:.tion (16-22) was, there-
shghtly less than unity) uud of the clepth-,viclth ratio of the channel. fore, derived from the assumption of constant velocity, which rep!E1,ces assumption 4.
i
• 1'ile matliematicai derivation of the equation of this form was first made by von Since the author cannot discern here the rigor of the origirull mr.thematical derivatioll,
Klirman [18]. ' .
!r he would rather consider Eq. (16-22) to be empirical. .
I·
t
454 RAFID1JY VARIED FLOW FLOW IN 'CHANNELS 'OF' NONLINEAR ALIGNMENT 455
or b/tan f3 by that the angle AG' A' = (3. Thus, the wave- where FI a.nd F. are, respectively, the initi",ll1.nd fina.l Froude numbers of the flow.
length is 2b/tull fl. The rehtion among F t , F,; and th.e tot!1-l deflectioll angle ~, can be represented by Eq.
(16-21), In that equation, e '" 0 when F = Fl and 0 = 8, when F.= F.. Thus, if F,
Frain the above discussion, it may be concluded that the disturbance
aud 8, are give!l, F, can be determined. The angular mnge in which the depth change
wave p.l1ttel'll, which osoillntes about the plane represented by has a takes place may be determined by (11)-23). Since the depth cha,nge does not
wl:welength of2b/tl1n.6 and an amplitude of 112b/2TcU. This can involVe 'appreciable energy depths before and after the change ca.n be
be used to cstimn.te roughly the s~lpercritica[-flow profile ill simple curved rela.ted by 'assuming a constant er,ergy, 'Thus, the mtio of the final to ,the
chn.nlle[s. tnitia.! u(~pth can be shown to be
For disturbance continuing into thedowl1stream channel, the
·,·1
primal':\, wavelength is sti!! 2b/tan p. AI>, the curvature suddenly changes (
to straight alignment, a r,ew disturbl1l1ce pattern, starting with a m<J.xi- In til" disturba,nce .region, the decreaS<! in deptil ma.y be considered to "'J';vlll1U~
mum height on the onter wall at the point of tangency, has a wo,velength , thrilugh !L sel'ie~ of infinitesimal st.eps or wavelets. The wave angle of eRch SU(lCeCa-
and magnitude equal to that of the original disturbance pa.ttern developed ing wa,vclet, depends UPOll the loco.l value of the continuously cha.nging Freud" num-
in the curve. The l:esul'.;ing disturbance pattern in the tangent is the ber. Each wnvelct may be sllcee1h;lvely represented by '" line of COllst!l.nt dEoflth,
The first wfl.veier, is represented by the negatiVE! disturbance line. It lUay be noted
sum of the original and new Th~ new disturbanGe pattern
tha.t, in contrast to the negl\tive disturbance line, 0. positive disturba.nce line rcpre-'
may, therefore, be elimilmtecl by adopting curve lellgth~ of 28, 40, . . . , sents a rnore OT less sudden increase in depth becBuse it sigltlfies !L hydraulic jump,
which will have a minimum wava height at the outer wall at the efld of the The ll\lga~ive disturbance line marks the beginning of It disturbance region devebpcd
curve, just to cllncel out the newly created maximum wave heif!;ht. by fin ,obEque expansion wave, whereas the positive disturbancll line represents the
entire (li~turbande caused by nn oblique hydraulic jump.'
Example 18-2., Des()tibe ~he ehal'l1.ctBl'istics of all oblique expansion
channels of nonlinear A.llgnme::Jt.
W2N6 in
16-6.' Design Considerations for Subcritical Flow. In general, curves
I
are unde3irable in open channels, because they will increase frictional
loss and letta to dllnger of serious locn.l erosion due to spiml flow. Reduc-
tion of spira; flow is the mlljor conce.rn in the design of curved ch:J.n~lels for
subcritical flow, For a proper proportioning of the curve, a ratio of
To/V = 3 is recolnmended, because it will give the least, radius at whichthe .
effect clUB to spired flow is minimi.zed (Art. 16-2).
In erodible ch!l.l1!lsls, the action of spiral flow will develop a
tion in the bed. The size of the cOllfiguration is minimal if 'l'r/b is 3.0 OF
larger. When bl111k protection is necess::I.ry, it is needed most on the
outer bank at the do\vnstream end of t.he curve and to a lesser degree
on the inner bank at the beginning of the CUl've. This is suggested in
accordance with the behavior of spiral flow.
I . In an alluvial bend it seems that the configuration of the channel cross
Mm?q#:;:J;;77/7:/7//?//t::::Lm7///.7//~7/A; ,
sectioll is defined more or less in accordance with certain l1a,turallaws.
This subject has been by many scientists and engiheers of
river hydraulics since [29]. According to the studies by
Seclloo A'-A i
I Ripley [30], the configuration at an. alluvial river bend (Fig. 16-7) may
Fw. 16-6. Oblique expa.n~ion wave, i
be represented the following empirical equation:
i! I
Sol-uliQn. The oblique expa.nsion wave occurs when the channel wllll is turned oute
ward from the flow at all o.ngle {Jc (Fig. 16·6). The depth of flow decreases in the fan- I I
Y = 6.35D ( ,\/0.437 x~ - 0.433) ( 1
- T2 Xl()
+ r; (16-25)
shaped region of the wave disturbo.nce delineated by wave angles (1, and {:J" measured
with'l'eference to tbe initial and final flow dirac.tians, respectively. By Eq. (16-15), where y is the ordiril1teot depth in ft, :1: is the abscissa in ft, Dis the
and (15-23) I hydraulic dept,h in ft, T is the top width in ft, r" is the mdius of curvature
on the concave side of't.he channel in ft, and J( is a coefficient equal to
t
I.,
456 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW :FLOW. IN CHANNELS OF NONLINEAR ALIGNMENT 457
.17.52. The crigin of the cool'dillates for this equation is on the water the radius r of the curve and the velocity Y; that is,
l>'Urface' at n pOlut equidistant. from the banks~ ~l1using :this equation
the foil.oviring I'emarks shoulcl' be noted: . . VZ
(16-26)
1. For],. less than 40 tiInes the square root of t,he water area, no further gr
deepening of the channel seems ttl result from the increased curvature; In order~o avoid abrupt chailges in flow condition, banking should
hence, in such cases, the ivalue of riJ used in t.he equation should be be introduced gradually from zero to its full amount, starting at both
I 40 VA. Consequently, 'bends are const,!'llctive and stahle when r. is ends of the curve. rt should be noted that the slope thus computed is
I . greater them 40 wher~!l.S sharper bends are destructive, te,nding to
good only fqr the velo('.it,y given. When the veloeity chiLnges, the com-
shift the channel. puted banking will be less effective under new flow condition:,. Hence,
2. For r. gren.ter thn.ll about 110 VA, the equation bacome.s il~ valid. banking; is most suitable in channels which ordiM,rily opern.te nt or neo,1'
I
I
.r-
Center of Cur .... o1vre
n
race depreSSIOn In the bend given in the preceding problem. Assume 0: = 1.0 alld
0.01. .
! 10. C. H. Yen and J. W. Howe: Efferti'; of channel shape on.losse5 in a canal bend,
\ Civ';: EnrJineering, vol. 12, no. 1/ pp. 2.8-20/ 19':12,
, 16-S. Compute the WH.IA'.['-sr:r profile in the cross section containing maximum l 11. H. Wittma,!l and P. B6ss: "Wasser und in gckrihnmten
surface depression, as in the problem, using the law of free YortE'x.' FIuss-strecken" (" Vi' a.ter and Eed-load Movement, in Curved River Reaches "),
What is the snpel'elevation? Springer'''erlr.g, Bfll'lin, 1938.
16-4. Det.ermine the superelevation in the preceding problem by (a) Eq. (16-11}, 12. C. E. Mockmol'e: Flo\l' around hends ill stable channels, TnlllSact·':oTl.!, Amel'ican
(b) ;Eq. (1.5-12), and (e) Eg. (16-13). . Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 109, Tip. 5£13-618, 1944.
16-5: Verify Eq .. (16-14). 13. Armin' Schoklitsch: ".:Hydraulic Stmctul'es," trallslated from the German by
16~6. DeLermine the approximate flow profile ill the curved channel given in Prob. Samuel Shntitz, American SGciety of M'lchftnical Engine~rs, NEllV' York, 1937,
16-1 If the approach channel carries a supercriticl11 fio\I' at a depth of 0,5 in. vol. I, p. 151. .
.16-7. Design the curvad channel for. a rectangular flume to turn,lj.n angle of 50° . 14; Shenna.n ))..1. Woodward: Hydraulics of the Mi!l.rni Rood control project, ilIia.1ll,i
wIth t1 radms of 250.it.. The flume is'12 ft wide and built of smooth concrete. The Cons6"unncy Distr':ct, Tel'hn·ica.l Repi,,·t, Pt. V Il, Dayton, Ohio, 1920.
de.sign discharge is 350 cfs at a slope of 1 %. ' 15. Sherman M. Woodwa.rd and Charles J. PORCY, "Hydraulics of Steady Flow in
. 1~-8 .. Using Eq. (16-25), compute the channel cross 8ec~ion at a bend in the Missis- Open Channels," Jobn Wiley & Sons, Inc., Nt'w York, 1941, p. H2.
SIPPI Rl;erj where A. = 148,010 ft 2, T '"' 2,340 it, and 1. 18/300 ft. 16. L. Pral!·::hl: Abriss de,. StrQmungslehre ("Outline of the Theory of Flow"),
result WIth the actuat cross section, which is as follows: VieIVeg-Verlag, Brunswkk, Germany, 1031.
17. D. Riabouchinsky: Sur l'analogie hydraulique des mouvements d'un ffuidp. com-
x y x y y pressible (On hydralllic anl.Llogy of flaws of' a compressible Jiuid), Com.p/.es renaw,
1,170 0.00 ZOO 97.00 '-660 44.00 de I' Acad.!?nie des Scie1!ce~, vol. 195, pp. 998-999, 1932; vol. H)9, pp. 632-634, 1934.
1,000 36.00 74,00 18. Theodor yon Karman: Eill;; i)rai<tische Anwendung del' Ann.logie zwischen tJber-
800
600
88.00'
108.00
-200
-400
° 65.00
55.00
-800
-1,000
-1,170
38.00
24.00 naILlSt:l'o:mumll.: in Gasen und ilberkritischer Striimuug in offenen Gerinl1en (A
ap;pUI)MIOn of nna.logy between supersonic flow in ga,seil and supercritical
0.00
400 111.00 flow in open channels), Zei/,1lchlift flZ' (l'lI.gelUandle M(lth~matik un.d Mec/tnnik,
Berlin, voL 18, pp. :1.9-56, February, 1938.
-1
460 RAPI~LY: VAlUED FLOW
1 Gradu'ally varied flow through nonprismatic channel sections has been covered in
1
J
462 RAPIDLY YARIED FLOW FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMATIC CHANNEL SE<"'TIONS 463
in the theoret.ieal discussion, it may be assumed t11at Ff = 0, lh = P3 = 1, Region 1. Flow is supercritical throughout the transition.
and Y2 = Va • . Under these conditions, Eq. (17-1) may be reduced to Region 2. Flow through the tra,nsition passes. from supercritical to
su bcritical.
F 2 _ (yJ/Vl)[ (VJ/Yl)2 - 1J (17 -2) Region 3. Flow is subcrit.ical thr"Otighout the transition.
1 - 2[(Ya/Yl) - 1/(b a/b 1)J Region 4. Flow through. t.he tra,l1sition passes from subcritical to
. where F 12 V 12 /gYl' This equation call be plotted as. shown in Fig. supercrit.icaL
17-3, using bl/b l as a parameter. The family of CUl'yes thus plotted are
!
Horizontal Horizontal
contrQction expor.sion
Vertical
expansion
f-'-~
25
20
, em
15
®
~t '
10
+._._----
'I...-., ~-. . . 5
I 1
a
-0 ®
E. ~=·-·4
~
4
35
30
(17-5)
-1 o
This eqtmtion is l'epresentei:! by the dashl"d curves in 'Fig. 17-3. Similar FlO. 17·5, Typica.l measured flow Il-nd energy lines througll ~udderl tr!)nsition~.
analyses also be made for vertical contractions and expansions. (/lftet G, Formica [41.) In the 1 Is-1 6.03532 cf., 1 m ~ 3.2Bl it, .and
1 em = 0.3937 in.
investigations on flow through sudden transitions will be
in the ncx~ three articles,
17-2. Sub critical Flow through Sudden Transitions. For sub critical velocity heu.d cannot be measured easily because of tdhea tUI1'~hule~t tcon~
"
dition: of flow; hence, the energy I'mes are
. strop
' IJr exten e. r ' . e vel". .ICll.,
h
flow through sudden transitions, e)cperiments' on varklUS designs l'lltel'Cept betweell the extended upstream and downstream h~els flIt t e
1 Under actual cil'cum~taneell, fh and ,e,.are not exact~y equa.l to 1.0, a.nd y~ could be
. .
transitional section represents~ t he energy 1oss flE'. The• astens
.' c S lOwn.
fo~ the sudden expansion iildidates the position of the energy lme assum-
.
YI > :liz > !ii. Thus, the. lJegative energy loss would ~ecome positive, and the thEm.!
reticallyimpoSSible flow: wouhl become ,actually possible. The loss !J.E is !L very . ,
small amollnt and callJ:e~dily be changed from negative to positive by I!. slight change
in the items ill Eq. (17~4). lng a == \7-6 shows the computed values of the energy co~B?-cient at
0:
--
1
1.1 0 r---r--r----'-~ 1.l0 .'
1.08
-+-~
--o--~
.- !.08
__
-
.,..r--
Q = 15.6 ts- I 91- i-®-···-,
I-Q.J--'~
a
1.06
'1.04
1.02
,J:''';F--
~~
"1',
l'>.'
---iJ--- '"
"'}-- - --¥..:....- V
>-~- ...
E
Bf--- -$---0 ----1.:.L_
~r ,
-4} ... -.<~~.L-..
,-
- '--
I
V f--
1.00
'y- ! -~
6'
'I ~ I.
'"
<J 5 ;-
LtO
1.08 --
!.to
1.08
,
,,
/'
/
4
I
V
:
---r taf~, ~
(06
0" 25
1.06
.
-". 0-25.2 3
a Il ~ .,..-:"'
\\ :-.. < I ,,/ {g;/
1.04 1.04
2 ;':1~"
~, ~ '-~, f" -~
---< I Q ....
,-.=,~
.......... ---~
1.02 .1.02 "lV'
1.00 tOO .--
0 -
o:~jt1irttJt~1
1.10
, 1.08
1.06 f--- 1--
, C'" 41
a
1.04
1.02 ~ ....... --:---=-
1.00
'::l~*lll-ttB
1.10
n,
I.oe
!.os F .0'" 49
'~~-~ iI
1.04
1.02
t--
1.00 1
~,~
0, A
""'----- B 1.003 .:j 5 0 0 bed • I 9 h
71-
c
Sf---
~
1:=· ---"1-f-
""""".-~"'" <f;~-~~ ~b-
--- .
•
/vp-
J--
1 f,t
I I
Sec1iqn 1
.IJf
,
r r" ·1
.~:====== [- L---- W-~ ~d
FIG. 17-6. Variation of the energy coefficient near sudden transitions. (After G. +~ ....c::. - ~: ~~ V-
,......
-',
....
Fo,mica [4J.) 113- 1 = 0.03532 cIs.
I
o
10
=
I~ 20 2S
~-
30 35
~
-w-
40 45· 50
.
55
q [1s"1
The head losses for various designs of trallsitions at different discharges
are shown iIi Fig. 17-7. It can be seen that in general the sudden con- FIG. 17-7. Head losses in'sudden transitions., (After G. Fc>rmica [4J.) 113-;1 == 0,03532 I
tractions have higher losses ,than the sudden expansions. In a sudden ers and 1 mm = 0.03937 in.
I
contraction the flow is first cOlltraoted and then expanded. A process of'
conversion from potential to kinetic energy is followedimmedia,tely by a (8 in Fig. 17-4), but this advantage may be nullified by such modifications
process of reconvBrsion from kinetic to potential energy. As a result, as those in designs 6 to 8. The lengt.\i of the gradual enlargement of the
much less energy than in a 'sudden expansion is recovered. However, expansion has a limit beyond which the. gain in efficiency becomes
the' energyloss in a sudden contraction of design I can be greatly reduced insignificant. .
by modifying the sharp-edged corners of the entrance of the reduced In closed conduits [5], the energy loss in a sudden contractio~ may be (
.'\
-"l
f.
468
expressed by
RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW ,",r' FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMATlC CHANNEL SECTIONS
. V3~'
E=K-' (17-G) contractions of equal length of contraction from the s~andpomt~f m~:I
29 \
t mum height. Accordingly, they ha.ve pl'op?sed a procedure of des~on
and in a sudden expansion by , for straight contractions, which will be descnb~d below. For t.he deSign
E= (17-7)
wherel( and € are coefficients, and VI and V3 are the upstream and down-
stren.m velocities, respectively. By applying these equations to open
'VI
\ c'
AJ tOl
AI on 9 ce n Ie,.'.;,;Ii;,;."e=--_r-_ _ __
channels, Formica obtained the following average values of € for sudden Along wall r-~"----l t •
expansions: F------------,; 1hz I" h
FlO. 17-9. Designs of skajght-waU contractions. (After Ip~cn and Da,"'son ..[6].) . ~~)
Generai dis~ul'bance patterns; (b) minimum downstream distUl'bance, (e) .,chema Ie
Accorcling to the experimental data obtained by Formica, the' values of profile.
K for sudden contractions seem to vary in a wide range, generally increas-
ing with the discharge. The approximate median value of J( for design I of curved contractions, the cross-wave patt ern ID!'.}'b'.e determil-ed
'. experi-
.
is 0,10 and, for designs II to IV, 0.06. mentally by model test or !'.na.1yt.ically by the method of charactenstlcs
17 -3. Contractions in Supercritical Flow. When supercritical flow is (see first footnote to Art. 1 6 - 5 ) . ' .'
introduced thro\lgh a contraction with symmetrical converging wa.lls, In supel'critical flow through a straight contraction (Flg, 17-ga) ,sym-
cross waves similar to those developed in a curved channel (Art. 16-5) will metrical shock wl1ves are developed at points A and At at .the entrance.
appear. The cross waves in a contraction, however, are symmetrical These waves extend across the channel at. wave angles {h, mter~ect ~t B
with respect to the centerline of the' channel (Fig. 17-8). Theanalytical on the center li~le of t.he channel, and, finally, af~er some· modlfic~tlO~,
study of the problem can be performed by the principles of the mechanics reach the opposite walls at C and Ci. In the regIOns A!'W and A BG ,
of supercritical flow described in the preceding chapter. t,he flow proceeds through a new field characterized by the Froude number
From an experimental and analytical investigation, Ippeu and Dawson F~. Note that, ot the end of the contraction, negative disturbances are
r ";
I
\ '1
470 RAPIDLY YARI:EJD :FLOW FLOW THROUGH NONPRXSMATlC CHANNEL SECTIONS 471
1
I
created at points D and D" These disturbances will result in more com- I
velocity from a closed condBit, sluice gl1te, spillway, or steep chute.
plicated disturbances dOIVnstream. In a good contraction design, it is
I
If such an expansion is ll}ade to diverge too rapidly, the major part of the
possible to minimize the downstream distu:rballces. This can be done by 1 flow ,,,,ill
fail to follow the boundaries. Studies by Hom:-ma and Shima .
directing the shock waves to the opposite walls at D and D', thus car.- \ [7] indicate that separation of flow like that shown in 17-10 may
celhig off theoretically the newly created negative disturbances. As 11
result, the flow will be calm in the downstream channeL This is the situa-
tion shown in Fig. 17-9b. From the geomeky of this situation, the letlgth
I I
occur. The separll.tion surfaces shown by the dashed lines act as solid
boundaries within which the flow hail the characteristics to those
in a channel of decre!1sing width. If the divergence of the expansion is
of the contraction can be shown to be !
L (17-8)
. 1h
y
= f
I X
(b1F.' b;,
z) (17-10)
the streamlines that" corifine about 90 % of the flow. N cite that the
begi;ming of this expansion is sufficiently gl'O.dual to reduce the effect of
nonhydl'Ostatic pressure distribution to a minirriun1, so that the factor
where y is the depth of flow, Y1 is the depth of the approach flow F 1 is bdYI is no longer an essential vl1riri.ble. In thisiol'm, the general iliCrel1Se
the Froude number of the approach flow, b1 is the channel width, x'is the
1.5
1iIf.~0.90
00.801>0.40
i' "0.7000.30
I eO.60 1iI0.20
"'0.50 ()O. 1 0
1 " ----
-----
\1
\,
2.0
) " x 2.0
VOiues of D,F,-
FIG; 17-12. GeneraJized" sllTfac;~ contours for suphrcdtical flow t.hrough gra.t\utli
" ~rG. 17-11. Genel'!\lized surface contours fOI" superc.itica.l flow through a1rupt expan- expansion .. (tifler Rouse, BI~oola, and FIs"1< (8J.)
81OU. (A/leI' ROllse, Bhoota, and Hsu [8).)
)
longitudinal coordinate measured from the outlet section and z is the in the boundary angle is sufficient to eliminate the format.ion of cross
"~ lateral coordinate measured from the center line of the ch~nlleL ".
2. For abrup~ ex?ansions, a dimensionless diagram (Fig. 17-11) was
waves, yet not so great as to cause an undue change in depth across any
norm:]'l 3ection. " .
devel?~ed. Th~s dl~gram, gen~ralizing the experiment!!:L data in the The boundary represented by Eq.(17-ll), howev~l', will diverge
r
I
")
fllnctl~nal relatlOnshlp of Eq. (17-10)] may be used for the prelimina.ry
analyslS of an abrupt expansion. " .
3 .. From the .experiments, the most satisfactory boundary form for an
indefinitely. For practical purposes, the divergent wal1s of the ~xpan
sion will usuallY be followed by parallei wn.lls with either an abrupt or a
gradual transition, As a result, positive disturbances dQwnstream may
efficlen~ expansIOn was found to be ." be produced. When practical circumstl1nces permit, such disturbances"
I, z
. b;. =
I( x
~ \b 1F 1
".
)~'
+ 72 (17-11) !I
can be eliminated by a hydmulic jU1"l.lP M or near the end of the ~xpan
sioH. To avoid dangerous asymmetry oIthe flow at ~he end of the ¢xpan-
sion, the jump may be stabilized by a drop on the, channel fiool' (Art.
contou~Q 15-10).
I:
For" expansions designed fol' thiiS' form, the surface for a mean
I
"I
i
I
()
FLOW THROUGH NONPIUSMATIC CIL-\.N}\/EL SECTIONS 475
474 RAPIDLY Y ARIED FLOW
4. The disturbance in the downstream chaimel may also be elimi- 17 -5. Constrictions. A constriction in an open channel cOl1stitutes a ,
nated if the transition mentioned r,bove is designed with a well-pl:opor- reach of sudden reduction in t,he channcl tross section. The effect of a
tioned reversal of the wall curvature. In snch a design, the positive and constriction on the 110w depends mainly oil theboundnry geometry, the
negative disturbances developed. by the reversid of the curvature may discharge, and the state of flow.' The phenomeilOll is USUltlly so compli- -I
cated that thc resulting fluw P;),t- I
offset each other so that the flow is restored to complete uniformity at 1
. the end of the transition. Figure 17-13 shows the boundary curves of tern is not readily subject to any Constric!ion
such a desigrl, derived by the method of characteristics. Although these analytical solution. A pradi(',al E" >' E~
solution is possible, however,
through systeml1tic experimental --I!
investigation.
The flow through a constriction
I
m:1Y be subcritical or sllpercriticaL
-I
~--"--~----'---~~~~~~--~~-4---££=3t'__~_~~5
When the flow is subcritic!I,I, the
constriction will induce a . pro-
I . b, • .
nounced backw8.ter effect t.hr.t ex-
~: = 25 I .. 1.1
tends a long disjjance· upstream
I----+-----+-a~b~+--+-~ = 2--+---/---
b, ---I' I -1...---1---.-1
(Fig. 17-14a and b), When the (b)
I flow is supercritical, the constric-
I tion will disturb only the ,vater
surface that is adj!1cent to the up_·
2 :3 ·4 5 6 7
_I 8 9
-=-_--L-_J
10 11 12
stream side of t.he constriction and
will not extend the effect farther i
.I
Values of _x_ upstream (Fig. 17-14c). If the .~
b, F, [c)
npstre!l,m water surface is dammed
F':ra: 17-13. Generalized boundary ~urve3 for channel expansion de~ermined by the up to a. depth greater than the criti-
.;
method of chamcteristics. (Aft~r Rouse, Bhoola; and Hsu [8].) b, = dowl!stream
channel width ..
cal depth, the surface tyill form. !LIl
En < E~
81 profile, extending upstream oni y
curves merely represent generalized conditions, they may be. used as for a short distance and then end-
guides in preliminary design in order to giye as little angularity of the ing with a hydraulic jump (Fig.
final flow as is consistent with the practical requirements of t.ransition 17-14d). . (d)
by the tailwater. A critical section exists at or near the neck of the flume
only when the flow is free.
Illvestigations on the subject of flow through constrictions are many, I .UC~'VW"
but most of them have dealt with subcritical flow. The contracted-opening
method, I v, method fOT determining flood discharges which has been very
Section
(OJ _ _ _ B
T -~
(1) b (2) (3) Ccb (4)
popular with Americn,n engineers since 1918 or earlier, is based on the I I ~
application of the energy and continuity equations to the· fiow through a 'Ln"-- -~~ Live slreom bo~ndory
constriction in the waterw[1.Y. The first laboratory inv·estigation in the
United States is believed to have been m[1.de by Lane [ll}. This investi-
gation dealt with simple constrictions of flows having Froude numbers
slightly higher than those uSlmlly fOllnd in lll'.1;ural channels. In recent
________________ I It Eddy zone
~__~ ___________-L~__~--I--------------~
(0)
coilstriction, the live stl'eam contracts to <\ width somewhat)essthan the /. " Channel boftom
nominal width of the opening, and the spnc8s bt:tween the live stream and
the constriction boundaries are separation zones occupied by eddying
Datum
I HOlik [lOJ credited S. M: Woodward with the ~evelopnlent of this method for use
(e)
by the Mi"mi Consen'ancy District, The othel· equn.lly important method reported
by Houk is tile slope-a.rea. method (Art. 6-9). FIG, 17-15. Definitioll sketch of flow through CDnatl·iction. (After l"}'(fey cmd Carter
, In Fig. i7-15, it is'shown that the flow through the constriction is subcritical, e.s [14],) ((~) PIau; (b) elevation; (c) elevlltioIl, ad'lpted to ltsstunptioll of zero friction
in Fig. 17-14a.. This is t.ile case usually encountered in practical problems, If th~ loss.
water surface drops below the· critical-depth line M the constriction, supercritical flow
will occtu·, as shown ill Fig. 17-14b. To reestablish subcritical flow downstream,
a hydraulic' jum{will be developed near the downstream side of the constriction.
The method described here, however, is not applicable to this case.
478 RAPiDLY VARIED FLOW FLOW TJ;mOUGH NONPRISMATIC CHANNEL SECTIONS 479
"'[tter. the water passes through the contraction, the contracted The discharge through section 3 is
f>tremn reMhes a minimum width at section 2, which corresponds to the
Q = Co;4JTT, (17-14) .
vena contracta in an orifice flow. After the vena contracta, the live
stre&111 begins to expand until it reaches downstrea.m section 4, where the where ila is the water ~l.l~ea at section 3. Soh'lng Eqs. (17-13) and (17-14)
uniform-flow is reestablished in the Jull-width channel. Between for the disclu,rge,
sections 3. and 4, the flow is gntdually varied, Over the whole reach I---·----------·~~;"
from sections 0 to 4: encomp:1ssed by the backwater "ffect of the C012- Q CA. ,\/2f) (6.1& - hi + al (17-15)
stricti on, the total energy loss .is the same as that for uniform flow. . 'I \ . .j
FOl' a simple analysis of the flow characteristics, the following con- where t.h = Til Ya and where C is all over-all coeificient of discharge,
ditions m!1-y be assumed: equn.l to
L The channel .ftOOl' is horizontal or nearly so. .
2. Laboratory observatiol1s have shown that the level of the water at (17-1G)
the vena contracta can be closely approximated by the leve! at sect.ion 3,
which is at the downstream face of the constrictioll. H611Ce, the depth This is a t-he(lretical expression. For prac,tical uses, the value of C ma.y
Y2 can be taken as Ya. . . . . be expressed by a dime.nsionless flJI1ction and evaluated experimentally,
3., A coefficient of dischr.rge is intl'ciduced in the a.naIJ~sis to include By a dimellllioiutl ahalysis oi the essenthl,t geometric and hydraulic
the over-all effect of contraction, eddy loss, nonuniform distribution of factol's that govel'u the flow, it can be shown that C is expressible £l.'3 a
velocity, and nonh)rdrostatic distribution of pressure. The related nota- function of, the or
tiOll to be used in the analysis is defined as follo,,'s:
hd = eddy loss due to turbulence el1gend,~red in the upstream C = f[m, Fl> rIb, r'V/b, 6, <tt, (Ya + Yb)/2b, x/b, i':, t/(y'J + 6.h),j, Ljb]
separation tones. It assumed that this loss can be is (17-11)
exuri8SE;ea in terms of the velocity head at section 3,01' The hydraulic factors contained in this fUllction represent the following i
r
-I
h. = k.(Y:NZg) various physical eff~cts: '.
1. The effect of channel cont-ruction is represented by the contraction
where /'" is a coefficient. , ral,7:o ni. This ratio is eq lIal to 1 - Kb! K Il , in which [(IJ is the conveyance
0<1 and 0'3 = energy coefficients at sections 1 and 3, respectively: I of the tUlcontracted ariproach section r at normal dischal'ge and [(b isthe
aI' alld a..' = pressm:e coeffici"~nts at 13ecl;ions 1 and 3, reSpec.tlVe y. conveyance of the contracted section: 3 which has the SHme normal depth
It is assumed that the deviation from hydrostatic dis- and roughneils chn.l'acteristics as the approach :section. For a recta,ngu-
tribu tioil of pressure can be in teni1s -of the lar approach section of width B and a recta.ngular contracted section of
velocity head at section 3, Thus, I
width b, this ratio is?n = 1 - biB, AC01tV8yanc.7J 1'al'io (J may be defined I
OI/Y' = kl'(y~2/2g) + Yl as 1 -?n. Thus ~ 1 or 7n=O when there is no constriction. ,
2. The effect of Froude n~mber is rep.res~nted by the Froude number
where k 1> is a coefficient responsible for the nonhydro- . at section 3, or F3 Q/(As V"iYa). It is necessary to assume a di.scharge Il
static pressure distribution. for the initial computation of the value F 3. The final value of F 1 can be r,
Cc = coefficient of contraction at section 3: determined by successive approximations. If the value of F 3 is f{reater
Applying the energy equation to sections 1 and 3 17-15c), the than 0.8, nearly critical or supercritical velocities may occur in section 3; . !
following can be writte~1: then the method described here is ina,pplicable. . I
.1
1112 , 11 3 2 ;, 3. The effect of entmnce rounding of theabutmellt is represented
0'1 -
2g
+ al VI Oil -2
g
+ +
0'3 Yl h, + hi by rib, where r is the radius Of rounding of the entrallC~ corner of abut-
where hi is the frictional loss. Then, assuming a\' 1, aaty, = ments for vertical-faced constrictions.
/c,,(vN2g) + YJ, and h, k.(T'N2g) , 4. The effect of chamfers of the abutment is represented by TV/b and
tl , where W is th~ length of wing wall measured ill a direction normal to
(17-13)1 section 3 and where' 8 is the acute angle between a wing wall and the plane
of constriction. .
i
480 RAPIDLY VA.RIED FLOW
Jt _
I
J
.,'"'"
.J::.
",-
.~ ~
"'0
-~
o
-'"
c~
.~.g
uc
=-10
~-
.,~
u"
"
'u
Ca)
o o
~
~ - -: :3 o
;0
:.::
N
~'---"--r-, --'"'.~~ d
:T
1.2
Li
(b)
r
b
tt (0 -~
I
j
io
tD tl)
f' I
~!' "0,
\
""
"
c::
"0o.
'0 f---'+-'\--"l-
l-----+--+-!f-.--,
~
n II <D
e:0
."
';;
~~~
I-
1
I,
,',
5! v,
I
11 , )
3!
~~j'il
J
<t '0
e:0
!
"II i
[ -~ 3:1
1 ,
1 '" o
I •
(e)
FIG. 17-16. Disclul.rge coefficient for constriction of type I opening, vertical embank-
ments (E = 0) and vertical abutments. (U.S. Geol(J!lfe~1 Survey [12J.) (a) Base .
' curve for Coefficient of discharge; (b) vl1l'ia.tion of discharge coefficient with Fl'oude
nll.mbru·j (cJ "Il;liation of discharge coefficient with entrance rounding.
481
482 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMATIC CHANNEL SECTIONS 483
'5. The eff8()t of angularity of cOIlst~iction is represented. by <p, the acute
angle between the plane of the constriction and a line normal to the thread
cif the stream.
6. The effect of side depths at abutmGnts is represented by (Va + Yb)/2b,
where Ya and y. are water depths at the toe of each abutment.
7. The effect of side slope of the a.butment is represented by xlb and E.
The value of :1.: is the horizontal distance from the point of intersection of
the abutment and embankment slopes to a point on the upstream
embankment thfl,t ha~ the same elevation as the water surface at section 1.
The value E, representing the embankment slope, is a ratio of horizontal
to vertical distance. .
8. The effect of eccentricity of constriction is represented bye, which is "
D
e.qual to the ratio K.I K b• The conveyance of the whole approach section ~ o.ao j-----'-----'----+---+---=--..;...:...,=c-=?---=+-==l---l,...,i
Stone-erd conditions
may be subdivided into the conveyance of the corresponding contracted :6
IT
X=-+Yb
~-.
~
o
. section and two conveyances of the side sec:tions. The two conveyances ~'O.~O <? '0'
'0 0.70
.!! FJ ' 0.2 1o 0.7 • '1.00
of the side sections ai·c designated by Ko and Kb and the conveyance of
the corresponding contracted section by IC- Thus, the total conveyance ~u
_t_,o
~~ +LI'
j ;0
I
+
KII = K: Kb + ICc, And the ratio ICa.! [(0 is a measure of the eccen- ·u
0.60
0 10 20 3D
I
qo 50 60 70 90 100
tricity of the ('.onstriction. (a) m;lPer c:-t'nt af channel cont"roction I
9. The effect of submergence of any possible bridge across the con- I
striction is represented by t/(ys + tlh), where t is the vertical distance
betweeli 'vater level at section(l and the lowest horizontal member of a
partially submerged bridge, and flh = hI - ha (Fig. 17-23b). 1
·.1
10. The effect of bridge piles and piers is represented by j and Lib.
The va.Iue} is equal to A,/As, where A; is the vertical tl'ansyerse area of
the submerged piers or piles at the contraction and Aa is the water area of .
section 3. The value L is the length of the abutment in the direction of
the thread of the stream, variously defined for different types of openings.
For purposes of practiclJ.l application, the value of C may be expressecl .'
as tOO
<1>'0'
10'
--_._-
(17-18)
-25'- ----
0.90
where C' is the standard value of the coefficient of discharge correspond..:" _2Q.·_
ing to a standard condition of all effects mentioned above; and where the Ko/>
1{'s are coefficients that can be used to adj ust the v:alue of C;' to a given 0.80 \i~
--,-
nonstandard condition of the Fronde number, entrance rounding, cham-
fE?r, angularity, side depths, side slope, bridge submergence, and bridge
piles and piers, respectively. From the laboratory in,restigationby the
d.70
0
41"-~---~i
10 20
-I
I
30 40 50 so
U.S. Geological Survey [12], a set of curves we~e developed for the deter- (e) m: Per cel'lt of c.honnel controclion
mination of these coefficients for four different types of constriction F~G. 17-17. Discha.l'ge coefficient. for co;\strictiou of ty pe II opening, ~mbankmellts
(Figs. 17-16 to 17-23). . . WIth 1: l ~lope (E = l). and vertical abutl'lent..,. (U.S. Geological SW'vey [12].)
.i (a.) Base curve for coeffiCIent of discharge; (b) variation of dischnrge coefficient with
When a waterway is coritmcted by bridge piers or piles alone, it may i (y. + Yb)!2b ratio; (c) variation of discharge coefficient with angularity.
be al3sumed that C' = I, and C is a.djusted by Ki only. To determine {
J
484 RAPIDLY Y ARiED FLOW },'LOW THROUGH NONPIUSIIUTIC CHANNEL SECTIONS 485
1
I
0.05
K,~0.90
0.800:--"---'10--.--'20
30 50 60 70 90 100
m" Per cant of c.l';onnt:1 c.onftoelion
(b)
'T~~~~ ---+-'--+----+-=.4
0.90 -
----1----1----, (b)
0.80
40 80
rn= Per cerri ot channel Conln::lcflon
(e) 1
,--."..,,_ _---'--c-_-'--_ J
F~G. 17-18. Discha.rge coefficient fOl" constriotion of type II opening, embankment.~ 0.06 0.10 0.12 0.14
With 2:1 slope (E = 2) and vertical abutments. (U.S. G?oiogiealSlI1'vey [12].) (a) {=Rotio or x tcwidth of opening
Base curve for coefficient of dischl1.rge; (6) ·vl1.riation 'of c!ischaro'e coefficient with
(y. -I- y,)/2b rafio; (el vMia.tioll of discharge coefficient wit.h angLI1:1rity. (e)
FIG. 17-19. Discha.rge coefficient for constriction of type III opening, embankmerrts
and obutments with 1: 1 slope (E = 1). (U.S. Geolorrica1 Survey [12J.) (a) Base .
curve for coefficient of discharge; (b) variation of discharge coefficient with angula.rity;
(I) variation of discharge coefficient with x/b ratio.
)-
486 nAP~DLY VARIED FLOW FLOW THIWUGH NONPRISMATIC CHANNEL SECTION'S 487
~
~
'0
>
"0
l;
~
~ 0.90 I----'~"
.
~
~ 0.80 I--_~_-I-. ___-'-_~"",,-!..::::,.,,,,,,_
'il
lO.70
~
"
..'"~ 50 60 70 60 90 ioe m" Per eel'l at chon,,1 con1r~ction
rn£P~r cf)'nt ~l channel tontrct:tion
(a)
(a)
11'\' Per ctJn1 ;,t chonr.et con1rClcfion m ~ Per cent af chollne:1 conlrocfion
(bJ (b)
1.15
1.10
I
Kw
1.05 ,
i
I
;. ,r
\.00
0
\
~:r Rafio of x 10 wi_oth 01 opening
(c) I
I
B:rAI"'f~ Ie of wing Wl)1I
(c)
FIG. 17-20. Discharge coefficient for constriction of type III opening, embankments
I ,:IG. 17:21. Discharge coefficient for cOllstridion of type IV opening, embankments
and abutments with 2:1 slope (Iff = 2). (U.S. Geological Surull11 [12J.) (a) Base .nth L L. ~lope (Iff ~ 1) and vertical abutments with wing wa!ls. (U.S. Geological
curve for coefficient of discharge; (b) variation of dIscharge coefficient with angularity; ! Sw-ve:y. [12J.). (a) Base curve for coefficient of dillchslge' (b) variation of dlschargo
! ~oeffiClalit wIth ll.IJ.gularity; (c) variation of coefficient \.yith wing-wall angle.
(el variation of discharge coefficient with x/b raj,io.
l
.!
FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMA'rrc CHANNBLS.ECTIONS 489
1.00_=~=c
f
f
!
t K ,
,.00\-----:;0",--.. ---r[---11
I
(a)
(b)
• (a)
t.OO'
0/>- O'
--'10'0·-----
I PI~E:S t:";WdZl
Q C 0 j!.~
--20'------ o 0 0 A3
0.90
___ ~rr
~
OI'OO~~~~'
K~
O.BO
g~ J
4"i---~-
. ~l ~<-'--l .i!
0,90 0.90 ',DO
",-
~---
0.70
0 ·10 ~O . 30 60 70 . 60
m:l. Plllr cent of ~hanne:1 contraction
(bj m=Pcr cent of c:honnel con/toction
(c)
P'ERS
=
=
~
j·o
1.00 l-----,~-.,..-'--'-..,---r===+===F=33;:::;1
I I 0.05 I '1 I '
~lo.H5:::::i::::I:o:.lo:+±I-::-:-:-::::::±I===:J~=-_.-L-r
20 30 4Q 50
i
so 60 70 100
.80
m~PI!" cenl of channel confraction
(d)
KO 1.• 10 FIG. 17-~3. IC, K"and K,. curves for constrictions of types I to IV openings. (U.S.
Geolov'iGu! St,rvey [12J.) (a) Varia~ion of discharge coeff.cient with eccentrici~y; (b)
. variation of discharge coefficient with degree of submergence of bridge; (e) variation
I.003).,O~.-::::;J35'"'.,..---,4-:f;O"·:---.-:4f;5;;;·---;;5';;;O'·--,;'5"5.--7
• 60 , of discharge coefficient with area of bridge piles; (d) variation of discharge coefflCieut
e·Ao~l. 01 wing ... 11 with area of bridge piers.
