Running Head: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CONSTRUCTION
RESEARCH PROJECT
Literature Review

Research Topic: Sensors for Building Fitness

Student ID: 12210566
Authors Name: Mohammad Alamri
Paper Coordinator: Dr. Temitope Egbelakin
Supervisor: Dr. Mikael Boulic

1
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Table of Content
1. Literature Review .................................................................................................................. 3

1.1. Introduction/Background ................................................................................................. 3

1.2. The Structural Damage..................................................................................................... 3

1.3. Effect of damages on the building structure..................................................................... 5

1.4. Use of Sensor for Detecting Different Type of External Damages .................................. 6

1.5. Benefits of Sensors Installations ...................................................................................... 8

1.6. Summary of Literature Review ...................................................................................... 10

1.7. Gaps in Current Literature.............................................................................................. 11

1.8. Research Justifications ................................................................................................... 11

1.9. Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 11

1.10. Research Objectives ................................................................................................... 12

References .................................................................................................................................... 13
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1. Introduction/Background

Building sensors have commonly been used to monitor internal comfort levels, security

and as a method of wayfinding (Rijal, Humphreys, & Nicol, 2015). However, sensors a commonly

being used a vast range of buildings and infrastructure for diagnostics for structural stability.

Building structures should meet all requirements in terms of the safety, durability, serviceability,

and suitability for the long-term benefits of the structure and its end users (Ou & Li, 2010). With

age, as with anything in the world structures also tend to deteriorate which can cause significant

structural damage and pose risks to end users. It is common for the structure to undergo severe

fitness checks at regular intervals during its lifespan to determine its fitness for a purpose (Kelly,

Crawford-Brown, & Pollitt, 2012).

Over the years these fitness checks have transitioned from being visual and physical

inspections to ones carried out by sensors which have been implemented into the structure during

construction. These sensors constantly monitor different aspects of the structure such as load,

pressure, and moisture to determine its fitness (Unzu et al., 2013). Should the monitoring sensors

identify a test reading which is out of proportion with expected readings this can lead notifications

being sent out to all interested parties? This, in turn, allows for these parties to carry out repair and

maintenance works as required to maintain the structural integrity.

1.2. The Structural Damage

Building Structures face a lot of damage from many different aspects. Damage can be

natural and caused by earthquakes, tsunamis, floods and even sunlight whereas that can be caused

by man-made errors such as crashes, construction failures and material failures (Cui & Caracoglia,

2016). One example of material failure is reinforced concrete. Reinforced concrete is known to
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

have a limited lifespan. The structural integrity of concrete tends to relate to the ability of the

concrete to withstand chemical and physical factors along with the ability of the reinforcing to

withstand corrosion. The major issue here is that when the reinforcing corrodes it causes expansion

which in turn cracks the concrete which tends to have some weak traits in terms of tensile loads

(Capozucca, 1995).

Additionally, structural damage does not only have to be due to the corrosion and

expansion but can also be due to the increase of carbon dioxide in the air, the humidity levels and

the temperature (Stewart, Wang, & Nguyen, 2012) which can also in turn cause damage to the

structural components. All these are common in countries around the world due to the large scale

industrial developments, vehicular usage, and climate change. This, in turn, shows that the

concrete structures although being implemented with various admixtures and sealants still have

significant risk in terms of structural failure when it comes to withstanding the elements (Rashad,

2014).

Concrete structures do not only face problems post construction but can also have damage

caused to it during the construction phase. In various countries, temperatures and moisture levels

vary which affect the type of concrete being used, the admixtures, the curing time and the limit of

shrinkage stresses can be harmful to the integrity of the structure (Jang et al., 2010). These aspects

of the environment have a significant impact on the buildability and integrity of the structure. As

the temperature rises this causes the curing of the outside to happen at a faster rate to that of the

inside which can ultimately lead to cracks through the structure. In terms of the moisture level,

this is still a problem as concrete with levels of moisture which are too high, even if it is in the air

can reach a point where it has hardened but has not cured correctly which can lead to collapse and

failure.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Overall, there are numerous factors that affect the integrity of a building and the major of these

is the damage it faces under different circumstances. Modern day technology tries to build

structures that can withstand great forces but there are still cases where natural causes and man-

made errors have caused structural failure, which in turn has led to multiple deaths and several

million dollars’ worth of damage.

1.3. Effect of damages on the building structure

As cracking is the most common form of structural concrete failure it needs to be

understood as to what the main form of failure from this is. With cracks occurring the gaps allow

oxygen and moisture to travel into the core and corrode the internal reinforcing steel. This can lead

to erosion and eventually the structure collapsing (Capozucca, 1995). The collapse of the structure

can have significant negative effects on multiple parties namely, the inhabitants who will be

injured if not die, the owner who will lose their investment, and the contractors who will lose their

reputation within the industry. An example of this is in August 1999 in Marmara where an

earthquake of magnitude 7.4 struck the region. The estimated cost of damage was USD 20 billion

with over 20,000 deaths and about 500,000 buildings collapsing since (Arslan & Korkmaz, 2007).