(d)
K; from the diagraro(Fig. l7-23c), enter the hOl'izontuj scale at the propel'
FIG. 17-22. Dischtlrge coefficient for constrict.ion of type IV opening, embankments value of m, then move verticidly to the vaiue of Lib, horizontully'to the
wiUc 2: 1 slope (E' = 2) and vertical abutments with wing. walls. (U.S. Geological
Sw'vey [121J (a) Base CUl've for coefficient of discharge; (b) variation of discharge line marked j = 0.10, vertically to the vulue of j, and horizontally to the
coefficient wIth angLIl.arity; (e) variation of,discharge eoelficiellt with' Froude number; value of f{j. If j happens to be greater than O.lCl, an approximate compu-
(d) variation of discIlarge coefficient with 'wing-wall angle.' . tation may be made ~y taking C = C' for the given m and omitting Kj •
488
490 RAPIDLY VARIED FLO!\"
FLOW THROUGH NO:!lfPRISiHATlC CHANN'BL SECT£ONS .
It is that ~rtaiIi combinations of the empirical coefficients
stage .to the backwater stage at section I iskrlOwn as the backwater of lhe
applied to C' may appear to yield a value of C greater than 1.0. In sllch
c(Jnslriction. The'distance Lilt is the difference in water-surface elevation
cases, howBvei·, a value of C 1.0 should be used. .
between secti.ons 1 and 3. From Eq. (17-15) the value of tJ.h can be.
Tile friction-loss term h, in the dif;lcharge equation, Eq. (17-15), repre- shown to be
sent.s the total loss of head due to .friction between sections 1 and 3. V 2 .
This loss is equal to the sum of the loss in the approach reach of lellgth ~l 2~ + hI (17-21)
La from section 1 to the upstream side of the contracted opening and the
lo~s ill the contracted reach of length L. The total head-friction' loss The rat.io h*/ tAh is called the backwater l'atio, which is known to be a
.may be cpmptited by. function of the cluH1l1el roughness, percentage of chamiel contraction,
where [(land J(. are the total conveyances of sections 1 and 3, respec-
tively. Substitut!'l . (17-15) the above expression for hI, and
Q/ A! for l'l; the may ·be expressed as
Q = 8.02CA a
(17-20)
This equation can be llsed for computing the required discharge.
ExaI~ple 17-2. Compute the flood disch~rge through a. highwa.y bridge opening in
a practically ·sl.l'aight and uniform reach of a river. An appioar.h section 300 ft
upst.ream from the bridge ha.s the characteristics described in E:,ampl~ 6-1. At t~e
ccin~ra~ted section, the bridge spans over ·the main channel and the slde channel 15
entirel)' blocked up by the highway embankment. The constriction thus created is
0.040
Manning's un"
0.050 0060 0.070 .J
30 it long and 180 ft wide and has a type J opening (Fig. 17-16). The a\"erage water FIG. 17-24. The effect Qf cha.nue! roughness on the backwat,er ratio for basic-type (
surrace at the contracted section wa.s found to be 5· ft below that at the approach sec- constrictiolls. (;iji8" Tracy and CarieI' [141.)
tion. It is assumed that both the main and ~ide channel sections are approxim(t.~ely I
rectlJ.ngu1~I'. Thus, the dimensions are 180 ft wide by 29.8 ft deep for the m(t.in ch:;,n-
!leI and 390.4 It wide by 14.6 it deep fcr the side channel.
and constriction geometry. By means of the continuity, energy, and
Solution. From the datil in Exa.mpl<! 6-1, the contraction ratio 1n = 1.24 X 10'1 momentum principles, it is possible to obtain an approximate solntiOI1
(3.14 X 10') = 0.40. ,Vit.h this"alue of :m and Lib = 39180 = 0.17, the chart in for the backwater ratio 011 the assumption that normal boundary fdction
Fig, 17-16a gives C' 0.76 fOl" a constriction with type I opening. The ac\j.u5tment losses are zero, .. A more practical solution of the problem, however, may.
coefficient for the ecce'lltricity of the opening is K. = 0.96, and other coeffiolents a.r~ be rea,chad by laboratory investigation. .
equal to LO, a.ssuming F, 0.15. Hence, C = O:7G X O.fHj = 0.73. .
For the contracted section,Al = 180 >( 2-1.8 = 4,460 ft', p, = 180-+ 2 X 24.8 ='
TracY and Carter [14J hn.ve made a laboratory investigation at the
229.G ft, n, = 1;)..5 ft, 11. == 0_035, and thus J(, = 1.38 X 10". Georgia Institute oi Technology and the University of
Illinois 011 the
Other required da.tB are C'l = 1.29, At = 11,070 fV, Xl = 3.14 X 10', t!.h;= 5 ft, backwater effect due to. vertical-faced constrictions with squnrs-edged
L = 30 ft, and "" 300 it. By Eq. (17-20) 1 Q = 60,000 cfs. ahutments. The experime!ltaJ data can be pl6tted.as shown in Fig. 17-24
The above computation is based on the sta,tPard condition that F, = 0.5.: Now, . to indicate the relationship among backwater ratio, Mannii1g's 'n, and
F, = 0.470, so it is to :repeat the computation for e.djustment oC F,. By
successIve l!.pproximations, final Q is found to be. 59,500 cfs. In the case.of typ.e
contractiol1 ratio '17'., It can be seen that the channel roughness is rela-
II and nI openings, C is not a significa.nt f~tncti6n of F l ; hence, no successive a.pproxl- tively' unimpol'tn,nt us a factor iIi determining the backwater ratio. In
Inations a.re necessa.ry 'ft'r the determination of ,Q. .fact, the limit of change jn the backwater ratio due to roucrliness is
·practically reached at an n of about 0.050. The laborat,ory i~vestiga
17-7. Backwater Effect due to Constri4tion. In Fig. 17-15 the increase
tion also reveals that the influence of cross-sectional shape on backwater
hl* (designated also by h*) in: water surface from the normal ·ratio is included in the c6ntraction ratio.
FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMATIC CHANNEL SEC'l'IONS 493.
492 RAPIDLY VARIED l"LOW
Taking an approach sect-ion 350 ft ~lpstream from the constriction, the friction slope
The backw[\,t(-~r I':1tio in Fig. 17-24 is for constriction of basic type., that between~his section and the contracted section ma.y be estimated by the Manning
is fol' a vertica.l-raced cor,striction ,v-ith square abutments. The back- equation S, =Q~n2j2.22rl'Rj,~. Now Q = 50,000 cf~, n = 0.035, A = 400 X 20 =
w~lter mtio for other types of constriction may be obtained by multiply- 8;000 ft', and-R = 18.2 ft,; hence, Sf = 0.000-!48. The frictional loss h! = O.000-!48 X
ing the backwater ratio by an adjustment factor lea. This factor has 350 = 0.16.
been found to be a function of the contraction ratio m and the ratio AsBuming h~ = 0.20, e:.h = 0.20/0.26 = 0.77. \Vith As = 350 X 19.'13 = 6,800
·ft' and C = 0.87, V a'j2gC' = 1.1l. By Eq. (17-21), uh = 1.11 - 0.59 + 0,16 =
CIC"",;" Cb "" ~lncl C are, respectively, the discharge coefficients for the ;. 0.68. This vaiue is less than the t.ri:J.i value 0.77. The computation is to be repeated
1 until agreemeat is reached. Before this' is done, however, the value of C should be
V73--~--'--'---~I---' adjust~d lor F,. Now Fa = 50,000/(6,800 X --v'32.2 X 19.'13) = 0.29. Using
..I 0 \~~_I .
\ "I . . . . . ~ 'il73
1--,.... V73
Fig. 17-16b, C = 0.87 X 0_955 = 0_83, Thus, Va2/2gC' = 1.22 and e:./i = 0.79.
This is close enough to 0.77; hence,a r6peat.ed cumputation for successive approxima-
tion is not required.
0.9 17 -8. Flow through Culverts. A culvert is a unique type of constric-
tion, and its entrance is a speciallcirid of contraction. The culven a'cts ",<os
an open channel as long as the flow is partly full. The characteristics of
the flow are very complicated because the flow is controlled by many v8.ri-
o.s
ables, including the inlet geometry, slope, size, roughness, r,pproach and
tailwater- conditions, etc. Hence, an adequate determination of the flow
through a culvert should be made by laboratory or field investigations.
Yarnell, Nagler, and vVood ward [16] were notable pioneers who, made
more than 3,000 tests on flow througli different pipe and box culverts.
Later on, round smooth pipe culverts were tested by Mavis [17], corru-
0.6
gated and concrete pipe culverts by Straub and Morris [18-20] and by
Straub, Anderson, and 130\\i el'S [21,22], and standard box culverts by
Shoemaker and CbytGn [23]. In addition, a comprehensive experi-
mental inve'stigation of the hydraulic behavior of commonly used pipe
culverts has been conducted at the U.S. Bureau of St::l,lldards, as reportr::d
by French [24-26]. .
A culvert will flow full when the outlet is submerged or when the outlet
FIG. 17-25. The effe(:t of constriction geometry on the backwater ratio. (After is not submerged buttb.e headw[,ter is high and the barrel is long. Accord-
Tracy and Ca"leT [14]-)
ing to laboratory investigations, the eJ1trance of an Ol'ciinary culvert will-
not be submerged if the headwater is less than a certain critical value,
b1Lsic type and for other types of constriction that CM be determined by designated by H*, while the outlet is not submerged. The value of H*
the method described in the preceding article. The value of Cb.", can varies fr0111. 1.2 to 1.5 times the height of the culvert, depending on the
be Clbtained directly from Fig. 17-16a and b. Based on experimental entrance geometry, barrel charn.cteristics, and approach condition.
data, the relationship among lea, m, and CIC b .", is shown in Fig. 17-25. For a. preliminary analysis, the upper limit H* = L5d maybe used, where
Example 17-3. A stream ,discharging 50,000 cfs at flood stage flows through a
d is the culved height, because computations have shown that, where sub-
symmetrical constriction having a type I opening which reduces the normal width of mergence ,vas uncertain, greater accuracy could be obtained by assuming
the w~terway from 400 to 350 ft. If the average -normal depth of flow in the uncoil- that the entrance was not submerged;
tracted sectiun is 20 ft, what will be the height of the backwater caused by the con- Laboratory investigations also indicate that a culvert, usually vhth a
. strictLoll? The opening of the constriction is 30 ft long. The coefficient of rough- square edge at the top of the entrance, will not fiow full even if the
ness of the channel is n = 0.035 and "'1 = l.10. entr:1nce is below headwater level when the outlet is not submerged.
So/-ution. T.he contraction ratio 1)1 = 5%00 =0.125. With n = 0.035; the
chart in Fig; 17-24 gives h*,/e:.h = 0.26. With L/b = 3%50 = 0.086 and F, = 0.5, Under these conditions, the flow entering the culvert will contract to a
the chart in. Fig. 17-16a gives C' = C = 0.85. i depth less than the height or-the culvel't barrel- in a manner very simila.r
I
l
J:
~.
~.
RAPiDLY. VARIED FLO,y
494 r,-rr-rr-'---"'--~---' "''" ~ <l
to the contrac.tion of Row in the form of a jet under a sluice gate. Thii': I .::l
high-veloc.il,y let will continue through the barrel length, but its velocil;Y ""
.~
will be reduced slowly as head is gradually lost by friction. If the culvert. f-- ~ ~
is not sufficiently long to allow the expanding depth of flow below the
'"
0
<if
I%i
~
::::;
contraction to rise and fill the barrel, the culvel·t will never flow fulL 1, ~Io
o I \
'" ..JIO
1\'\ \
"'- I',",~)J)\
\
\ '"~~ l\\~ ~
8 ~
~~~'"
I l ,.....'"
""r::: t::;::
{'
r-=: ~
F§ oj
0.06 \ ~(j'c' .0
.,
+-11
II t: !
I----
Ii····I-- I
\
:::.:::....l--Ul
f---
..c:cD
;::J
...
'" 0
0
.; 0.05
a. ~ +-t--+-j-L
I I
o.o~_ f-- t!
i
1 <t o
o ..c:
.~
0
., II /' v 1 , ~
q '"od '"o <D
o q '"0- :;::
I
i
00 d c5 .,00 d
...,
-3
"., I -' if>
0.04
O) I I !
I >
.~~
T ,
-t+-
r-<
J
I---- 11 .I I
'17 ;::J
"
<J
Vi~
0.02 I-- .~b
I
oj
\ 0.01 f-.-- "
....!o L'J \
I
,/ ) '" I\: \ !
0.01
f 0
~ \ \ \
1 1- -.-
I
I / .' +--
:II/,.V L...-\--i I
30 ...Jjo
l ~ J\ \
pt~o~\O
Jg~\
0 20 ,
0 10 I
L
D r "'0 \
f--+--
FIG. 17-26. Criteria for hydraulically short and long box ane! pipe culv~rts with con-
crete barrels :J.nd squ&re, rounded, or beveled flush entrances from a vertical headwall, ~i(b~~"~ \.\ S! ,s...
~" ",-" ~~
either with or without wing walls. (U.S. Geological 81J.rvey 1271·)
, f::: t::= r--:::
I-- ..'"
:~
C,J
Snch a culvert is considered hydra1Glically short. Other\vise, the culvert, '"
hydrau~ican!l
;
is long, for it will flow full like a pipe. ' . I
'Whether a cu\vert is hydraulically short or long cannot be determined I o
by the length of the barrel alone. It depends on other ch~racteristics,
Ul o lD <t o
j
·0
d od
~
o
OJ
q
o g 00
0. '"
g
'C/) if>
such as slope, size, entrance geometry, headwater, entmnce and outlet 'I
conditionA, etc. A culvert may become hydraulically short, that is, it \
may flow part.ly full, even wheli ttJ.e headwtLter is greater than its cr)tical
value. For this situation, Carter [27] has prepared charts (Figs; 17-26
and 17.:.27) which may be used to distinguish roughly bel',ween a hydrau-
~
I t
495
Jump, the backwater eff0ct of the outlet, 01' a st,lndilig surface Wiwe
developed i.nside the barreL .
For Pl'!lctiooal plll'po:>es, cuivert flow 111£\)' he clf\,ssified irlto six as
shown in Fig. 17-28. The ic1enti5cfltion of en~h type may be explained (2) Outlet uIlBubmerged
accQrding to the followi'ng outline. H>H" .
y; < d
A. Ontlct submerged .... . , .... ,.,. Type 1 l?ull now
B. Outlet' unsubmcl'ged
1. Headwater greater than the critical value
a. Culvert hydraulically long .............. . ....... . Type 2
b. Culvert hydraulicdly short ,. , .. (;1) OuClet uns~bmeq~ed
" .Type 3 If> H·
2. Hcud\vater less than the critical value y,.< d
a. Tuilwater higher than the cl'itici11 dept.h, . , ... , , .....Type 4 Pa~tly fun
I
"
498
j
II
RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMA'l'IC CHANNEL SECTIONs 499
may be obtained by means of the charts in Figs. 17-29 and 17-30 for box l
culverts and circular culverts, respectively. Both charts supply informa-
tion only fOl' (l1llvert.s having square-edged entrance.s. For culverts
.. having rOllnded entrances under average conditions, the value of H/d
may be roughly estimated the following expressions, in whIch Hid
'"
'u
refers to the l'!1,tio of headwater to barrel height for culvert with square-
'0 edged entra.nce:
'"
X Type I HId, < 1.0 10 < Hid < 1.5 Hid> 1.5
Circutar, .. .. , O.87Hld 0.87 H/d
Box, .. " .. .... 1.09 + O.WHlll
2 :3 '+ 5 10 20 30 4050 ' 1.00Illd 0;36 + 0.64l!ld 0.02 + OA6H fa
OischoJge in cis per II oj width.a/b J.
h d t.e on 00" 'ulver~~ with square-edgGd en- 17 -9. Obstructions. An obstruction in open-channel flow present:) a
FlO. 17-29,
tl'llnces, ~harG
flowmg
,
folr
p!l.r~ y
efstlll'rna~lBng
.
I. aJe
de:.,.. \d~I,a.'of U.S.AB:reat,
,
~f Public Roads [29].)
U. phenomenon very similar to that of a COllstrictioll, since both have the
effect .of contracting the crOSS-Sec-
tional area of the flow. Howe'ver,
the constriction reduces the craSi!
section to a single opening, whereas
the obstraction cJ:l'lates at leapt ·two I
opeilings. The Df contrac-
.5 100 r--t-'-Jj,..-
..; tion offered by [I constriction is
usually higher than that by an
: 50 f--+--lrl-t-+-t-;--y: obstruction. '
g 40f--t--lrl-t-+-t-r-iTT
'i; J 0 I----t---'H...,..
The types of'obstruction com-
monly encountered in engineering
problems include piers, pile
trestles, tra.sh racks, piers and
abutments on top of ovedlow spill-
ways, etc. 111vestioO'ations of these
problems areuumerous in hydraulic, Fla. all oblltru;:;~ion.
17-31. Definition sketch showing
How through
literature. ~
00
N< t") ':t \i') The flow through an obskuctionmay be sub critical or. sllpercritical.
Discna rg e io cis, 0 The energy equation fOl; the l'eacll between the contracted section 2 and
section 3 below th.e contraction (Fig.1i-31) is
Fl 17-?O Chart for estimating headwater on circuln.r cu~vert,sl )Wlth square-edged
v'f
entrl).nces. l'
owmg " full . (Ba~ed
pa"ly . on data of F. T. Mav.s [17 . ' VZ2' . '
G.,
E ( V2 +
(/ ,
= Y!1
,
2) (17-22)
Type G How is supercritio~l and, hence, the control seotion or
the outlet. ~Y2(2 + F21) = YJ(2 + F32) (17-23)
is aAtth1e ~ntrfanche. flows
na YSlS 0 t ese
may follow the p' rocedure described in Art,S.
'" " d t '1 d
1 The data for box culverts were prepared by analogy from experience with circUlar
pipes and are beli~ved to be conservative; tht\t is, they will give h!l!\.d as high as is
11:1 to 11-3. The U.S. Geolo:gical S].1rvey, [27J has deve~oped a e al e. likely to occur uncier adverse conditions.
proce
'd that may be used for the hydraulic computatIon of a culvert
. teIsotU"IOn 0 f the problem
design ureFor' practical purposes, an apprOXlma
. 2For important'referen<;es on the subject or' flo\v through bridge pi<lTS and pile
~restjes.
see '[301 t<i [52]. On trash racks, see [531 to [611. On piers andltbutments
on top of SPiUW3.yS, see Art. 14-7, [43]. and [62] to [65).
I
,~." ..
£i00 RAPWLY V AnIED. FLOW TRROUCH NONPRISMATIC CHANNEL SECTIONS 501
ivhen: F2 = V 2 /Vgyz, Fa c= V3/";{jY~, and e the percentage ingly, the flo'll is subcriticnl iUhe value of Fa faUs on the left side of the
of energy recovery, sinceel1ergy loss will occur between the sections. By. plotted curve 9£ an itSsumed energy loss andslipercritical if F J f<ill" on
the continuity of flow, . the tight side of the curve. . .
V2b~Y2 = Y1Bay. 17 -10. Flow between Bridge For flow between bridge piers,
or ·.F22U2Y2~ = Fa 2 Y3 J:. (17-25) . Yarnell [42] has ID£J.de an extensive stl:dy of the rclaterllit;ero.ture and
• when') (f bdB3. Eliminating 1/2 and:!i3 from Eqs. (17i23) and (17-25), conducted a large number oi tests on different kinds of pier commonly
used in American practice: He found that· the bridge-pIer formulas
2· _ e1Fa2(2 --1- F~2)3
most COli-un only used in the United States were d' AubuissOll'S [30],
U - • FzZ(2 + Fa2)l (17-26)
Naglel;'s [33], Weisbach's [31l, and Rehbock's [35-37]. The Weisbach
,;\7h6n the flow at section 2 is critical, F, 1. The v1111.1e of F 3 that furmull1 was considered theoretica.lly unsound l because of the discordant
results obtained b:;r YarnelL In connection with the use of the Rehbock
formula, the Bow passing through the obstruction is classified a8 least,
moderate, llnd complete turbulelit. Yarnell indicated that this clo.ssificil.-
, 1
tion might be u:;eful but that classification us subcl'itical and super-
[ critical is more logicaL Least and complete tUl'blllent flow· were found
I
to conespond to subcritical and supercl'itical flow, respectively, and
moderate turbulent flow was found to be in the neighborhood of or equal
I to critical flow. }"or least and moderate tui'bulent flow,. the Nagler
\ formula seemed to fit Yamell's experimental dD-ta better than the
d' Aubuisson formula. For complete turbulent flOiV, the d' Aubuissol1
formula seemed to fit the data better. In general, however, neither
formula applies too well at high velocities.
The ~Naglel' ,formula is
(17-28)
Fa T F aL . Examination of Eq. (17-26) indicates thatithe flow through ~ The "'Yei~ba.ch formuLa. is based UPOll t.he ~ssumpti6n that the flow ente:ring the
thei obstruction is 8ubcritical if < FaL and supel'critical if Fa > F aL • contracted mll.)' b.e ca.lculated as the Burn o( two portions, the lower p\,-rt, flow·
Eqt\ation (17-27) is plotted ~s shown ill 17-32 fori E 1 (no energy ing thrDugh I.l. orifice a.nd Lite upper part flowin~ over a weir •. Ap~arelltly,
. this assumption and has no theoretical basis. Houk [10] and Bhbeucley
losS), € = 0:95 (5 % energy lo~s), and E OJ) (10% energy loss). Accord-
[3'2J also have it unWll.rril.L1ted and cOlltrary toestnblished hydra.ulk t!teory.
II
I
I
I 503
RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW FTJOV.r THROUGH NONPRfSMATIC CHANNEL SECTIONS.
502
17-31) or, 1wing the l)Ota.tion in the figure, experimental data, Yarnell derived the coefficients for these formulas.
Based on this information, the following values of [(N alid Ie] are recom-
, V 22 h
+ YI = CJ!z 2i + Y2 + I
(17-29) mended for practical use"
where Yl = Y2 +
10 2, l,he velocity-distribution coefficients ell and a~ are Conveyance ra~io u
assumed 'equal to 1.0, and the friction loss hI is Msrimed zero. Taking
Type of pier 0.9 0.8 .0.7 0.6 0,5
I---;--I·······:······:---l-,-~,--l---:--'- "'-
-1
SqU&re noses and tails .......... .
"1- 1.8
Semicircular noses and tails .... .
90" triangular noses and tails.
..
"' 1.6
::>
f......-.. -I------l~"--.+-.-I- Twin-r,yiinder
out
with or with-
,.'. O.
~ 1.4 ___...!i--........:.-_+_-+
1.21----1----+
3, For flow of low yeladty and least turbulence, the more efficient
shapes arfJ len.'S-shaped nose and '"ail, lens-sh~"ped nose and sell1icircular
00 02 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
tail, semicirClilar nose. and lens-shaped tail, co'llyex no'se and tail, and
Caoveyonce rotio
semicircuhll" nose and, taiL 1 However, the data are 110t sufficient to
FIG. 17-33. Va.lues of f3 in ~he N.:lgler bridge-pier formula. differentiate RlnOllg these shapes for high of contraction.
4. Twin-cylinder piers either with or without connecting diaphragms,
is a coefficient of contraction, and simplifying, piers with 90" triangular noses and tails, a.nd piers with rec;::ssed webs
(17-30) are less efficient hydraulically them those just mentioned, and piers with
Q
sqnare noses and t?ils are least efficient,
el' Aubuisson made no distinction between the depths Yz and Yz, but 5. Application of batter to the ends of slightly increases their
assumed Yz = Y3. Accordingly, the d'Aubuisson formula is hydraulic efficiency, that is, raises the KN and values.
6. the length of a pier from 4 times the widt.h to 13 time;::
Q K,l b2Ya "/2gji~ + VIi. (17-31)
. the width has compal'atively little effect on its 'hydraulic efficiency, II!
where K.{ depends mainly on the degree of channel cOl'ltraction and OIl. some cases the efficiency .is t.hus increased anti in other case.~ decreased.
the shape and orientation of the obstl'l1c&ion. The assumption Y2 Ya The optimunl length-width ratio probably varies with velocity a.ndis
implies that the backwater h* = ha = hz in Fig. 17-31. Accordingly, generaUybetwe:en 4 and 7. On the average, the values of KN and ](A
the backwater ratio has a va:ueof 1.0. This),,; of course, not always will increase about 3 to 5 % for the increase of the ratio from 4 to 13.
true, although in many cases there is very little difference between Y2 7. Placing the piers at an angle with the current has an insignificant
and Yl' For this reason, the d'Aubuisson formula is genel'ally recognized effect on the alUount of backwater if~the angle is than 10°. Placing
0
to be empirical and approximate. the piers at 20 or more m<t.terially increases the n.mo\lnt. of backwater;
The following' are extracted from the results of Yarnell's investigation the increaee depends upon the quantity of flow, the dept.h, and the degree
on bridge. piers of variolls shapes and sizes: of channel contraction. In general, the values of and ](A willdecrfmse
L 'The height of the back~vl),ter due to bridge piers varies directly with about 7 at 20°.
the depth of the unobstructed channeL In order' to utilize the results of Lhe and to fa~iIitate .
. 2. The Nagler, d' Aubuisson, and Rehbock formulas give' approxi- lens-shaped nDse or tail is fDl'lned by two convex C~ll'ves tangent to the si;:lcs
mately correct results for ordinary velocities when the proper coefficients of pier l),nd of radills twice the pier width. Th", convex nose 01' I,ail is ionned:by two
al'e used, but they do not. hold for extremely high velocities. From his curves ('illlgent t-o the sides of pier find circum$criberl on i'\n cquila.tenl triangle.
\
I
FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMATIC CHANNEL SECTIONS 505
504 RAPIDLY ·VARIED FLOW
hydraulic compu1",t;ion for practical applications, Yarnell has developed ,2.4 1'-
0.6
I I I ',ti't1 '-0==0 I
I 0,2
J4f",
-~. ~ f11J
L r- ---
o k. ':'=
0.6
I 3 4 5
, ,
FIG. 17-35. Chart for determining baclC\\,ater of supercritical fiow through bridge
piers. (After D. L. Yarnell 142].) .
F:IG. 17-34. Chart for determining backwater of subcritical flow through bridge pier~.~
(Aile)' D. L. Yarnell [42].)
are square noses and tails, 90" triangular noses and tails, twin-cylinder
piers with and without connecting diaphragm, and semicircular noses and 1.2 -.-
tails. If the backwater is given am). it is required to determine the dis-
I I I
.'
l/f<==)
charge, it will be necessary to as:mme a value of V 3 and to carry out the Length -width --- ---e:"L.
computation by trial and error until a aolution ia obta.ined.
The chart in Fig. 17-35 gives a graphical solution for supercritlcal - - c..._
rolio =13
'\7"-
-'
/-'
--
.... - -- -- -- -
--'
;,. :7' --
flow through bridge piers. With ,the propel' va.lue of (1', determine the
~ f/
/"
,- /
- . ----
limiting value F3L from Eq. (17-27) or Fig. 17-32. Then enter Fa/FoL .
y- Length-wIdth
c::::::J
. on the chart and read h*/y~ for the given pier shape. Tliis value multi-
plied by Ya gives the backwater h *. If Yl, v!, bz, B 3 , and the pier shape
are known and it is required to determine ;the dischar:ge, h* /Ya may be
computed from h*/V! = (YI ~ Va)/Y3; Fa/F3L may betaken from the
---
'··"l- .
2
-'-- --- ----
chart; u = bdB3;'and F3L may be obtained from Fig. 17-2701' Fig. 17~32. F./F 3L
The vaiue of F3 can then be calculated, and from it V3 and then Q, FIG, 17-36. Effect of increase in l~ngth of bridge pier. (Based'Qn data of D. L. Yarnell
[421.)
Yarnell's graphical solutions apply to piers with length-width ratio
, '
506 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMA'l.'IC CHANNEL SECTIONS 507
equal to 4. For ratios of, 7 and 13, the effect of increasing length on where {3 is a coefficient having the :values listed below:
backwater is I:Ihown in Fig; 17-36, which is plotted \vith Yarnell's data.
It seems that tM bZ,ckwater caused by the long piers is greater when Form of rack beLt' Value of (3
the pier ends are semicircular than when they are square. It is pl'obahle Square nose and tail, Lis = 5. _., ....... , ' ..... '" 2.42
that an, abrupt entrance in the case of square pier ends tends to'decrease Squ!1rtl nose and semicircul<U' t,ail, Lis =' 5..... ..,. 1.83 -1
friction losses for (t short distance downstream because of its effect on the Semiciroular nose and tail, Lis = 5. .............. 1.67 I
RO'.Jod ... , . .. .: ........ ,.".... ,., ...... '.... 1,79
velocity distribution, since the velocity along the walls is reduced. The Airfoil ... _. . . . . . . . .. . ..... "................... 0,76
effect of bridge piers present ill a constriction has been considel;'ed in
Alt. 17-6 and in Fig. 17-23d. Spangler [55] has extended t.he experiment and determined the value of f3 .1
17-11. Flow through Pile Trestles. Yarnell's investigation [41] indi- for IX = 30 0 , ,45 0 , and 60 0 ,
ca.tes that the N{tgler formula may be suitably applied to subcrltical Ac.cording to F'ellenius [54], an empirical formula for c can be given
flo w passing a pile trestle a,net the d' Au buissoll formula to superc.ritical as follows:
+ Ii )2 sm=
. {j
flow passing a pile trestle. The following coefficients are recommen.ded
' S
for use in these formulas: C = Ji. ( S (17 -3L~)
Type of t"e811e
where the coefficient Ji. and exponent x have the followil1g values:
.j
Single-track 5-pile trestle ben t
Parallel to curren t. . . .. . .. . ............. , 0.90 0.96
At to" angle with current ......... '.' ..... . 0.90 Form of rack bar T'alue of /J. V(tlue "fx
At 20° angle with current .............. , .. 0.89
At 30° angle with current ................ . 0.87
Square nose and tail
With sharp corners, Lis ~10 ...... , .................... 7.1 1.0 I
Double-track JO-pile trestle bent ............ . 0.82 0.88 With sharp corners, Lis = 12 .......... , ...... _....... 6.2 1.0
Two sillgle-track 5-pile trestle b'~nts: ..... , . , . 0.79 0.86 ,\Vith slightly rounded corners, Lis = 8 to 11. .......... 6.1 LO
Semioircular nose and tail, Lis = 7 ......•........•.. .... 5. I) i.5
The amount of channel cont.raction is to, be t.aken as the average
diameter cif the piles plus the thickness of t,he sway bracing, disregarding In general, ~c = 1.0 for bars having sharp 01' slightly rounded corners and
the angle at -which the bent is set with the current. ' x = 1.5 for ba!'s having rounded corners. For cross-connected and
'The effect of trestle piles present in a constriction has been considered clipped rack bars, the value of Ji. should be increa.'led by about 22.5 %.
in Art. 17-5 and in Fig. 17-23c. Scimemi [56] and Kozeny [50] have provided values of c, /3, and Ji., and
17 -12. Flow th~ough Trash Racks. For flow through trash racks, the other data for racks iustalled in several hydropower plants .
.designer is primurily concel;ned with the amollnt of head loss due to the 17 -13. Unqerfiow Gates. Certain control gates ir, cana.ls may be called
resistance of the rack. This may be expressed in terms of the velocity unde7'ftow gates 1 frcim the f act that. water passes underneath the struct ure.
head of the approach flow, or Common examples are the sluice gate, Tain~er gate (or radial gate) I
, V2
h, = c2g- (17-32) and rolling gate (Fig. 17-37). In d.esigning such gates the hydraulic
engineer is most interested in two major .features: the 'head-discharge
where V is the velocity of approach ahead of the rack and ,1vhere c is a relationship and the preSSUl'e distribution over the gate surfaces for
coefficient depending on the cross-sectional form, thickness IS, length L various positions of the gate ~nd forms of the gate lip. The form of the
of the l'ack bEll', clear distance b between bars, angie /J of il1cliuation of the lip will .not only affect the velol:ity and pressure distributions and the
bar from the horizontal, and angle a between the direction of flow and the energy loss in flow through the gate opening, but may also develop very
length of the bal'. disturbing vibrations that should be avoided during gate operation. As
;On the basis of the experimental data for rack bars of various forms
a~d with a = 0, Kirschmel' :[52 ,53] has set up the following
, formula for c: I 1 In contr~t ~o the underfk..r gate is the ,ovet'flow gate through which the water flows
over the stl1fctur~. The drum gate (Art., 14-9) is an exa'mple of au overflow gate_
, Hydraulically speaking, the overflow gate ,acts like! a weir as much as the underflow
,,c = {3 (S)H
Jj sin 0 (17-33) gate act~ like an orifice. There are also designs for which the water flows above ,and
I. below the struct·ure at the same time (Fig. 17-37).
-- .-:<
I
RAPIDLY VARIEh FLOW FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMATIC CHANNl!lL SECTIONS .
508
the design of the lip varies considerably, independent investigation of the For the vertical sluice gate, l experimentally determined curves repre-
lip for a. particul[1r design is usually necessary. I .
senting the value of a have been prepared by Hflnry [68], aFl Shown in
By the energy equation, it can be shown that the discharge through an •. Fig. 17-38; The dashed line. A represents the result obtained by Eq.
(17.:.35) on the basis of t11e energy principle; the dashed line B is obtained
underflow gate may be expressed as .
through the use of the. momentum principle. The value of :IfQ is the
Q= aLh~-IJ-:(-Y1-+-a-';~'7. ~-;:::-) (17-35) Froude number of the flow through the gate· opening. .
Similat· curves fo.r the Tainter gate (Fig. 17-39) were prepared by Toch
where a is the coefficient of discharge, L is the length of the gate, h is [69] on the basis of an experimental study" induding the pivot height as a
+Qt.
O.4l--I-+'<:""'1I---.J,c...,.61~';""'F-~F-;~I=--l
c
Sluice gate Sluice gate with combined
oyer- and underflow
0.1 !--f----jJ-l--ll----jF:=.:I-/!='"'
Z / .'1,
Tointer gote ~
FIG. 17-37. Underflow gates. FIG. 17-38. Discharge coeffil.llentJor vertical sluice gate. (_4/Iel' H. R. Henry [68].)
the height of the gate opening, Yl is tbe upstream· depth of flow, and :variable i~addition. to o~her variables that ,:vere used by Metzler [70]
ex. V 12/ 2g is the velocity head of the approach flow. The outflow of the
m an earl~er analYSIS. 'Ihe U.S. Army Engmeera Waterways Experi-
gate may be either free or submerged, depending on the tailwater depth. ment ~tatlOn [74] has ~lso prepared design charts for use in the design
For submerged flow, Yl in the above equation should be replaced by the of Tamter gates, partlcularly for those installed on spillway. crests of
effective head, or the difference between the upstream and downstream .WES-standard shapes (Art. 14-3). . . .
depths. . . . In the case of a sluice gate with combined overflow and underflow
For the .purpose of experimental.studies, the ~elocity-h~ad term m (Fig. 17-37), the overflow discharge Qu is a function of II only, but the
Eq. (17-35) may be omitted, and its effect may be mcluded m ~hecoeffi- underflow discharge QL is a function of yo + AYQ as well as Yl. If AYo 0
cient a. Thus, and if the lower (under~ow) jet is free, the total discharge Q = Qu + QL
Q = aLh, V'2i1h (17-36)
is independent of the ~ailwater depth Y2. IfAYo is greater than zero
where a is ~ coefficient depending 04
the geometry of the str~cture and the lo:ver jet is drowned. The problem ·may be ~olved by the continuit;
on the upstream and downstream de~ths. The form of this e~uation is equatIOn and the momentum equation betweenicross sections 0 and 2.
I
.. the same for both free and submerg~d flows; . 1 For other studies, see [39J and [71]. For a theoretical:analysis of the flowthrough
~.
.'
1 For studi~s on ~uice-gate lips of variods designs, see [66J .a.nd [67] . a sharp-edged sluice gate, see [72] and [73]. .
510 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
FLOW' THROUGH NONPRISMA'l'W CHANNEL SEiCT'IONS.
511
Under norma.l conditions, y~ is a function of Q. Both yo + "b.Yo and Q£
are unknown but must satisfy an energy equa.tion similar to Eq. (17-35).
The use of the momentum equation will automatically include any fric-
tion losses. The pair of equations may be solved by trial and error or
graphically, The result thus obtained has been found to agree with an
experimental finding derived by Escande [2,711.
(a)
"
I
I
(hl
-----'--~--------4~
.I '
-
•
. .FlO. 17-39. DischArge coefficient Ior Tainter gate. (After A. Tock [69).) (el
FIG. 17-40. Determination of pressures for Tainter gate.
The pressure on the surface of the gate can! be determined accuratel~ , ,
either from flow-net analysis or oy actual measurement on model or
o?tained by graphical determina.tion from the pressure-distribution
prototype. 17-40a shows the nO,fmal pressure ol1,th~ s1..u:face o.f a;
diagram .. A less accurate but. simpler method of determining these
Tainter gate (a simil?-r pattern of hOrlZontal-pressure dlst.rlbutlOn eXIsts
pressur~s IS to assume that the h~rizol1tal pressure on the gate surface is
on a sluice gate), the1horizontal pressure on the gate openmg and on the
hy~rostatically distributed and tpat the vertical pressure is equal to the
upstream and downstream cross section.s, and the vertical pressure on th~
;ve.lght of the water replaced by the gate structure above its surface
channel bed. The normal pressure on the gate surface may be repre-:
t,FIg. 17-40c). The horizontal force may also be determined by the
sented by its horizontal a.nd vertical components PH andF v, as shown in
mo~.entum relationship. However, this determination will not give the
Fig. 17-40b. The magnitude and positions of these forces may be
pOSItIon of the force. Sin\:e all water pressures are normal to the gate
512 RAPIDLY Y ARIED FLOW
FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMATIC CHANNEL SECTIONS 513
surface, the res1lltant of the 'pressures must pass through the trunnion'
these assumptions and by the application of the momentum ,equation
axis O.
to the junction in the direction of 1 to 3, Taylor was able to obtain the
The outflow from the gate uswiJly constitutes 11 high-velocity jet, following equation: l ' .
capable of eroding the downstream channel bed. l The erosion thus
developed may be avoided by means of a stilling basin (Art. HHl). If i
r .k2 = n.~(ni - 1)
no preventive measures are provided, the erosion D:1ay result in a deep i 4nll ![2n. - nl(l + cos 0) + ny - 1] (17-37)
seoUl' hole, the formation of which will depend' on the type of the jet.
I According to the studies of Escande [71] on fiow through a. channel drop where k2 = ~22/2gY2' nq =:
Q2/Q3, ny = Ya/Yb, V 2 is the velocit,y in
~han~el 2, Y: IS the depth 0, flow in channel 2, Ya is the depth above the,
J
downstream from [l, sluioe gate/ four types' of jet are possible: (1) sub-
merged How with rising j Elt, ,(2) submerged flow with diving jet, (3) free JunctIOn, Yb IS the depth below the junction, and 8 is the angle between
flow with rising jet, and (4) free flow with diving jet. Generally speak- the. merghig chann~ls. Taking n. as. a parameter, k2 may be plotted
ing, the diving jet will induce less pressure on the vertical surface of the agamst nv for any gIven 8.
drop than the rising i et and will usually develop a scour hole with its
deepest point closer to the drop than the rising jet. In submerged Bow,
the depth of scour ,hole depends on the tall water depth, whereas in free
flow the downstream conditions have little or no effeot upon the depth of
scouring.
17 -14. Channel Junctions. Flow ,through a channel junction is a
phenomenon that involves numerous variables, such as the number of (oj (b]
the adjoining channels, the angles of intersection, the shape and, slope
of the channels, the'directions and discharges of flow, the rounding of the FIG. 17-41. Simple channel junctions (a) combining flow; (b) dividing flow.
corners at the junction, etc. The problem IS so complicated that only·
a. few simple and specific cases have been studied. The conclusions Equation (17-37) was verified by experiments on junctions with () = 45°
of such studies indicatE;. that gene1'8.l1zation of the problem is not possible and 135°. It was found that the agreement between theory and experi-
or even desirable. When the application of hydraulic theory t.o the ment was good, for 0 = 45°. ,There was no agreement' however for
problem encounters limitations, !L model study will give the best solution () = ,135°. It ii? believed that this was because the veloci~y distrib~tiol1
fOl' the How characteristics involved. below the junction was distorted and the flow did not remain parallel
For stcbc1"itical flow passing through the channels at a junction, Ta.ylor t? the chann~l wal~s. The expedmental data showed clearly that assump-
[80] has investigated the specifiC cases sholvn in Fig. 17-41. The channels tlOn 5 above 1s valId, regardless of the angle of intersection of the channels.
. are horizontal and of equal width.' In the case 9f combining flow, the In t~e case Of d2~viding flow the problem c::mnot easily be analyzed
following assumptions were made: (1) the flow is from channels 1 and 2 theoretlC~Il~'. The application of the momentum principle is difficult
into channel 3; (2) channels 1 and 3 lie in a straight line; (3) the flow is be.cause. It 1.nvolves some unknown quantities, and assumptions which
parallel to the chn.nnel w<lJls, and the velocity is uniformly distributed might slmphf! :he determination of these quantities, such as assumption 5
immediately above and below t.he junction; (4) ordinary wall friction is for the, combll1lng flow, are not available. Basically, the division of the
. negligible in compn.rison,with other forces involved; and (5) the depths flow "1111 depend upon the backwater effects of the two branch channels
in channels 1 and 2 ate equal immediately above the junction. With and ~he dynamic conditions existing at the junction. If the divided
flow IS to be combined again at a certain point downstream a solution
1 The erosion of channel bed due to jet is a subject beyond the scope of this book. of the problem described in Art. 11-9 may be applied. '
For detailed informatiDn see [1] to [3] and [75] to [77].
In applyirig the momentum equation to the problem the hydrostatic pressure
I
1
2 Other examples of jets below hydraulic stnictures in channels have been found and 1
exer.~ed by the flow in chann.el 2 is ~ol1nt.erac.ted by the pr~ssure on the opposite wall,
studied by Camichel [78]. The erosion due to iet through a bridge opening may cause
I a deep scour hole generruly known as the bl1le hole. An experimental study of such a prov lded the water surface m the JunctIOn IS esser,tially flat. Thus, the only force
problem has been reported by Hickenlooper, Guillou, and Chow [79J. the flow from channel 2 can contribute to the flow in the straight channel· 1-3 is its
mom~ntum component in the direction of 1 to 3.
514 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMATlC CHANNEL SECTIONS &;15 )
1.35 ---
the division of flow of a given discharge QJ. First assume QI; then
1.25 / can be determined from Fig. 17-42.. By assuming other values of QII
the correspoildirlg ratios YZ/Y2 c<,n be obtained. Thus, Qz/Qa is plotted
I
1
~r~
~ 1.20
.
'I
/ against Ya/Y2, as shown by the curve. A in Fig. 17-43. The intersection
C)f this curve with the ka curves now
E
.<::
2/ gives all possible combinatior.s of the
il
Q. US 0.20
I ,--
B .1
'"
Cl
;7
variables, among which one value of
k3 ·would correspond to the flow of,
Vi .
rn
1.10
say, 500 cfs entering the junction:: I !
AiT . Tbe llext step is to plot the ill terSected
0.16
1-----
1.05
1.00
~W~cP
.,
k3 values against the corresponding
Ya. For the example shown by the .., 0.12
-
M lh
1.00 t10 1.20
Depth rolio, ~
Yz
V3z~
(Afler E. H. TaylO1' of channel 2, the V2 corresponding 'to
[80J.) ,
the ·Q2 just computed can be· found ~kl=2Y
I 9 l
:--
Quantity rolio, ~ 2 thel;.T.S. Soil Conservation Service [81]. In such cases, a hydraulic
3
jump m~.y forin in one or both of the inlet channels, depending lIpon the
FIG. 17·43. Characteristics 9{ a. 90· flo~v division. (Afl~r E. H. TaY'loT [80J.)
junction design, the discharges, velocities, and related flow conditions
intheadjoinillg channels. Thus, a large increase in the height of the 1
For the specific junction showll in Fig. 17-41b, Taylor has made an
side walls in the vicinity of the j unction may be necessary. When the
experimental approach to the problem as follows: . _.
prihclple of momentum is applied to sllch a problem, it is necessary to
For any given value of 8, it is possible to correlate the (hmenSlOnle~s
know the position of the jump or the depth of ~ow at the uj:oEtl'eam edge
ratios Q2/Qa, Y3/Y~, yt/Y2, and ka = V.;2/2gYa, all derived from the expel'l- of the junction in order to compute the momentum contributed by the.
mentally determined data. For g:= 900, such correlation curves ~re
inlet· flows. If the flow passing through the junction is supercriticaI.
shown in Figs. 17-42 and 17-43. These curves can be used to determme without the formation of any hydraulic jump upstream, the flow condi-
t
,J
., (
I
J
I
518 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
! FLOW THROUGH NONP1USMATIO CHANNEL SECTIONS 519
culverts, paper 1009, Proceedings, Ame1'icfm Society of Civil Engineers,'Joll.rnal,
critical,-elocities, U.S. l!oil COnse~1Jation Se71rice, ProgreS$ Rept SCS-TP-76, April,
Hyd"cmlics Division, no. HY3, pp. 1-22, J~me, 19M.
1949. 29. Hydraulb cha.rt, No. 1043, U.S. Bureau of Plwlic Roads, Hydmlllic Chcr.rts, March,
10. Ivan-E. lluuk: Calculation of flow in open channels, Miami COnSe,.vlmcy District,
1951." . ' .
Techniml Report, Pt. [V, Dayton, Ohio, 1918. "
11. E. W. Lane: Experiments On the flow of water through cont,ro.etions In an open 30. J. F. d'Aubuisson de Voisins: "Trait.! d'hydraulique" (" Trea.tise on Hydraulics "),
channel, Transaction$, American Sociel!! of Civil Engineers, voL 83, pp. 1l49-1208~ 2d ed.,.Pitois, Lenaut & Cie, Paris, 1840.
31. Juli.1I3 Wei~bach: "Die ExperimentE.lhydraltiik H ("Experimental Hydraulics"),
1919-1920. , Frelburg, Germa.ny, 1855. .
12. Carl E.IGndsvo.~er, Rolland W. Carter, and H. J. Tracy: Computation of peak
32. ,T. F. Bubendey.: Stau an Briicken un.d Durchlassen (B!J.ckwatel' of bridges and cul-
discharge at contractions, U.S. Geological ,'lurvey, Circulol' No. 284, 1953.
verts), art. 25, chap. 3, pt. 3, yol. 1, in "Handbuch der Ingenieurwissenschll.ften "
13. C~J,fl E. I'l:illdsvater and'Rolland W. Carter: Tranquil Jlow through open-channel
aonstric-tion", Transactions, American SQci~ly of Civil Engineers, Vl)[. 120, pp. 4th ed., W. Engelmann, Leipdg, 1911, pp. 707-773. '
33. FiQyd A, Nagler: Obstruction of bridge piers to the flow of water, 1'1'an,sactions,
955-980, 1955. American S,'cietyaf Civil Engineers, vol. 82, pp. 334-395, 1918.
14. Hubert J. Tracy and Rolland W. Carter: Backwater effects of open-channel
constrictions, ,['ransad,ions, American Society of Ciuil Engineers, vol. 120, pp. 34. H .. D. l{rey: Berechntlug des Statle5 infolge von Quenschnittverengungen (Calcu-
latIOn of backwater due to cross-sectional contraction), Zentralblat{der Bauver-
993-1006, 1955. wa/tung, Berlin, vol. 39, no. 79, pp. 47-2-475, Sept. 27, H)19.
15. Tate Dalrymple: Measuring floods, in Floorls, val. III of Symposia Darcy, IntM'-
national Association of Scien(ific Hydralou!!, Pttblicatio1! No. 42, 1!J56, pp. 38(1-<1.04. 35. '~h. Rehbodc·. Zur Frage des BrUckenstaue8 {On the problem or b!'idgecous~ric
16. David L. Yarnell, Floyd,A. Na.gler, l1ll,d Sherman M. Woodward: Flow of w[j,~el' tIon), Zeniralbla.t! der Bauvenoa.Utmg, Derlin, vol. 3g, no, 37, pp. 197-200, 1919. .oj
3,!t Th. Rehbock: Verfa,hren zur Bestimmung des Briickenstaues bei rein stromenden
~hrough culvel'~s, University of [o1Oa, StudifJ~ in Engineering, Bulletin 1, 1926. , I
. 17. l!~. T. Mavis: The hydraulics of culverts/ The Pennsyl,'ania Stale College, ElIgineer- Wasserdurchfluss (A method of determining the backwater at bridges for dis-
tinctly streaming flow), a volume published to celebrate the dedication of the
'£ng Experim6,tl Station, Bulletin 56, Oct. 1, 1942.
'18. LorenZ' G. Straub and Heruy M, Morris: Hydraulic data comparison of concrete new building of ~he DIvision of Engineering Structures of the Technical Institute
and corrugated metal culYert' pipes, Unillil1'sily of Minnesota, St. Anthony Falls of Ka:rlsruhe, Ge;mll.ny, Nov. 26, 1921, pp. 7-13; a.lso if' Der BauingenieuT, Berlin,
vol. 2, no. 22, pp. 603-609, 1921.
Hydraulics Laboratory, Technical Paper 3, SeTie~ B, July, 1950. • .
19. Lorenz G. Straub 'and Henry Morris: Hydnl.l.lhc tests ou concrete culver. pipes, 37. Th; Rehbock: BrUckenstau und Walzenbildung (Bad(water and eddies Iltbddges)
University of Minnesota, St. Anthony Falls Hydraulics Laboratory, Technical Paper Der BattingQnieur, Berlin, vol. 2, no. 13, pp. 3<11--347, 1921. '
38. Paul BOss:" Berechnung der Wasserspiegellage bairn Wechsel des Fliessz\l~tandes"
ND. 4, Seri,w B, July, 1 9 5 0 . ' "
20. Lorenz G. Stra.ub and Henry Morris: Hydra1.llic tests on corrugated metal culvert (" C?mputa.tion of W~t.er Surface with Ohanges in Flow Type "), Springer-Verlag,
pipes, Univer~ily of }/in'Lesota, St. Anthony Falls Hydra'.J.lics Laboratory, Technical Berhn, 1919, Il,nd VDI-Verlag, Berlin, 1927.
39. Alexa.nder Koeh and Ma.'{ Carstanjen: tt Von del' Btnnlgung des Wo..."SBl'S und den
Pa.per No.5, SeriBs B, July, 1950. ' .
21. L0renz G. Straub, Al...-in G. AndBrson, :md Chades E. Bowers: Effect of Inl~t da.bei auftreten,den Kriiften" (" Moysment of Water and Associated Force
design on capacity of culverts on steep slopes, U nive"sity of M innesoLa, St. A n{ hony Phenonlena"), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1926', pp. 179-185.
40. Giulio De Marchi, "Idraulica." ("HydrILulics"), Ulrico Hoepli, Milan, 1930,
Falls Hydraulics Laboratory, Project Report No. 37, August, 1953.
22. Lorenz G. S~ra.ub, Alvin G. Anderson, an.d Charles E. Bowers: Importance of vol. I, pp. 401-404.
inlet design on culvert capacity I in CuI-vert hydraulics, Highway Research Boa:rd, 41. David, L. Yarnell: Pile trestles Mchannel obstructions, U.S. Departmenl ol '
Research. Reporll;i-B, Washington, D.C., 1953, pp. 53-67. . .
Agricult-u.Te, Technical Bulletin No. 429, July, 1934.
23; Roy H. Shoemaker, Jr., and Leslie A. Clayton: Model studms of ta.perEd Inlets 42. David L. Yarnell: Bridge piers as channel obstwctions [T.S. Depr:lrtmenl of
for box culverts, in Culvert hydraulics, iIighway Resecrch Bilard, Research Rep!lTt' AgriC'ltUur 6, Technical BuUetin No. 442, November, 1934. '
43. L: Escande al;ld G., Saba.~he: Sur l'emploi des prolils aerodynamiqtles pour les
15-B, Washington, D.C., 1953, pp. 1,-45; ,
24. John L. French: Fi~st progress report on r.ydraulics of short pipes: Hydr(l.ulic pIles de ba;rages deversolrs, de barrages mobiles et les piles des ponts (Use of
characteristics of commonly lLSe,d pipe entnmces, U.S. National Bweau of Stand- ~erOdyn~llC profiles for mov",blp. dams aod bridge piers), Re!lU.~ ¢nemle ds
I hydrauhqne, Paris, vol. 2, no. 10, pp. 546-5li5, 1936. '
(J;rds, Report 4444, Dec. 28, 1955. ' ' . ,
25. John L. French: Second progress report on hydraulics of culverts: Pressure and 44. Leopold Escande: Recherches sur l'ecoulement de l'eau entre les piles des ponts
r~sistance characteiilStics of a model pipe culvert, U.S. National Bureau of Stand- (Researches on the flow of water through the piers of bridges), pt. A, and Remll.rque
sur Ie cll.icul du remous provoqlle par un pont (Remark on the calculation of the
ai'ds, Report 4911, Oct. 29, 1956. ' .
26. John L ..French: Third progress report on hydraulics of culvert.s:'Effect of approach backwater caused·by a bridge), pt. B, Le. G~nie civil, vol. U5, no. 6, pp. 113-117,'
channel characteristics on model pipe culvert operation', U.S. National Bureau Of A~g. 5; no. 7, pp. 138-140, Aug. 12; and llO; 13, Pl" 259-260, Sept. 13, 1939.
45. Leopold Esnande: ~xperience.s sur l'ecoulement entre piles de ponts (Experihtents
Standards, R.cport 5306, June 3, 1957. " '
27. R. W. Ca.rter: Coinputa~ion of peak discha.rge at culverts, U.S. Gealogical Survey, on flow through piers of bridges), Compte.; renduil de l' Acad.emie. des Sciences
vol. 209, pp: 14-16, July 3 1939. ' ,
Circular 376, 1957."
·16. Leopold Escande: Sur l'e~oulement entre piles de ponts (On the flow through
. ' ., '.
a.
28. Wen-Hsiullg Li and Calvin Patterson: Free outlets and self-pnmlng action of
J
520 RAPIDLY "VA.RIED FLOW t, FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMATlC CHANNEl, SECl'IONS
models, Keokuk Da.m, Transactions, American' Society of Civil Engtneers, vol. 94,
521
piers of bridges), Com.ptell rCIu:i.ItS d.e l' Acadpmie des Sciences, vol. 108, pp. 1970-
pp.77F820, 1930.
197:/;, JIlne 19, l ! l 3 ! J . . .
47. Leopold Esco.nde: Recherches sur l'ecoulement de l'eau entre .pll~. de ponts 63. Louis G. Puis: Spillway discharge capacity of Wilson Dam, Transactions, Amer-
(Resellrcl.es on the How of w:J.ter through piers of bridges), I;e G~nte C'tmt, voL 115, ican Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 95, pp. 316-329, 1931.
64. E. Camichel, L. Escande, and G. SalJl;.th~~ Sur la similitude des barrages a COD.-
no. 5, pp. 113-117, Aug. 5; and no,. 7, p~. 1~8-1.40, Aug. 12. 1;39. '.
48. Etienne Crausse: Sur un phenomene d oscl\latlOn du plarr d eau provo que pa. tractions latel'~les (On the similitude of dams with lateral contractions), Compte.
I\~coulement autour d'obstllcles en form de piies de ponts (On the phenomenon rendus de l' AcaMrnie deJl Sciences, voL 194, pp. 807:-809, Mar. 7, 1932.
of oscillation of watel' surface caused by flow a.round obstacles in the form ot 65. E. Camichel, L. Escande, and P. Dupin: RemarqUB!l sur certains phenom~nes de
bridge piers), CDmp!es rendus £I;: l' Academie des.8ciences, voL 209, pp. 197-199, contractions laterales dans Ire barrages (Not~son cert.ain phenomena of late.ral
contractions ill 'dams), 90mples rendus de l' Acad6mie de.t Sciences, vol. 197,
Julv 24,. 1939. .
49. Otto St~eck: "Gmnd- und Wa.sserbau" (il Foundation lLnd Hydraulic Engmeer- pp. 722-725, Oct. 9, 1933.
66. O. Mueller: Schwingungsuntersuchungen an unher:;trornten Weh,en (Vihration
ing") Spriuger-Verlag. Berlin, 1950, vol. 2, pp. 420,,434.
50. J o~ef ' Ko~eny: "HydrauHk j' (" Hydraulics"), Springer-Verlag, Vienna, 195jl, studies on underflow weirs), Mitteilungen aer preussischen Vel'suchsanstall fur
WM3erbau und Schiffba.u, no. 13, Berlin, 1933.'
Pll. 546-549. 6;. J. B. Tiffany: Laboratory research applied to the hydraulic design of large d&.ms,
51, l)hili-pp Forchheimer: "Hydrt'!.'ulik" ("Hydraulics"), 3d ed., Teubner yer-
lagsg;~sellsch!lft, Leipzig and Berlin, Hl30, pp. 519-522 on backwater a~ bru:!g-e U.S.A.rmy Enflin~r8 Waterways Ezperi-m;enl Station, 'Bulletin 32, 194!f
Harold R. Henry: Discussion of Diffusion of submerged jets, by M. L. Albel·tson,
piers and pp. 522-:524 on ioss of head at trash. ri1cks. .
52. Armin Schoklitsch: "Handbuch des Wasaerbaues" ("Handbook of Hydrauhc Y. B. Dai , R. A. Jensen, and Hunter Rouse, Tra1l.8(JctiQ:/I.I!, American Society of .
Engineering"), Springer-Verlag, Vienna, 1950, vol. 1, pp. 122-124 on backwater Civil Enaineers, vol. 115, pp. 63i-69-i. 1950.
oJ bridge piers and pp. 125-127 on loss of head :J.t trash racks.· . 69. Arthur Tach; Discharge chara.cteristics of Tainter gates, Transactions, A'lL61'ican
53. Otto Kirschmer: Unters\\chungen liber den Gefallsverlust an Rechen (Studles on Society of Civil Engineers. yoL 120, pp. 290-300, 1955. .
the head loss through a rack), Mitteilungen des hydraulischen I nst-Uuts der tech- 70. Hunter Rouse (editor): "Engineering Hydraulics," John Wiley &; Sons, Inc.,
nisc/llm HocMclmle JltIilnchen, no. 1, pp. 21--41, Mllliic~l, 1926.. . New York, 1950, pp. 540-541-.
54. W. ~'ellellius: Undel'sokinglll' betroffande faUf5riuster 1 skyddsgrmder vld vatten- 71. Leopold Escande:lttude theoriq,ue et experimentale de l'e~o\llement pal' vanne de
kraftanlOggninp;er (Studies of heu.d·loss through racks in power pla.nts), Tran$- fond (Theoretical and experimental study of fiow through sluice gates), Revue
g~n~rale de l'hydraulique. Paris, vol. 4, No. 19, I)P. 2.5-29, no. 20, pp. 72-79, and
aclirms, Hyr/"alliic Institute of the Royal Technical University of Stockholm, no. 5,
00.21, pp. 120-128, 1938; vol. .5, no. 25, pp. 21-34, no, 26, pp. 65-77 and 131-139,
1927. . . 1~~ ..
55 .. J. 'Spangler: Untersuchungen tiber den Vel'lust all Rechen beischr!i.g~ Z~stromullg
(Studies on the head tollS through a ra.l!k inclined to stream flow). r.bttel{un~en d~s 72. Georg Pager: 'tlber'den Strijm~ngsvorga.ng an einer unterstromten scharfkantigen
hydr~lllichen I nstituts 4er technischen H ochschttle M tincher., no. 2, pp. 46-60, PlanschUtzll (The flow characteristics at an underflow sluice gate), Zeitschrift fur
angewtl.ndtil Mathema.#k und Jiechanik, Berlin, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 259-269, October.
Munich, 1928. . .. • . 1937. .
56. E. Scimemi: Jlilievi sperimentali sui funxionan:.ento idraulico del grandl. Impla~tl
industriali ('Experimental studies on the hydmulic function of large mdustrHl.l 73. T. Brook Benja.min: On the flow in channels whf'n rigid obstacles are. placed in Lhe
plants, L' Energia ele/lrica, MilanI), vel. 10, no. 9, pp.7Q5-723, Sep~ernber; no. 11, stream, Jlm'mal of Fluid Mechanics, L<mdorl, vol. I, p~. 2, pp. 227-248, July, 195(t
pp. B97.-924, November, 1933.
H. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: T"inter gates or. spillway I.lrests--Discharge coeffi-
57. Armin Schoklit.sch: "Hydraulic Structures," translated from the German by cients, Hydraulic Design Charts 311-1 to 311-5, WES 3-56, in "Corps of Engi-
Samuel Shulits, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1937, !leers Hydr6.ulic Design Criteria," prepared for th<l Office of the Chief of Engineers
. vol. II, pp. 891-892. . . . . . U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, r,·Iiss., 1952:
58. Leopold Escande: Expression de Ie. perte de charge a. la traversee des gnlles and revised in subsequent years.
75. Na~jr Ahmad: Mechanism of erosion below hydraulic works, Pr()c~6dings of Ihe
(E:<:pressionof the head loss in water through grills), Com:ptu rendlls de I' AcCl-
d~mie des Sciences va!. 218, pp. 179-181, Jan. 31,1944.
I Minnesota Interno.:ional Hydra.ulics Convention, J (lint meeting i;f fnlsNi.,liional
59. Leopold Escande;' 1!:turle experirnentalii de 'Ia perte de charge Ji. In. .tllra)verCsee des Associat·ion of Hydro.ulic Research and Hydmu.lics Di~i8i()n of the American Socieiy
, I grilles (Experiment!!.1 studies of head lo~s m water through gn s, ,ompws of Ci'L'il Enaineen, pp. 133...:143, A1lgust. 19.53. '
rer,dlls de l'Acad~",ie des Sciences, vol. 218"pp. 266-268, Feb. 14, 1944. 76. Doddiah Doddill.h, Mauric~ L. Albertson, and Robert Thomas: Scour from jets,
j 60. Leopold EsCl1nde: Etude theoriq,ue, et experimentl1le ?e.
la perte de charge de
l'eal.l i Ie. traversee d'une grille (Theoretical and expemnentl1l study of tho head
loss in waLer through 0.. grill), Le G~rlie civil, vol. 122, no.. Z3, pp. 188-190,
Dec. 1; and flO. 24, pp. ·197-HJ8, Dec. 15, 1945.
I!
Proceedings of the l;linnesota Ini.ErnatiDnal"Hydra.1.I.Iic,\ Convention, Jai.71t meeting of
Intematio1'..al Association of Hydraulic Resea.rch and Hydraulic6 Division of the
A.merican Society of Civil Engineers, pp. 161-169.. August, 1953.
77. Armin' Schoklitscb: "Stauraumverlandung und Kolkahwehr" ("The Silting of
•
61. David H. Kent: l\lodt"ls of hydra.'alic stnlctures, pt. I, Water Power, London, Reser,(oirs and Scour Prevention"), Springer-Verlag, Vienna, 1935.
vol. 7, no. S, pp. 301-307, August, 1955.. Gives head losses through tailrace fish 78. C. M. Camichel: Contribution a l'etud!l des veines liquides: Les indet.erminations
et les solutions multiples dB.l:Jsleurs rapports avec I'hydra.uliq,ue fiuviale (Contribu,
screens. '11 d
62. FI~yd A. Nagl~r and Albion Davis:.Experiments on discharge over Spl ways an tion to·the theory of liquid jets: Indete.--minn.cies and multiple solutions in relation
I
I
l
I.
to fI~vi!l.1 hydraulics); Revue generllle de l'hydral!lique, Pll.ris, vol. 1, !lO. 5, 'pp. 235-
242, and no. fI, pp. 293-2g9, 1935. . .
79. Irby J. Hiclccnlooper, John C. Guillou, and Ven Te Chow: HydraulIc stu~les of ~
highway bridge, University of lilinoi.s, Civil Engineerinfl Stl.die~, H ydraHhc Engt-
neering Be·ties No.4, June, 1957. . ' . PART V
80. Edward H. Taylor: Flow characteristics at rectangular open-channel Junctions,
Transactions American 8od~!y of Civil ,Engineers, voL 109, pp. 893-003, 1014.
81. Charles E. Bowers: Studies of open-channel junctions, pt. V of Hydraulic mode! UNSTEADY FLOW
studies for Whiting Field Nl1vll.l Air Station, lI>lilton, Florida, Univ6rlli!y OJ
Minnesota, Sl. Anth~my Falls Hydraulic Laboratory, Technical Paper No. 6j Serie3
B, Januaty, 1950.
The unsteady-flow problem most commol1Iy encountered in open
channels deals with translatory waves. The translatory wave is a gravity
wave that propagates in an open chal1l1el and results in appre<::iable.
displacement of the water particles in a direction parallel to the flow. l
In actual open-chi.mne] flow, the water particleslllay also oscillate. How-
ever, the effect of oscillation is insigllificant in the problems to be dis-
} cussed in this book. .
I . For purposes of analytical discussion, unsteady flow is classified into
i
!
two types, namely, gradually varied ;md rapidly varied ullsteady flow.
I
In the first type the curvature of the wave profile is mild, and the change
! in depth is graduaL The vertical component of the acceleration of the
i water particles is negligible in comparison wich the tota! acceieratiol1,
I
J
whereas the effect of channel friction is usually appreciable and should
be taken Into account in &\1 accurate 'analysis. In the second type the
curvature of the wa.ve profile is very large and so the surface of the profile
may become virtually discontinuous. 'rhe vertical acceleratioll com-
ponent, therefore, plays an important part in the phenOInenOI1, whereas
the effect of channel friction is practically negligible in comparison with
the dynamic effect of the flow, Common examples of gradually varied
unsteady flow are Hood waves and waves due to slow operation of COll-
trolling,structures, such as .the and sluices in ship locks. Exa.mples
of rapidly varied unsteady flow are surges of various kinds caused by
quick operation of controlling structures.
Gradually varied unsteady flow will be discussed in Chaps. 18 and 20,
and rapidly varied unsteady fiow in Chap. 19. 2 For extensive iniorml1-
tion on unsteudy flow in open channels, see [5J to [20J.
1 Another basic type of gra.vity wave is the oscillatory wave, in which the W8.ter
particles oscillate in an orbit Il.bout a mean position but do not display appreciable
displac~ent In the direction of wa.ve propagation.
2 Other kinds of waves !lod tides in open ohannels a.re beyond the scope of the
present work. For comprehensive inform!l.tion or-water wa.ves, see [IJ to [3!. For
references on tidal hydraulics, the reader should refer to the extensive bibliographies
prepared by t!;.e Committee on Tidal Hydraulics, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers [4J.
523 . ... \
CHAPTER 18
GRADUALLY VARIED UNSTEADY FLOW
1
18-1. Continu;ity of Unsteady Flew. The law of continuity, for
unstea,.dy flow may be established by considering the conservation of
m~ss in an infinitesimal space betw~en tWQohannel sections (Fig. 18-1).
In unsteady flow, the discharge changes with dista.nce at a rate fJQ/ax,
loilio1
wafer
surface
and the depth changes with time at a rate ay/at. r~e change in dis-
charge through space in the time dt is (aQ/ax) d$ dt. The corresponding
change in ch['.nnel storage in space is T dx (ay/iJt) dt = dx, (aA/at) dt.
Since water is incompressiblel-~~!?Il!::!~lus thech@J~'l
in stomge should be zero; that is,
SImplifying,
fJQ + 7' ay = 0 (I8-1) J
ax at
or aQ + aA = 0 (18-2) , ../
ax at
At a given section, Q V A; thus Eq. (lS-I) becomes
The above equations are all forms of the cont~'nuity equation j07' unsteady , The over-all challge in head in the infinitesimal leilgth dx may bA
flow in open channels. For. f1 rectl1ugubr channel of infinite width, treated exactly as in steady flow, except, that an additional loss dUe t~
Eq. (18-I) may be written
~~d' _ _-->I
iJq • ay _ 0 ,Acc!!!lerot1on Irne.s.Jope :$0
ax T at - (18-6)
1-' -r""~ ===--=.. - - -::"....
I hiha,qaT dX
I <IV
Q::!..~ [n~y~:::::::::-==-~
where q is the- discharge per unit width. This expression Wfl,S first, 29 e J1 oPe ,--':-z-I h,'S,dx
.:l- I Sf/'---'-
introduced by Saint-Venant. [21).
When the channel is to feed laterally with ::t. supplementary di.,chnrg.;)
.r WOle, '
of q' pel' unit length, for instance, into an area that is being flooded over a )' i . ,¥:+d(af-qZ) 1
1
dike, Eq. (18-2) may be written ' I ~.
~ISodl
Channel b
aQ
ao;
+ aA + q' = 0 (18-'1) ....L.,_ - - '_'"
z
"" • ed. Slope,s
a ---l
y+dy
-i
L L' __ y~u~~o':.:. __ ~"--.l
CJt 1 I ~ i
z+dz
'If the channel consists of a deep main section and an extensive, shallow .
side section, it l1HW be assumed that., whereas the discharge in the main
FIG. 18-2. Simplified represent,ation of energy in unsteady flow.
section is relatively very high, the side section cOli tributes only to storage
but not to discharge. Thus, Eq. (18-2) may be written
J,-----"'.... acceleration must be included. The total loss inhead will.consist of two J
aQ + aA + aA' 0 (18-8) parts: the loss due to friction hI = Sf &..and the loss due to accel r t' ~
.J
=
ax at·. at h -(lIr)(ri2tTrrl.1'+)d":" 1'h . . ealOn
-~__._Lf!~~ e Ime mdicating the loss due to acceleratim'C'
where A' is the water area of the side' section. This equation also shown as. th~ accelemNon line; its slope is Sa = (I/ql (;IV iat):="J3., t~S
energy pnllelple, the foHowing may be writt~~-'_._ - e
applies to the case of a ohannel containing groins; the water oircllIates
between the groins to guide the fiow in the main channel but not to D'V2 V 2
/L,M"'Rrr...~SH1tribute discharge.
2 + y + 2i =z+ dz +y+ dy +~ + (
d D'V2
)
+!:. a v d.
d. +S .
gat x ~
~ 18-2. Dynamic Equation for Unsteady Flow. For simplicity,! , . 2g 2g
----. (18-9)
:(f;<() .+l1tJ/y' unsteady flow will be treated like two~dill1ensional steady flow except Simplifying,
- - - - - that an additional variable for the time element will be used. This time
variable takes into account the variation in velocity of flow and accord-
d (+ +. 2{j-
.2 V
D'V2)
= -...'I, d:I; -
1 aV'" .
gat dx (18-10)
-I
ingly brings to the fore the aoceleration, ,'thich produces force and
causes additional enel~gy losses in the flow. 2 !he left side of thi~ equation represents the change in total head. The
With reference to Fig. 18-2, the force due to acceleration J V! at acting ":vo terms o~ the l'lght. are the head losses due to friction and accelera-
on a unit weight w of water is equal to (wig) avjt1t; that is, force = tion, respectively. ThIS equation states that the change in tot-'ll head
roass X acceleration. , It is assumed that the slope of the channel is i I Sin~e there are two inde end t .:., ' .
velocity head are' each comp~sed:~ ~::I;a~:ss. ~h:~~.\th:ChaIlges in depth an~in
1For rigorous analyses~of unsteady flow, see [5J, [6], [9J, [111, !l5] and [20J. and d(",P/2g) = [aCo: V '12g)/ax] dx + [a(o:V;/2 )/ ~]' y (ay/ax) tirc + (By/a,) dl
2The acceleration is positive for an increasing velocity of flow and negative for a ' does not vary with tim. az/a~ _ d-/d d g at dt. As the channel bottom
decreasing velocity of flo'Y. ' ., ~ - ~ x an az/at = 0 Fo th k' f ' 1"
these mathematical details 'tt d f . r· e sa e 0 simp IClty,
. are oml e rom the present analysis.
.. -.-,": " ~ - ,I
I
528 . UNSTJ':ADT FLOW GRA.DUALLTVAIUED UNSTEA.DY FLOW 529
I- in gra.dually varied unsteady flow depellds Oil the effects of friction and Q2. The depth of the wavefront is gradually varied from the upstreani
i acceleration. In gradually varied sten.dy flow, the chn.nge in head section to the downstream section. During a time interval t, the wave-
depends entirely on friction, provided eddy loss is negligible. front moves forward a di~tallce equal to V",t. The wave velo'city is
Dividing through by dx in Eq. (18-10) and utilizing parti<'ll diffel'entials, greater than either of th~ mean velocities V 1 and Vi' in the uniform-flow
regions. When the wavefront passell ~ver the flow in the channel, it
-'--:-= + Sf a +.i.
x
(0:2g.
V2) + .!g aatv = 0 (18-11.) takes in a steady discharge (Y", - V 1) A i at the front. Since the
"rave configuration is of stable form and coilstant volume, the front
or
av + ---
+ o:TT -::- 1 &Y Jz
+ -~ + Sf. = (I (18-12) leaves behind an equal st.eady discharge Qo = (V,. - V 2)A 2 to the
g a.1: IL8L-- 0;1-
ThL'S is the geneml dynamic (J(pwtivn 101' gr'adnally tlaried unsteady flow.
The friction slope in the equation can be evaluated by the Manning
formula, the Chezy formula, or any other suitable uniform-flow furmula.
For prisnmtic channels, i.e., for -dZ/CJX = So, Eq. (18-12) may be
written
(18-13)
The continuity and dynamic equations for gradually varied unsteady , FIG. 18-3, Monoclinal rising wave.
flow were first published by Saint-Yel1:1.ut [21,22J. The validity of these
equations has been verified by. many observations and experiments. upstream side. The steady dischlLrge Qo which flows through the wave-
_-~How~.!~12-?wing to their !!l.!~th~m!l:~~cal ~<:lln:pJ,:,.xity., e:.Xfl:.<;~ ~ntegra!ioll of front in' the upstream clirE.'ction is called the OV/3T7"un. Equating the
the equatio!!!L-i:::1!ra!lt..icalll':.. jIIJ.RQ~ibJe~ ~~~,-~ct~I:!~Ll!Pm!Qatiolls, ~ values of the steady discharge,
~~utiOl:"?~ th'U~.ID.l~ti.Q!!E!J!!~Y.~.Ql)t!tiiled by approximate sten IIJ.ethod§ Q. = (Vw ( 18-H:)
or by methods based on siIIJ.plifying assuIIJ.ptions .
. 18-3. Monoclinal Rlsing Wave. A special caSe of uilsteady now Solving for V w, (18-15)
which is nearly possible in prismatic Ch2..1111els is uniformly pTogrei1~ve
This type of flow has a stable ,"?ove profile that will not change in Since in uniform-flow
as .it moves dowl1 the channel: According to this definition, may be written
uniformly progressive flow has the following notable features: (1) the
(18-16)
successive positions of the wavefront at different times are parallel; (2)
the velocity of the wavefront, or celerity, is greater than the mean water
velocity at any section of the wave; and (3) the wave configuration travels The above equations can be used for the computation of the velocity
downstream with a constantvelocl}ty, but the mean water velocity in the of the monoclinal wave. Equation (18-15) shows that, if there is
no initial flow, that if Vl 0 and = 0, then V",= V z• If there is
cross section may vary from section to section as the hydraulic radius
and surface slope change. Of va,dons forms of wave configuration in initial flow, then V w is always than either TTl or V 2. Thiil is
I, -r }ih~.m01!f'clinal riS'in~will pc taken as a
true because the wave must move more rapidly than the water particles
I the following discussion, because such a wave can be ; ------?>-if it is to make up the volume of the wave configuration at any time.
~ In natural channels, the velocity of an assumed mOlloclinal rising
approximated to most flood mwes in ria.tural channeLs il.nd because it is
subject to simple mathematical treatment. . flood wa.ve may be d~termined by the so~called Kleitz-Seddan principle.
! The 111onoclillal rising wave (Fig. 18-3) is il. translatory wave of stable
Equation (18-16) indicates that the velocity of a monoclinalhsing wave
\ is a function of the water .area' and the discharge relationship for the
.form, that is, a uniformly progressive wave, that travelsdowl1 the channel
at constant velocity V w from an upstream region of uniform flow having 1 channel. Figure 18-4 shows a curve representing such a relationship.
'lhI V 1, and Ql to a downstream region of uniform flow having YZl Va, and
For ordinary channel sections in which. the velocity increases as the water
530 UNSTEADY FLOW GRADUALLY vAln~D UNSTEADY FLOW .531
area increases, this curve is concave upward. In the figure, tan lh = maximllmwave velocity.and the water velucity. in a prismatic channel.
QdAl = 17 1 , tall O2 = QdAz = V 2 , and tan Ow = (Ql - Q2)/(A 1 - On the basis of the Manning formula, the raLio can be shown to be 1.67,
A 2) = 17",= the slope of the line P 1P 2 • Since the curVe is concave 1.33, and 1.44, for wide rectangular, triangular, and wide parabolic
upward, it can be seen that VUI must be. greater than either V lor V 2. For cha.nnels, respectively. On the basis of the Chez;y formula, the corre-
a maximum V,., the slope of the line P1P z must be a maximum. This sponding ratios are 1.50, 1.25, and 1.33.
occurs when QI = Q2 or when the point P 2 approaches the point PI and Equations (18-17) and (18-18) apply only to small rises in flood stage,
where the wavefront has such slight slope and rise that the term dQ/dy
I
Q can appropriately be taken from the rating curve for uniform flow.
The principle o£ the above method was originally developeu, mathe- -I
0, -------- PI matically by Kleitz [27], but was discovered from actual observations by
,./ I
/17 I
/1 'j I
I, I
Seddon [28] in a strIdy of gage heights on the Mississippi and Missouri
Ri'!ers. Wilkinson [29J has described the application of the method
./ /1 L-t-Um,ting position of ~ Pz I to the Clinch· and Lower Tennessee Rivers. He conoluded that the
// I !. I I wave velocity in such natural channels can be well approximated by this
/ I ! I method. ~ He found that mid-points of rise or fall stages were best
/ I ! 1 suited for determining the velocity of an observed wave.
/
_L_
I
...,. I Pz "
!
I I
,
tori (max VJ
I 18-4. Dynamic Equation.for Uniformly Progressive Flow. In a, time
interval dt, the w!),vefront of a uniformly progressive flow (Fig. 18-3)
')A \
will travel a distance V", dt. It can be shown that,as the wave advallces, ·1
i
the velocity of flow decreases with distance at a rate -ov/ax. There-
fore, the change in velocity in dt is dV = - V,. dt (aV lax) . . Using partial (
differentials, av/at = -VwcaV/CIx). .
FIG. 18-4.. Graphical interpretation of water area, discharge, allti velocity relations in
IDonodinal rising wave. . .
An equ:atiOll similar to Eq. (18-14) can be l.vritten for the general case
of uniformly progressive flow; that. is, Q. = (V", - Tf)A. Differentiat-
I
ing thiR equation with respect to x, av/ax =' CQo/AD)(ay/Clx).
the slope of the secant P 1P 2 approaches the slope of the tangent at point Substituting the above expressions for ov/at and all'/ih:, respectively,
PI as a limit. Therefore, in Eq; (18-13), assuming a = 1, and simplifying, By/aJ: IO!' the flow in a
dQ prismatic channel is
(V"')m~~ = dA (18-17)
ay = 8 0 - Sf j
(18-19)
Since dA = T dy, the above equation becomes
dX 1 - Q.Z/gA2D I
Since Sf = Q2/K2 = YZA2/K2 = (V",A - Qo)2/K2, Eq. (18-19) be-
(18-18) comes
By 8 0 . - (VtDA - Q.P/J(2
(18-20) .
where dQ/dy is the slope of the rating curve of the channel. If the top ~ ax= l-QNgA2D
!
width of the channel section is known, the maximum velocity can be
computed by this equation. Likewise, if the maximum velocity is
i This is the dynamic eq·ttation for uniformly progn;ssive ftowin a p.1'ili-
! malic channel. Since the flow is unsteadY;-Uiepositfon of the wave
known, the average width of the channel can be determined. The term • prOftl€ischanging constantly, but the shape of the profile at ariy instant
d!)Jdy at a given stage rna;: be computed from the mean slope of the 1I remains the same. Equation (18-20), therefore, describes a "snapshot ':'
..!-ating_curves at gaging stations in the reach under col1sicieratiojl. The
maximum velocity 17,. can. be determined from the distance and time of i view of the profile at any instant. For wide rectangularchannels J
the equation can he further simplified and becomes mathematically
the wave travel between th!:.l stations. - . -
integrable. It should be noted that ay/ax represents the insta.ntaneous
• Equation(18-18) may also be used to determine the ratio bet'iveen the surface slope of the wave profile. At a. given instant of time, this is
532 UNSTEADY FLOW
GRADUALLY YA.RdllD UNSTEADY FLew 533
the same as the permanent slope dy / dx and hence: may also be expressed
by the latter. . In the equation, the normal discharge Q" can be determined from the
There
. is an lLpparent
. similarity
.' betwee~ (18' -'10)
., and th e 'd' .
yna.mIC rating cui've at the station, and other quantities can be measured in the
e~ll~tr~n for steLl,dy varied flow [say, (9-16) with a = I}. This field. A similar. equation has been developed empirically by Jones [30J
slllilanty can, be exp:ained as follows. Imagine that an observer on the and is used widely for correcting the normal discharge to obtain the true
~ha.unel ban1l: ,IS l'~nnm.glljter the uniformly progressive flow of Fig. 18-3 discharge in a river when the stage is changing. In the Jones formula,
In the same dn'ectwn and at the same velocity, V., as the "mvefront. H~ however, the wave velocity .in Eq. (18-24) is l;eplaced by the surface
will see 11 picture of a stead v flow velocity, .which is much easier to determine but lower than the hue wave
like that ill Fig. 18-5; the "water velocity. A more exact equation than Eq, (18-24) may be obtained from
surfa~e will appeilr statioD.ary .to Eq, (18-21) by letting dy/dx -j/V" and solving for Q. However, the
him,and the flow will. show a derivation and the resulting form of the equation are too complicated for
discharge Qc and a veloc- practi.!l1l purposes.
ity ,Vw Y nt every point along 18-5. Wave Profile of Uniformly Progressive Flow. The wave profile
the channel. Therefore, if Qo is of uniformly flow can be easily der~ved for wide rect~1ng1.llar
FIG. 18-5. View appearil\g to the observar .regarded as a steady dischaq,~e,
channels by using the Chezy formula. For the unit width of a wide
who follows the wavefront of a uniformly the steady-v!l.ried-flow equation rectangular channel, A R D = y. By the Chezy formula, ](2 =
progreJ;slve flow, 02y3. Substituting these expressions in Eq. (18-20), the slope at any
can be applied directly 'to this
. . uniformly progressive flow except point on the wave profile at a given instant of time may be expressed as
t.~at the dIscharge used for computmg the frictional slope should be set (V",y - Q.)2/0as o
equal to .VwA ~ Qo. This discharge is responsible for the frictional loss. = So 1"
y
y3 - QNg
(18-25)
The dlscha~ge [~t any section of a uniformly progressive flow is Q =
VlOA - Q.. ~ hl1s, Q. Vwi! - Q, ll.nd Eq. (18~20) beco:Q:les Whendy/dx O,theaboveequationgivesy 3 - (V",y - Q.)2/02S 0 0
This is a cubic equation in y; the nature orits three roots may be deter-
mined by a discriminant ~.l The equation ',~ill give three different real
(18-21)
roots if ~ > 0; three real roots, two of them alike, if ~ = 0; and one real
~f the velocity i~ very low, so that the second te~ of the denominator root and two imaginary roots if ~ < O. It can be shown that t.he third
v:hlCh covers the velocity-head. effect, can be neglected, the above eaua~
tlOn may be written •
. case will produce no possible wave profiles and that the second is a special
case of the first. For A > OJ the cubic equation may be written
(y -: Yl)(Y y~)(y - Va) = 0, where the two positive roots Yl and Y2
dy
. (18-22) are, respectively, the final and initial ncrm.aldepths to which the wave
dx
profiles are asymptotic~ The third root can be found to be v. = Q~2/
02S oYlY 'l.. Since Y3 is. not asymptotic to any real branch of the wave
profile, it has no physical significance.