As mentioned previously the environmental factors also have a significant effect on the

ability of the structure to withstand failure. With increased temperatures and humidity, which is

shown, to be a by-product of global warming concrete structures are also deteriorating. As these

aspects tend to increase the likelihood of aggressive agents, Carbon Dioxide and chlorides can

penetrate the concrete to cause failure. It has been identified that due to the increase of global

warming by the year 2100 up to 1 in 6 structures will face costly damage due to corrosion (Stewart

et al., 2012).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1.4. Use of Sensor for Detecting Different Type of External Damages

A simple yet effective monitoring system that has been used in around the world is a

wireless passive sensor, which is embedded into concrete. As the content of water within the

concrete varies the sensor, process this data to the computer through a loop antenna. This system

works by identifying the resonant frequency within the concrete (Ong et al., 2008). This system is

simple yet effective it can help structural engineers identify the volume of water available inside

the concrete and a significant amount of the guesswork, which is currently included in the curing,

will be reduced. This, in turn, will increase structural reliability and can incorporate structural

guarantees into the industry as engineers will back their work.

As with the previous sensor utilizing the resonant frequency, multiple other sensors have

been developed to identify the frequency levels within the concrete to monitor its density,

thickness, gaps that exist and water content level. A sensor to monitor the periodical frequency

measures in concrete at regular intervals can be used to indicate the structural integrity of the

structure (Salawu, 1997). Periodic frequency monitors are also useful for monitoring the previous

data and comparing it with current data to see if any deformities have formed. These can also be

used to research deterioration rates in different environments.

Another form of monitoring is called intrinsic self-sensing concrete (ISSC). This system is

a type of structural concrete that gives of certain electrical resistances within different

circumstances. This is a well-designed system as it does not require any additional power sources,

sensors, or memory drives to capture any information. All data is available on a needed basis by

passing electrical currents through the concrete (Han, Ding, & Yu, 2015). This system can further

work by identifying the moisture, hardness, stiffness and corrosion level of concrete structures just

by passing through electrical currents and can help to identify any failures within the system. The
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

system is still being further developed and further research is required to identify resistance levels

of some aspects of material failure.

Another system currently being developed is the hybrid structural health monitoring

system. This system uses SVI (sequential vibration-impedance to detect two common types of

damage. The first is tendon damage and the second is girder damage (Kim, Park, Hong, & Park,

2010). The system uses a three-step process to identify where the damage is and what steps to take

to repair or replace the area of damage. The first step they take is the monitoring system alarming

that there is damage, the second step is to define whether it is tendon damage or girder damage

from the vibration frequencies. The third step the location and extent of the damage are located

before finally being repaired. Again, this system is effective in identifying the problem and helping

to repair it before it can cause structural failure which can have significant impacts on the

occupants and end users of structures.

Monitoring the health of structure is an important aspect to keep a track record for the

health and safety of occupants and end users. Technological advances have allowed fiber optic

technology to be used to identify the vertical displacement of structures and the strains on the

structure with the use of transducers. Theory shows that these transducers work by monitoring the

vibration of the structures and recording any variances. These variances are then monitored and

identified as to in which situation they occur (Norris, Saafi, & Romine, 2008). This ability to keep

a track record of potential and actual damages allows for the implementation of preventatives in

structures that are subsequently built. This helps to reduce the risk that all occupants and end users

of a structure may face.

Keeping on track with fiber optic technology, many sensors have been designed with glass

and polymeric fibers in mind. They have been developed to monitor the smallest of smallest
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

deformations in structures to give an idea of how and here structural damage will occur. Along

with this fiber optic sensors are also used to monitor and record the PH levels of the components

in concrete. This is significant because the more acidic components of concrete that are curing are

the higher chance of corrosion, and as is already known corrosion is the main factor when it comes

to structural failure (Habel & Krebber, 2011). Fiber optic cables are fast becoming a highly-used

product in the construction industry for data transmission because of its extreme strength and speed

in providing data to locations. Fiber optic cables are a technological advancement that will see

itself being utilized significantly more in the maintenance and monitoring of structures and their

components.

There are many types of sensors that have been developed to prevent structural damage

and allow these to be monitored and recorded. One these have been recorded the information can

be used in future when building other structures and allowing them to ensure that aspects of

previous buildings that have given way do not reoccur in the new building thus creating a standard

of buildings that can withstand multiple external forces.