Q = Q" (18-23) When dyjdz = r;o, Eq. (18-25) gives y = vQ,,2/u = !Ie. This is
called the OI.lBn'Un critical depth, or the critical depth corresponding to a
, L~t j represen~ the ratf'l of rise in the water surfJ).ce at a given channel steady discharge equal to the overrun. Therefore, the wave profile. is
,sectIOn,: 1?en, J = V,,:dy/dx, or dy/dx -JJT1... Substitutin this vertical !at the overrun-critical-depth line. .
expressIon 111 Eq. (18-23), . g Substituting y.3for Q,zjg and (y.- Yl)(Y - Y2)(y '- Ya) for the numer-
i ator in Eq. (18-25) and solving for x,
,
:Q = Q",
'" 1
(18-24) I
,
X '7 -
So
1 f ,
":
;
,;3 - y 3
< dy
(y - Yt)(Y - yz)(y - Ya) .
I
,
+ 0 1 !: (18-26)
This equation can be used t~ compute approximatblY the true discharge . !
of .an unsteady flow at 13. given station, provided the velocity is low. 1 The equa.tion can be written in. the form y' + cIY~ + elY +' Ila == O. 'l:'hen,
11 = 18c'f'c. 4Cl"C, + C)IC~I - 4c 2' '-'27c ....
534 UNSTEADY FLOW GRADUALLY VARIED UNSTEADY FL01V 535
where C l is an integration constant. With the given values of V w , Qo, voir into a dry 'wide rectangular channel. Use I,he Manning formula for expressing
the velocity of uniform :t!o\v. ,
So, a.nd C, thi$ equation represents a number of possible wave pro1iles.
Solution. In this case the wavefront moves in a steeply inclined wall of water whose
For a monoclinal rising wave having an initial stageYl and a. final stage profile is apparently uncilanging as long 'as 'the channel conditions remain fixed and
Y2, the possible profiles are shown ill Fig. 18-6 for Yc < Y2 and Yc > 1/2. the source .of supply is constant. Therefore, this can be considered a special case of
Theoretically, in the case Yc < Y2, the wavefront extends an infinite uniformly progressive flow, known specifics-lly as t.he roll wave in which A! 0 -I
distance downstream, since the wave profile is asymptotic to the down-: Vz = 0, Q" = 0, and V .. "" v', c -,/ii~s;. Subs~itutin:g the ~:alues of Qo alld of
V wand K = CA "/11 ill Eq. (18-20),
stream stage. This may seem unreasonable, because the wave actually
starts at a finite time and tra.vels with a finite velocity. The explanation
is that the wave profile descdhed above will become stable only after
dy
Ja: == S. (
1 (18-21)
.1r
LetYl ;, Y" which is the norm!!.l depth at the crest of the W/l,ve, where the flow is
pr:l.ctically uniform. Solve Eq. (18-27) for dx; then
1 ) d (18-28)
1 V/Y. Y
, . Choose the tip of the wavefront, whe.·e x = 0 and y = 0, as the origin; and integrate
. the above equation; the length of the wave profile from the wavefront to the s~cti()n of
de;>th '!/ is
x = .!.
S. }O
r (1 _ =---,1'---,-~)'"
1/
1 V/'.}.
dy (18-29) .
the wave attain,s equilibrium. The first traces of the wave are trans-
mitted downstream by dynamic propaga.tion at a velocity V 2 + v'YiJ'lJ Rhine :River at the German-Swiss frontier. By a finite-difference graphical calcula-
which is much greater than the fin1ll wave velocity V". By this actiol1 tion of the char>'Lcturislic equations (Art. 20-2) developed by Craya (33], Re was able
the downstream end of an actual wave will approach the theoretic:),} to compute the fiov.' t.o be expeded from the destruction of 11 do.m for one specific
asymptotic form vel'y rapidly. If the velocity. V,. is greater than ~ and of Chezy's resistance fa,rtQr. -rul~lud;:r the p;es;;nce
+
V 2 Vfiiiz, it is evidently impossible for the wavefront to extend an of some water initially below the dam, cau~ing the formation of a bore in his problem.
In 1952, Levin [341 described I!. solu~ion of the problem by a graphical method~ In
infinite distance downstream. This is the case 'when Yc > Y2. The the S!l.rtle year, Dressler [35] presented a solution in which the resistance effect was
downstream end of the wave is terminated with an abrupt front which in evaluat€d by the Chezy formula.. This solution gives good agreement with observed
theory should cross the overrun-critical-depth line vertically .. The data exceptin the region near the tip of the wavefront. Accordingly, it is believed
front is essentially a rapidly varied ullstea,dy flo,;', known specifically as that the Chezy formula may not be adequate for application to bighly unsteady flow
the hydraulic bOr'e (Art. 19-2). or to t,he condition of turblJlence in the tip region. In 1953, Dressler and Whitham
[36J improved the solution by a more rigorous analysis of the, flQW at the tip region.
Example 18-1. Determine the wave profile of the nood generated by the failure of Dressler J36) &lso developed a method of analyzing the flow during the very small
a dam. 1 The failUre causes a sudden release of the. impOunding water from i!.s reser- time interval after motion begins. , .
Experimental data of the darn-breaking problem are few, notably the early Ilxpcri-
I This is the so-called dam-break problem, which is well-known in hydra,ulics. In ment,s made by SSholditsh [37] and Egui:3.zaroff [SS] and the later coues by the U.S.
1892, Ritter [31) offered· the first solu~loll of the problem, using thea.pproximate National Bureau of Standa.rds [36). . ,
Saint-Venimt equation but ignoring the effects of the frictional and turbulence resist· A problem similar ~o that of dam breaking deals with the flow due to sudden lifting
ance to the unsteady flow. Consequently, this unrealistic classical solution was not of Ii'. sluice gate. A theoretical analysis of the wave profiles t)lUS developed was made
8upportedby the experimental findings and more practics.l analyses had to be sought. by Pohle [39) in 1950, assuming a. velocity potential flow in Lagrangian coordinates.
In 19B, Forchheimel" [5, pp. 267-271\ presented a ~ummary of most of the previous Experiments on this problem aiso were made at the National Bureau of Standards.
work on this problem, including attem pts to include the'resistance effects. A compB,risOD. of the theories and experiments on both problems WllS preSented by
Toward the end of World War n, Re[32) was instructed by the Allied Command I?ressler [36J ill 1954. A comprehensive treatment of the dam-breaking problem along
to study the problem in anticipation of possible destructiQn of the large da.ms on the hnes worked out by Pohle was giver. by Stoker [5, pp. 513-522j in 1951.
I.
536 UNSTEADY FLOW GRADUALLY VARIED UNS'l'EADY FLOW 537
where z = V/V". This. equation Fepresents the required profile of the ron
wave due Example 18~3. Determine the wa.ve velocity and prome of a uniformly progressive
10 failure of the If the upstream supply of flow is limited, the profile 'of the
d;lIll.1 flow in a. wide open channel if YI = 25 ft, Y. = 10 ft, Qhezy's C = 100, and So =
wl1ve prnpB.gating ujlstream will be deseribed in Example 19-5, 0.0004.
Example 18-2. Determine the profile of the monoclinal rising wave in a wide Solu.tion. By the Chazy formula a.nd Eq. (18-15), V., = 12.45 fps. By Eq.
recta.ngular channel. The wave is lI.S~umed to move with a constant velocity with (18-14), Q, = 61.25 cis per unit width. Since the discriminant e. is positive, the
the nl!l.ximum stage unchanged over a long' period of time. . numerator of Eq. (18-25) has three rea! roots, which are Vi = 25, y. = 10, and
a
So/tllion; J'or unit width of the wide rectangular channel, Al = 111 and A, ~ y •. y, = 61.25 i /(100·X 0.0004 X 25 X 10) = 3.76. Tht; overrun critical depth y" =
Using the Chezy formula, V, = C Vy 1S0 !Lnd V, = C vY;S~. Substituting these ..y61.25~/32.2 = 4.89 ft. Since y. < Y" no hydraulic bore will be formed. Sub-
expressiCins in Eq, (18-15) and simplifying, stituting all known values in Eq. (18-26), .
where
Vw = )T,G
G = 1 - (Yl/y.)~2
(18-31)
:1)=
1
0.0004
f y' - 116.7 d
(y _ 25)(y _ lO)(y _ 3.76) . Y + C1 (18-40)
1 - yJ/y. (18-32)
Expmssed in partial fractions,
By Eq, (18-15), replacing Al and V l by A and V, respectively, for any given section
V" =
A,V,--AV
Ax - A (18-33)
x = _1_
0.0001
f (1 -
.
48.68 _ 9.437 _ 0.4~9'1)
25 - Y y -10 Y - 3.76
dy + C1 (18-41)
. i
I
! By integration,
Eliminating V w from Eqs. (18-31) and (18 e33) and solving for V,
i 1 [ (25 - y) ••.•• ] '
Gz
V= ( G - - - - V. 1) (18-34)
i x = 0.0004 Y + In (y _ 10)9.431(y _ 3.76)',<19' T CI (18-42)
\
Taking the origin at x= 0, y = 24, Eq. (18-42) gives C1 = 5,840, ThB wave profile
where Z = y/y" The wave profile under consideration is long and flat; hence, the by t.hi.s equat,ion is plott.ed as shown in Fig. 18-6a.
mean velocity V will change very slowly with respect to both time t and distance x,
Thus, aT';ax = 0 and DV IB/ = O. From Eq. (18-13), using ciifferentials, 18-6. Wave Propagation. Before further discussions of unsteady
dy flow, it seems pertinent to discuss the propagation oj gravity., wa~
dx = So - Sf (18-35)
~___--",,-;,-Channe}s. For this purpose, a single form of gravity wave, known as the'
Since V = C vYS; and V. = C Vy,S" Eq. (18-34) givRs ". c' solitary wave, will be deacribed. .
The solitarywav8 was first observed a.!!QjpvesiiK~ted experimentally
S, = ~
C'y
= S,z (G _ g -z !)' (18-36) by Russell [41].1 It has a simple form (Fig. 18-7), consisting wholly of
. an elevation without any associated trough or depression what.ever. The
Substituting this equntion fGr Sf in Eq. (18-35), wave lies entirely abOVe the normal water SlU'face and moves smoothly
G - 1)' and quietly without; turbulence at any place along its profile. In a
dy
dx =
So ( .
So - ~- G - -z 08-37) ~_>lrictionless ~ann~.!~e wave can travel an infinite distance without
or dx=Y2{I+
So
(GZ,-G+l)"
(% ..,.. 1)[.' - \G' - l)z (G _ 1)'J +
}d.U
(18-38) change of shape or velocity, but in an actual channel the height of the
By integration, wave is gradually reduced by the effects of friction, Such a wave can be
produced in E. laboratory by a sudden horizontal displacement of the gate
_ v, { I ln (G -- 1)'(2G + 1) . in the channel (Fig. 18-7) or by other means .•,In natu!:.,e, such waves
x-S; z+3_za (l-z) 2(3-2G) -In{.'-(G'-I)z+(G--,I)·j
.have been generated by earthquakes and have been obserye~ to tra;:;l
I' _ (G- 1)'[(2G' + I)(G + 1) -4J In 2z - (G' - 1) - (G - 1) V(G + 1)" - 4} across oceens.~=q
+ I)' - 4 - (G2 - 1) + (G - i) v(G + 1)'
I + G,
2(3 - 20) V(G 2. - ;I
(18-39)"
Consider a solitary wave, traveling to the right in a rectangular
chatrilel, with celerity.c (Fig. 18-7a). An observer on the shore running
where z = vlv" 11> is the depth at high stage, V is the depth at any section along the along with the wave crest at a velocity equal to the (',elerity will see a
I wave profile, G i~ defined .by Eq. (18·32), Yl is the depth at low stage, and C1 is a con-
stant tha.t call be det.ernuned from the condition that x = 0 when Y = (YI
1 For a. refined· solution of this problem, see [36J.
+
y.)/2,. I It was fu'st discovered by Russell in 1834. The mathemn.t,ical analysis of the
solitary wave was originally wo,kec! out jndependently by Boussinesq [42J and
Rayleigh [43]. A complete account of the analysis can be found in Lamb [3, pp. 423-
* Derivation of this equation was originally given by Moots [40]. ·126].
I
I
--I
538 UNSTEADY FLOW GRADUALLY. VAlUED UNSTEADY FLOW 539
pictul'e of steady flow (Fig. 18-7b) in which the wave appears to stand the celerity of a solitary wave in a rectangular channel is
still while the flow moves at a velocity equal to c in magnitude. Neglect-
ing friction and assuming a small slope and a = 1 at all sections, the C =Vg(y + h) (18-48)
energy equation between the tlormal section of the flow and the section According to a Gompleteanalysis described byLamb [3, pp. 423-426J,
a more accurate equation for gravity waves in general, but stlll assuming
small heights, is
foX t h 21ry j
c \j21r an T (18-49) ..l
1
~ y ~.
>;7////9///)#/9/////)///
where A is the wavelength from crest to crest. This equ.,tion is generally
(b) known as the c.elerity equation in honor of its originator [47j. In
FIG. 18-7. Generation of asotitary WaNe. (a) Unsteadj- flow; (b) the flow that
appears steady to un observer following the wave crest.
Note that thb celerity represented byEq. (18-47) is identical with the ods suggested by Thomas [15] will be discussed. briefly. They are th~
critical velocity of the flo;~. (1-10)].; The fiow under consider-\Ltion is, . method oJ finite incre"!-e.h~ (called the complete method by Thomas) and
therefore, subcl'iticaL '¥) . . '-themethOd o{tl'ial and e;;O'I'. . '
When the velocity of the water is equal to the celerity, the wavefronts . By the method of finite increments, a reotangular channel is diyided
in the l+pstream direction ILre stationary, or V", = 0, and' those in the into reaches of
finite length L:.:t, The time interval under consideration
downstream direction have a velocity equal to V w' = 2c. This wa.ve
pattern is showl{ in Fig. lS~8c. The flow is, app~relltlYl criticaL.
When the velocity of the water'is greater than the cel<;1rity, the waves
will travel downstream only. This wave pattern is show11111 Fig. 18-8d.
The flo"r is, apparently, supercriticaL The lines tangent to the wa.ve-
fronts lie at an angle to the original direction of flow. The angle fJ is the
wave angle, and its magnitude is given by (16-15), 01' .
Sill fJ = ~_ v~ ~ ~ (18-52)
1.0 equilibrium (the area below the curve). Therefore, the equi-
I ~
.....
0'
0.5
/ D. = detention in f1;3 at equilibrium
It was found empirically that this could be expressed in general
~
CT
0.4 I--- / J by
0.3 I --- '---+~
I D.= KLq.~3 (I 8-(2)
0.2
,/ I Actually, the exponent was found to vary from about 0.2 for
fJ
very smooth pavement to nearly 0.4 for turf. The value of J(
0.1
/ _. depends on the rainfall intensity i, the slope of i3urfnce 8, and a
V
o ..,/ I roughness facto!: c; that is,
o 0.1. 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
~
where q
.
=
Ij =
q = .
utanh"' lmm-
+1 t ]
(uK) lim 60 (18-66)
. J
- 1,020 VS
K - .IcL (18-67)
I
UNSTEADY FLOW GRADUALLY VAIU);;P UNSTEADY FLOW 549
, '
increru;e in discharge, aiter which the curve drops rapidly. This inorease in discharge
TABLE 18·1. Com'UTA't'ION OF TR.lll HYDROGRAI'H OF A.N OvERLAND FLOW
is due to the fact that during rainfall the amount of'detention on the; payement is
grea ter than the amount required to cause }he snme discharge after rainfall has ceased.
For i = OJ Eq. (18-6.3) gives K == 0.041 and Eq, (18-62) gives D~ = 0.434 ft·. The
excess detention is, therefore, 0.515 0.434 = 0.081 ft·, discharging at'a rate equal
1 0,0002 to or greater than q, ~ 0.00315 da. The length of time ~ required to discharge the
I >, 2'.00 ' 0,367 0,30 0,0010 ;,xcess is, therefore, 0.081/0:00315 26 aee or 0.43 min. Accordingly, the begin-
2.50 0,458 0,48 0,0015 ning point of the actual ourve is 10 + 0.43 = 10.43 min; at this time /]
3.00 0.550 0.65 0.0021 0.00316 cfs and the detention 0,434, ft'. The recession time Of the hydrograph
4.00· 0.733 CQ5 0.0027 (Fig. 18-12) caJl eMily bl) computed by Eq. (18-64).
5,00
5.45
0.917
,1.000
°0.97
,[)4 0.0030
0.0031
6.00 1.00 0.0032 PROBLEMS
7.00 1.00 0.0032
8.00 1.00 0.0032 18-1. Assuming that the flow condition does not change with time, derive from
9.00 1.00 0.0032 Eqs. (I8-1) and (18-13) the continuity and dynamic equations for gradually yaried
10.00 LOO 0.0032 steady flow in prismatic channels.· ,
10.43 1.00 0.0032 18-2. Show that the overrun of a mon:lclinal rising wave may be e)(pres~ed 118
1O.9l 0.60 0.21 i 0.48 0.0019
11 40 0.40 0.42 0.97 0,0013 Q. (18-69)
11 ,86 0.30 0.02 1.43 0.0009
12,64 .
020 0.£'0 2,21 0.0006
,
14.57 18-3. Show that the overrun Md velocity of a Inonocliual rising Waye iu a wide
0.10 1.80 4.14 0,0003
rectangular challnel of uDit width may be expressed, respectively, 8.8
Solulion. The given dat,a. are L = 72 ft, S = 0.005, i 1.89 in.,/hr, and the total (18-7Q)
10 lnin. Since 1.89 X 72 < 500, the Izzard method I\,pplies. For smooth asphalt
pavement, C = 0.007.
and (18-71)
,By tbe equations oHhe Izzard method, th" constants are c0l!'puted as g, = 0.00315,
K = 0.Oi8:', D, = 0.515, and t; = 5.'15. The comput.ati()ll of the rising curve pf the
hydrograph is shown ill Table 18-1 and in ]"1g. 18-12, The value of qlg. for the corre- where 'C is the Chezy resistance factor.
sponding value of tit, is obtained from the dimensionless hycirograph (Fig. 18-10). 18-4. On the 333-mile reach of the lVlisBouri River below Kansas City, Seddon
At.t = i, = 5.45 min, the discharge q= 0.97'1. = 0.0031 cf~ per unit width of the found that an average rating curve and ve!.ocity in miles per day can be expressed as
pavenlen~. IIen"eforth, the discharge is assumed to reach the full value of q. up to Q. = 0.15(1.17y + 19)' and V" = 70 + 3.27y, respectively. Show tha.t the average
t = lOmm. ' top width of the channel in this reach can be elCprCSlled as T = 5.62(y + 16.3PI
When the minbll ee:J.ses at 10 min, it will be noted that there is a. momenta.ry , ,(y + 21.4), and construct the' average shape of .the channel section. '
18-5. On the basis of the Manning formula., determine the ratio of the maximum
0.004
wave velocity to the water velocity of a mOMclin!l.1 rising wave in (a) a wi~e rectangu-
lar channels (b) a triangular channel, and (e) a wide parabolic channel. '
.,
Q,E
., ,.
....
..
'- r:;
.. 0.003
:v
1 I !
ii
;18-6. Solve the above problem on the ba.sis of the Ch';zy formula.
18-7. 'Using the Manning formula, derive an expression for the wave profile of the
-u
.E'O
0"-
I
VI II I I
I
'I
I
, I
Hood due to failure of a d a m . , ' .
18-8. Given So ~ 0.0004 and Yn ~ 25 ft, plot the profile of the roll w~ve derived
'II 0.002 jn Example 18-1. '
~~
0'0
.c ,-
u,]t
~~ .~ 0.001 II i
I
\.
!
I 18-9. Solve the above problem, using the'iestllt of Prob. 18-7 for thCl
and comp",re the result with that obtained above. .
profile,
18-10. Flot :the wave profile derived in Ex~mple 1$-2, when Vi = 10 ft, it. "'" 25 ft,
V: i Nt
Dr:;
I I "-
'"
0 'L
0 2:
!
4 6 6 .10 12 4 16 I and S. "" O.OOp4.·. , . i
18-11. SolVl! Example 18-3 for Y. - 0, 2, 5, aod 15 ft, and shoW that the surface'
slope of the vni.ve configuration decreases wi~h the decrease of the initial stage Y2.
la-l~. Solve Example 18-3 if S. = 0.004. :
FtCl. 18-12. Hydrograph of ,an overland floW.
! 18-13. Solve ExAmple 18-3 if S. = 0.06. i
I
I
55,0 UNSTEADY FLOW GRADUALLY VARIED UNSTEADY FLOW 551
IS-14. The initinl and final depths of a. monoclinal flood wave are .10 ft and 25 ft, 13. D. N. Dietz: A new method for calculating the conduct of translation w>tves in
respectively. Given C = 100 and S. ='0.0004, determine the percentage inel'eases prismaticcannls, PhI/sica, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. '177--1\)5, February, 1941.
in the true'dischHrgc over the normal discharge at depths of 15 and 20 ft. 14. Giulio Supino: Sur la propagation des ondes dans les Cll.naUl( (Or,. the propaga.tion
18-15. Compute the Reyn<:>lds number of the discharge from the pavement of waves in channels), Revua !len~"'ale de l'hydra:uliquB, Paris, vol. 5, no. 29, pp.
described in EXllmple 18-4, aud show that the 1I.0\V laminar. The discharge immedi- 260-262, 1939. ' , .
ately a.fter the rainfnll ceasE'S is assumed to increase momentarfly about 10 %. 15. Ha.rold A. Thomas: The hydraulics of flood movements in rivers, Carnegie Inslitute
18-1S. Solve Example 18-4 if the rainfall is 3.78 in./hr. of Tecknology, Engineering B1Lllelin, 1934; reprinted in 1936 and 1937.
1B-17. Solve E:<ample 18-4 if the rainfall is 1.89 in./br for the first 2 min and then
inl:'/"ea.ses to 3,78 in.jhr for the remaining 8 min. In solVIng this problem, it is nelles-
16, L. Cagniard: Hydrodynamiqt1e fiuviale: Regimes variables (Fluvial hydrQdy- "1
naIllic~: Variable regimes), ReVILe gtnerale de I 'hlldrG'U.iiql1e, Paris, vol. 3, no. 15,
sary 'to convert the first 2 min to il. time., say to, such that rainfs!! at 3.78 in./hr lasting May-June, 1937,
/0 min would have built up the same absolute volume of <letention !J.S was built up in 17, M:;.sse: D~ {ntumescenl~es dans lea torrents (Tra.nslatory W!l.ves in torrents),
Z min at 1.89 in./ill'. The computation of the hydrograpb alter 2 min deals simply Revue iJdnerale de l'hydrGu1iqlle, Puris, vol. 3, no. 18, pp. 305-305, 1937.
wittl a const.ant rainfall int,ensity of 3.78 in./hr lasting I, + 8 min. 18. Ph. Deymi{j: Propa.gaLion d'une intumescence allongee (Propagation of a grn.du-
18-1B. In an airfield, .0. strip of turfed area is 510 ft long and has a slope of O.g %. aUy varied translatory wave), RevM genb:ale iie l'hydrauliq!Le, Pal:.is, vol. 1-2, no. 3,
Construl:'t the hydrograph of the overland flow on the are" due to ll. rainfall excess of pp. 138-142,1935-1936,
4.35 in,jhr lasting 10 min. For turfed area, assume c = 0.32 in the Hort<J/l equation. 19. Pierre Masse: L'amortisMment de." intumescences (The damping of tmnsla.torr 'f
waves), Revue gen~T!ll.e de l'hydrauliq!L6, Paris, voL 1-2, no. 6, pp: 300-308, 1935- .1
REFERENCES 1936.
by Hunter Rouse, John Wiley &. Sons,Inc., New York, 1950, pp. :635-710.
'
11. Bruc.e R. Gilcrest: Flood routing, ·chap. X in "Engineering Hydr,a.ulics," edited
12. Giulio, Supino: SUf I'amortissement:des iI!tumescences dans les canaux: (On the
I 28. James A., Seddon: River hydraulica, Transactions, A meriron Sociely oj Civil
E111linecrs, vol. 43, pp. 179-229, 1900,
29. J. H. Wilkinspn: Translatory waves in natural channels,
Socidy oj Civil EnginCer8, voL 110, pp. 1203-1225, 1945.
American.
'
damping of translatory waves in channels), R;wue ge-Mrole de I'h:ydraulique,
vol. 18, no, 57; pp. 144.,.147, 1950. I 30. Benjamin E. Jones: A method for COITBctio.g river discharge for !J. changing stage
U.S. Geological Survey, Wat;:r Supply Paper 375 (e), 1916, pp. 117-130. " ./
I
11 I
552 UNSTEADY FLOW
GRADUALLY YARIED UNSTEADY .FLOW
1
(,
553
31. A. Ritter: Die FortpfianzlIng der Wa.sserwellen (Propagation?f waves), Zeitschrift
clc.~ Verm:ms, d,'u/,scher Ingenieure, vol. 36, no. 33, pp. 947-954, Aug. 13, 1892.
!! Boussinesq, dans sa tiu\orie du mouvement gj'aduellement varie des Iluic\es
(Experiments on wave,propagation in torrential flow and their confirmation or
32. R. Re: Etu~le du lacher instantane d'une ret.enue d'eau dans un canal 'par la
the BOllssinesq equations for gradually varied flow), Comptes rendus des s~ances de
jJ met'hocle graphique (Study of the instantaneous relea,se of water in a reservoir to
1\ canai by the graphical method), La HOl,ille blanche, Grenobl~, 1st yr., no. 3,
pp.181-~187, NIay, 1946. ' .
I' Academie des Sciences, vol. 100,pp. 1492-1494., June 15, 1885.
47. Sir George Biddle Airy: Tides and waves, "Encyclopaedia Metropolitana,"
London, 1845, pp_ 24F396.
83. A Craya: Calcul graphique des regimes variables dans les canaux (Graphical 48. Yuichi Iwagaki: Theory of flow on road surface, Memoirs of Ihe Faculty of Engi-
calculation of variable flow:-regimes in open channels), La Houille blanche, Gre-
neering, '[(yoto University, Japan, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 13g-147, July, 1951.
'noble, 1st yr., no. 1, pp. 1\)-38, November, 1945; no. 2, pp. 117-130" March, 1946. 49. Y. Iwagaki and T. Sueishi: Approximate method for culoula.tion of llost.eac\y flo\\"
34. Leon Le;"in: Mouvement non permanent sur les COUrs d'eau a la suite de rupture
in open channels with lateral flow, Proceedings, 4th Japan National Congressfo'}"
de bllrrage (Unsteadyfic.w in channels following, the rupture of dam), Revlle Applied ivlechanics, pp. 235-240, March, 1954.
glne.rale de l'hydrmdiqlle, Paris, vol. 18, no. 72, pp. 297-315, November-December, 50. Yuicni hvagaki and Tomit,aro Sueishi: On the unsteady flow in open channels with
1952.
uniforIn lateral inflow (in Japanese), Proceedings, fapan Society of Cillil Engineers,
35. Robert F. Dressler: Bydraulic resistance effect upon th~ dam-break functions,
Tokyo, vol. 39, no. 11, pp. 575-583, November, 1954. .
paper 2356, Jotmwl of Research, U.S. National BW'ea,t: of Slandard.~, vol. 49, DO. 3, 5J. Y,uichi Iwagaki and Takuma TakasM: On the effects of rainfall and drainage
pp. 217-225, September, 1952.
basin charactel'iBtics on runoff .fela~ion (in Japanese), Proceedings, 5th Anniversary
36. Robert F. Dressler: Comparison of theories a.nd' experiments for the hydl"Jl.ulic
of the Establishment of the Disaster Prevention ResearcH InsW"te, EYoto University,
d~m-hrep_k wave, Asse11lbl~e g~n~raIB de Rome, 1954, International A.~_qociat(on (If
I{yoto,Japan, pp. 1,91-200, November, 1956.
Scientific Hydrology, Plibliroii011. No~ 38, voL 3, pp. 319-328, 1954. 52. Carl F. Izzard: Hy.draulics of runoff from developed surfaces, Proceedings of the
37. A. Schoklitsch,: Uber Dambruchwellen (On ,"aves produced by broken dams),
iJ6th Annllal Meeting of the Highway Research Board, vol. 26, pp. 129-146, Decem-
SI{:Z1mgsberu:hte, l1f athematisch-nat'lrwissenschaftliche Klasse, Akademie der J,Vis- ber, 1946.
senschajlen'in Wien, vol. 126, pt. !la, pp. 1489-1514, Vienna, H1l7. 53. Robert E. Horton: The interpretation and application of runoff plot experiments
38. 1. B. Eguiazaroff: Regulation of the water level in the reaches of canalized rivers
with reference to soil erosion problems, Proceedings, Soil Science Society of Am.erica,
and regulation of the flow b.elow the last lock dam according to whether the water vol. 3, pp. 840-349, 1938.
power is or is not lIsed, Report no, 8, in Inland Navigation, 2d question, sec. 1, 54. Gail A. Hathaway: Design of drainage facilities, in Military airfields: A sympo.
16th 1IltemMionai Cong1'ess of NaviGation, Brussels, 1935.
sium, Transactions, American Socie.ty of Civil Engineer!!, vol. HO, pp.' 697-733
39. Frederick V, Pohle,: Motion of wave due t,Q breaking of E< dam and related prob- 1945.
lems, paper No.8 in Symposium on gravity waves, U.S. National Bureau of
SIa:lldal'di;, Circular 521, 1952, pp. 47-53 ..
40. EllIler E. Moots: A study in flood waves, University of Iowa, Studies in Engi-
neering, Bulletin 14, 1938. '
41. J. Scott Russell: Heoort on waves, R~ort of the British Association for the Advallce-
meni of Science, 1844, liP: 311-3g0. .
42. J. V. Boussinesq: Sur Ie mouvement permanent va.rie de.l'eau dans les. tuyaux ~e
conduite et dans les canb.UX decouverts (On the steady varied flow of water In
conduits and open channels), Comptes rendlls des s~ances de I' AcadMnie des Sciences,
vol. 73, pp. 101-105, 1871.
43. Lord Rayleigh: On waves, The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Ph.:losophical
M[!~adne and Jot/rnai of SC1:ence, ser. 5, vol. 1, pp. 257-279, April, 1876.
44. A. J. C. Barre de Saint-Venant: D~mon5traliori elementaire de Ill. formule de
l. ") propagation d'une onde ou d'une intumescence dans un cana.l prismatique; e~
remarques sur les propagatiollS du son et ,de la lumiere, sur les ressauts,: ainsi que
SlIT Ill. distinctiori des rivieres et d~s torrents (Elementary demonstratIOn of the
propagation formula for a wave or a translat.ory wave iii. a prismatic channel; and
remarks on the propagation of sound and light, on hydraulic jumps, and also on
the'distinction between rivers ,and torrents), Comptes rendus des sB(lnCes de l' Aca-
d~mic d~1i Scienceli, vol. 71, pp. 186-195, July 18, 1870.
45. Joseph L. de Lagrange: "Mecanique analytique" (" A~alytical Mechanics"),
Paris, 1788, pt. 2, sec. II, art. 2, p. 192. , '
46. H. BiJ.zin: Experiences sur la'propagation des ondes Ie long d'un cours d'eau tor-
)
rentueux, et confirmation par ces experiences des formules donnees par M.
RA.PIDLY V.ARIED UNSTEADY FLOW
555
Solying Eq. (18-15) for V 2,
or V",
19-1. Uniformly ProgressIve . Flow. If th
. e front of a :rnonocliniil G . , (19-6)
h O~ ~n abrupt change iil curvature or a sudden change. 111
wave ''''' '"' Th' ff t be p"O or
. depth the flow in the front is rapidly varied, . . IS ~ ec m~y h • ~ (19-7)
duced' for example by a sudden increase in gate opelllng at tee anne
,
entrance, as sh OVYll' 111
"F"19. 19-1, The< velocity of the mass of W<J.ter This is a genera! equation expressing the absolute w,ave velocity of the
flow as shown in Fig. 19-1. Mathematically speaking, the sign i;l frOll t
of the square-root term in the n,bove equations may also be
t f However, since the w"we is mo,ring downstream in the directioll of the
FIG. 19-1. Rapidly .varied uniformly progressive flow. represents the velocity of the wave with respect to the velocity of the
initial flow. It is, therefore, t,he celerity; that .
between the gate and the ...vavefl'Ont is increased from 1'"1 to V z, an~,the
.
mOPlentum is increased. accord'lllgIy. By J.Newton's second law of"'t motion.
t' . c=
(19-8)
the 'unbalanced force required to change the momentum p~ ~m Hl1e
is the product of the mass and the ill velocity per um une, or For rectangular chanuels, fit
Thus, Eq. (19-8) becomes
F ~ (V", V 2 )A 21V(V 2 - V 1) (19-1)
(J
c (19·9)
where 10 is the unit weight of water. 'l'hi'l Ullbalanced force is equal
to the difference between the hydrostatic pressures on the areas A2 and Al
·~,l
It ca.n be shown that, fOl"\VaVes of moderate height, Eq. (19-9) becomes
at sections 2 and 1,reapectively; that is, ' Eq. (i8-45), FQr very small waves, Eq, (19-9) becomes Eq. (18-46),
For very small waves in llourectangulal' channels, Eq,' (1£)-8) beconles
F = wA~y~ wA1Yl (19-2) Eq. (18-47).
where fj: and iiI are the centroida.l depths of the areas. Equating the In a.ll cases, (19-7) may be written
above values of F and simplifying, ' . i
J
(19-10)
. Al _ ) which is identical with Eq. (18~51).
(V.. - V 2 )(V 2 - V 1)= ( ih - A2 Yl g
55~
(19-3)
I Theoretically, there are four typ~s of rapidly varied ullsteady flow
J
I
(Fig. 19-2): type A, having an advancing wavefront moving downstream; top waves will retreat faster than the bottom ones. The result is that
type B, having nil advancing l"avefro!lt moving upstream; type C, having , the wavefront becomes sloping and eventul111y flattens out.
a retreating wavefront moving' downstream; and type D, having a Owing to the presence of channel friction, however, the wave profile
retreating wavefront moving upstream. Type A has just been described. of art advancing front n.ctmilly changes. This. effect may not be notice-
1"01' type B, it can be shovtn that able in relatively short artificial chQ.unels of small friction effect, but
it is significant ill long reaches of natural channels, where ~riction is
v'" = c - Y1 (19-11)
considerable. • .
which is identical with Jiiq. (18-50). It can also be shown that Eq.. 19-2. The Moving Hydraulic Jump. When a rapidly vfl.l'ied unsteady
I"I (19-10) applies to type C and Eq. (19-11) to type D. It is theoretically How involves a change in stage from subcl'itical to supercritical, a so-called
moving hydl'(J,1tlic jump will result. An observer on the bank. running
~
I
Y, --Vt
I
'I,_Y, r
I
r-=F:::[
Y, -V, I
n.long with the wave crest. at the same velocity as the. wave will see a
stationary hydraulic jump. This is illustrated by the figures at t.he
bottom in Fig. 19-2 for four types of flow. All equations derived in the
;;"?'~ml////;;/I';"-//h-:--"';:r-;'-/,/,- J»/;;7///74//~r/h'l/}"
Type A-Advl)l"lci"2 dcwfI- 'l"ype B-Ad'lol():.citlQ up- T:tpe C-Rerr.cnJlQ dawit- l'ype O-fL!1t!II:;HJ:"q u?,- preceding article apply also to these flows. However, another method of
sttifam !P(U:!IVl1I !\'lr'l:lJn (p:1sHive siteD .." (!\egoli,,: shearn :,,e201iy~
1utQe} sun;~e: slug2) SUf08: deriving the equation may be described below_. .
For a stationary hydraulic jump, (3-21) can be reduced to
(19-12)
, ,
The right side of the equation is equr,l to the celerity expressed by Eq.
(19-9). Applying this equation tothe steady hydraulic jump of type A
in Fig. 19-2, as seen by the observer, V 1 should be replaced by V.. - 'f\;
Tipe B 7,!pe C Typ~ D
that
FIG. 19-2. li'ol11' tYlJes of rapidly varied uiliformly progressive flow. (Top) Unsteady
flows; (bottom)' the corresponding flows that' appear stea.dy to an observer following (19-13)
the wavefront~
. ~
..,
., , '-ocus of Wove front
.~ .
~ \~
~ --=
~
~ \\;:-"r";:------
V- .
-r~-==
l , /// ,.//~V1 --.. ....--... ---l .
---l.
~~
.
1 /~ . . --.
j . ~
'///-7.:;:
",
I
1
;j
Type A - Qdvancing downstream
B-
Type up~adVancing
(
\
1
~
j ~-
-
~
~ --..... V ...... -
~
Locus of wave frant
w
~ ~ .. ~ v2 ---.... -- .
1 Vw ___~ __ ~_
~up'stre~
.//~~ Vz~ '
! . ;;,-..
"h~-07-~ .~
I
~
. . / '/
. ~~
FIG. 19·3. Hangchow bore at Haining em the Chie?- Tang Rinr;. China.. The wave· Type C-retreating downstream '
Type D-retrealing
tront was about 16 it h,igh, traveling at high velocIty, Seven mm after It could first
be distinguished on the horizon the wave had passed. The water rellched a final !
I FIG. 19-4. Rapidly va.ried flow i~ inclined channels. (Afte,· M. D. Chedousov [11].)
height. of about 28 ft within 30 min. The width of the river at the place of obser'mtion
was about 1 mile. (Caurle.~y of Mead and Hunt, I n c . ) . .
I Type C generally results irom .a sudden decrease in supply of flow.
either upstreo.m or downstream with an unstable front (Fig. 19-2, types upstream, such as that I;aused by the closing of a head gate in a canal or at
the tailrace of a hydro plant.
C and D ) . ' .
For the types of moving hydraulic jump illustmted in Fig. 19~2, typical . Type. D, kl:ow'~ as demand S"..trge, Occurs in power canals servi ng
examples can be quoted. For type A, examples are the fo.ffious J ohns- ~ydmuhc tllrbmes If the demand at the lower end of the canal is suddenly
Increased. .
town flood of 1889, caused by the failure of an eart,h dam at the South
Fork Reservoir in Pennsylvo.niu [6-8]; the Heppner flood, due to a cloud- In Fig: 19-2, tl;Ie initial. and final stages of a po.ssing surge ~tre assumed
burst storm on Willpw Creek, Oregon, in 1903 [9]; and the flood due to to ?~ ~lllform .. Such surges OCcur frequently io channels of sma.ll slope.
I
the failure of St. Francis Dam near Los Angeles, Catif., in 1928 [10]. . In lIl,chned channels, the four types of sur"e will Occur as shown in Fig
In the J ohnstowll c~ei. the flood was led bya bore which was initially
19-4 [111. '" . J
125 to 150 fthigh at the da.m and which was reduced to 30 to 40 ft as it .19-3. Positive Surges. Positive surges .have an advancing front
rushed down the 15, miles' of the narrow, windi.ng va.lley to Johnstown With t?e profile of a moving hydra.ulic jump. When the height of the
surge ~s sn:al~, the surge 'appears undular like an unduhi.r jump. When
'1For a theoretical an~ experimental investigation' of the bore, see [lj.and [2J. the hel~ht IS Increasing, the unClubtion will eventually disappe.'l.r and the
• See [3] to [51 for aniIytical and experimental studies. surge Will have a sharp and steep front.
I
Eliminating 1'", from Eqs. (19-14) and (19-16) and simplifying, h c( 21/1 ) V (19-22)
{/ ,Yi + Y2
,I
\ , )
2 (Yi+ Y2)g (19-17) i If the height of the surge is small relative to the depth of flow, Eqs.
Y2 2YIV;--
I (19-21) and (19-22) may be approximated, .
This equation represents the relationship among the initial and final
velqcities and depths of the surge .. Similarly; it can be shown that'
I respectlvely, by
Eq. (19-17) applies also to surge of type B (lfig. 19-2). Note that, if l' = ~g (19-23)
Eq. (H)~17) is used to determine Yi or Y2, it must be solved by trial ::tnd 1 c
error. and h=~V (19-24)
g
MUltiplying Eq. (19-17) by the square of Eq. (19-9) lma simplifying,
it CMl be shown that
I B. 111eeting of Two Surges. When two
surges meet that are opposite in direction,
(01
The positive sign applies to the right-side surge and the negative sign
(19-33) -[
to the left-side surge: Solving the above four equationssiwultaneously, the unknowns V 2 ,
C. Surge Cro:>:>ing a Step. In surge analysis [. step on the channel' 1/z, V 21 , and Y2' can be determined, The wave velocities can, therefore,
floor may be real or fictitious. The ficti- be determined by Eq. (19-16).
FricUorl; tious step is, usually assumed to simulate When the height of surges 1" small relative to the depth gf flow,
borrier
the effect of channel slope.. The lliethod (19-19) applies. Thus, Eqs. (19-30) and (19-31) may be written
Pro ..'d ed for I:
{rlc'ion effect ! of analysis, however, is the same in both
.......--_......:\l.,I-,t~ cases. (19-34)
IY, ~VI
T!
I V;_ y;
In previous discussions, the slQpe of
cha.nnels has been assumed small. For and (19-35)
,)//7/7777//7/tl
Ne9ligible .
l
l:-3'//?/)'T.r7I'/7/
{oj
#
channels of large slope, the ana.lytlis of
surge moyement will be illustrated by
Example 19-2. In simplified calculations,
where c and c' are the celerities of the right-side and len-side suI'ges,
respectl vely.
difference in the effect of slope ma.y be treated by con-
veloeily head j.J
verting the slope into a series of steps. Example HI-1. A steady flow s.t 6.80 fps and 42.90 It deep is suddenly stopped at
Vw~ In this way the c,lmnnel length is divided the downstream end of the 9,700 ft reach oJ a. frictionless rectangular channel. Deter-
t-;~ J il.· ,,'t ~. into a number of reache.3. In ea.ch reach, mine the surge thus produced.
I VZ_Y.ZI'y'-.+-V Y' Solulion. A reflected suq;e advancing upstrea.m is produced. The velocity at the
~' - VI ! .( v; __ ( the fioor is considered horiwntal, and the
downstream end evidently cha.nges from V I = 6.80 fps to V. = O. By. Eq. (19-17) or
actual drop in floor elevation due to slope (19-20), with Yl = 42.90 ft, the depth or the oovallcing surge y" CllJl be computed as
.:h7?777d771d i I effect. is represented by a step (Fig. 19-6) 51.09 f t . · ' ,
f!);'7//7T/?/hzhw:
placed either in the middle or at one end Note that Eq. (W-I7) or (19-20) must be solved by trialllnd error. A simplified
IO! procedure is to use Eq. (18-46) together with Eq. (19-24). Thus, Eq. (I8-4cG) g1\'e;;
of the reach. The height F of'the step is
FIG. 10-6. Arrival of surge at a equal to the slope of the' channel multi- c = V32.2 X 42.g 37.2 ips, and then Eq. (19-24) gives h = :17.2 X G.80/32.2 =
step rmd friction barrier. (a) 7.85 it, which makes 1b = 42.90 + 7.85 = 50.75 it. This value may be used as the
Before the arriva.l; (b 1 after the plied by the length of the reach. This best estimate /Dr the trial-a.nd-error solution oJ Eq. (l9-17) or (19-20).
arrivaL. ' simplified calculation is usually used in By Eq. (19-10), the wave velocity V..; 35.6 fps. The time requir~d for tb.e wave- )
analyses in which the effect of channel front to arrive at the upstrea.m end of the reach is 9,700/35.6
is 35.6 + 6.8 ... 42.4 Ips.
272 sep_ The celerity r
friction is also considered (Art. 19-5).
When a surge arrives :J.t a step, the result is to produce two new surges, Example 19-2. A gradually va.ried steady flow is decreased a.t the lower end of an
inclined rectangular channel by the sudden parti'a.l closing of a gate. Describe!!.
one traveling upstream and the at-her downstream. Figure 19-6 illus-
method for determining the. surge thus produced (also. see Art. 19-5)_ "
trates the an'ivaI of a surge at the step and the condition immediately Solulian. Referring to Fig. 19-7, the channel has a slope S. and carries a steady dis-
after arrival. Applying Eq. (19-17) to the left-side Ilew surge, charge Q. The depth y and velocity V of the steady flow at any. section, say nn, can
be computed. .
_ . . ) (Ut + Y2)g For the determination of the surge due to sudden decrease 01 flow at section '00, a
(Vi -'- V 2 P = (Yt- Y2 2"':'=--::::2-'-=-"':"'::" (19-30)
, YtY2 step computation may be eI)1ployed.' The channel is divided in~· 9.- number. of
reaches, each ha.ving a length equal to t.:r.. The computation may start at section
Applying (19-17) to the right-side new surge, 00 and. then proceed by steps from reach to rea.ch. Consider the step computation
from section n'n' to section nn. The flow condition at section 11,'.,.' is assumed to
. (19-31) ha ve been determined, and it is now requifed to determine the l3urge height h. and
velocity .v...at section nn '
I
i
! I;
1
1-
554
'~ 'l,
"
. i
UNSTllJADy FLOW
ILIi.PIDLY VARIED UNSTEADY FLOW 565
The dischn:rge t\lrotlgh the surge front is
r Then, compute the values of Yv by Eqs. (19-31) and (19-42), respectjve\y. If the
I two values of V .. so computed do not agree,assume another 11. and repeat the computa-
tion, until the two values of V", agree ~nd hence the correct values of Ii. and V'" Me
wllere b is the width of the channel.
By Eq. (Hl-15), using Eq. (18-45) for c,
I obtained. To start Lhe step computation at section 00, Eq,. (19-36) may be used to
replace Eq. (19-42), since in Eq.(19-36} the va.lue of AQn at section 00 is equal to IlQ.
Example 19-3. A step with F= 2.38 It is located at the upstrea.m end of the reach
-y (1~37j considered in Example 19-1. Determine the flow condition immediately after the:
) where 11 is the depth iUld l' is the velocity of flow at section nn. If the surge height
I
I
sru.ge arrives at the barrier. The flow upstream from the reach llUder consideration
has fl, sk;ady velocity of 7.00 fps'in the downstream direction shd a depth of 41.65 ft.
Solt,tUm. At the step the sur'ge produced in Example 19-1 is spli't into two com-
is re\ll.Uvely small, say h.;fi, a.I!I, the above eqtnltion may be replaced by , :
(19-38)
I, : ponent surges, one tra.veling fa,rther upstream and. the other, II- fe-fleeted surge, travel-
,ing dowllstream. For the surge tra.veling upstream, Eq. (19-30) gi\'es
The time required for the smgc to move from section n'1l."to nn. mILY be <:lxpressed as II (7.00 V:)2 = (41.65 ")' (41.65 + !{,Jg
y- 83.30yz
(I(l-39) i By Ee:. (19-32), lh' = y, + 2.3&. Thus, for the surge traveling downstream, ,Eq.
where (19-31) gives
1
)
\
Let W represent the sh£.,ded !1.re~1 (Fig. 19-7), \vhich is
(19~40)
The total energy of surge per unitJength is, therefore, assumed to be made up of a large number of very small waves placed
E P.E, + ILE. = wh'T (19-50) , f
r
=
-=- ___ ~w~_ .
19-4:. Negative Surges. Negative surges are. not stable in form, ",
.1
because the upper portions of the wa.ve travel faster than the lower por- dy 1 ~ Y w
tions (Art. 19-1). If the initial profile of, the surge is assumed to have a V2 [
Y2 --- ' ; l:! VW1 -<--' -,
Assump.d
t j , I I... VI- YI
-:,,---
Assumed Assumed surge profile
)//.1,/'//'yhhw/7/,//?//mJ/?,.;;:v/.?7
profile profile immed,otely
ofter 2.1 sec one: t sec ofter creation . ,?X?i/,-//?7-0?V/.?7/,T/.//.//?
- ~,- FIG. 19-9, Analysis of a negfl.t,ive surge.
. ~ -- -=- - - --
one on top of the other. The velocity of the small wave a.t tho point
under consideration may be expressed ar'.()ording to Eq. (19-11) as
Vw = vgy - V (19-53)
FIG, 19-8. Propagation of II. llegative surge due tr, sudden lift of a sluice gate.
Similarly, the velocity at the wave crest is
steep front, it will soon flatten out as the surge moves through the V .. 2 = ...}gY2 - Vz (19-54)
channel (Fig. 19-8). If the height of the surge is modemte or small and, at the wave trough,
compared with the depth of flow, the equations derived for a positive (19-55)
surge can be applied to determine approximatdy the propagation of the
negative surge. If the height of the surge is relatively large, a more When the surge is not ,too high, a straight-line relation between V"'l
elaborate analysis is necessary as follows: and V",2 may be assumed. Thus, the mean velocity of the wave may be
Figure'19-9 shows a type D surge (Fig. 19-2) of relatively large height, considered to be .
retreating in an upstl'eam direction. The surge is caused by the sudden (19-56)
lifting of a sluice gate. The wave velocity of the surge actually varies
from point to point. For example, V .. is the wave velocity at a point Now, eliminating V", between Eqs. (19-52) and (19-53),
on the surface of the wave where the depth is y and the velocity of Jlow
through the section is V. During a time interval dt, the change in y is dy. !!JL dV,
(19-57)
The valu~ of dy is positive for an in,crease of y and negative for a decrease --/y - ...}Y
...... !'--: .. ; .. -.
569
RAPIDLY VAlUED UNSTEADY FLOW
568 . UNSTEADY FLOW . a ower canal This information is
result of iL sudden rejection of load l~ f P stabli6hi~1g the height of wall
Integrating this equaiion from Y2 to Y and from V 2 to V, and solving . d'n the design of the cana or e
for V, . requrre 1
nece6So,ry to prevent overflow. d" f teady flow hl a power canaL
v (19-58) Figure 19-11a shoWS ,th~ C?n,ltlOn a ~ nputed, When the load
From Eq. (19-53), The flow profile and the fnctlOll loss can e COl
tr", = 3 -0iY - 2 vgy; -V2 (19-59)
Velocity . Profile of
Thus, the wave velocity at the trough of the w:w.e is ----2.r .heod I
/ the origiMI
steod Y flow
I
I
", V",t = :; .ygy-; - 2 'VgY2 - V 2 (19-60) Reservoir. V . - . ;
To power
i --... .......Jr,..
~; Iplont
I Let l be the time elapsed since the surge was created or, in thif! easel ~ - .../~
since the sluice gat.e 'was opened. At t = 0, the wavelength A O. , tal . .
\
After t sec, the wavelength is equal to
, \
I. A = (Vw2 - V~'I)t (19-61) ,
---.. ;C~:.=lW/&~~
The analysis oan be applied sin:ilarly to a ne2:atlV'e of ---~-~--h-l-e- -------jd
. type C. v.+ )(
I
I
E:tample 19-5. Show that the equation of the wa.ve profile, reSUlting from the
( failure of. a drun is in the form of [bj
x = 2t v'iiii. - 31 -vIiii .
\ Sur,)" prl)f lie wnen the wo'!e
where::t: is the distance measured from the da.m site, y is the depth of the wa.ve profile, I front reaches the reservolf I
lit is the depth of the impounding wa.ter, and t is the time a.fter the dam broke.
I
Solu/ian. SiuGe the impoundiug wa.ter velocity, or V. = 0,. the. wave
velocity by .Eq. (19-59) is Y", = 3 2 -vgy Since V 18 is in the negative direc- Vmax--""'" V=0-+1
tion of z, x = - V"I, which gives Eq. (19-62). 1
/ /
, /. I
/
tel
~cenler line of
I Ihe dam
_--.=-....I ·
I,
v.=o Yz
I
.....
J
L.-!I
Surge profile when tne w'!ve
front reoches the ,.servo,.:!
. r--------~ ---=-=- --:-1l ' I
) I ":.. ~-l.v I ,Rolf wove
-- I
l'
\1·U,Q9
Maximum .tage
01 th'l rejection
' ';':.;;''
1'1 I"'l
tion surge,l Johnson [14,15J has applied an analytical method 2 to the
design of the supply canal of the Queenston-Chippewa plant in the
vicinity of Niagara Falls . . In this example (Fig, 19-12a), the entire
~ ;-,--fr~-~-'--IF----~-· --ir=-----~-~r
length of the canal is divided into four rea.ches each 9,700 ft long.
1 . ~I ~I ~I I
At the very beginning, t = 0, the flow is steady, and the flow proftle (b J I, V~7.4~ __ '::~_0_....:N"",!~_7_.0_0_ _N:,;.,,;..,._ _6_.8_0_ _ -l
can be computed. The drop in water-surface elevation in each reach is
indicated at the division section between reaches, for exampte, 1.13 ft '"
for reach 4in }I'ig. 19-12b (see Example 19-3). The water surface in each
reach is assumed leveL Note that the friction in each reach at the steady-
flow condition is considered in the computation of the flow profile. The
I
::.11
slope effect of the channel is represented by a drop on the channel floor ';1
at the division sec Lion between the reaches, for example, 2.38 ft for reach 4
(Art. 19-30). The water depths ill feet are represented by the figures '"
wriHen vertically. The velocities in feet per second are r.epresented by oon 27<' sec
~!, ~I
When the load is suddenly thrown off, a surge is developed at the "'I. 7.20 N 7.00 '!l 0
--~--'''''~I~.---~~-~--~,--~~--~
1
ao a
dowllstream end Qf the canal (Fig. 19-12c). The computation of this .n ..., ;;;
; '"ci
<D .....
"'
C N 10
oJ
Velocify
recoIJe ry /1~ .1.
"'
". oJ 0
.D
l-
ci ci ci ci .
initial surge has been shown in Example 19-1. 0 <:$
- .- _.- _. f 7. 65.mox,. rrH
,.., 0 ., ..., -1
After 272 sec have passed since the surge was produced, the surge u1
oJ
oJ
on 0
'" '"IX! "!'" - 0
...'"
~
'",..;
'"
N
I,B51 sec
'"ci "!
.
<1>
arrives at the barrier at the upstream end of reach 4 (}I'ig. 19-12d). The S·~ .,.,..; on, N .;,..,
.,. r-. III
"j
" "':
" '" "'
water depth throughout reach 4 is 51.09 ft; and the velocity of flow is
on
,.., .,
I .f--I.. "!! ..j... ,,!I I -1..... "11
'" 1
zero. At the barrier, the surge is soon split int.o two component surges, I~) \...-,1 I ":1." ,I, "'I. ,I. "J......::!i.-----=---->i
4.SZ45,087 5.11.0 4.899 5,{24 4.545 4.350 4.3710.<40· 0.230
one traveling upstream and the. other downstream. The computation
for these surges has been given in Example 19-3. FIG. 19-12. Analysis ";f reject.iQ:J.surge by the Johnson method~
The component surge traveling downstream will soon reach the down-
stream end of the canaL After it reaches the end, it will be reflected. will {ollow' accordingly until th8 maximum stage is obtained l1.t the down-
The reflected surge will travel upstream again. stream end of the canaL In the example given by Johnson, the maxi-
The component surge traveling upstream will soon re:ach another mum stage is found to be 7.65 ft above the reservoir pool level (Fig ..
friction barrier farther upstream. At the barrier it will split into two 19-12e), This will be reached 1,851 sec after the load is rejected.
components, one traveling farther upstream and one traveling down- It is apparent that the Johnson method is very laborious. The pro- - \
1 See [131 for another method. c.edute becomes very involved as the computation conHnues, for numer-
% ·lohnson gave credit to P, Wahlman for this method,
OWl surges will be produced an.d propagated. The surge in a canal can
I
1 \
572 U~STEApy FLOW
RAPIDLY YARlED UNSTEADY FLOW 573
l also be studied by hydraulic models' and electronic computers, which are by providing inlet ports or low capacity. This method is simple' and
I sometimes found much eltsier though more expensive. inexpensive but hss'the disadvantage of delaying the traffic. ,
The analysi8 of. surge is important also in the design of ventilated tail- 2. Increasing channel dimensions. . An increase in channel depth WIll
l'ace tunnels for underground hydropower stations. In E'Uch cases, iricretl.se the celerity and reduce the surge height. An increase in channel
demand surge is usually developed as n result of asuddell increase in the width will decrease the surge height without change in celerity. In
lond output [16,17].
either case, the. velucity of flow and hence the collision ha,7iard are reduced.
Rejection surges ~n powel: c!111f1.ls can be controlled by two commonly 3. Lateral reservoirs. These reservoirs are connected to the lock as
used deviee::;; longitudinal weirs along the canal and tiiting gates well as to the canal with control valves, and are installed at the upstream
on top of the spillway, either aut.omatic or turhine-opemted; The as well as the downstream lateral sides of the lock. In filling. the lock,
theory for longitudinal side weirs hM been developed by Drioli [18], water is taken' in from the upstream reservoir, which is later to be filled
Schmidt [191, and Citrini [20,21J. Citril1i's theory is based on the method tip ,'gnin to its original level by ta.king in wa.ter slowly from the upstream
of characteristics and hM been verified satisfactorily by GBlltilini [22], cll.nat In emptying the lock, water is released to the downstream reser-
Pel1~ti [23], and De M(1.\,chi De Marchi hm;·!\.lso reported experi- voir, which is then to be emptied down to its original level by releasing
meuts on the use of the tilting gn.te as a control device. water gradually to the d')WJ1strcam canal. In essence, the effect of the
For a comprehensive discllssion of un~teady flow, the reader should hiaral reservoirs is to reduce the time of lock equalization without
refe!' to the trenti~e by Frank [20J. developing severe surges in Lila canal. . .
19-6. Surge .1n Navigation Canals. Surges may occur in navigation 4. Channel expansions. Sudden. expansions are provided in the callal
canals as a· result of lock operations, tmffic disturbrt.nces, tidal a.ctions, or 011 the ,upstream &.ud downstream sides of the lock. Such exp,1.l1siollS
other causes. Under severe conditions they will affect the canal tl·n.ffic will produce negative reflections,which can cancel the traveling Burges
critically either by depressing the wll.ter level and thereby reducing the partially. ,
effective channel depth 01' by raising the water level and thus encroach- The method of analysis of surges in navigatioq canals can best be
ing upon the freeboard. They will also impose sudden impact load upon illustrated by a numerical example} In navigation canals: surges of
vessels, cD.lml structures, and mn.chinery operating miter gates} large height cannot be tolerated nor can the occurrence of high velocities.
In 1110st lHIVign.tiol1 canals, ,')urges are small and insigIiifical1t. Thus the analysis can be greatly simplified 1n many pI';Jblems by assuming
Neverthele~s, some consideration of the surge problem is desirable in possible surges of height aua flow of negligible velocity effects. Since
can..l desigll, particularly if the traffic is to be heavy and if .the canal is . the generation, propagation, and reflect. ion of surges are essentially
long and controlled high head In this article, surges due to dynllmic and gravit!1.tion111 phenomena, the liiurges can also be studied by
lock operatio!ls are mainly Surges due to traffic disturbances model tests based on the Froude In.w. .
are e~~cluded, fol' they are significant only for the consideration of vessel .
II
<
i
·1
90 37.5 1.50 2.33 16.11 0 52 16<63 23.2 ~4.8 1.63 510 12,500
120 50.0 2<33 3.01 16.63 0.4917.12 23<5 25.8 2.12 480 12,400 4 5 6
150 46.9 3.01 2.74 17.12 -0.20 16.92 23_3 26.3 1. 92 450 11 ,800 Time i., min
180 43.8 2.74 2.5916.92 --0.11 16.8123.326,0 1. 81 420 10,900 {a)
210 <40.6 1 2.592.4216.81 -0.12 Hi,fi9 23_225.8 1.69 390 10,100
240 37.52.422.2416.69 -0.1315.5623.1 1 25.5 9,200
270 34.4 2.24 2.08 16.56 -0.11 16.45 23.0,'25.2
1. 56 360
1.45 330 8,300
I' - - I
I
j
300 31.3 2.08 1.90 16.45 -0.13 16.02 2:L'9 25.0 1. 32 300 7,500 I
I
330 28.1 1.90 1.72 16.32 -0.13 16<Hj 2~L8 24.7 L 19 270 6,700 .!: 2 -.:;;..;;- -T
------
-- --
360 25.0 1.72 J .55 16_19 -0.12 16.07· 22.8 24.5 1.07 240 5;900
420 18.8 1.55 1.17 16.07 -0.27 15<80 22.6 24.2 0<80 180 4,400 ;-
480 12<5 L17 0.79 15.80 -0.27 15.53.22.4 23<6 0.53 120 2,800 .J...-- ...... ---
540 6.3079 0.41 15.53 -0.26 15<27122<0< 22.8 0.27 60 1,400
600 0 0.411015<17 -0.28 14.99 O. 0 -0.01 a o V \
1 __~__~.....
____~ _~ __~_ _ _~ .L-__~__ , Ii
o ~~ ! <-<
5,000
I .la, 00 0
}.
j
Col. 5. Initial depth in ft, equal to the final depth y, of the previous step o <'
Col. 6. Height of the incrementa.! surge in ft, computed by Eq. (19-19) or D1stom:e in ft
lb)
(19-63)
FIG. HI-IS. Analysis of surge in. a navigation eanllJ. (.. ) Hydrogra.ph; (b) surge
profile.
As an approxima.tion, tlie value c (col. 8} of the previous step is used in this equation.
Aiter l = 150 sec, V, becomes less tha.n V 2 ; tha.·t 15, the nega.tive incremen.tal surge
occurs. Thus, the computed his TI".''''.I''''_ 19-7. Surge through Channel Transitions. When a surge arrives at
Col. 7. Final depth of flow in ft, equal to the iniLi"l depth in col. 5 plus the height a channel transition, it will usually split into two component surges, Oile
of the incrementa! surge in col. 6
traveling forward and the other backwB.rd. A typical case of a positive
Co\. 8. Celerity in Ips, co}nputed by Eq. (19-9)
Col. 9. Absolute velocity of surge in fps, computed by Eq. (19-16) surge passillg through a channel contraction has been described in Art.
Col. 10. Cumulative. va.lue of the height of in.cremimtal5urge (coL 5) Hl-3C. In this articie, however, more general but simplified cases are
Col. 11. Travel time in sec until the discharge stops, equal to the equa.li~ation time presented.
(600 sec) minus the time in col. 1 since the discharge started Figure 19-14 shows four cases in which the positive and negative surges
Col. 12. Trovel in ft for ea.ch increment.aLsurge until the discharge stops,
are passing through channel contractions and expansions. In each case
an incoming surge of height hI and celerity Cl is split into !l. forward surg~
equal to the product of the time in col. 11 and the absolute velocity in col. 9
Plotting the travel distance against the cumulative height of the incremental
the whole configuration of the surge is shown in Fig. 19-13b. This is of height h2 and celerity C2 and a backward or refiecte~ surge of height
in the downstrea.m caDal after a period equal to the equalizatiou time is hs and celerity Ca. For simplicity, the sur-gas are assumed of small
.(
j
I
i!
(19-71)
I
1I
I
, As a further approximation, 1:1 "" c.; so
I
?WT/T/ffffO?7il "
(19-72)
, 7-1"77. .7;;'-:7,///;;.»??/~
( oj
Ii>l 'rhe relationship between 11 and C is shown below:
Reflection
Width rfl.tio Reflection Chaullel condition
coefficient
FIG. 19-14. Surge through channel transitions. (a) surge through n. ~on In the case of positive reflection, a positive surge is reflected as, a
tro:ction; (0) positive surge through all enlll.rgemllnt; (0) negative surge through n con-
traction; (d) negative surge through an enlargement. positive surge and a negative surge as e. negative surge. In the case of
negative reflection, a positive surge is reflected as a negative surge, and
vice versa.
By the principle of conservation of energy, the total amount of energy
rema.ins the same after the split of the incoming surge. With the aid of ' Example 19-7. III a navigation canal, forebays are const:ucted betw'een the lO,ck
(19-50), the relationship of energy among the surges during a common and thecanala in order to provide adequate, Il.Ct.'OtnIDodo.hon, for the traffic (FIg.,
r
J
time interval may be written as follows: 19-15). The depth of wat.er in the downstream forebay and canal is 9 ft. The widt~a
of the iorebay and caDal are 300 ft and 150 ft, res:pectively. Determine the a.pproxl-
mate flow condition when a surge, produced by a sudden relense of 1,800 cis of water
(19-65)
from the lock, arriveB 'a.t, the transition between the for-sbay and the ,ca.nal.
For the case of a positive surge passing through a contraction (Fig. Solu.tion. 'I'he initial surge has a celerity approxima.tely equal to c. ....;gg-
19-14a),Cl "'" Ca and TI = Ta. Thus, Eqs. (19-64) and (19-65) become 17.0 fps and a height hI 0= ilQ,/c,T, = 1,800/(17.0 X 300) .'"' 0.353 ft. 'I'?e. c~lerity
in .the canal is-approximately,equal to, t., since the depth 13 the same as It IS ill the
T1(h i - hS)Ci = T 2h2c2 (19-66) forebllY. By Eq. (19-69), .
TI(h 12 h3 2)Cl = T2hz 2C2 (19-67)
h2 '"" ""~~'---"
L, = .2 X 300 X
?OO + 150
0.353
"
= 0.471 it
From Eqs. (19-66) and (Hl-57) or by geometry,
ThuB, h. h. h. - O.11B ft. The reflectioll coefficient is 0.118/0.353 .: 0.334.
(19-68) By Eq. (19-71), Or 0.333.
578 UNST'EADY FLOW
RAPIDLY VARIED UNSTEADY FLOW 579
The disc}targe entering the canal is I:1Q, =c,T.h. = 17.0 X 150 X 0.471 = 1;200
ds . . The reflected discharg;: is D.Q, = 1,800 - 1,200 = 600 ds. the two adjoining channels 'with celerities (:2 and /;3, respectively. Assum-
ing that surge heights are small compared with the depth of water ill
Forebay .--_F_o_re_b_o-'-y_ _ _ _ _ _ __
the chaunels, thB celerities can be computed by Eq. (18-'16). In the
meantime, a reflected surge will travel along channel I at a celerity
-.-~--~---+I----~~--..:~S-j~:-n~-c~ hpproximately equal to Cl. Figure 19-16b shows the condition at the -1
junction immediately after the arrival of the incoming surge.
FIG. 19-15. Analysis of surge through the trunsitio!l bet·ween forebay and canal. (Afler
J. Kozeny [31J.) _I
II V3=O·
h v31r-c, h3=O
-.J
Now, if the tmnsition between the callul and the lock is assumed gndual, as shown
in Fig. 19-15, the computation can be mude by letting h. = 11., +
dh, and c.T, =
Ch·~nnel II
V4 Channel m
cIT, + d(c,T,). Accordingly, Eq. (19-69) may be written
Woter orea=A2
-f= ·
Weier arHo=A,
CI
(10-73) hi
Channel [ ~
Int,egrating and simplifying the above equation, Woler orec=A, Chonnel I
(a) Woler area = Al
log (h, vC;:r;.) = const, (19-74)
(b)
Similarly, it can be shoi>l'n that FIG. 19-16. SUrge at channel junction. ·(a) Before arrival of surge; (b) ufter B.i:rival.
of surge.
log (h, Vc';;r.) = canst (19-75)
From the above two equations, Since the surge heights are assumed small compared with the depths of
flow in the channelS, Eqs.(19-1 9) and (19-2'1) can be applied. Thus, the
(19-76) following equations ca.n be written for channels I, II, and III, respectively:
With T,lT. = 2, the above equation gives hol"l = 1.414_ . Thus. h, = 1.41411., = For channel I hi - h = ~ (17 4 - V 1) (19-77)
0.499 It and h, = 0.146 ft. The corresponding C, = 0.413, I:1Q, = 1,~70 cis, nnd g
t.Q, = 530 cis. . For channel I .~ V1
This p.xample illustrates t.he application of the theory of surges to the hydraulic
hi = (19-78)
9
st.udy of ship lock and forebay. Such applications have been described by many
hydrnulicians, among t,hem Dantscher [29,30] and !{o~eny [31J. For channel II h = ~ V2 (19-79)
9
19-8. Surge at Channel Junctions. When a surge arrives at a channel For channel III h ..:..
- -C3 V3 (19-80)
junction, it will split into· several surges, each entering· a connecting 9
channeL A simple case, shown in Fig. 19-16, may be used to explain the By the law of continuity of flow, it is required that the .quantity of
phenomenon. . . water fioYving into the junction be equal to that flowing out of the junc-
Figure 19-16a shows that a surge in channel I is approaching the tion, or
junction of three rectangular channels. The surge has a height hi and
A,V 4 = A.V•. + A3V3 (19-81J*
celerity CI.· Channel I has a water area A I and depth of fiowYI. Since
there are ~o surges in channels II and III, h2 = hs = O. The initial Solving the above equations simultaneously .for h,
velocities in the channels are taken as zero merely for the sake of simplic-
ity, although any velocities could be assumed. h = ~!lAi (19-82)
. let.
When the incoming surge reaches. the· junction, its height is reduced
because of the increased surface area presented to the surge by the two where I = A1 + A2 + A3 (19-83)
C1 C2 (:3
additional channels. Surges of reduced height h will then travel through
'" V. has a direction opposite to c,.
580 ,
UNSTEADY ,FLOW
.
RAPIDLY VARlED UNSTEADY 'FLOW 581
If ::\11 incoming surge of height h2 nppr:oaches the junction from channel intere,sted hydraulic engineers Was made by Thomas [38]. In this study
II, then it can heshown that pUlsating flow was described as a flow consisting of two parts, a roughly
tumbling head and a smooth' tail sectiOll. The results of the study
(19-84)
indicate that, for puLSating fio'" to occur in a wide rectangular channel,
the channel slope must be more than 4' times the critical slope or the
Similarly, if fin incoming surge of height h3 approaches the junction
velocity more than twice the critical velocity. Another investigation
from chn.nnel III, then
was by Mayer [39J, 'Who found that pulsating flow can be classified
h (19-85) into two distinct types, namely, r~ll waves arid slug flow.
According to Mayer, rpll waves are char!1cterized by transverse ridge<!
By the above principle, it is possible tp analyze surges in a complicated of high vorticity. The regions .between the crests are quiescent. The
channel network,' Such it methtld has been developed by Swain [32,33] wa ves are initiated by finite as .well as infinitesimal disturbances in the
for all approximate det.ermina.tion of surge flowa in an interconnected laminar boundary layer. The process can be enhr,nced by eJ.."ternal
system of estuarine channels in response to tidal variations. In this caUOles, such as addition of water by rain, release of air bttbbles in the
method, the friction barrier is assumed to he located at the midc,ile of a upstream pool, roughening the chs-nnel entrance, or contact of the flow
chanl1el reach. The surges are assumed to have small heights compared surface with disturbing air currents. For roll waves to form, however,
with the depth of flow, so that simplified equations can be applied .. To the surface velocity of the undisturbed flow must be le,~s than the wave
further expedite the computation, it is desirable to have coincidental velocity, and the channel slope must be supercriticaL This require-
arrival of surges at a barrier or junction at some given instant. This is ment will ensure the breaking of waves at their downstream ends aild
made possible by the use of a procedure that iuvolves a modification of thus allow a froutward steepening of wave configuration and subsequent
the true length of the channel reaches. The analytic method developed increase of capillary effects. This process is primarily responsible for
by Swain was a.ctually applied to a problem for the determination of the formation' of roll waves. In lV1a,yer's experiment, no roll waves were
flows in intercollnected eatuo.rine channels in the Delta area of California observed on slopes of less than 3% and in 110 case was the Reynolds
ea.st of Suisun Bay. The same problem was studied by the U,S. Bureau number in excess of 420.
of Reciamation using ;an elaborate hydraulic model [34-36] and an elec- . Slug flows are characterized by surges of turbulent l'idges with wave
tronic anriJog model [37J. The results of the SWj:1.in method were checked i separated by highly agitated regions. In model channels, they are
satisfactorily .. originated randomly at the side walls and in tha channel o.s spotty bursts
1.9-9. Pulsating Flow. "When the slope of a channel becomes very of turbulence, exhibiting characteristics similal' to moving oblique
steep, supercritical flow of uniform depth in the channel will brel1k into hydraulic jumps. .They are the resl\lt of transitioll from' 8upercritical
a train of. traveling wo.ves or pulses, known as pulsating flow. Such an laminar to subcritic!.1.1 turbulent state of flow.. For flows to form, tp,e
unsteady flow occurs in various situations and in each situation it has surface velocity must be gre~"ter than the wave yelocity. This will
specific significance. When it occurs in inclined flumes and spillw:1Ys, ensure the steepeningllnd breaking of wayes at their upstream ends and
the increased height of t.he flow requires additional freeboard to prevent. thereby result in the development of moving hydraulic jumps. In
spillage, and ,the concentrated mo.ss of the wavefrol1ts calls for additional Mayer's experiment, no slug waves wexe formed OIl slopes less than about
structural safety factors against transient pressures and stresses. In 2%. The range of Reynolds numbel' for slug flows was approximately
hydraulic models, pr~sence of the flow often interferes with similarity 1,000 to 4,000. For Reynolds number greater than 4,000, the flow was
conditions. On farm, lands and unstabilized toads, the high scouring: thoroughly turbulent.
capacity of the flow causes surface erosions. In chemical processes, the Considering a parabolic distribution of the velocity of a uniform flow
effect of the flow will increase the mass-transfer rate between gas and in all inclined channel, the surface velocity by Eq. (6-42) for
liquid diffusion reactiqns. ' I. . • Y y", is gSy",2/Z V • The ave1'age velocity of the flow ls given by Eq.
There have beeuni.llllerou8 'studies on the phenomenon of pulsating; (6-43) nr. V = (fSy",2/3v. The surface velocity is, therefore, equal to
flow. Most of them/ ihowever, were made printarily in connection with I 1.5 times the average velocity,: or 1.5V. .I
the investigation of the mechanism of instabilit~ of flow (Art. 8-8). An· According to the previous description, a ('011 wave' Cal). be formeci
analytical and experimental study of pulsati~g flow which has long when the surface velocity is equal to or less than the absolute wave
582 UNSTEADY FLOW
RAPIDLY VARIED UNSTEADY FLOW 583
velocity, that when lS-12. Referring to shotv that the crest velocity V ... = .,;gy;,
that
L5V ~ V +c (19-86) the trough velocity Vw! thl3.t the velocity of flow through the !lam site
or Vic ~ 2 n9-87) is % vYY., and that the through the dam site is %7 yg !l,li.
19-13. Contmuet.he oi the example illustrated in Fig. 19-12, Bnd
Since Vic is equal to the Froude number and since roll waves can be determine the flow conditions a.t 420, 504,552, 743, and 767 sec, \€spectively, after the
formed only on supercritical slopes) the range of Froude numbei' for the load was suddenly thrown off.
formation of roll waves is 1 & F & 2. Solving (6-43) for S, it can be 19-14. Soive Example 19-6 if the equllJi2'ation time is (a) S min and (b) 12 min ..
The dil!charge from the lock increase.• linearl)"from 0 to 10,000 cfs for the first 20% of
8how'n that 8 = 3F2/R. Thus, the range of slope for the formation of the time and then decrease$ linearly to 0 for the remaining part of the· time. Study
roll waves is 3/R :::2 S ~ 12/R. the effect due to cbange in eqllalizati'm time.
Slug flow can be·formed when the surface velocity is great.er than the 19-16. Solve EX!l.J11ple 19-7 if the discharge is 1,000 cis.
wave velocity. Theoretically, the formation of slug flow will . 19-16. Three horizontal frictionlE'lis channels '}, 6, and S ft wide meet 'at a jnnction.
occur when F > 2 and S > 12/R. The W!l.ter in the channels has an initicl statiana.ry depth of 10 ft. When an incom-
ing surge 0.4 ft bigh approaches the junction fro~ the narroWI..'St ci]!l.nnel ddermine
the flovi condition after the surge enters thl:! junction. Compute the relle~ticn lloeffi-
cient of the junction. .
PROBLEMS
It CD.n be seen that Eqs. (20-8) and. (20-10) D.l'e identical with Eq. (18-54),
For a smail value of t:.t
expressiI1g the velocity of wave ·prcipagation. These equations can be
+2 Sf) At-
represellted graphically on an ;rt plane, as sh01vn iIi Fig. 20-1. . For a finite
time increment ilt, the point p represents the position of the channel
section; under: consideration at timet +
ilt, and the pOInts u and d
J I
I+A1
S, dt =
(S,,,,
This equation can be used for computing c at the time t + Ilt if the
upstream !l.ud downstream flow cOllditions at the time t are given.
1
Eliminating c from Eqs, (20-13) and (20-17) and solving for l' - .I
V _ J( = Gu + G~ (20-21)
2
or, from Eq. (20-20),
Y-K= + 2c (20-22)
Using the Manning formula, Sf = n!V2/2.22R~~. Substituting this
expression for 31 ill Eq. (20-16) and solving for V,
o Ilt -- Ie R"~ Fw 2(~:la.. Routill[l; by the method of chamctcristic.~: the ;ri plane.
v '\I'flG.IS
7.25n~ .
(20-23) j
From Eqs. (20-22) and (20-23J, the values of Y and IC can be deter- plot of c vs. V for K" (Fig. 20-2e), and (2) ~L plot ofT! - J{ against V
I
I.
-1
592 UNS'l>EADY FLOW FLOOD ROUTING 593
x in rnl
:::
.5
I
. • I·
. ~ l I
t- +3200 I
x in rni
FrG. 20-2b> Routing by thifmethod of chara.cteristics: the ex plane.
A. Preliminary Com1mtation FIG. 20-2d. Routing by the method of chara.cteristics: the 'Ii:!' plane.
1. Compute the initial velocity V" and depth y" by the Mannillg
formula, and the initial celerity by c,. The slopes of these lines are equal to V .. + e" and y" c.., respectively.
2. Using Eq. (20~24) or (20-25) construct plot of C VB. V for J( Point 0 may be placed at any position on the z .axis.
(Fig. 20-2(3) and the plot of V - K VB. V for c 30-2f). 4. Construct the inflow hydrograph with c plotted Ilgo.inst t (Fig.
, 3. Construct the referen.ce lines OB and AB 20-1 and Fig. 20-2a). 20-2g). Since the given hydrograph is in the form of y J(t) , it is
, Fo~ oth~ types of hydrogra~h, for example, in the form of the discharge q ~ f(t), necessary to convertyto c by the relation c = vgy.
a modification of the procedure IS neCeS5ll.ry. For a detcdled disC\I~~iQnl :;;ee [23]. 5. Obtain the values of c for various t from the hydrograph constructed
594 UNSTEADY FLOW FLOOD ROU'l'lNG 595
ill the preceding step, and plot them 011 the ex plane at x = 0 (Fig. 20-2b). through the time I (Fig. 20-'10.), the values of Cd and Vd are equal to the
ALso, plot the vahle of V,. on the Vx plane at x = 0 (Fig. 20-2c). values of c and V 2,t time t. I
3. From theploi.J of C VB. V for J( (Fig .. 20-2e), find the rca corresponding ·-1
B. Computation JOT Flow Condition at the Inflow to Va and Cd, al1d then compute Gd by Eq. (20-18) .
1. Draw a trial characteristic p'd' (Fig. 20-10.) with a stope in tb~ genera.l . 4. Compute Y I{ by Eq. (20-22) with the value of c obtained froin
. direction of AB.· From the inflow hydrograph (Fig. 20-2g) , it can be the inflow hydrograph (Fig. 20-2(1).
i I j'
I I
~
I ,I I I
I I
~
····--'4· .. .
2.5 3 3.5 4.5 5
v in mph
FIG. 20-2f. Routing by the method of characteristic.s: the 'V - J( vs. l' fore plot.
3.5
Vir mph 5. Determine t' from the plot of V - J( VB. V for c (Fig. 20-2f).
FIG. 20-2e. Routing by the metllod of (;haracteristics: the C VB. V for K plot. 6. Since the values of c and II are known, check the slope of the tri~tl
characteristic. The slope of this characteristic should be equal to the
+
seen whether the value of c is increasing 01; decreasing at a given time.
Accordingly, the slope of the trial characteristic should be either :Ratter
average of the slopes at its ends, or [(TT - c) (Vd - cd)]/2. If neces-
sary, repeat the' procedure with a new trial characteristic until a. satis- .
factory check is obtained.
I
01' steeper tha.n that of the previous step.
.2. The values of c and V at time t are assumed to have been determined C. Computation oj Flow Condil.ion in the Channel
and plotted against X, as shO~Vll in Fig. 20-2b andc. Accordingly, at the 1. Construct two trial characteristics up and pd at point p and il). the
point where the trial characteristic intersects the horizontal line passing general directions of DB and AB, respectively (Fig. 20-1b). To start
/ \ 2. Using the mile-hour units, At '= 3 hr, 11 = 0.03, and So = 1/5,280. Equation
(20-25) gives '
f
\ -L
.J:
0.
E 8----,- l -
.!; (20-20)
... / I
By this equal.ion, the auxiliftry plots (Fig. 20-2e and fJ are computed ,as shown in
- --
1\
Table 20-1, p. 600.
I- f. --- I----- -
3. On the xl plane (Fig. 20-2a) construct the reference lines OB and AB, the slopes
of which are 2.60 + 14.0 = 16.6 mph nnd 2.60 - 14.0 = -H.4 mph, respectively.
16 I : I , 4. ,construct the inflow hydrogr'1ph (Fig. 20-2g) by the foJlowi~lg equation:
,f--1:~ompvted
outflow \ c = Vgy = -V0!21.5 - 8.4 cos (~'1/48)1 fps .
1
15 \ -- = 3.87 v21.5.- 8.4 cos (1r1/48) mph (20-27)
/. / ~, ---,
5. By Eg. (20.27), compute the values oi C Il.t the upstream curl of the channel (at
x = 0) for ,t = 0,3, . '. _ ,24 hr, and plot them in Fig, 20·2b. Also, plot the value of
14
o
1£V 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
V = 2.60 mph for x = 0 and t = 0 in Fig. 20-2c. .
R. ComputatioT! Jar flow condiliQn at inflo·w. The step of computation from t = 12
.
to t = 18 hr ~vill be t.n.ken for illustration, assuming that the values of c and V along
j in hr
the channel at t = 12 hr have been determined in a previous step. The following'
l"IG. 20-2g. Routing by the method of charactE:ristics: thehydrograpns. procedure rlescribes the determination of c and V at the inflow at t = 18 hr.
1. Draw a trb.l characteristic at point 100 in thp. generlLl dirp.ction of AB (Fig.
20-Za). The slope of this characteristin should be somewhat flatter than 'that of the
3. Determine Ku and Kd from the plot of C VI:I. V for K (Figs. 20-2e). previou." step, that is, flatter th~n the slope of the chllructeristic!at 12a, because the
4. Compute all. andGd by Eqs. (20-14) and (20-18), respectively. inflo\~ hydrograph CFig. 20-2g) indicntes that c is increasing during the interval from
5. Compute C byEq. (20-20). t = 12 to 15 hr. The downstream end of this 6ho.racteristic is at t: = 12 hr and Xd =
36 miles. .
6.' Compute V - K by Eq. (20'::21). ,
r 2. With Xd '"' 36 miles and t = 12 hr, find Cd = 14.38 and V~ = 2.72 from Figs.
r 7. 'Determine V frotn the plot of V - K vs. V for e(Fig. 20-2f). I .20-2Q and c. Theae value" are ent~red in eols. 9 !lnd 8, respectively, of Table 20-2.
8. With the flow donditioris determined at a sufficient number of I·
C
I 3. IWEth Cd = 14.38 and V. = 2:72, ,find Kd = -0.04 from Fig. 20-2e, and enter
I
points along the chan~el, construct the plots of·!V and e vs. x at the time I the value in col. 10 of Table 20-2. By Eq. (20·18), Gd = 2.72 - 2 X 14.38 - 0.64, =
t + !:It on the exand Vx planes (Figs. 20-2b and ~0-2e). -26:68, as shown in col. 12 of Table 20-2. '
I 1 This example is adapted from [231.
FLOOD ROUT1NG 599 )
598 UNSTEADY FLOW
file do not change. In other words, the flow mfl.y be considered \)niformly progressive
4. From tbe inflow bydrograph (Fig. 2()..2g), c= 15.84 for t = 15. By'Eq. (20-22),
V - K, = -26.68 + :.! X 15.84= 5.00, a.~ shown in col. 13 of Table 20-2.
5. With V - K = 5.00 ande = 15.84, find V = 3.19 from Fig. 20-2f and enter
aiterthe flow conditions at points a and.b are determined .. This may be explained
in Fig. 20-3 as below.
I
Oil thE; ex plane, draw a hor'izolltalline passing through the / = 9 hr curve at x = O.
tbe value in col. 2 of Tobie 20-2.
This line intersects the t = 12 hr curve at x = 13 miles, Similarly, a horizontal Jine
6.Tbe slope of the charoct,eristic should be (2.72 - 14.38 + 3.19 ~ 15.84)/2 = "j
-12.16, which gives Xd = 12.16 X 3 = 3.6.48 miles. This value is dose to x~ = 36 ,
miles for the trial characteristic. If f,he agreement is not dose, a new trial character- A
istic must be drown and the computation repeated.
C. Computation for jInw condition in the channel
1. Draw two trial cha.racteristics at 15& in the general directions of OB and AB.
7 !
Note that tile characteristic in the direction of OB starts from the point 12a. Thus,
x. = 0, x = 52 miles, and x~ = 86 miles.
2. From Figs. 20-2& and 0, find c. = 15.22 and V. = 2.96 nt x" = 0, and Cd = 14.02
and V ~ = 2.59 at x" = 86 miles. Enter thes"l values in cols. 5 to .3 of Table 20-2. . \
3. From Fig. 20-2e, find Ku = -1.08, as shown in col. 7 of Table 20-2, for t:u =
15.22 and Vu = 2.96; and also [{~ = 0, as shown in col. 10, for Cd = 14.02 and
1'd = 2.59.
4. By Eq. (20-14), G. = 2.95 + 2 X 15.22 - 1.08 = 32.32, as shown in col. 11
of 'Table 20-2. By Eq. (20-18), Gd = 2.59 - 2 X 14.02 -
col. 12 of Table 20-2.
° = -25.45, as shown in
-':".:
) {)01
.600 . UNSTEADY FLOW \ FLOOD ROU1!ING
Ohio; (2) movement of the 1947 flood through the confluence of the Ohio
1J.~1:l ~ is need~ only at point (J, at the inflow a.nd at point 11 in the channel for each
tIme mt~rvaL The va.lues of C IUld.V a.t ot~er points in the channel can be detcrmin.;d and Mi;ssissippi rivers at Cairo, Ill.; and (3) movement of the 1948 and
by the SimplIfied procedure shown by the dashed linea in Fig. 20-2a. 1 1950 flood waves in the 184-mile long and na.rrow Kentucky Reservoir
on the Lower Teunessee River. The second problem is the same as that
i
I) TABLE 20-1. COMPUTATION FOR THE AUXILlI\RY PLOTS IN ExAMPLE .2O-i \ described in Art. 11-10 and Fig. 11-] 5 except that the flow is treated as
I C =~31~!-'-'[-C-=-1-6,-,-I-c-=-1-8,-,I-c----2-0-,--~""-2-2-, unsteady in the present problem. .The computations ·for floW profiles
were thus made for times t = 0, 2.5,4, 10, and <:tJ hI', after the beginning
K \ = . .,..7 di = 40,3 cH = 47.2 c~; = 54.3 c~~ = 61.6
of the flood 50 miles up the Ohio River (see Fig. 11-15). The flow profiles
3810 -- -
____ '_~ V [: - xl V Iv - K V F - F K 1(,
for t = 00 are identical with those computed for steady flow.
Solutioll of practical problems by the numerico.l method is generally
1.0,1 0.0750 2.53, 1.53 ;-;;-3j2.0;13.54 Z.54 ---1---- very tedious. In order to speed up the computation work, the Corps
])
I\ 0.01 0.0166 2.58 2.58 3.093.09 3.62! 3.62 has employed an electronic digito.l computer, such as the Remington-
-0.5'1' 0.0776 1
262,3.12 3.13 3.63 3.66 4.16 Rand UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer I). For small quan-
L' )
-1.0 0.078,1 2.64,3.64 3.16 4.16 3.70 4.70 5.83 tities of work, however, the Corps has found tha.t a po,rt of the compu-
-~.51' 0.0192 j2.61' 4.17 3.20 4.70 3.74 5.24 5.80 &.38
tn.tion can be performed less expensively and more efficiently by 3.
I' -~.O 0o.'OO~O~~g 2.701'4.70 \3.Z3 5.23 3.78 5.78 4.34 6.34 6.93
r) -2.5 u \2.73 5.23 '3.26j 5.76 3.82 6.32 14 .39 6.89 7 All portable computer, such as the Burroughs EIOl desk-size computer;
I,
-3.01 00816 2.75 5.75 3 29 6.29 13.851 6.85\4.4317.43 5.0S 8.03 the use of larger machines is justifiable only for very involved problems.
) 1 I 20-3. Method of Diffu.sion Analogy. An approximate hydraulic
1
1 TABLE 20-2 .. STEP COMl'UTATIC>l'i'SOF FLOOD ROUTING :BY THE METHOD approach to the problem of flood routing in natural channels has been
j) OF CHARACTERISTICS deyeloped us-illg the ciD.ssicn.l stc.tisticl).l theory of flow diffusion [35].
According to this theory, IL differential equation may be written for the
c K V I 1 'K I I
) • . .' C. i y IT d Cd Kd 1 Gu Gd V K diffusion of an unsteady flow of particles as follows:
~ ~~I~!~ ~~Ii!.!l_~, __--,--
I'
, i (8)
(20-28)
\ [
) 3tl
6a .69IH.31-0,48 .... I.... .I. ... '.
.6114.07 -0.11' .... '". ,,' ...... 2 5814 00 O !
:5914:02 0
'?
1..... 1: ; : . : : 2.72
17
)
Bb .6014.02 -0.012.6J l,r.07 -0. 58H.aO: 0 30'64'1'--24'4? 9.
where Nis the number of p:1l'ticles, t is the tim9, x is the dista.nce, and
\}(1 2,8614.71 -0.59," ", ... , ....... 26214.05 -0391 .. : .. ":'25:8;1 2.61
~b ~.611406-0.1026\)[14.31-0.48~.5814.00 0 130.83-25.42 ;:;~ K is a coefficient known l),S ditrw~·b}ity. When the pl1rtides are flOWi11g
) 12a 1~.9615.22-1.081 .... 1 .......... 2.67114,16 -0 75j in a direction along the X axis, this equation gives the particle distribu-
ai'59 "T?5':~
26
i
18a33S'1651-191 ,) 1"" I 3.44
j...... )2.831<1,68- 19°1·
temperature and K is known as thermal d~tJusiuity [37].
. : . ! ' 2773 5.29
) 18b 2.~2[14. 72! -0.833.1915,85 -1. 8112 ,(;,2',14.08 -2578 .
1
21a3.,,\) 17.211-2.341;' ... ..,.... . 2 . 9315.02 -1.40 ..... -28: 51 53.6593 In natural streams, the disturbances of flow caused by local channel
)
2'.1a )3:7917: .90 -Z.49 · .......
24b 30815551-1. 493. 59117
"I' ....
21b2.9815.231·-l.06\.'I.SS',.16.511-1.912.68114.22 -'0.6513449 -26
.~1
3.08115.55 -1.50\ .. : .. -21l
-2.3412.7014.32 -0.6035. 67 -:26:54,
'~~l ::;~
4 .'0 4 irregularities have definite magnitUde at any time and position. They
are mixed, dissipated, and diffused as the flow moves along the channel.
In ll.pplying the theory of flow diffusion to the flow of water, it may be
\. ) 1 1
assumed that the diffusion of the dist,urbanc~s is analogous to the diffusion
Similar numericahnethods for the solut'ion of the differential equations of the particles. If the over-all effect of the disturbances on flow is
')
of unsteady flow [Eqs. (20-1) to (20-4)J were developed by Stoker [16 171 represented by the variation in the flow depth y, Eq, (20-28) may be
fLnd . by ~saacs~n, Stoker, and Troesch [32,33]. The methods ~ere written
) applIed wlth satlsfa.ctmy results to three actual.problems presented by the
U.S. A:my Corps of Engi~eers. [34): (1) movement of the 1945 flood in the
(20-29)
) 375-mll~
. reach of the Ohio River from Wheeling ' W .Va . , to C'mcmna
. t'II
1
1
I )
)
" J:.,.j-...:...........
(20-30)
It is assumed further that the channel is relatively wide and that the
flow on the average is uniform and steady. Thus', the discharge per
unit width of channel may be represented by the Ch~zy iormula1
q = C . ./8 0 Vi, (20-31)
Substi~uting this equs.tion for q in Eq. (20-30) and simplifying,
---.~ '0.\
ay t,. r-/ayH -.:. a2y
at +(~~e . :- K ax': (20-32) , \
This is the basic differential eqt;¢{ion for flood }1:ow in nat7);ral streams. It
can be seen that the coefficient of ayi~/ax in this equation depends on the "-j
~ l'esistance and slopt and that the coeffIcient of a2 y/ax 2 depends
on the channel iW'Igularities .
.:.. __ This equation was orig'inally developed by Hayami [381 through an
r
'I elaborate mathematical derivation.. A similar method of routing based
on diffusion analogy was also presented by Appleby [39]. The value of
diffusivity K in ordinary streams was estima.ted in the range from 10 6 to
10 7 cm 2 /sec. In large rivers, such as the Mississippi River: in the United
States and the Yangtse River in China., the value of K would be of the
order of lOS cm 2/sec.
. A solution of Eq. (20-32) by Hayami results in the following equation
for the propagation of a flood wave: " 1
,/
(a) (b)
where y is the depth at a point a distance x from the upstream end of the
reach under consideration, y~ is the normal depth of flow at the same FIG. 20-4.. Propl>gl>tion of Cal a solitary unit lluud Md. Cb) two successive unit Boods.
(After S. Hal/ami [38].)
point before the flood arrives, yo is the depth at the upstream end, t is the
time, J( is the diffusiv:ity, V", = 1.5V, V is the mean velocity, and X is the as the wave propagates dowllstream, its shape gri\.dual1y becomes asym-
variable.
metrical and fi:J;ttens out.
A fictitious wave having a constant depth and lasting a llilit time In routing an actual fiood, the hydrograph of the fiood may be divided
interval tit may be assumed(Fig. 20-4). This wave is called a unit flood. into a number of unit flood hydrognt.phs (Fig. 20-5). All hydrographs
1 The Manning formuIa may also be used. In this case, the second term on the are plotted with the time against the sta.ge. The propagation of each
left side of Eq. (20-32) would be written (1.49 v'Sc/n)ay~s/ax. unit flood can be computed by Eq. (20-33). By the principle of super-
"'-~'
I,
.. '~' .. .. '. '. ",",' ..
)
604 UN:;lTEADY FLOW
FLOOD ROUT~NG 605
position, the propaga.ted height of the given flood:is equal to the sum
where ilS/ilUs the change in storage during a period t::.t, I is the !lver~~ge
of the propa.gntod heights of all the unit :floods. This method has been
inflow during tit, and 0 is the lwerage o1itilow during t::.t. The value of
used to compute the propagation of a unit fioodartificiaUy produced
AS!t::.t is positive when the storage is increasing and nega.tive when the
in the Yedo Rivet· ill Japan; the theoretical computations were found ill
storage is decreasing. , This equation constitutes the basis. for a ~ydro
good agree,mellt with the observations. In order to simplify and expe-
logic procedure of routing in which ilt is known as the nmhng PBNQd.
dite the I'outing pr9cedure by this
method, electronic' analog com- The rate of storage can be plotted against time, as shown in 2O-6b,
puters have been developed on !ai from which it can be seen that the, storage iB increasing before the time
'(;l,t which the inflow equals theoutflovr and decreasing after that time.
I \ the basis of (20-32) and applied
The cumulative 'area below the curve (shaded :l1rea in the
to several rivers in Japan with
satisfactory results [40-44J. figure) represents the volume of storage at !l. time t after the beginning
of the flood. By plotting this volume
against the time, a storage-volume
curve can be obtained, as shown in /
Fig. 20-6c. This curve hilS a pev.k
representing the maximum volume of
1
(G) storage that occurs at the time when
the inflow equal:> the outflow.
If the storage is plotted against the
outflow discharge, the resulting curve
will generally take the form of a loop,
such as that illustrated in F'ig. 20-7. Siorage
li.1' Time lime
As shown ill this figure, the stornge for FIG. 20-7. The storage-outflow reb.-
Fro. 20-5. Dividing hydrograph into unit-' I I a giv~n discharge on the rising (or tionship.
flood h'ydrographs.
, t I I [e, falling) part of the flood, wave will be , '
I I I , "
"'! I I greater than (or less than) the sl;orage c'orrespollding to the condition of
ll~
20-4. Principle of Hydrologic
steady fiow. The storage-outflow relationship for the condition of steady
Routing. When a :flood wave flow is represented by the dashed curve, which is approxinlately !l.t the
passes throngh a channel reach, average position of the two limbs ot: the loop. '
the inflow and outflow hydrographs The'storage in a channel reach for ullstendy flow depends prim!j.l'ily
f o Time ...
I'
at the upstream aJ:).d downstream on the inflow and outflow discharges and on th~ geometric and hydrauli.:;
,
, ends of the reach, respectively, are }7'IG. 20-6. Relationships among inflow,
outflow, and storage in a. channel reach , characteristics of the channel and its control features. It can be assumed
as shown ill 20-6a. ASS1.lrn- due to a passing flood. '
that the upstl'eam and downstream end sections of the reach have the
ing it. negiigible amount of loss
same mean discharge.and storage relationships with respect to the depth:
01' gain of \:V~1.ter.in the course of flbw through the reach,the total
of flowy. Then the following equations may be written:
areas: under the hyclrogruphs are equal,. since the volume of the
flood :water is unchanged. In: natUl'al the channel resistance I = fly'!! (20-35)
und storage capacity are high; ,consequently the flood-wave character- 0 ay" (20-36)
istics will be considetably modified. As shown ill Fig, 20-6a, the :t and Si d:. by,:, (20-37)
floodpell,k is attenuated and: delayed. The difference between the S. bym (20·38)
ord' s of ,the inflow and outflow hydrogr!l.phs, represented by the
rsh '
t , areas in the figure, is ~qual to the rat.e of storage 'of water in
the re~ch i thn.t is, i '
where a a.nd n~ express the depth-discharge characteristics of the s~ctions,.
band m express the mean depth-storage characteristics of the reaph, and
ilS = I 0 3, and are the storages referring to the depths at the upstre(l.m and
ilt downstream end sections respectively. Eliminating y from Eqs. (20-35)
606 UNSTEADY FLOW
FLOOD ROGTING 607
and (20~37) and from Eqs. (20-36) and (20-38), . In streams having steep slopes, the . dynamic effects of flow are pro~
a(i)""n
nounced and call1lOt be neglected. Consequently, for such streams the
E,= (20-39) hydrologic method of flood routing maybe found unsatisfactory.
20-5.' Methods of Hydrologic Routing. Numerous hydrologic methods
and Eo b(~)""n (20-40) of flood routing h.we been developed. Descriptions of these method4J
can be found in the literature on engineering hydrology [45-50]. In this
Let X be a dimensionless factor ~hatdefines the relative weights article, therefore, the important methods will be mentioned only by
given to inflow and outflow in the determination of the storage volume name and references will he provided for furt.her study. A simple
within the reach. Then, the storage at any given time may be expressed hydrologic method, however, "rill be described in the next article.
as' In general, hydrologic methods of, flood routing may be classified
S = XE. +(1 (20-41)
into h'TO groups: t.he analytical audthe instrumental.
When the stages in a reach are determined by the control at its down- There are many analytical methods of routing. For routing through
stream eud, for example, at the spillwa.y of a level-pool reservoir, the reservoirs, the well:.known Rippl ma,ss curve [51] is widely llsed [52-54].
storage is a 80113 function of the outflow; therefore, X = O. If the stora,ge Other graphical m~thods of routing have also been developed, sllch as the
due to backwater effect at the upstream end of the reservoir is significant., method of Sorensen (55 i 561. For routing through rivers, the storage-
X will be greater than zero. In uniform channels, equal weight is given discharge relationship is simplified in the methods developed by Meyer
to illflo\,. and outflow, and X 0.5. [57j, PuIs [47,58,59J, Wilson [60], Oheng [61], Johnstone and Cross [54),
Substituting Eqs. (20-39) and (20~40) for E, and S.; respectively, in . Knappell, Stratton, and Davis [56J, and Chow {52]. Semigraphical pro-
Eq. (20-41) and simplifying, cedures include the methods of Goodrich fo3J, Rutter, Graves, and Snyder
S K[X I~ + (1 - X)O-'] (20-42) [64J, Wisler and Brater [65J, and Steinberg [66J. Other simplified meth~
ods use a nomograph, as suggested by Linsley [67], a str~ght. slide rule
where K bla"'''' alid x min. In prismatic rectangular channels, as suggested by Posey [68,69], and circular computers as suggested by
discharge varies with the five-thirds power of the dept.h on the basis Shepley and Walton [70J. A simplified method of successive average was
of the Manning formula, and storage varies with the first power. Since developed by Tatum [48,71]. One rather popular and satisfactory
n = % and m I, the exponent x == 0.6. In natural channeJs, m may method, known as the Mt~I;!";in{}um method was developed by :!I.1:cCarthy
be considerably greater than unity and hence :t; is larger than 0.6. Mady, [46,72]. In this method, Eq. (20-42) is used as the working equatioll,
hydrologic routing procedures have been developed on the general basis assuming x L; that is,
of Eq. (20-42). For simplicity and for practical purposes, x is commonly
assumed to be unity. S = [([Xl + (1 _. X)OI (20-43)
The hydrologic approach to the problem of flood routing is based 011 the
where K and X are to be determined from the channel chamctel'istics
storage-discharge relationship described above. It is assumed that. under study.
dynarniceffects of flow are negligible and that storage is a single-\'alued
In flood forecasting or control and operation of multiple-purpose river
function of discharge. This assumption implies that the flow is changing
projects, the stage of flood is a major concern and a procedure for :;~a(Je
slowly with time. Effects of 'abnormal surface slope in modifying dis-
routing is needed; For this purpose, a method involving the use of
charge and in changing channel storage are, therefore, neglected.
multiple-line charts was pl'QPosed by Lane [73]. An improved procedure
This procedure is approximately correct for ordinary st.reams with
",vas later developed by Kohler [74], which requires on6 chart'for de~ermin-
small slopes. .When storage is plotted against discharge, the resulting
iug the normal relationship bet, ween gages in the main river and auxiliary
loop is usually narro\v and an average curve may be fitted ill to represent
charts, one for each tributary. These charts can be used to determine
.the storage a.s a single-valued function of the discharge. If the loop is
corrections to be applied to the predicted normal stage.. The .U.S.
wide, it can be reduced to a single-line relationship by an adjustIi:lent
Mississippi River Commission [75] has used the Puis method of stage
such as tha.t emploY,cd in the Muskingum method [45]. In this method
routing. For accurate prediction of stages on very flat rivers, a method of
the adjustment is made possible by varying the values of K and X in
stage routing was suggested by RA.y and l'vlondschein [76].
Eq. (20-42). .
In connection with the design of levees for flood control, the routing
608 UNSTEADY FLOW ROUTING 609
r 1
techniqu~ shoulci be extended to solve the problem of so-called ftow-Unl: The U.S. Weathe.r Bureau [79-81,48] has developed an electronic
computation. This problem is to estimate the maximum elevation of the analog, shown in Fig. 20-8. This machine automatically produces the
water surface at all points along the leveed channel during the passage of outflow hydrograph while the operator traces the inflow hydrograph
a design floou. Once this elevation is determined, the height of the with a stylUS. Resistances in the electric circuit. can be adjusted to
levees is given by adding a suitable freeboard. For such purposes, a simulate the conditions for each reach of the river, as determined from
( simple method of calculation was developed by: W. M. Mulholland (46]. past floods. The model illustrated ill the figure has two inflow positions,
!
i
FiG. ~U-!l. uEDA tiood computer. (Courtesy of E. E. AbboU, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers.)
FIG. 20·8. Eleatronic f1ood·ronting a.nalog.
Bureau.)
allowing processing of two sources of inflow affecting the final outflow
In order to speed up routing operations, instrumental routing becomes downstream .. More positions can be added, if necessary. In other
necessary. For this purpose, two kinds of routing machines have been words, the machine also does flood synthesis. The use of such a m[~chille
developed: the mechanical and the elec.tronic. has a decided advan:tage over analytical methods in that it solves the
r
\
Mechanical routing 'machines are usually designed for reservoir rout- routing equation in differential rather than incremental form. Incre-
ing. The U.S. A~'my Corps of Engineers has constructed two types: an menta) form is often unavoidable in analytical methods. . Furthermore,
integrating machine designed by Tarpley (77J and a rolling-type flood the entire hydrograph can be routed more rapidly than by analytical
router by Harkness [78; 45, pp. 674':"676]. computatioll. .
r Electronic routing machines are electronic analog and digital com- . Similarly, the U.S. Army Corps of uses n GEDA (Goodyear
puters. The principle of the electronic analog is to utilize the analogy Electronic Dif;Ierential Analyzer, 20-9) in preliminary studies of flood
between the flow of current in an electric circuit and the flow of water projects and in touting flood through reservoirs.
in a channel or river system. In other words, an electri.c circuit can be 20-6. A Simple Hydrologic Method of Routing. The method to be
constructed with its circuit equation analogous to the. routing equation. described here is approximate but simple and suitable for practical
610 UNSTEADY FLOW FLOOD ROUTING 611
purposes. Likp. most hydroiogic methods of routing, this method is Substituting these expressions in Eq. (20-34) and simplifying,
based on the following assumptions: .1
L The channel is divided into a number of reaches. Each reach is
relatively short and has practically constant physical characteristics.
. 8t
2 tJ.t - 0 1 +I +I
J 2
S2
= 2 l:!.t +a 2 (20-44)
J
The flood is then routed successively from reach to reach. In general, the
shortest practical reaoh is the section between the two nea.rest gaging
If I I, I 2, O~, and O2 are expressed in cis, 8 1 and 8 2 in acre-ft, and tJ.t in -,1
stations.
2. The discharge data are given at equal time intervals or routing
periods. Within this period the increase or decrease of inflow and out-
flow is assumed to vary linearly. A short routing period is preferable
. but will multiply the labor of computation. tt
UlUl
+ +
3. The inflow and outflow are both taken as a measure of storage in -0
the reach. This assumption is almost true if a: flood is being routed
through a le\Tel-pool reservoir where the variation in storage between the
falling and rising stages of the flood wave is not appreciable, In the case
of a stream, the length of a reach for routing must not be too long or
these variations will be exaggerated. .Theoreticaliy, the length of the
reach should not exceed the product of the routing period and the average
velocity of the flow in the reach (why?), although it has been found
in many cases that reaches considerably longer are permissible [54,pp. S-<>-
-s -\
173-1'75J.
FIG. 20-10. Characteristic cun'es for flood FIG. 20-11. Const.ruction of the average
4. The flow in the reach, local accretions from ungaged tributary flows, routing. S curve from a wide S-curve loop.
ground water, rainfall or any form of precipitation, and local decrements
due to evaporation or seepage are ignored if the amounts are small. If days, noting that 1 cfs = 2 afd (acl'e-feet per day) approximat.ely, then
the amounts are large, they are either added to or deducted from the Eq. (20-44) beco:rnes
inflow as the case may be.
In routing a flood from the first routing period to the second routing (20-45)
period, let
When tJ.t = 1 d.ay, as it is in most cascs, the above equation becomes
I1 and 0 1 = instantaneous inflow and outflow, respectively, at the end
of the first routing period or at the beginning of the second (20-46)
touting period . . This equation constitutes the basis of the present method. If tit is not
8 1 . = storage in the reach at the beginning of the second routing equal to 1 day, then the values of Sri tJ.t and 82/l:!.t should be used in place
period of Sl and S2, respectively, for the computation and construction of the
S 2 = storage in the reach at the end of the first routing period curves in the procedure to be described a..') follows:
or at the begi~ning of the second routing period A. Construction of Characteristic Curves. These curves are constructed
At = routing period on a plane of S vs. 0 + S (Fig. 20-10). The abscissa represents the
storage in acre-ft, and t.he ordinate represents the sum of the outflow
Then I = ~ + [2) = average inflow during l:!.t in cfs and the storage in acre-ft. The curves can be constructed given
2 . any· two of thesetbree items: informat.ion on inflow, information on,out~
o= (0 1 +
2.
O = average outflow· during l:!.t
2
)
.
flow, and storage data of a historical flood in the reach under consider-
ation. The third item can be calculated from the two given items by
~S = 8 2 - 81 = change iin storage during At Eq. (20-34).
).
612 UNSTEADY FLOW!
l
I
i
FIIOOD ROUTING 613
. 1. Draw the 450" liM, starting at the origin at a slope of 45°. which corresponds to point A in the previous 0Yllle. Successive values of
outflow can be obtained, and the outflow hydrograph can be constructed.
,2. Plot S agaillst,O +
S, obtaining the S curve.
The above procedure for d~terroining the outflow can be proved as
. As described previously. (Alt. 20~4), the plot of st,orage against out-
follows: Extend CD and EF horizontally toward the left to meet the
flow will form ., loop, and so will the plot of S against 0 + S. If the
loop of the S curve is not wide, an eye-fitted aVemge curve may be drawn . ordinate axis at H ,and G, respectively. Then, from Fig. 20-10,
to represcnt [l. line::ll; relationship between S o.nd 0 + S. If the width of HD . HA -- CA + CD"", 8 1 - 0 1 + II + 12
the loop is fairly wide, the average S curVe ml'.y be constructed as:shown GE = GF + FE ,= 8 2 + FE
in Fig. 20-11. In this figure, a curve ofS against 1 + S also in t,he fonn and HD =GE
of a loop is plotted on the left side of the ordinate axis and the 8 curve in Therefore, S~ - 0 1 + 11 + I .. = 8 2 + FE (20-47) .
loop fo!'m i~ plotted on the right side of the axis. On both sides' of the
CoropfLring this equation with Eq. (20-46), it is evident that FE must be
ordinate axis, vertical lines are constructed at thc equ.al ~bsci8sas' cor-
responding to. a certain storage 8'. The lines intersect the loops at equai to O2•
poiuts A, B, A', and B'. The points Aand A' are on the limbs of ~he Example 2a-~. The infiow and out.flow'data of a historic!!.l flood for a channel
rising stage of the loops, and B rmd B' are on the limbs of falling stage. rench are given in cols. 1, 2, lind 5 or Table 20-3. Determine the !>utflow hydrograph
Draw stl'o.ightlines AA' and BE', which intersect at C. Draw a hori- of a flood whose inflow dlJ.t/l. are given ill cols. 1 !!.nd 'e: of Table 20-4.
zonto.llille irOlil C to the right to lTIf::et t.he verticul interc(~pt AB at point
TABLE 20-3. COMP1:.'TJ\.~ION 01' CaAB.ACTEFtIS't'IC CURVES
C', C'is the r.equil'cd point on the nyerage S curve corresponding to the
"(All quantities ill thou3ands)
given stomge 3'. It can be shown that the ordinate of C; repl'esen~s
the sum of S'and a certain discha.rge Q whose value is the average for (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
(1) (2) (4)
the rising and fulling of the flood stage.
3. Construct the image curve (1 curve in Fig. 20-10) whose abscissa Inflow (}utfiow Storage
is equal to 8 t 0 1• Tlus is an image of the 45° line reflected hori-
zontully on the left side of the curve. The curve may be constructed Adj, Ay, Given, Av, Ch!mge>: Accum,
easily by making the hOl'izontal intercept between the curve and the's ds aid cis aid !lfd !I.e-it
curve equal to the horizonto.lintercept be~\v~en the 8 cur~e and the
45° line. . I, 8,
\ I, I, +;,
Ot
o. 0 1 +0, S. - S, S,
I B. Determination of the Outflow. This is based on the char:l.cteristic
curvtjs (Fig. 20-10) and the inflow hydrogl'nph of the flood to be routed. 27.5 46.0
!I.-larch 23 23.6 22,8 18.5
The routing period is taken as 1 day. 24 59.5 57.4 80.2 29.5 48.0 32,2 59.7 89.2
1. The initial outflow at the beginning of the first routing period must 25 161.1. 158.5· 215.9 94.5 124,0 9l.9 151.6 246.1
be known or assumed. Not.e that, if the value is assumed, the error 25 279.2 269.6 428.1 211.2 305.7 122.4 274.0 485:2
involved in assuming th~ vruue will not be magnified enough to produce 27 277.7 .268.2 53i.:S 270.8i 482.0 55.8 329.8 600.6
28 195.9 189,2 457.4 229.3 500.1 -42.7 287.1 516.4
appreciable effect on the result. -79.2' 207.9 376A
29 133.9 129.4 318,6 168.5! 397.8
2. Locate [l. horizonto.lintercept AB equal to the initial outflow 30 96.1 92.8 222.2 119.7 288.2 -66.0 141.9 261.6
.between the 45 0 line and the S curve. 31 i'L5 71.9 164.1 9E;'.8 216.5 -51.8 90.1 1813.9
3. Extend AB towo.I'd the left to meet the 1 curve at C. i
i April 1 58.9 56.s1, 128.7 64.5 16l.3 -32.6, 57.5 122.0
4. Extend AB to,vard the" right to point D, making CD = 1 1 + Iz. I 2 45.1 101.9 50.2 114.7 -12.8 44.7 94.9
I
I
-"I
614 U-\'lSTElADY FLOW
FLOOD ROUTING 615
Solution. The computation for ·characteristic curves is 8hl?wn in Table 20-3. In
600
~,
col. 2 the inflow Gt\tn ttre made up.of three parts: the daily inflow at the upstream end
of th;' reB.ch, either gaged or routed from the upstream reach i the daily inflow from
gaged or routed tributaries entering the reach; and the loca.J. inflow contributed by
ungaged tributa.ries and la.nd nreas draining directly into the stream. The local 500 ~;
inBow Inay be evaluated directly from the distribution of rainfal! of the storm over
the area draining directly into the reach. As the total outflow of a flood ispresuumbly
equal to the total inflow, the sums of the values in cols. 2 and 5 should agree with 400 .1
TARLE 20-4. COMPU,!?,TION OF TilE OUTFLOW: HYDROGRAPf!:. <fI
(Ali quantities in thousands) .t 300
0
,I
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Inflow Outflow
II 0, 01
I, I, + I, 0, 01 S
each other. As is usually the case, however, the sums here are not equal to each other.
Assuming that the outRoy, values are closer to the tr)le values tha,n the inflow values,
the inflow is adjusted by multiplying the values in col. Ii by the ratio 1,512.1/1,566.3 -
0.9654. The adiusted inflow values are listed in col. 3. The a.verage inflow and out-
flow in afd a.re equal to I j + I z a.nd 0, + 6" respectively, where I" I" 01, and O. Dole
are in efs. Value~ of I I + I, and 0, + 02 are given in cola. 4 and 6, respectively.
FIG, 2~-13. Inflow and outflow bydrographs for Example 20-2.
The' difference between t,he values in eols. 4 and 6 is equal to the change in storage
listed in ~ol. 7, liinee (II + I.J (0, + 0,) = S, - S, = AS. A positive value in col.
7 indicates that the storage is increasing; a negative value indicates that the storage
The computat,ion of the outflow from the inflow of Il. given flood is shown in Table
is decreasing. Column 8 gives the cumula.tive stora.ge oomputed from the va.lues ill 20-4. In cols. 1 and 2 are inflow data. Column 3 gives the average inHow inafd, or
col. 7.' The first entry in col. 8, i·.e., 27.5, rep:resents the storege in the reach on II + I 2• In coL 4, the initial outtlow is gi ven as 20.3. Other values of outflow are
March 23 just before the flood began, which should be given or estimated. The sum obtained from the characteristic curves in accordance with the procedure described
of thevlLlues in cols. 5 a.nd 8, or 0, + S" is ent.ered in col. 9. From the values in previously. The outflow values, except for the given initial outflow, are ad;usted
ools. 8: and 9, the cha.racheristic curveS are constructed, a.a shown in Fig. 20-12. and entered io col. 5 so that the total inflow agrees with the total outRow. The
t
616 UNSTEADY FLOW i 'FLOOD ROUTING 617
inflow .and out.f1ow hydrographs of the given flood are constructed as shown in Fig. ! change in stage at Sta. B of the flood under investigation as a. result of the proposed
20-13 from the vtl.lues of cois. I, 2, and 3. pla.u, Assuming that the discha.rge is a single-valued f unction of the ataga.
(
PROBLEMS "REFERENCES
ZO~l. Extend the routing of the flood in Example 20-1 to a period of (a) 36 hr !l.nii 1. N. J. Dahl; On non-permanent flow ill open cana.ls, Proceedings of the 6th Gene,-al
(b) 120 hr, Meeling, International Asso,ia.lionJor Hydraulic Resea.rch, The Ha.gue 1956; vol. 4,
20-2. Route the following hypothetical solitary flood through the channel reach pp. D19-1 to D19·16, 1955.
described,in Example 20-1: 2. T8.keo IGnosita: Hydrodynamicn.i study on the flood flow, in Floods, voJ. III of
SYTnposia Darcy, International A~sQciaHon o.J Scientific Hyd"ology, PubliCa/ian
Ti'me since flo.od began, hr Celerity, cfs No. 42, 1956, pp. &5-63. "
o 14.0 3. ,D. N. Dietz; A new method for calculating the conduct of translation waves in
3 15.0 prismatic canals, Physica, ~·ol. 8, no. 2, pp. 177-195, Febru/l.Yy, 1941.
6 15,,j 4. Junius Massau: Appendice au M:emoire sur l'integration graphique (Appendix: to
9 15.9 Memoir on graphical integration), Annales de I' Association des Ingd'lli~u1's sDrti~
12 '14.0 des Eco.les Speciales de Ganc, voL 12, pp. 185-444, Ghent, BalgiuIll, 1889. '
5. Junius l'Ihssau: Memoire sur l'integration graph,ique des equations aux derivees
The flow conditions before and after the flood wave Me uniform/having a celerity partie lies (Graphical integration of partial differential equations "lith special
of 14.0 cfs. . ' applications to unstelLdy Bow in open channels), Annale8- de l' Association .des
20-3. Verify the un'it-flood computation sho\vn in Fig, 20-4. [-ngJnieurs sortis des Ecoles Speciale;; de Grmd; vol. 23, pp. 95-214, Ghent, Belgium,
20-i. In a level-pool reservoir in which discharge is not controlled, the pl!ak outflow 1900.
must occur where the' outflo,w hydrograph intercepts the inflow hydrograph; that is, 6. MlJ.rc Hemy: Propagation des intumescences dans un canal rectangulaire'-( Propa-
P' in Fig. 28-6 must be at L Why? ' gation of, translatory waves in a rectangular channei), RellUe g~n()I'ale de l'hydrall-
20-li. In the development of a flood-control project for e. river bEtsin, the largest Zi'lue, Paris, vol. 4, no. 19, pp. 17-24; no. 20, pp. 65-71, 1938.
flood on recol'd is investiga.ted. The discho.rges of this flood at an upstrea.m station 7: Louis Bergeron: Methode graphique generaie de calcul des propagatiolls d'ondes
A llnd a downst.rc!t1U station B were observed, as shown in the accornpnnying table. ·planes (General graphical method of computation of the propagations of plane
waves), Memc)1:res, Societ~ dell Ingenieurs Civiis de la Fra.nce, pp. 407-497, July-
August, 1937, ,
Inflow at Stl', A from - Outflow at Sta. B Discharges held 8. Louis Bergeron: Methode graphiqllIJ pour te calcul dell ondes de tro.ns~ation·
"out at Sta. A, (Graphical method for the complttation of translatory waves), Sw;~te Fran.~aise
Date
Main, I 'Iributo.ries, Local, Discha.rge, Gage ht, due to proposed des Mecaniciens, Bulletin No, 7, Paris, 1953.
cfs cis cia ds ft reservoirs, cf. 9. S. A. Kh1'istianovich: Neustanovh'sheiesia dvizhenie v kanalakh i rekokh (Un-
-------" steady "motion in channels a.nd rivers), in "Nekotoryie Voprosy Mekhani\d
;[llly 29 13,600 1,900 3,000 20,800 14.4 0 SploahnoI Srady" ("Several Questions on the Mecha.nics of ContinuouH' Media"),
30 20,100 46,300 63,800 33,000 19.6 60,000 Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R., 1938, pp. 13-154.
31 106,000" 50,100 72,lQO 80,800 35.1 149,000 10, J..eon Levin: Methode graphique de calcul du mouven1ent Iion permanent dans'
Aug. 1 92,800 I5,900 21,100 110,000 43.0 96,400 lescanailJ( a ecoulement libra (Grapbic method of computation of unsLeady Bow
:2 49,600 0,200 8,900 112,000 43.5 46.100 in open channels), Le Gtnie civil, vol. 119, no. 11-12, pp. 109-113, Ma.rch 12-14,
3 22,700 2,900 6,200 lIZ,OOO 43,4 17,900 1942.
4 11,000 2,200 4,100 '102,000 41.1 2,000 11. A. Craya: Ca,lcul graphique des regimes variables dans les canaux (Graphical
5 8,050 2,10.0 3,100 68,200 31.5 2,100 computa.tion of varia.ble regimes of flow in channels), La Hou.ille blall,che, Grenoble,
6 13,800 3,200 5,200 26,100 16.8 3,200 new series, lilt yr., no. I, pp. 19-38, Novembel', 1945, and no, 2, pp. 111-130,
7 19,000 5,300 8,100 20,800 14.4 4,800 March, 1946. '
1, 8 14,500 3;200 3,800 21,700 14,8 2,200 12. V. A. Arli:hangels!dl: "Raschety NcustaDovivshegosia Dvizheniia. y Otkrytykh
I
'; j
I
I
1
I ,I
I1
[
1I :j
I
,I
.1
I
I
;1
;1.
r,
',"j .
ApPElND~X: A. GJilOMETRIC ELEMENTS FOR CmCULAR CilANNEL Sli:CTlONS
do dialJleter R hydulUlic radius
y depth of How T "'. top width
A = wuter area D "" hydraulic clepth
p wetter perimeter Z = A ~. = section factor for
critio:d-flow comp u ta.tion
.Y.. A P R T D Z
d. d o1 d. cIo d. d, d,'"
\ 001 00013 O. 0.0066 0.1990 O.OO6~ 0.0001
I
I
0.02
0.03
O.O'!;
0.0037
O.OOLIO
0.0105
02838
0.3<!S2
0.4027
0.0132
0.01!)7
0;OZ5Z
0.2800
0.3412
0.::'!)1\)
0.0134
0.0202
o 0268
0.000-1
O.OUIO
0.0017
0.0002
0.0005
0.OU09
0.05 o 0147 O. '15lO 0.0326 0.4359 0.0;;36 0.0027 0.0015
\
, 0.2() 0.1623 1. 0701 0.15\6 0.8773 0.1850 0.0697 0.0464
0.27 0.1711 1.0928 0.1566 0.8879 0.1925 0.0751 0.0"97
r 0.28
O.2D
0.1800
0.1890
1.1152
1.1373
0.1614
Q.1662
0.8980
0.9075
0.2004
0.2084
0.0805
0.0862
0.0536
o 0571
0.30 0.1982 L 1593 i 0.1709 0.9165 0.2162 0.09Z1 00610
625
~I
l
626 APPENDIXES
APPENDLX A 627
ApPENDIX A. GEOMETllIC ELEMENTS FOR CIRCULA.R
CHANNEL SECTlO~S (C01Itinued) AI'I.'EN.DrX A. GEOMETRIC EI,EMENTS FOR CmCULAll
CHA.NNEL SECTIONS (conlinued)
.'!!.. A P R T D Z A.R~~
I A P R T D z
d, do' .do da d. d. do" s :i I!
--- d. do' d. d. d~
I
0:31 0.2074 0.1755 0.2242 i ---'--I·---___~I·-~-~·· - ; - - - - 1 - - - - - -
1.1810 0.9250 0.0981 0.0650
0.32 0.2167 1.2025 0.1801 0.9330 I) :232:l 0.1044 o.OMn 0.66 ! 0.54()9 1.8965 0.289£1 0.9174 0.5804 0.4188 0.2407
0.33 0.2260 1.2239 0.1848 0.9404 O.240.f 0.1107 0.0736 0.67 0.5594 1.9177 0.2917 0.9404 0.5948 0.4309 0.2460
J 0,2.510
0.34 0.2355 1.2451 O. ]891 0.9474 0.2486 0.1112 0.0776 0.68 0.5687 1. 9391 0.2935 0.9330 .0.6096 0.4437
0.35 0.2450 1.2661 0.1935 0.9539 0.2568 0.1241 0.0820 0.69
0.70 !
! 0.5780
o 5872
1.9606
1.9823
0.2950
0.2962
o 9250
0:9165
0.6250
0.6408
0.45136
o -lG94
o 2560
o 2DU8
0.36 0.2546 1.2870 0.1978 0.9600 0.2652 0.1310 0.0864 I
0.37
0.38
0.2642
0.2739
1.3078
1.3284 I
I
0.2020
0.2061
0.9656
0.9708
I 0.273(3
0.2822
(),1381
0,1>153 j 0.0909
0.0955
0.71
0.72
0.5964
0.6054
0.6143
2.0042
2.0254
2.0438
0.21)73
0,2£184
0.2095
0.9075
0.8980
0.8870
0.6572
0.6742
0.6918
0.4831
0.·jJJG4
0.5100
O.2IJ.5:j
0.2702
0.2751
0.39 0,2836 1.3490 0.2102 0.9755 0.2908 0.1528 0.1020 0.73 \
0.40 0.2934 1.3694 Q.2142 0.9798 0.2994 0.11303 0,1050 .0.74 I 0.6231 2.07H 0.3006 '0..87i3 0.7104 05248 0.27H4
I 0.75 0.6318 2.01)44 0.3017 o 86GO 0.7296 o 531l:!. 0.2840
0.41 0.3032 1.3898
.'
0.2181 0.9837 0.3082 0.1682 0.1100
0.42 0.3132 1. 4101 0.2220 0.9871 0.3172 0.1761 0: 1147 0.76 0.6404 2.1176 I) 3025 0.8542 o 1498 0.5540 0.2888
0.43 0.3229 1.4303 0.2257 0.9902 9·3262 0.1844 .0.1196 0.77 0.6489 2.1412 0.3032 0.8417 o 7710 o..'5G!)5 0.2930
o 2060
0.44
. 0.45
0.3328
0.3428
1.4505
1.4706
0.22(H
0.2331
0.9928
0.9950
0.3352
0.3446
0.1927
0.2011 I
i
0.1245
0.1298
0.78
0.79
0.80
0.6573
0.6655
0.6736
2 1652
2.1895
2.2143
0.3037
0.3040
0..3042
0.8285
0.8146
08000
0.7934
0.8170
08420
0,5850
0.6011
0.G177
0.3008
0.3045
0.46
0.47
I 0.3527
0.3627
1. t907
1.5108
0.2366
0.2400
0.9968
0.9982
0.3538
0.3634
0.2098
0.2186
0.1348
0.1401 0.81 0.68~5 2.2395 0.3044 0.7846 0.8686 !
0.G347 0.3082
0..48 0.3727 1.5308 0.243'1 0.9992 0.3730 0.2275 0.1452 0.82 0.6893 2.2653 0.3043 0,7684 0.8970 0.6524 O.aJl8
0.49
0.50
0.3827
0.3927
1.5508
1.5708
0.2467
0.2500
0.9998
1.0000
0.3828
0.3928
0.2366 . 0.1505
0.2459 0.1558
0.83
0.34
0.6969
0.7043
2.29l()
2.3186 I 0.3041
03038
0.7513
0.7332
0.9276
0.9606
0.6707
0.6897
0.3151
0.3182
0.85 0.7115 2.3462 0.3033 0.7141 0.9964 0.7098 0.3212
I
0.51
0.52
O. '1027
0.4127
1. 5908
1.6108
0.2531
0.2561
0.9998
0.9992
I 0.4028
0.4130
0.2553
0.2650
0.1610
0.1664 0.86 0.7186 2.3746 0.3026 0.6940 1.0354 0.7:307 0.3240
0..53 0.4227 1.6308 0.2591 0:9982 0.4234 0.2748 0.1715 0.87 0.7254 2 4038 0.3017 0.6726 1.0784 0.7528 0.3204
0.54 0.4327 1.6509 0.2620 0.9968 0.4340 0.2848 0,1772 0.38 0.7320 2.4341 0.3008 0.ti49\l 1. 12fH 0.7754. 0.3286
0.55 0.4426 I 1. 6710 0,2649 0.9950 0.4448 O.2!H9 0.1825 0.89 0.7380 2.4655 0.2996 0.15258 1.1800 0.8016 0.3307
0.90 0.7445 2.4981 0.2980 O.GOOO 1 2408 0.8285 0.3324
0.56 0.4526 1.6911 0.2676 0.9928 0.4558 0.3051 0.1878
0.57 0.4625 1.7113 0.2703 0.9902 0.4670 0.3158 0.1933 0.91 0.7504 2.5322 0.2963 0.5724 L3UO 0.8586 0.3336
0.58 0.-1723 1.73~5 0.2728 o 9871 0.4786 0.3263 0.1987 0.92 0.7560 2.5681 0.21)44 0.5426 1.3932 0.8917 0,:334.5
0.59 0.4822 1. 7518 0.2753 0.9837 0.4902 0.3373 0.204'1 0.93 0.7612 2.6061 0.2922 0.5103 1.4918 0.9202 0.3350 - 1
0.60 0.4920 1.7722 0.2776 0.9798 0.5022 0.3484 0.2092 0.9:1 0.7662 :2 .6467 0.28913 0.4750 1.6130 0.9725 0.3353
0.95 0.7707 26906 O.28(l4 0.4359 1.7682 1,0242 0.3349
0.61 0.5018 1.7926 0.2797 0.9755 0.5144 0.3560 0.2146 I
0.62 0.5115 1.8132 0.2818 0.9708 0.5270 0.3710 0.2199 0.96 0.7749 2.7389 0.2830 0.391\) 1.9770 1.0888 0.3.'34:0
0.63 0.52t2 1.8338 a 2839 0.95513 0.5398 0.3830 0.2252 0.97 0.7785 2.7934 0.2787 0.3412 2.2820 1.1752 0.3322
0.64 0.5308 1.8546 0.2860 0.9600 0.5530 0.3945 0.2302 0.98 0.78t6 2.8578 0.2735 0.2800 2.7916 1.3050 0.3291
I 0.7841 2 9412 0.2665 1.5554 0.3248
0.65 0.5404 .1.8755 0.2881
l
0.9539 0.5666 . 0,4p66 0.2358 0.99
1.00 0.7854 3,1416 0.2500
0.1990
0.0000
3.9400
'" "" 0.3117 -I
Ii
II
!'
,i
"
l Apl'ENDL" B. GEOMETRIC ELE~'[ENTS FOR TRAPEZOIDAL, TRUNGULAR, AND
II PA1lAl:IOLIC CHANN.I!a, SllCT40NS
(The lise of the chari,s" l'<:quil'es no e:1:plnlk'ltion.)
I
I
I
I
r * Repl'odnced with the pet'mis~ion Qf the U.S, Agriculturai Research Service,
through the ~,ourtesy of Mr, W~ 0, Ree, from" Handbook of Cha.nnel Design for Soil
Mld 'Vater COli.s<:l'vation," prepal'ed by StillwMer Outdoor Hyclraulic Lnboratory,
1
II n.S. Soil Conservntion Service, Sc...ct.TP-Gl, March, 1047, Md revised June, 1954.
!
!
I, I
\
'I
1
I
1
, .
I y;
r 629
~/~
..
0:
::!
'-6
'"""o '"
", ~
:t:
0:
'"
"
'is
l?
'" "
~
....
C»
E
"0
>-
:L
...
,
'. ~
...-L-..
-
....
0::
.2
."
2
.,.
to;)
'-'"
Areo, A, 1,2
FIG. B-3. Hydraulic elements oftrapozoidal channels with 2:1 side slopo!!.
-0::
.;
"
'0
l2'
"".w .2
"3
w 0
.f5
".,
J::
Areo,A, tlZ
FlO. B-4. Hydraulic element.s of t.rapezoidal channels wit.h 2~i: 1 side slopes.
-
t-
.!! l!w:",--+--+.--J-j-+-i
g O.')~~--!-,-+-1---1--1-4-
-g, 0.8 r--r--+-+-++-b
:c 0.7 I
0.6 ---\.---i--.".j"~";::
0.5· §----i-'7"'g-,,4--+-7"i"-
a ~ 10 . 15
Area, A • 0 2
;:::
Ii.
.;
"
15
B
.;1
~ :;
Ql
<!
'"J:
>.
(-'~-
(
-'--
~(--
FIG. B-7. Hydraulic etemehts.of trapezoidal channels with 5:1 sid" siol?es.
,.
-
....
rl
.;
a
-0
~
(.3
c..
e.-> 30
-1
t
:r:
..____ .---,~u.w
15
Afea,A, HZ
FIG. B-3, Hydranlic elements of trapezoidal cbannels with 6:1 side slopes.
'! ""'"''!''''!''''l'''
2.5i=---,...·+-----,-;---~+_H_+-··--!- -..i~1--r-::7F7""+__::.:r'9-::l_-
:1'
-
" 1--
a:
'"::>
'i5
0>
e
<;;:J .!'!
:;
'" 0
.;;;>..
::c
:';
.~,
.,
'.'J
~;;::
.., _ 0~
~ 0.539 0.531
0,565 0.557
0.592 0.582
0.525 0.52110.517 0.514 0.511 0.509
0.550 0.54410.540 0.536 0.5:34 0.531
0.574 0.568 0.563 0.559 0.558 0.554
0.508 0.506
0.529 0.528
,,
P<
--: , .a 0.551 0.550
11"' :&sj 0.619 0.608
0,648 0.635
0.599 0.593 [ 0.587 0.583 0.579 0,576
0.626 0.618[ 0.612 0 . 607 o 603 o 599
0.574 0.572
.-
.~.t:
0
It· 0.596 0.594
'- ,, I 1
, "CO
g ~ f!
-::l 0,676 0.663 0.653 0.644 0.637 0.631 0.627 0.623 0.620 0.617
,T :)~"O
10.691 0.678 0.667 0.657 0.650 0.6H 0.1339 0.835 0.631 0.628
'J.» 0.7061 0.692 0.680 0.671 0.663 0.657 0.651 0.847 0.643'0.640
::;cilI: 0.722. 0.707 0.694 0.68'1 0.6713 0.609 0.1364 0.659 0.655 0,652
a. • ... 0.738 0.722 0.709 0.698, 0.690 0.683 0.677 0.67'2 0.667 0.664
'" ~ 0
.. . .g..,
~
.. ::I
0.65 0.754 0.737
0.66 0.771 0.753
0.724 0.712 0.703 0.696 0.689 0.684
0.738 0.727 0.717 0.709 0.703 0.697
0.680 0.676
0.692 0.688
::20 0.67. 0.787 0.769 0.754 0.742.0.731 0.723 0.716 0.710 0,70,,) 0.701
0.68 °
o 69 0.822 804 0.785
0.804[
0.769] 0.75710.746 0.737 a 729 0.723
0.785 0.772 0.761 0.751 0.743 0.731
0.718 0:71.3
0.731 0.726
J.
I
\
* The table of the varied-flow fUlletion fOI' i)ositive slopes F(II,N) is 1'\}pl'oduced
from Ven Te Cho\v, Inteljratin' g the equntion of gradually n.ded fiow, PToceedin(lo,
A JIIerican Society of Cil,ii I~!li"eej's, vol. 81, paper no. 838, pp. 1-32, Novembel', 1955.
Tpe ta.ble of the varied-flow [tinction for negative slOpes F{1L,N) -8, isrepl'oduced from
the author's closing discussion of this pU.per in roceedings, voL 83, JOli1'llut of
Hyd1'auUC8 Di.vision, no. HYl, paper no. 1177, pp. 9-22, February, 1957.
640 641
APPENDIX D 643
642 APPENDIXES
TABLE D-l. THE VARIED-FLOW FUNCTION Foa POSITIVE SLOPES, F(11,N) (conlin'l!ed)
TABLE D-l. T.Hf: VARIED-F!,OW FUNCTION FQ!l. POSITIVE SLOPES, F(u,N) (continued)'
TAlILlll D-1. T,H!l YARH!n-nOW FONCTIOH 1'0& POSITfVE SLOPES, F(lt,N) (contintled) TADLE D-l. THE VARIED-FLOW FUNCTION FpR POSITfVE SLOPES, F(It,N) (cohtimled)
4.2 Vi 5.0 6.2 G.B 5.0 .5.4 5.8 6.2 G.G 7.0' i 7.4 .7.8
7.8
0.00 0.000 0.000 a 000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 ·0.80 0.878 10.865 !0.854 0.845 0.8.38 o . 832 . 0.828 0.823 0.820 0.818
0.02 O.O:W 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 fJ.020 0.81 0.895\ 0.881.0.869 0.860 0.852 0.84(l 0.841 0.836 0.833 0.830
O. [1·1 O.O.fU 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.0,10 0.040 o 040 0.040 0.040 0.82 0.913 0.897 0.885 0.875 \ 0.866 0.8GO 0.854 0.850 0.846 0.842
0.00 O. OM O.OUO O.OGO 0.000 0:000 0.060 (i.OGO O.OGO O.OGO 0.0.60 0.83 0.931.0.914\ 0.901 0.890. 0.S81 0.874 0.8138 0.8133 0.859\ 0.85.5
, 0.08 0.080 0,080 0.080 0,080 0.080 0.U80 0.080 0.080 0.080 0.949 0.932 0.918 0.906.0.897 0,889 0.882. 0.877 0.872 0.8118
I 0.10 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100
0.080
0.100
0.84
0.85 0,969 0.950 0.935
1
0.923 0.912 0.905 0.893 0.891 0.887 0.88~
0.12 0.120 0.120 0,120 0.120 0.120 0.120 0.120 0.120 O. J20 0.120 0.86 0.990 0.970 0.95-1 0.940 \ 0.030 0.921 0.913 0.90(l 0.901 0.896
O.H 0 1 0.140 0.140 0.140 O.UO 0.1'10 0.140 0.140 0.140 1,012 0.990 0.973 0.95!) (1.9-17 0.937 0.929 0.922 0.91() 0.911
0.1'·!0 0.87 0.932 0.927
0 III . ..10
1 0.160
O. HiD 0.160, O. 160 O. HlO O. HlO 0.160 O,lliO O.WO O.WO 0.88 1.035 1.012 0.99-4 0.97810.966 0.955 0.1146 0.938
0.18 0.180 0.180 0.lS0 0 180 0.180 0.180 0.180 0,180 o 180 0.180 .0.89 1.060 1.035 1.015 0.999 0 986 0.974 0.964 0.956 0.949 0.943
\).2f) . 0.200 0.200 0.:)1)0 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.90, 1. 08711.060 1.039 1. 021 11.007 0.994 0.984 0.9711 0.967 o £lUO
0.2'2 0.220 U.220 0.220 0.220 0.2.20 0.220 0.220 0.220 0.220 0.220 0.91 1.116 1.088 1.064 1.045 1.029 1.016 1.003 0.905 0.986 1 0.979
0.2-l 0.240 0.240 o 'HO 0.2'10 0.240 0,240 0,2!O 0.2-10 0.2'10 0.240 '0.92 .1.148 1.117 1.092 1.072 i 1.054 1.039 1,027 1.016 1.006 0.999
o.'ili 0.260 o 260 o.30d O.2liO O.2no 0.360 0.260 0.260 0.260 0,2~0 '0.93 1.184 1.151 1.123 1.1?11 1. 081 1.065 1.050 1.040 1.029 1.021
0.28 0.280 0.280 0.21,;0 0.280 o ::80 0.280 0.280 0.230 0.280 0.380 0.9t 1.225 1 188 1.158' 1. li;14 l:1l3 1.095 1.080 1.066 I 1.054 1.0H
0.30 (I,son 0300 D .300 0.300 0.300 0,300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300' 0.950 1.272 1.232 1.172 1 1.148 1.128
1.199 l.Ul 1.09.7 1.084 L073
0,32 0321 0.320 0.320 0.320 0.320 0.320 0.320 0,320 0.320 0.320 0.060 . 1.329 1.285 1.21711.188 1 1(;7
1.248 1.149 1.133 1,119 1.106
0.34 0.341' 0.3-l0 0.340 0.3-10 0.340 0.340 0,340 0.340 0.340 0.340 o .970 \1. 402\1. 351 1.275 i 1.246 1.319
1.310 1.197 1.179 1.162 1 148
0.31; O.3lil! 0.301 0.360 0.360 10.360 0.360 0.3GO 0.3GO 0,3130 D.3nO 0.975 1, 447 1 1 ,393 1. 31111. 280 ' 1.250
1.34.8 1.227 1.207 1.190 1.173
0.38 U.:j81 0.381 i 0 .. 381 0.380' 0.380 0.380 0.380 0380 0.380 0,380 0.980 . 1.502 1.443 1.354 I 1.339 1.2881
1.395 1.262 1.241 1.221 ".201
U,4ll OA02.0AOI OAOI 0.400 0.400 b 400 a.lOa 0.·100 OAOO 0.-100 ·0.985 1.573 1.508! 1.454 1.409 I 1.372 1.337 1.309 1.2B4 1.23S 1.243
0.42 o , 422 ' 0.421 0 .421 0,421 0.-120 0 ... 20 0,.,120 0.-120 0,'120 0.420 0.990 1.6711.593\1.537 1.487 1 4'14 1.404 1.313 1.3<1& 1.319 1.297
0.4-1
OAl)
0,'18
o H31 0.442 OA41 0.441 O,Hl 0.4'11 0.440 o 4-10 0.440 ' 0.4'10
0..163 I tL -!()2
0,402 OAill OAU1Io.401 0.460 O,-!liO O,·lGO ·0.4()O
O. 482 0.481 0.481 0.-181 oA80 0.480 0.480 0.480
o , ~ 84 . U. 483
0.995
0.999
1.000
I
1.838 1.751 1.678 1.617 1,565 1.519
,.!," "!,02 '2.~02 1.917 1. 8,15 1.780
",
""
..,
1.479
1,725
eo
0.803
1.451
1.678
00
0'.746
1.416 l.3SS
1.635 1 596
'"
0.697
"
0.651
0.50 . 0.505 \ 0,504 0.503 0,502 0.501. 0.501 0.501 0.500 0,500 0,500 1.001 1.417 1.264 1.138 1.033 0.951 0.870
0.52 .,,_1,. 0 . 5')5'
0")- ~ I . -,
05')'\ 0.522 0.522: 0.521 0.521 0.521 0.520 0.520 1.00f! 1. 036 0.915 0.817 0.737 0.669 0.612
0.551 0.502
0.553
0.459
0.526
0,422
0.481
0.389
0.447
0.360
0.5·1 o 5!8· 0.5·16 a.5·!.! 0.5'1;; 0.5-12j 0.542 0.541 O.SH 0.541 0 541 1.010 0,873 0.766.0.681 0.610
0.778 Q.68010,602 0.537 0.483'0."1-4.0 0.S\19 0.366 0.33() 0.310
g:~~~1 g:~~~
0.50 0.570 0.56·1 0.5G;; 0.562 0.562- 0.5Gl o .5ul C5GI L015
0.58 0.5U:l o 585 0,583 0.583 0.582 0.582 0.581 0.581 1.02 0.111 I
o li20 0.54.6 0.'186 0.436 0.394 0.358 Q.327 0.300 0.271)
i
, I
0.60
0.01
0.(114 I
o . till 0 ..!lOS O.GOG o . (l05 a. (;04 0,1303 0.G02 O.GO:'! 0.601
U. (21) 0, uz:'! U.OW 0.617 O.tH5 0.1114 0.fi13 0.IH2 0.612Io.till
L03
1.04
O.filS 0.535 0,469 0.415 0 370 0.333
O.&M 0.477 i 0.415 1 0.365 0.324\ 0.290
0.300 I 0. 272 1 0.249
0.262 0.236 0.214-
0,228
0.105
1 05(H 0.432 0.374 10.328,0.239 0.259 0.231 0.:2080.189 0.174-
O.GZ 0.637 0.63:1 0 mw O.G28 0.G26 0,625 0,(\24 U.623 O.G22 0 022 1.05
O.llS 0,G4U U,6-14 O.!Hl 0.038 o 133G 10.635 0,G34 0.633 0.G32 0.(',32 1.06 0.164 0,395 0.342 0.298' 0.262 0.233 0.209 0.187 0,170 0.154.
0.64 o.Uti! 0.U5G 0.G52 o 649 0.G·l7 0:{l46 0.645 0.644 0643 10.642 1.07 0.431 0,3GO 0.315 0.273 0.239 i 0.212 O.H}! 0.168 0.151 0.136
().65
0.G6
0.673 O.OG7 O. till3 O. llt30 0,6580.656 0.655 0.654 0.()5S o .65:~
0.G85 0.67\) 1 0.G75 0.(l72 0.66!! I 0.6U7 0.GOU.0.665 O.(l().j, 0,663
1.08
1.09
0.4.03
0 379
0.3-11
0.319
Q,';!g2
0.272
0.252'
0.234
I
o . 220 O. 194
0.204 0.179 i
0.172
0.158
0 153
0.140
0.137
0.125 '
0,123
0.112
0.G7 0.G()7 o .Gll! 0: 08U 0.683 0.680 10.678 0.G76: 0.675 0.674 Q.6n. L 10 1 0.357
. 0.299 0.254 0.218 0.18910.165. 0.146 0.129 0.114 0.102
(j .u3 0.70n O.7113· O,60S 0.694 0.6\)1 G.GSl) 0.Hil7 :0.686 0.68i) 0,6!H 1.11 0.338 0.282 0.239 0.204 O. 17G 1 0,] 5,1 0.135 0.119 0.105 0.094
O.ti9 0.122 o 715\ 0.710 0.70G 0.703 0.700 0.698 0.m.l6 0.695 O.G\)'1 1.12 0.321 0.267 0.225 0.192 0.IG5·0.143 0.125 0.1l0 0.097 0.086
0.711 0.735 0.7'21 0.722 0.71710.714 0.712 0.710 0.708 0,706 0.705 1.13. 0.305 0.253! 0.212 0.18'1 0.155 0.135 0.111' 0.102' 0.090 0,080
0.71 0.7'18 O.HO 0.7'34 0.729 I o.nu I. 0.721 0.719 0.717
0.723 0.716 1.14 0.291 0.240 0.201 0.170 0.H6 0.126 0.109 0.095' 0.084 0,074
o.n 0.761 0.752 0.7-1u 0.741 0.737 0.73-10.732 0.730 0.728 0.727 1.15 0'.278 0.229 0.191 0.161 0.137 O.l1S 0.102 0.089 0.078 0,068
o.n 0.774 0.765 0.759 0.753 0.749 0.H6 0.743 0.741 0.'/39 0.737 1.16 0,26D 0.218 0.181 0.153 0.130 0.111 0.096 0.084 0.072 0.064
0.74 0.788 0.779 0.711 0.7GG 0.761 ·0.757 0.75-4.1°·752 0.750 o 748 1.17 0.255 0.208 0.173 0.145 i 0,123 0.105 0,090 0.078 0.068 0,060
0.75 0.802 0.702 0.784 0.778 o 773 0.769 O.'((lB 1 0.763 i 0.761 0.759 I 1.18' 0,244 0.1!)\} 0.165 0.1113 0.099 0.085 0.073 0,063 D.OSS
0.059 0.051
0.7il
U.77
o 817
O.8:n
O.soo 10.798
0.7!Jl.
0.820 0.811 0.80-1\
0.786 0.782 o. Fa I 0.775 • 0.773
0,798 0.794 01.\J~10'Z87jO.784
0.771
0.782
1.19.
1.20
0.235
0.226
0,1111
0.183
0.157
0.150
0.110
0.W5
0.094
0.OB8
0.080
0.076
0.068
0.064 0.056 0.048
r 0.78
0.71)
0.847
10.8\l2
0.834 0.825 0.817
0.849 0 a-39 0.831
0.811 0.806 o . 80_ 0 ' 199 0 ,796
0.824 0.819 0.a1sI0.811 0.808.
O. 71B
0.805
1
1.22
1. 24
0.209
0.195
0.168
0.155
0.138
0.127
0.095
0.08ti
0.080
0.072
0.M8
0.060
0.057
0
0.049
0.044
0.042
0.038
,)
APPENDIX: D 647
646
TABLE D-L THE VARIED-FLOW FUNC'TION Fon POSITIVE SLOfES,F(u,N) (continued)
TABLE D-L THE V,\It1lm-FLOW FUNCTION FOR POSITfVE SLOPES, F(u.,N) (continued) ---
,~Z I 4.2 1 4.6 I 5.0 I' 5.45.~ 6.2 6.6 7.0' 7.4 I 7.8 ~
----1----
8.2 S.6 9.0 9.4
----
9.8
1.44
1.46
1.48
1.50
O.lOS
0.103
0.098
0.093
0.082
0.077
0.073
0.069
0.063
0.059 0.046
0.056 0.043
0.05310.040
0049 0.038
0.036
0.033
0.031
0.030
0.028
0.026
0.024
0.024 0.019
0.022
0 ..021
1).020
0.018
0.017
0.015
0.016 0.013
0.014 I 0.012
0.01310.010
0.012 0.009
0.20
0.22
O.U
0.26
0.200
0.220
0.240
0.260
0.200
0.220
0.240
0.260
0.200
0.'220
0.240
0.260
0.200
0.220
0.2'10
0.260
0.200
0.220
0.240
0.260
.l
1.55 0.083 0.061 0.046 0.035 0.026 0.020 0.016 0.012 I
O.OlD 0.008 0.28 0.280 0.280 0.280 0.280 0.280
1.60
1.65
1.70
1.75
0.074
0.067
0.060
0.054
0.054
0.048
0.0·13
0.038
0.040 0.030
0.03,5
0.031
0.027
0.026
0.023
0.020
0.023
0.019
0.016
0.014
0.017
I 0.014
0.012
0.010
0.013
0.011
0.009
0,008
0.010
O.OOS
0.007
0.006
0.008 0.006
0.006
0.00.5
0.004
0.005
a 004
0.003
0.30
0.3~
0.34
0.300
0.320
0.340
0.300
0.320
0.340
0.300
0.320
0.340
0.300
0.320
0.340
0.360
II 0.300
0.320
0.340
0.360
l
1 0.36 0.360 0.360 0.360
1.80 0.049 0.034 0.024 0.017 0.012 0.009 0.007 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.38 0.380 0.380 0.380 0.380 0.380
1.85 O. 045 0.031 0.022 0.015 0.011 O. 008 a .00B O. 004 0.003 0.002
0.40 0.400 0.400 0.400 0.400 1 DADO
1.90 0.041 0.02S 0.0200.014 0 . 010 0.007 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.002 0 .. 42 0.420 O. '120 0.420 0.420 0.420
1. 95
2.00
O. 038 O. 026 a . a 18 O. a 12
0.035 0.023 0.016 0.011
a .008
0.007
0.006
0.005
O. 004
0.004
O. 003
0.003
0.002 0.002
0.002 0.001
0.44
0.46
0.440
0.460
0.440
0.400
0.44.0
0.460
0.440
0.460 I 0.440
0.460
2.10 0.0300.0190.0130.009 0.006 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.0010.001 OA8 0.480 0.480 0,480 0.4CiO 0,480
2.20 0.025 O. Oll) 0.011 o. 007 0.00.5 0.004 O. 002 a .001 0.001 0.001
0 . .50 '0.500 0.500 0.500 o 500 0.500
2.3 0.022 0.014 0 009 0.0060.004'1 0 . 003 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.52 0.520 0.520 0.520 0.520 0.520
2.4 0.019 0.012 0.008 0.005 0.00:3 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.54 0.540 0.540 0.540 0.540 0 . .')40
2.5 0.017 0.010 0.006 0.004 o.ooa 1
0.002 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.56 0.561 o ..'iB0 0.560 0.560 O.5uO
2.6
2.7
0.015
0.Ot3
0.009
0.008
0.005 0.003 0.002
0.005.0.003 0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
o.oeo
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.58
0.60
0.581
0.601
0.581
0.1301
0.580
O.GOI
1 0.580
0.600
0.580
0.600
.!
2.8 10.012'0.0070.00410.002 0.001 0.001 o.oor 0.0000.000 0.000 0.61 0.611 0.611 0.611 0.6J1 . O.GlD
2.9 0.0100.0060.00410.0020.0010.0010.0000.000 0.0000.000 0.62 0.621 0.621 0.621 0.621 0.621
3.0 10.009, 0.005 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.63 0.632 0.631 0.631 0.631 0.631 r
3.50.006 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.64 0.6'12 0.641 0.641 0.641 0.611 1
4~0 ,0.004 0.002 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 I
0.65 0.652 0.652 0.651 0.651 0.651 ;
4.5 0.003 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.66 0.662 0.662 0.662 0.661 0.661
5.0 0.0020.0010.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0:000 0:000 0.000 0.000 0.67 0.673 0.672 0.672 0.672 0.671
6.0 0.0010.0000.0000.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.68 0.683 0.683 0.682 I 0.682 0.681
7.0 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 I 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.69 0.694 0.693 0.692 0.092 0.692.
8.0 o. dO~ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 o. 000 0.000 0.000
0.70 0.704 0.704 0.703 0.702 0.702
'il.0 a . 000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 . 000 0 .000 o. 000 I 0.000 o. 000 0: 000 0.71 0.715 o 714 0.713 0.il3 0.712
10.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.0000.000) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.72 0.726 0.725 0.724 0.723 0.723
20.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 .. 000 0.73 0.736 0.735 0.734 0.734 0.733
1 0.74 0.747 0.746 0.745 0.744. 0.744
0.75 0.758 0.75i 0.756 0.755 0.754
0.76 0.769 0.768 0.767 0.766 0.765
0.77 0.780' 0 .. 779 0.778 0.777 0.776
0.78 0.792 0.790 0.789 0.788 0.787 / 1
0.79 0.804 0.802 I 0.800 I 0.799 0.798 .,I
!
I 108
1.1J!1
0.111
0, 1111
0. J(j I
O.O!)1
0,0()3
0.08:2
O.
0
0,077
O.OLiv
4.0
4.5
0.000
0.000
0.000
0,000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.10 0. Uti:.' 0.08;3 O,UU 0 Oli7 0.OW2 5,0 0.000 0.000 0.000 U.OOO 0.000
! 1.][ 0.084 0.U75 0,()()7 6.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
O.OliO 0.055
I 1.12 li.077 O.OUU 00li2 O,USS 0050 7.0
8.0
o.obO
. 0.000
0,000
0.000
. 0.000
0:000
0.000
0,000
0.000
J 1. 13 0,000
n.07l 0.OU:3 0.051) 0.050 0,045
'j 1.11 O,OUS 0,058. 0,05:.' O,O·H) IJ.O U.OOO 0.000 0.000 0.000 0,000
,,' 0.041
I 1. 15' 0 001 O.Oi>4 0.0·18 0,043 0.0:38 10.0 0,000 0.000 0,000 0,000 0.000
! 1.16 Q,OS!i 0.050 0.0.J5 0,040 0,035 20.0 O.OOU 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
1.17 0.052 a.u·w
I
I 1.18
1.19
0.048
O.!H5
0.042
0,0;~9
0.0-11
0,037
0,1)30
0,0;33
0.0;;2
0.029
j, o 0;;4 O,O:jO 0.027
1.20 O.OH 0.037 0,032 U,023 0.025
1 ,).) 0,037 0.032 0.0:'>8 0,024 0,021
"j 1.24 0.032 O.0::!8 0.024 0.0:.n 0 018
f
r,
,..\
'.
''''1
II 650 APPENDIXES APPENDIX D 651
0:i20io:~2010:~~lO
o.mm! 0.100 10.100 II 0, 100 0,100 I (J,100 0 100 0 00 0 00
0,119 10,11910.120 1,°,120 0,12°10120
0,1::1910,139 0.140 i 0 140 0,140 ,) 1'10 0.140 0,1400',140 0 140
8:igg 0.85
0.81\
0.704
0.710
0.715
0.721
0.72510.735
0.731 0.741
0,744 0.752
0.750 0.758
0.765
0.771
0.770 0.775
0.777 0.782
0.87 0.715 0.727 0.7381'0:747 O.7oG 0.764 0.777 0,783 i 0.788
0,158'0,159 0.15910,160 0,160,0.160 0,160 0,1(0)°,1601,0.160 0.721 .0.733 0.74310.753 0.762 0.770 0.783 0.789! 0,7~J4
0.1780,1790.1790,1800.1801°.1800,1800.1800.18010,180 0.B8
0.89 0.727 0.739 0,749Io.i58 0.7671o.77G 0.789 0, 7'..l51 O.BOO
!' 01197 0, HIB 0,199 0.199 0.200' 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200
0.216 0,217,0.218 0.219 0,219! 0.220 0.220 0.2201°.220 0.220 0.90 0.732 0.744 0.754j 0.i6,t 0.781 0.789 0.795 0.8010.807
0.787 0.795 0.801 0.807 0.812
'1'·
,
:
,
0.234 0.236 '0,237 0.238 0.239 0.240 0240 0240 0240 0240 I 0.91
0.92
0,738
0.743
0.750
0.754
0.7£10 0.770
0.766 0.776 0.7!)3 0,800 0.807 0.81310.818
0.253 0.255110.256 0.257 0.258 0.259' .
0.259 0.260 .
10,260 .
0.260
r 0.93 0.7,19 0.761 0.77210 782 0.709 0 807 0.812 0.818 0.823
0,272,0.274'( 0 275 0.276 0,277 0.278 0.278 0.279 0.280 0.280 0.n4 0.767 o 777 0.787 ° 824 0.829
0.94 0.804 \ 0.813 0.818
0.30 0.29110.2930.29410.295 0.2[)5IO,297 0,298 0.298,0.299 0.299 0.801 0.80li 0,819 0.823 0.829 0.835
0,32 0.308,0.311. 0.313 J 0.31410.31610.317 0,318 0.318! 0,319 0,3Hl 0.950 0.759 C),H2 0.783 0,793
O.gGO o. 7ii41 0,777 0.788 0.798 0.807 0.815 0.824 0.829 0,835 0.841
0.34 .0.326 0.329 10.331 0.333 0.33510.337 0.333 0.3381' 0,339 0.339 0.793 0.803 0.812 0.820! 0,82(j 0,834 0.840 o 84G
0.36 0.344 ,O.347! 0.350 0.36210.354 0.356 0.357 0.357 0.358 0.358 0,970 0.770 0.782
1 0,975 0,772,0.785 0.796 0.805 0.814 0.822,0,828 0,836 0.84:J (),848
0.38 0.362,0.355 0.3GS 0.371 0.373 0.374 0.375 0.376,0.377 0.377
!
0.980 0,775 0 , i87 0.79S 0.803 0.81810.825 0,830 0.839 0,845 0,851 I
I
0,40
0.42
0,44
0.38010,384 0.387,0.3901°.392
0.397 '°.401.0.405,0.407 0.409
0.414 10,419 0.423; 0,426,0.429
0.393
0.394 0.39510.3'J6
0./J,11
0.412'1'0.41310A14
0.430
0 432,0.433 \ 0.434
O.39G
0.4U
0.435 0.990 0.780 0.793I
0,985 0.777! 0.790 0.801 0,811
0.804 0.814
0.820 O.827i08~3IO,841
° 822 0 830 0 8.~7 0.844
0.847 0,853
0.850,0.856
0.46
0.48
0.431,0.437 0.440 0.44410.447
0.447,0.453 0.458 OAfH 0.464 I 0.449
0,451' 0.452 0.453
00467 0.469 0.471 0.472
0.154
0,47:,
0.995 0.782 0.7!l5
1.000 0.785 0.797
1.005 0.788 0.799
0.806 0.816
0.808 0.818
0.810 0.820
0.82408:)210.84010.847
0.826 0.834 0.842\ 0.849
0.829 0.837 0.845 0.862
0.75:) j 0,859
0.85(; 0.852
0.858 i 0.864
0.50
0.52
0..163 j' OA70 0.475 0.479 0.432 0.485 0.437
0 479 0.485 0.491 0.494,0.499 0.502
0.48910,491
0.5OS 0.507 0.509
0.402
0.511 1.010
1.015
I
0,790 O.80~
0.793,0.80",
0.812
0.815
0.822
0.824
0,831 0,840 0.847 0,855
0,833 0.843 0,850,0.808
0.861 . 0.867
0.80 4 10.870
0.54 0.494 0.501 0.507 0.512\ 0,516 0.520 0,522 0.525 0.527 0.529
1.020 0,795 0,807 0.818 0.828 0.837 0.84.; 0.8~3IO.8~0 0,8GG i 0.872
0.56 0.509 .0.5H 0.523\ 0.523 0.533 0.537 0.54.0 10.543 0.545 D.5,n 0.822 0.832 0.841 o . 850 0.8.)7 i O. 8/)4 0,871 0.877
0.58 . 0.524 0.533 0,539 0.54.5' 0.550 0.554 0.558 0.561 0.563 0.567 1.03 0,800 0.811
1.04 O.80li 10,816 0.829 0.837 0.845 0.855 0:8621°,870 0877 0.883
0.60
0.81
0.62
0.540
0.547
0 .•554
0.548 1,0.555
0 556 10 55S
0.553 0.571
0.5Gl
0 .'569
0,513
0.566 0.571 0.575
0 575 0 579 0 583
o 583 0,578 0.51B
0,578,0.581
0 58710 58<:1
0:595 0.598
0.583
- 00.6059g LOS
1.00
I
0.810 0.821 0.831 0.841
0.815 0.825 0.837 0.846
0.851 o 859 0.86710.874
0.855 I) .8640.871,0.879 I
0,881 0.887
0.88.5 0.8!B
0.63 0.562 0.571 0.679 0.585 0,590 0,595 0,599 0.603 0.607 0.60, 1.07 0.S19 0.831 0.841 0.851 0.860 0.869! 0.8761 0.88:) o .S89 0.896
0.64 0.569 0.579 0.586 0.592 0.598 0.602 0,607 I
O.61I 0.615 0.618 1.08
1.09
0.824 0.836 0.846 0.856
0.828 10.840 0.851 0.860
0.805
0.870
0.873 0.880 i 0.887
0.877 0.885 io .892
0.893 0,900
0.898 0.904
0.65
0.66
0,67
0.576
0.583
0.590
0.585 0:592
0.593 0.600
0.599 0.607
0.599,
0,607.
0,614
0.605 0.610 0.615
0.613 0:618 0.622
0.621 0.626 0,631
0.519' 0.623
o 626 0.630
0.635 0.039
0,626
0.63
0.643
1.10
1.11
0.883 0,845 10 855 0:865
0.837 10 84.9 ° 8GO 0.870
0.874
0.878
I
0.881 0.890 0.897
O. 886 0,894, (UIOO
I 0,903 0.908
0.907 a.BI2
0.68 0,597 0.607 0.e15 0.622 0.628 0.634 0,639 0.643 0.647 0.651 1.12 o. 8!~ ! 0.8541 0.864 0.873 0.882 o , 891 U. 897 i 0 904 0,910 0.916
0.69 0.603 0.613 0.621 0.629 0.635 0,641 0.646 0.651 0.655 0.659 1.13 o . 8 _Ii , 0, 858 0.868 0.878 0.886 0.895 0.9021°,908 0.n4. 0.919
1.14 0.851 0.861,0.872 0,,881 0,8gb O. 899 I O. 905 0.912 0.918 0.923
0,855 o 866 i o.876 0.886
0.70 O.GW 0.620 0.629 0.537 0.644 0.649 0.5M 0,659 0.653 0.667
0,71
0.72
0.617
0.624
0.627 0,636
0.634 0.1l43
0.544
0.651
o 6.51
0.658
0.657
0.664
0.661
0.669
0.666 0.671
0,674 0,679
0.674
0.682
1.15
1 16 I
0.859 0.870 0.880 0.890
0.895
0,899
0, 903 1 0 ,910,0.916
0.90710.91410.920
0.911 0.917,0.923
0,
0
b.
0.928'
0.931
0.73
0.74
0.630
0.637
0.641 0.650
0,648 0.657
0.659
0,665
0.665
0.672
0.672
0.679
0.677
0.684.
0.682 o 687
0.689 0.694
0.691
0.698
1 17
1.18
1.19
0.804 0.8740.884.0.893
0.868 0.8781 Q.888 0.897
0.872 0.882 0.892 0.901
0,902
0.906
0.910
0.915. 0.92110.927
0,918 0.925 0.931
O.
0
0,9:H
0.939
0.942
II
0.75 0.643 0.655 0.664 0.671 0.679 0.686 0.691 I O.G96 0.701 0,705 0.921 0.928 0.9,14
0.76 0.649 0.661 0.670 0.679 0,687 0.693 0.G09 0.704 0.709 0.713 1.20 0.876 0.886 0.896 0,.904, 0.913 0.940 0.945
0.77 0.656 0.667 0.677 0.G85 0.693 0.700 0.705 0.711 0.715 0.719 ·1.22 0.880 0.891. 0.900 0.909 0.917 0,929 0,932 o.o:>s 0.944 0.949
0.78 0.662 0,673 0.683 0.G92 0.700 0.707 0.713 0.718 0.723 0.727 1.24 0.888 0.898 0.908 0.917 0.925 0.935 0.940 0.945 0.950 0.. 955 .... :1
0.79 0.fi68 0.680 0.689 0.698 0.705 0.713 0.719 0.724 0.729 0.733 1.26
1.28
0,.900 0910 0.919 0.927
0.908 0.91i 0.920 0,.934
0.9;:!')
0.945
0.942
0 .. 948
0.948
0.954
0.954
0.%0
0,900 0.9fl4
0.965 0.970 ,
i
- J
\
652 APPENDLXES APPENDIX D /353
0.\)15
o.\J:n
0.941
0.948
O. \130 O. OJ!) i {j. 9JS O. U55
0.9·18
0.\).55
0.9(52
0.055
0,\)61
0.907
0.9Gl
0.\)(\7
U. \J7:~
0.066
() UTi
0 :978
° \J8~
0.981
0:
\J7G
0.1175
a 0
0: ~~6
0.00
0.02
0.04·
0.000
0.0"20
0.040
0.000
0.020
0.040
0.000
0,020
0.040
r 0.000
0.020
0.0'10
0.000
0.020
0.040
0.9:17 0.9461°.954 0·9Ul 0.90B ° IliaU.iJ79 0.,983 0.987 0.\)91 0.06 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060
10.IN.! 0.952, O.ouo I. 0.967, O.D74 0.979 0.985 O.US9, 0.993 0.996 0.08 0:080 0.080 r 0.080 0.080 0.080
1.~0 I O.!l'i' j 0.950 O. 90ll ' 0.073' O. 97D 0.984 i O. 08D , 0 AlD31 0 097 1. 000 0.10 0,100 0.100 0.100 o 100 0.100
L~2 ,0.957 0.OG5 0.072 0.979 0 084 0.1)89' O.!)!)5' 0.9\)8 1.001 1.004 0,12 0.120 0.120 0.120 0,120 0.120
l.H I G. Iln4 I 0.072 0, l!7!) 0,984 o. Hno \unlS 1. 000 1.003 1. OOll 1. OO!) 0:14 0.140 0.140 0.1;10 0.140 0.140
lAG ,0.tlm','O.!!77 0.983 0989, • ., ( . ,
0.995 1,000 1.00-' 100-11 01U 1. 0)
1:- O,HI 0.160 0.160 O.HIO 0.160 0.160
I
LIS 0.07710.98310.989 0.9\H 0.900 1.005 1.008 1.011 LOl·1 1.0Ui 0.18. 0.180 0.180 o.180~· 0.180 0.180 .
1.50 °O·98~ 0'\)0 90 0093
I
1.001' 1.005 1.000 LOI2 I 1.015.1.017 1.019 0.20 !
0.200 0.200 0,200 0.200 0.200
1.55 .!Hlt L 02 1.007 1.012' 1.0IG 1.020 1.022 1.0241' 1.020 1.028 0.22 0.220 0.220 0.220 0.220 0.220
1.60 I
l.(;5
1. 70
1.012 1.017 1.0'20
1.020 ,1.029 1.032
1.03011.042 1.0-14
1.024)' 1.027 1.030,1.032
1.035 1.037 LO''''
,,<I 1 _0'1
1 0-15.1.047 1.048 1.049
"
1.0:H 1.035
1 " a41 /1 . (042
1.049 1.049
1.035
1. 042
1.0-18
0.2-i I' 0.240
0.26 ! 0.260
I
0.28 , 0.280 I
0.240
0.260
0.280
.0.240
0.260
0.280
0.2':10
0.260
0.280
'0.240
0.260
0.280·
L75 105211.05311054
• 1055
1.056 i L05i 1.0r.fj
v 1 • A·"
iJu 1 . 0-5
<:I I. 053 0,30 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300
LilO L O(J14 1 . AU""I1.0li4 1.064
1,.005 1.0U5 L064 1 00') 11 ono ' 058 0.32 0.320 0.320 0.320 . 0.320 0.320
L85 1.075 1.074 1.074 1.073 I'.072 1.071 1.0li9 . - .} •. 0.34 0.339 0.340 0.340 0.340 0.340
LDO L08G 1.085' 1.08-1' 1.082 LOllI. 107£' 1.077 Lg~! i i:2~~ i:g~~ 0.36' 0.359 0.360 0.3130 0,360 0.360
l.U5 1.0n7 1.0!)5 i 1.092 1.090 1.087 1.085 1.081 1.0791 1.075 Lon 0.38 0,378 0.379 0.380 0.380 0.380
2,00 1.107 1.103 1.100 1.096 '1.0031090 l.085 1.08211'.073111,075 0.40 0.397 0.398 0.398 0.400 0.400
2.10
U~~ ~: ~;~ i: g~ U~g U~~ U8& ~:?g~ Lgg~ U~g, ~ .g~~' 0,42 0.417 0.418 0.418 0,419 ·0.420
L.W i 0.44 0.436 0.437 0.437 0.439 0.440
II
1
:L:1 I. Hll LIS0 1.141 113:1: 1.124 1.117 1.110 1 103 1. Oil'; 1.0~0 0,46 0.455 0.'156 0.457 0.458 . 0.459
2.~ L17li 1.1O:l 1.152 L142' 1.133 1.124 L11G 1.109 1101 l.OO'! 0.48 0.474. 0 .. 475 0,476 0.478 o 479
:Ui Ll!JO 1.175 1.162 l.ISt} 1.140 1.1;~I 1.121 1.113 1,105 1.098 0.50 OA03 0.494 0.495 0.497 0.498
2.6
r~?j i'}~~ i'~~~ U~~ idt~ Ln~ i:i~g U~g
0,512
'l.7
~.8
1
TABLE D-2. THE VAnJE1)-FLOW FUNC'TJON FOil NEGATIVE SLOPES, F(IL,N)_s. (continued) TABLE D-2. THE.y ARlED-·FLOW FU;XCTlON FOn NEGATIVE SLOPES, F(H,N)~.), (rOllil:nrwl)
J
~~I 4.0 4.2
I
I
4.5 5.0 5.5
~-I
.~ 4.0 I 4.2 .Uj
I- -5.0- - - -5.5- -
I
0.80 0.746 0.750 0.755 0.762 0.768 1.30 0.979 I 0.978 U.nS5 I U.991 0.994
0.81 0.753 0.757 0.702 0.770 0.770 1.32 U.985 I 0.98G U,OllO i 0.995 0.997
0.82
0.83
0.760
0,766
0,764
0.771
0.709
O.i7G
0.777
0,784
0,78:3
o 79Q
1.34
1.36
U.09U
0.9\)4 I
0.9\12
0.!1\)6
. 0,\195
U ()!)9
I
U.999
1.002
I,U01
1. 005
0,84, . 0,773 0,778 0.783 U.791 0.798 1.38 ./).998 1.00U ! 1 ,00:3 ,1,00C 1.008
I
0,85
0,86
0.87
0.780
0,78G
0,793
0.784
0.791
0,797
0.790
0,797
0.803
0.798
0.804
U.811
0.805
0.812
0.819
1.40
1.42
1.44
1.001 I 1,004
1.005 I 1,008
I,U09 1 J ,013
1.006
1.010
1,014
1.000
I.U12
I.U16
J .Ull
1.014
1,0IG
i
0.88 0,799 0.803 0.810 0.818 0,826 1.46 1.014 1.016 1.017 1, U18 1.018
0,89 0.805 0,810 0.816 0.825 U.8;{2 1.48 1.016 1,01\) 1,020 1.020 1,020 I
1.065
1.0G8
I
1051 .
1.0(12 I 1.053
I.U5G
1,058
1.U46
1.(]47
i.O-!!l
1.050
1.051
-\
LU71 I.U60
0,890 0.899
1.005
1.010
1.015
0.870.
0,873
0.875
0,874
0.878
0.880
0,881
o 884
0.886
O.SfH
0.89G
0.90'2
0.904
2.4
2.5
2.6
1.087
1.)00
1.U92
1.081
1.083-
1.085
1,073
1.075
1.076
1,001
1.062
1 OG:3
1,0.";2
1.053
1.054
..l
1.020 0.877 0.883 0.8S9 0.898 0.907 2,7 1. Ug-! 1,087 1.077 1,063 1. U5-!
1.03 0.882 0.887 0.893 0.902 0.911 2.8 1. DOG 1.0SS 1.078 I.UG'l I,U5! •_J)
1.04 0.888 0.893 0.898 0.907 0.916 2.9 1, U!)8 1 08f) 1. Ui\) 1.U65 1.U55
1.05 a.892 0.897 0.903 0.911 o 920 3.U I,OY9 1.U!)O 1.080 1.0GS. 1.055
1.0G· 0.896 0.. 901 0.907 0,915 0.924 3.5 1.10:3 1. UIl:3 1.082 1.06(1 1,055
1.07 0.901 0.906 0.911 0.919 0,928 4.U 1.10G 1 Ulli 1.U84 1.067 I.05!l
1.08
1.09
0.905
0.909
0,910
0.914
0.91G
0.920
0,923
0,927
0,932
0.936 j
J
4.5
5,0
1.108
1,110
1.0DS
J ,oun
1,085
1.085
1,067
1.068
J, USG
1 05G )\
. 1.10 0.913 0.918 0.923 0.931 0.94.0 (} 0 1,1U 1.100 1.085 1.068 ,(J5G
1.11 0.917 0,921 0,927 0,935 0.941 7 0 1.111 1.100 1,086 1.068 ,()51i
1.12 0.921 0.926 0,931 0.939 0.948 8,0 1.111 1.100 1.086 . 1 OG8 05li
1.13
1.14
0,925
0.928
0.929
0'.933
0.935
0.938
0.943
0,947
0.951
0.954 1 9,0
10,0
1.111
I. III
1 100
1,100
1.086
1.U86
I.OG8
1.068
J 05(;
I.U5!i ._' !
1.15 0,932 o 936 0.942 0,950 0.957
1.16 0.936 0.041 0.945 0.953 0.9GO.
1.17 0.~3g 0.944 0,948 C.957 0.903
l.18 0,943 0.947 0.951 0.%0 0.965
.1. 1f) 0,947 0.950 0.954 6 9G3 0.968
- 1. 20 0.950 0.953 0,958 ~
·O.96G '0.970
1. 22
1.24
i,2G
1. 28
0,95G
0,952
0,9!l8
0,974
0.057
0.91l2
0.971
0,9,77
0,964
0,970
0.975
O,I)Sl
0.972
0.077
U.ll82
0.987
0.1)76
0,981
0.986
O.Y\JO
I,
I
i
,
\
I
I
ApPENDIX E. TAllLE OF THE VARIED-FLOW FUNCTIO"lS :FOR
CIRCULAR SEOTION,,*
* Prepared and suppli<>d for publication through the courtcsy of Mr. C. J. Keif()l'
and Mr. H. H. Chu 'of the Department of Public Works, City of Chicago. The step
'lines in the' table show the location of n,ormal depth. They should not be crossed
by interpolation.
I 657
TABl.E E-1. V"aIED-FLOW FUNC'rlON X
it.'
.~
..
O.~g
O.H
0.~6 °
o 6118'1°.2033 o. 1115 10060 015°10.05970 013710 OlOB 0.0347 (l 03001°.0205 (I 02320 02000
°
o S0l51"i9S6-i;o IS3I,O.1136,O.OSHiO 06830.05540,04010 03910.0337002960 02590 02301 02130 0200 O.OI~2 0 01900 0I860.0I68Io.0IM,0,
01920.0[78'0 0113 0 017Q 0.0 01510 01380
.0100 0 00~5Io.ooa3
.00991° 0085 (1,00'15
0,95150.2069;0 12150 085810 06.5;6.0522.0 04~910 03610 0308 00261 (1,0235 0 020710 OlaM 0171 Q 016010.015.<10,01521° 0 00S9 (I 007710.00~7
1 1
0.~5 .01351° 012110
\3 l67110.159~IO.I014 0 o73510.(!5fii}io.045110 0317003190,0273002371°,021000,84001511001520 DHH1.0139 0, 0136 (10 00800 00u9 o.0061
0.44
0.43
1
0 2650[V 1215;0 os,; 0.0332.0 04~lfO'O 100 °,03:120 0281 0.02400 0210 ° 01860 01640 01460 01350 0127 0 OI~3 0.01211° 0
1O.I~17 0 1042 O.U7~' 0 05UO .iH3G Q.0150 10.0201 0 02~7 0.0212 ° 01S60 01640 01450.01300 0121 0 0 °
.01210,01!00
,01OS 0 °
1
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NAME INDEX
Lindquist, E. G. W., 28n., 37, lOOn., 125, Na.garatn~, S., 393, 435 Rafter, (J. W., 53n., 390 Serre, F., 358, 550
213, 393, 434 Nagler, F. A., 493, 501, 518-520· Raju, S.P" 17, ..IS!) Simny, M. B., 3n
Rakhlllanoff, A. N., 131n., 155, Z81n., 296 Shl1rn1a, K. R., 437
I
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668 NAME INDEX
Shchapov, N. M., 37 Troesch, B. A., 587, 600; 619
Shepley, J. 607, 621 Tulta, H., 352
Shima, 8., '171, 517 Turner, K, B., 28n., 37
Jr., 493, 518
37, 431, 440-441, ','
45!J uGhlda, S., 587,618
Shulit.s, Samuel, 437, 459, 520, 620
Silber, R, ·"iin., SUBJECT INDEX )
Sil1:icrm:'..!l, E., 17 Vanoni, V. A., 2'12
It., 295 Van Vliet, R., 156
Skdnde, A. J 393, 409-412, 435-436 : Verlernlkov, V. V., 210, 2'14
Smetana, J., 390,.393, 435 Villemon te, J. R, 85 A profiles, 230 Bounda.ry layer, laminar, 193
Smith, D., 328, 351 Vl2.di~:avljevitch, Z., 125 Abrupt drop for jump control, 412-414 on overflow spillwll.Ys, 199-200
Snyder, F. F., 607, 620 Vogel,H. D., 459 Abrilpt riEe for jump control, 411'-412 rougluless effect on, 200
Sorcrtllen, K E., 607, 620 von I(d,rrrdn, Th., 9, 17,37, 201n., 212, ' Accaleratioll line, .S27 .. turbulent, 193
Spangler, .1., 501, 520 248, 448n., 4.',)2n., 459 };.dverse slope, 223, 259-260 of uniform :flow, 89
Stanley, C. M., 437 Von Seggern, 1\1. E., 253-254" 295 Aeration of nappe, 352-363 Boussinesq coefficient, 27
Stall~on, T. E., Hi Air entrainment, :-13-36 Boussinesq number, 13n.
Stain, M. F.,35l Airy celerity equation, 539 Boussinesq theory, 358
Steinberg, L E., 2SOn., '296, 607, 621 lVah!man, P., 570n. }Jl-American Canal, 188-189 Box inlet drop spillway, 424
Stevens, J. C., 13n., 18, 78, 82-Sa, 85, 'WaltOll, C. B., 607, 621 Alluvial riVer bends, 455-456 Bresse met,hod, 258
.436, 438 Warnock, J. K, 437, 585 Alternate depth, 41, 551', Bresse theory, 357
Stokei, J. J., xn., 325, 53511.., 550,587, Weaver, R. M., 436 ' Angle of repose, 171-172 Bridge piers, 482, 489, 501-50G
600, 618-019 ' Wcisbach, J' I Sn., 16,40, 401n.,436, 501, Artificial roughness; 202n. Bridge piles, 482, 489
StmtWll, J. H., 607, 620 519 Atterberg soil test, 173n. Bridges, submergence of, 482, 489 )
Stmub, L. G., 17, 4!}3, 518 , ,;ells, E. A" Jr., 85 Broad-crested weir!;, 52-53, 80
Streck, 0., 520 , Werner, P. W., 346, 353 for jump control, 410-H1
St-reeter, V. L., 189, 212 White, M. 246, 429 Backwater, of bridge piers, 501-506 tests, BalJill, 53n.
Strickler, A., 99n., 126, 206, 213 ,:llhitham, O. 535n. of cOllstriction, 490-493 Cornell, !lSn.
Sueishi, T., 587, 619 Wien, \V'I 18 of dam, 319. Michigan, 53n.
Supino, G., 550-551 Wilcox, E. 10671.., 127 effect of, 72 MinnesQta and Wa.shington, 53n.
Swain, F. E., 5aO, 585 Wilkinson, J. 531,551 endpoint, 319 .
Wilm, H. G., Backwater curve, 71, 222n.
Wilson, W: T., 607, 620 Backwater envelope carve, 319 C profiles, 230
,TD.k!lS~o, T., 553 Wisler, C. 0., 607, 620 Backwater mtio, 491 Canal drop, 415
Talwani, B. S., 437 Wittman, R., 459 Baffle piers, 415 Canal faU, 415, 432
T>\fpley, J. F., Jr., 608, 1)21 Wolf, P.O., 61, 83, 246,.358, 517, 550, Banking, 4513 19
Tatum, F. E., 607, 621 , 584 Bazin da.ta, for broad-crestcd weir, 53n. delivery of, 297-306
,Taylor, E. H., 512-515, 522 Woodburn, J. G" 61 for channel roughness, 11, 95, 99n. navig!l.tion, 572-S75
Terrell, P. \V., 190 Woodw9.rd, S. M., vii, Won., 121, 246, for overflow spillWays, 363-36'4 outlet. a.nd entrance, 30'1-306
Thomas, H. A., 214, 541, 551', 581, 585 2ge, 393, '134, 448, 459, 493, 518, 621 for rough channels, 204 Ca.pillary 'I'I'aVI!, 12
Thomas, R, 521 ' , W6ycioki, K, 3gSn., 436 for sharp-crested weirs, :;163, 382, 390 Cascaoos, ladder of, 433
'l'holllp~on, P.W., 459 for wavy surfaces, 204 Celerity, 13, 538-540, 582
Thomsoll, J., 439, 459 Bazin formula, 95 Channel li:'lignment;lOii'(106-109
1:iffany, J. B., 436, 521 Yarnell, D. L., 106n., 127, 425, 493, 501- ' Bazin pro file, 363 Channel contrachiO!\, 41-49, 258; 468-
Tison, L. J., xi, 61, 247 i 50.6, 518-519 , , Ba~in'f! rr., 95 410,479,
Toch, A., 509-510, 521 Yassin, A. M" 155 Bed load, 106 Channel expansion, 57-59
Toebl!!l, C., 92, 125 Yen, C. H., 459 Bed-Iond fUnction, 166n. Channel geometry, 20-24
Tolkmitt, G., 253, 294 Yih, C. S., 214, 359 Bends in alluvia.I rivers, 455-456 principle of, 16611..
Tracy, H, J., 53n., 61, 476-477, 491-492, Bernoulli Emergy equation, ,40 Cha-anel irregUlarities, 103
51B • Best hydraulic section, 160:"162 Channel junctions, 321-323, 512-516
Trautwine, J. C.,i Jr., 61, 126; 390 Zie~kiewicz, O. C., 583 Blllaius equation, 8 : Cha.nnel sections, 20
Blasius-Prandtl-voll Kd.rman curve, 10 best hydro.tllic, 160-162
Blue hole, 5121l.. circular (see Circular channels)
Bottom ro.ck, flow through,: 337-340 of constant: critical flow, 82
Bounda.ry layer, computation, 198-200 of eonstant'hydraulic udius, 152
development, 192-193 geometric elementa, 22-24
669
667
uoo NAME.INDEX NAME INDEX
Kent, ·D. H., 520 , Linford, A~, 74n., 84 RIl.IUBer,C. E., 115, 127
Lmsley, R K, 607, 620-521 Nebbin, G., 74n., 84,393,435 Ra.nd, W:, 204, 212,423,437
Kestitl, J., 2'12
Keulega.n, G. 17, '98, 202-205 L-otwr, G. Ie., 136-137 155 Nelidov, t. M., 246 Ra.nsford, G. D., 587,618
,\
I
~,
213-214, 353, 550 ' Lowe, F. C., 585 ' Nelson, H. 0., 17-18 Ray, W. E., 607, ()21
Kl;aJagl, A.. , 74n., 8", Ludwig, J. H., 85 Newman, A., 295 Ra.yleigh, Lord, 537n., 552
Ludwig, R. G., 85 Newmark, N. J\'1., xi Rayt.chine, N., 295
Kho.lo~ovsk!, Professor, 2oon.
Nikma.dse, J., 9, 17, 201n., 202, 212, 214 Re, It., 534n:-535n., 552
, K~nstl!LnoVlch, S. A., 587, 1317 NImmo, W. H. R, :129,352
Kmdsvntel', C. E. 18 390 ~9q Ree, W. 0.,' 85, 180, 191, 629, MO
. 427, 435, 438, 476, lilS " , u, 425, Nosed!!., G., 329, 339n., 352 Rellbock, Th., 13n., 18, 2911.., 37, 362,
McCart.hy, G. T., 607, 621
McHenry, D., Ull Nougnro, J., 587, 618 ' 390, 414n., 50J. 519
mng, H. iN., 17, 37, 53n. 61 85 108
. 1~7, 156, 300, 621 ' , , n., McNowD, J. S.,359 Reineke, H., 551
Kllloslta, T., 550 617 McPhersoIl, M. E., 436 Reiss, 8., 460
Qbolensky, 8., 391
19,rpich, P. Z'J 13171., 155 Ma~di)ck, T., Jr., 156n. 190 Rinbouchinsky) 44an., 459
MlUtre, R.,' 391 O'Brien, M. P., 29, 37, 213
I
I\'lr~chtner, 0" xi, 10, 12 17 60(\ 520 I Ric11, G. R., 584
Cleltm, M., 5in, 551 ' , O'Connor, n.., 583 Riegel, R. M., 393, 425, 434
I Mf1n.ning, R., 98, 09n., 126
Olsen, O. J., 169, lin
~napp, R. T., 448",.,453,456-457 460 Manchal, A., 61 390
Orkney, J. C., 583
Ripley, H, C., 455, 460
T nappeu, T. T., 607, 620 ' Masoni, U., 253; 293 ' Rippl, W., 6'20
KOch, A., 393, 434, 582 585 Massau, J., 587-588 617 Orlh; J., 353 Ritter, A" 53471.., 552 ,
Koch, p" 247 519 ' Ma.!;Se,P., 237-:t:~$,'247 551 Ow,;;n, W. M.; 17 Rcbertsoll, J. M" xi, 14, 17-18, 435
Kohler, M. A~, 607-608, 520-621 Ma.sse, R., 551 ' Robinson, A. R., 204, 213
Kolcseus, H. J., 392 ' Mat~koeo' A. E., 246, 25911., ::W5 393 398- Rohwer, C" 85
I{ol~paila; S., xi-xii, 28, 37, 295 . • .425, 427, 435, 438 ' , F'ager, G., 521 Rouse, H., Ai, 14-15, 18, 61, 246, 3132,
·1{ozeuy, J., 11, 18, 258 294 358 ~O~I, MMav1s, F~ T., 80, 85, 493, 498 518 rai, S. {HI) 390, 393, 429, 435, 4.38,,460, 47i-
520, 578, 585 ," ,u a.y~r, P. G. H., 581,585' .
, P!1.Imer, Ie., 78, 85 474,517,521,550
I{rey, R. D., 51\) Mernman, M., 393, 434 ' P",lmer, J., 191 Roy, S. K., 391
Pannell, J. 'R., t6 R\ihlmlln, M., 253, 294
li:untzmann, J" 352 Ivie!:ten, A" 227, 237n.., 247
Farshall, R. L., 75, 85 Russell, J. S., 537-538, 552
l{u~t;el', W. R., 94, 125 Metcalf, L., 36
Metzler, D. E., 509 Part.ridge, E. P., Gi\) Rutter, E . .I., 607, 620
Kv!atkovskii; V. S.,28n.
p,lttersOll, C. C., 496, S18
Meyer, O. R, 607, 620
Meyer-Peter, E., 3'50 I'ltttel'SOll, O. W., 214
Laoey, G., 166fl., 190 Paulhus, J. L, fl., 520 Sa.bathe, G., 519, 521
Meyers, J. 8., 105 127 P~vlovski\, N. N., viit<, lOOn., 12(\,
J. L. de, 538, 552 Meynardi, G., 353 Sn.frn.nez, K, 31)3, 398, 434, 436
13h;., 136-138, 155,. 156,281 Saint-Veuant, A. J. C. Burre de, 210,
537n., 539, 550 Miller, C. N., 349, 351
L a.moen, 587 618 Miller, O. R. 190 Panati, 8" 572, 584 2171>., 525, 528; 551-;552
Laucetield, L'., 459 ' Mitcheli, W. 'D.; 326 Perronllt,' J. R., 93n. Sandover, J. A., 583 :
,Lane, E. W., 105, 127, 17011.; 174; 19(}-: ?1ockmore, C. E., 459 Pest.recov, Dr., 255n. Sao, T. T., 393, 435
.Peterka, A. J., 436
L 10~1 359, 390, 435, 476'517607 6zi ::'vloleswol'th, G. L., 189 Pickels, G. W., 126
Sn.ugey, 39411.
II>ngbelO, IV. B., 21;) , , , . ~1Qnc\snhein, H. F., G07, 621 Scha.ck, A., 619
Lansford, W. M., 9, 17 326 Mononobe, N., 253, 295 Pikalov, F. I., 436 Schaiiernak, F., 253 ,
P;jggi, B., 433, 438, 459 Schlichting, H., 195, 212
Lauffer, H., 38 ' IVIQntll.gu, A. M. R., 437
Poble, F. V., 535n., 552 Schmidt, .11>1.; viin., 329, 346, 352, 512, 584
La.wler, E. A' J 619 Moore, W. L., 204, 398-399 414n ""3
La.zard, A., 238n., 248 436-437 . . , -= , Poincare, H., 237, 247 Schr.eckcnberg, E. C., 92, 125, 127
poncelet, J. V., 21711,. Schnepper, D., 127
Leaoh, H. R, 156, 271, 295 ;)'1oots, E. 536n., 552 ,Pose)', C J, vii, 13n., 18, 246, 296, 435,'
Le e, M' J 253-254 295 Morg.a.n, C. 4141'1.., 436 Schoder, E.W., 28n., 37, 390
Lei~hly, J. B., 16:9, 191 ' Mor~~2,~93~5'1t' 12, 18, 196, 197n."
459, 607, fi21
Powell, R. W., 95, 126, 204,213- 2 14'
Schoklisch, A.) 2-53, 205, 327, 35], 437,
Lelia. vsky, S., An., 190 406n.. 436 PrandLl, L., 9, 12, 17,200-201,212, 448n.,
459, 520-521, 53Sn., 552, 568, 583,
Leo~old, L. B., 166n., 'l!lO .. Mostkow, M.
M t G
(ll 329 337 339
'" n. 352
620
LeVI, I. 1., 255n., 295 oure,., 227 238n 2:17 ' 459 SohOnfeld, J. C., 550, 58q, 618
Levin, L., 535n., 552, 587 617 Mueller, 0.) ,'" ' Prasil, F:., 358-359 SchuHer, J., 551 :
Preiswerk, E" 448n., 460 Schultz, E. A., 105, 127 :
Levy, A. G., 435 " MUhlhofer, L., 13G, 155
L~, W..R, 327, 334-336, 351 4.96 518 :Mulho\!and, W. M., 508
Price, W. H., 359 ./ Scimemi, E., 364,~., 390, 507, 520
P;.<ls, L. G., 521, 607, 620 Scobey, F; C., 103, 115, 126-127, 166,
Lighthill, M. J., 583 " MtiUer, R., 441, 45\)
Putman, H. J., 587, 618 173, 190, 213, 326
Lin, C. C., 214 M~mch-Petersen, J., 452n., 460
L~n, P. N., 587-588, 618 Seddon, J. A., 531, 551
t;ndle y , E. S." 190 Serre, F., 358, 550
Rafter, G. W., 53n., 300 Sho.ny, M. n., 392
mdquisc, E. G. W., 28n. 37 lOOn 125 Nll.ga.ra.tn~m, S.,'393, 435 Ra,lu', S.P., 17, 4ii\)
213, 393, 434 ",'" Nagler, F. A., 493, SOl, 518-520 Sha.rm:J., K. R., 437
Ra.khmanoff, A. N., 131n., 155, 281n., 296
'';-.
I
Drop spillways, 423-425 F&.w<)r tbeory, 358 Fl'),;,{ measurement, 72--81
Drowned-out hydraulic jumps, 425 Fish skimmer, 337 }I'low-net analysis, 358, 374, 384
Drum gates, 380-382, 507n. Flip b.ucket, overflow spillways, 85-36 Flow pro liles, analysis, 232-237 G. K. formula, 94
Dynamic equatioo, of gradually varied Flood discharge, cllmputation, 146-148, in channels; of adverse slope, 259-260 graphical solution, 95
flow, 218-222 476-490 with gradualli closing crown, 230- Ganguillet and Kutter formula (see
for spatially varied flow, 332 Flood plain, roughness of, 104, 113 231, 261-262 G. K. formuia)
for uniformly progressive flow; 531 Flood routing, 586 of variable hydraulic exponents, 261 Gates, drum, 380-382, 507n.
lor unsteady flow, 526-528 Flood synthesis, 586 or variab1e slope, 238 overflow,S07n.
Dynamic viScosity, 8 Flo,", concave, 30-31 cla::sification of, 226-232 radial (Tainter) I 507-5ill
continuous, 5 .in closed oonduits, 230-231 rolling, 507-508 .
convex, 30-31 critical, 238-241 sluice ($8e Sluice gates)
Easement curve, 457 critical (see CritiellJ flow) dillcontin'Jity in, 224 Tainter (rndial), 507-512
Eddy loss, 267 curvilinear, 31 in Idctionless rectanguial' cha.nnels, underflow, 507-512
Efficiency of hydraulic jump, 896 depth,2Z 292 . Gauckler formula, 99\'1.
Einstein's bed-load function, 161m. discontinuous, 5 in horizontal channels, 259-260 GEDA fiood computer, 609
End point of backwater, 319 . gradually varied, 6-7 in nonprisIDll.tic channels, 235-237, Geometric el1~ment8, ·01 channel section,
Energy, minimum, tbeorem of, 42 grl\dually varied unsteady, 7 306-309 22 .
in nonprisnllLtic channels, 40-49 instability oi, 204 point of inflection in, 224-227, 292 of circular section, 21, 23, 625-627
in open-channel fiow, 39-40 isolated-roughness, 12n., 196 along side weir, 340-341 curves of, 270-271 .
specific, 41 lamirlll.r,7 o(spa.tially varied fiow, 235-237, of parabolic channels, 639
in surges, 565-(;66 opeu-chanuel (see Open-channel liow) 333-331 . of paraboli<: sections, 21
Energy coefficient, 21 overland,544 transitional, 238 of rectangular sections, 21
in spatially varied flow, 345 parallel, 30, 33 types, 241 rounded-cornered, 21
at sudden transitions, 465-466 passing islands, 320-321 nodal, .• of trapezoidal section, 21
Energy dissipators, bucket-type, 408 pipe, 4 sp.ddle, 241 of triangular section, 21
drop-type, 42211.., 42·4-425 progressive, 540, 555-557 spiral, 241 round-bottom, ·21
hydraulic jump for, 404-408 pulsating, 580 vortex, 241 Gra.dient., energy, 40
impaot-tYpe, 422n,. quasi-normal, 23811.. typical examples, 229 velocity, 200
Energy equation, B!;'rnoulli, 40 quasi-smootb, 12n., 196 in wide horizontal channels, 292 Gradual hydre.u!ic jump, 45
Energy grade line, 3 rapid, 13 Flow~resistll.Llce fa.ctor, 91 Gradually varied now, (}
Energy gradient, slope of, 40 rapidly varied, 6 Flumed drop, 415 basic assumptions, 217-218
Energy line, 3 rapidly. varied unsteady, 7 Flumes, 19 dynamic equatIon of, 218-222
Energy loss, coefficient of, 46.8 regimes of, 14:-16 Parshall, 72--81 for wide rectangular channeLs, 222
in hydraulic jump, 60 rough-surfMe, 196-198 Force, drag, 168n. Gra.du!l.lly-varied~Row equation, 219-222
(See also Losses) sec?ndary, 12, 439 plu:! momentum, 54/1.. in tapered· channels, 246
Energy reoovelY through obstructions, shooting, 13 shear, 168n.. Gradually varied unsteady flow, 7
50U skimn:>lng, 196 specific, 53-56 Gra.phical-integration method, 249-252
Entrance to cano.ls, 304-305 slug, 581 of stream, 5<1n. Grassed channels, 179-188
Equations of characteristics, 588 spatially varied (see Spatio.lIy varied tracth-e (.ee Tractive force) centipede, 180 .
Eqttivo.lent n value, 136 flow) Force coefficient, 50 design, examples, 186-188
Erodible channels, 164-179 .spiral, 25-26, 439-440 Fort Collins test,g, 364n. for maximum capa.city, 181-188
types, ix state of, 7-14 Foriier-Scobey table of permissible for stability, 186-187
Erosion below gates, 512 steady, 5 velocities, 165-166 design procedure, 184:-188
Escailde profile, 364n. • steady uniform, 5 Fourier's law, 601 n-VR curves, 182-183
Expansion in chanllel, 57-59 streaming, 13 Free overfall, 44 permillsfule velocity, 184-185
Expansion wave, oblique, 449, <f54 , . subcritical, t3 Free surface, 3 retardance, cJ.a;ssmca tiOD, 181
Expansions, 470-414 . supercritical, 13 Free vortex, 446 selection, 184
!I'
I , '
II
678 SUBJECT INDE.'4
Slope, channel, effect on pressure dis- SimJECT INDlllX 679
tributiou J 32-34 Spillways, overflow, boundary layer on
199-200· , Sllpercritjcru slope, 63 , Transitions, gradual, 47-49, 51-59,310-
horizontal, 223 '
. bu.cket a.t toe, 36, 384 Supercritieal state of flow, 13 : 319 '
large, 33
crest shapes, 363-365 Superelevlltion, 439 ' , sudden, 461-468
limit, 142, 243-244
mild, 63 design ot1l9ction, 367-358 Surface curve, 222 surges through, 575-578
design head, 368--369 Surface flow, .spatially varied, 347-349 Transitory zone of uniform flow, 90
negative, 223
discharge of, 365-370 spatially varied unsteady, 543 Tl'!l.nsla.tory l'rave, 523 .
non sustaining, 223, 259 flip bucket, 35-36 '
norm(J.l, 142 uniform, 148-150 ,. 'rrll.p3~oidli.1 channels, best hydraulic
flow at toe, 382-384 Surface irr.eg\ll!1rities, 106-109' ~ilctioll, 161-162
, '.~
positive, 223
Fort Collins teats, 364n. Surface roughness, 101-102 geometric elements, '21, G2D-G~i7
side, 158--159 gated, 370-374
sIllall, 33 ,~oncept, 104 hydraulic expDnent M, 66-67
subcritical, 63 na.ppe profiles on, 370-373,,387 explanatio1l; 194 hydraulic exponent N, 131-132
,preiJaure on, 374, 378-380, <387 hydraulically rongh, 1-95 hydraulic jumps in, 431
Sli percri tico.i, 63
rating, 3G8-S70 . nydraulic!l.lly smOGtll, 195 values, of AR'Sldo'i, 130
sustaining; 223
submerged, 385-388 wa.vy, 195 of Z/dou, 65
variable, 238 sidc-cha.nnel, 328
zero, 223 Surface tensiou, 7, TrllSh racks, 506-507
ski-jump, 384-385 Surge. 5S7 Trin.ngular channels, 20
of channel bottom, 4() Spiral flow, 25-26, 439,
for 'energy gradient, 40 demand,559 best hydraulic seotion, 161
strength, 440 energy in, 565-566 geometric elements, 21, 639
of ellergy line, 40 Spiral flow 2-11
ill uniform ilow, 40 at junctions, 578-580' l'ollnded:bottom, 20-'21
Stahle hydraulic section, 1'76-179 in navigation caT.lnls, 572-575 Turbulence, cDmp!ete, 12
of water surface, 40 Stage, 22
Slope-area method 146-148 negative, 566-568 Turbulent boundary layer, 193
high and low, 41 positive, 559-566 Turbulent flow, 7
Slug flow, 581' "
Stage-fa.ll-discharge methOd, 280-284 in power ca.nals, 563-572 criterioll, 7-8, 150
,Sluice gates, 507-510
contraction dista.oce after, 258 Stage-verslls-Q/Wcurve, 281 rejection, 559 mllan velocity, 20J-205
How profile 24.0 257 Stage routing, 607 t.hrough transitions, 575-578 unsteady spatially varied, 546
submerged jump afte-~, 60 Stand of grass, 180 Suspended load, 106 velooity distribution, 200-202
Standard step method, 2tl5-268 Sustaining slope,223 Turbulent surface flow, spatia!!y varied,
vena contracta I:lelow, 401
Smetana profile, 364n. for natural ch9Jlneis 271-280 348
Standing swell, '402 ' uniform, 150
Smooth pipes, Nikuradse data for 20ln.
204 ' I
Standing \1'8."6, 393n. Tables, geometric elements of circular
Stanton diagram, 8 conduits, 625-627
Solitary wave, 537-538
St!1.te of flow, laminr..r, 1 permissible velocities, 165, 1S5 tntrarapid velocit.y, 89
Spatially varied flow, 5
sub critical. 13 roughness coefficient n, 109-i13 Underflow gates, 507-512
afiillysis of flow profiles, 235-237 llupercritic'9-1. 13 varied-flnw function!!, 255,259, 641- Undular jump, 45, 395
through bottom rack 337-340 transitional,' 7 661 Uniform flow, 5
with dscreasing discharge, 328-329, tlIrbulcnt, 7 Tainter gate, 507-1H2 computation, 128-150
332-333, 346 I
Steady flow, 5 Theorem, of maximum discharge, 5%. establishment, 88-91
dynamic equation for 332 Steady jump, 395-396 of minimunl energy, 42 que.lificnticins, 88
in horizontal cha.nnel~, 333-337 Steady uniform flow, 5 II Thermal diffusivity, 601 instabili ty, 210
with increasing .discharge, 327-332, Steep cbanneld, 223 Tidal hydraulics, ii, 5231'1.< steady, 5
341-:-142
StolP method, direct, 262-265 L TOIl- width" 22 theoretical equation for, 202-205
method of numerical integration 341-
345 .. ' stlludard, 265-268, 274-280
St,ilIing basin, 401 , t To,:nintill.l flow, 13
Total force nf stream, 54n.
transito ry oon e, 90
unstea.dy,5
-
through side weirs, 340-341 generalized design, 414-411) Tractive force, 168 Uniform-flow equations, theoretical,
surfllCe flow, 347-349 SAF, 415-417 , critical, 172 202-205 '
I
types of, 334 distribul;ion, 169 Uniform-flow forrhula.s, 91
with sloping apron, 427-429
unsteady surfaoe, ,543 USBR,415, 417-422, 427-429 : lateral, 176 Uniform surfaoe flow, 148-150
Spatially-varied-flow eqlu~tion 332 Streaming flow, '13 ' . method of design for, 175 criterion, 150
Spncific energy, 41 ' Strength of spiral flow 440 p~rmissible, 165, 172-174 Uuiformly progressive ftolt,
Specific-energy curve 41-42 Strickler formula, 99n.', 206 unit, 168, }(i9, 173 dyna.mic equation, 531
Specific force, 53-56 ' . Strickler's. constant, 20(3, Tr~ctive-forc"l ratio, 170-171 wave pro£ile, 533-537 . j
Specific-force curve, 54 Strong jump, 3g5-396 Tra.nqui! flow, 13 . Uniformly progressive WlIve, 528,,·· .!
Spillway channel, 306-309 342-346 Subcritical slope, 63 Tra.nsition loss, 3LO-311 ' Unit flood, 602
Spillways, box inlet '424 Subcriticll.l sta.te of flow, 13 Tlranaitional depth, 2;!7n., 238, 2'!2-244' Unlt tractive force, 168
straight, ' , distribution, 169
, ;~
f·
I,
680 SUllJECT INDEX