1.5. Benefits of Sensors Installations

As can be seen from the previous research sensors are useful when implementing correctly

into structures. A very simplistic sensor has the ability to measure the rate at which Portland

cement cures (Ong et al., 2008). Along with this, there has been the implementation of

piezoelectric aggregates, which are added to the curing concrete. As the concrete cures, the smart

aggregate resonates and produces vibrations that can be monitored by engineers to identify the

level of the curing process and how much longer it should be cured to increase the load bearing

abilities (Gu, Song, Dhonde, Mo, & Yan, 2006).

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This is useful as it allows engineers and contractors by allowing them to plan with previous

data and implement programs alongside the curing rate for different concrete. This in term reduces

the risk of project delays and ultimately increase the strength of the structural components. This

can be done by altering the amount of water poured over curing concrete maximum load resistance.

The use of sensors can also help to maintain structures that are in hazardous, dangerous or hard to

reach places, for example underneath large bridges, in the oceans or nuclear facilities. The sensors

are useful in that they can allow developers, contractors, and engineers to use wireless technology

from the haven of their offices and monitor the integrity of the structures. This integrity includes

the task required to maintain them, the costs associated with it and the easiest method of

implementing the maintenance works (Stojanović, Radovanović, Malešev, & Radonjanin, 2010).

With this in hand, sensors can be useful in preventing structural failures, improve the productivity

of repair firms and development firms, increase the rate at which emergency personnel is on the

site should a hazard occur, the protection of natural resources and also the security of the nation.

With technological advancements, fiber optic sensors, have also added more benefits to the

sensors that already existed. These included by were not limited to take up very limited space in

the component thus reducing the risk of weak points. It also has the benefit of providing good

resolution and accurate transmissions over long distances so that data can be transferred from

across the whole structure to a single monitoring point within the engineer’s office. The added

benefit of fiber optic sensors is that the electromagnetic waves a radio frequency interference are

very limited (Deng & Cai, 2007). These benefits create an understanding of how technological

advancements in sensors also help promote their usefulness.

Sensors apart from being useful in preventing significant damage to structures also have

other benefits that will provoke investors to spend their money on implementing them. These
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

include but are not limited to the relatively low cost associated with developing and implementing

them, the ease of installation and the effectivity of their data which is collected and recorded (Jang

et al., 2010). These are all additional benefits because in consumer economics the main method of

getting a product to be utilized by the consumers is to make them useful, cheap and easy to use.

Along with these characteristics, sensors are developed in a way which allows for them to be

utilized within existing structures (Schober & Rautenstrauch, 2007). This is an added benefit as

newer buildings will not be as prone to structural failure as older buildings will be and the

implementation of these sensors will help prevent this from happening. These are the exact

characteristics of most sensors that are in the industry and have all the additional benefits that are

mentioned throughout this research.

1.6. Summary of Literature Review

Overall in can be seen in the thus literature review that the use of sensors in buildings is an

important factor and that they can help to prevent structural damage that can lead to significant

risks to occupants and end users. Because New Zealand’s Construction industry is booming it is

important to maintain these structures for the long term because of the very limited funds available

here in comparison to the more developed countries such as the United States, Canada, and

England. Along with the limited funds the New Zealand labor force is significantly weaker than

these countries also and therefore construction and maintenance times are significantly delayed.

As the New Zealand construction industry further tries to develop itself as an economic

stronghold they will continue to face problems with structural components unless they either

outsource the monitoring and maintenance to other parties or implement their own sensors into

structures.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1.7. Gaps in Current Literature

The research that has been identified in this literature review clearly speak about the types

of damage that arise in structures, the ways in which it can be prevented, the usage of sensors and

their benefits. With all, there is very little information to outline why the use of sensors hasn’t

picked up with mainstream construction and in what ways they can be implemented into the New

Zealand Construction Industry. It is important that this gap is filled so that the government or

investors can use this research that has identified the issue and take initiatives to bridge the gap so

that sensors become the main part of the mainstream construction in New Zealand.

1.8. Research Justifications

With today’s technological advancements, building structure sensors are an integral part of

all new structures and are required in areas where human traffic is high due to the risks associated

with large structures and failure. This research project will help developers and engineers to

understand how they can save money while also increasing safety aspects for end users of their

structures. There is no current or previous data in terms of why sensors are not being utilized

throughout the entire industry and are only a part of specific buildings, namely heritage sites. The

engineers who continue to develop structurally sound buildings can further use this research to

identify why sensors have not been implemented into their projects and what steps they can take

to increase their usage.

A structurally sound building is one that has very little if any risk associated with the

thought of it collapsing or having structural damage that can negatively affect the end users and or

occupants.

1.9. Research Questions

RQ1: What are the External factors involved in the damage of infrastructure in Auckland?
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

RQ2: What are the main damages occurred in the concert buildings of Auckland due to the

external factors?

RQ3: What are the role of damage sensors in the prevention of the external threat to the concrete

buildings?

RQ4: What kind of sensors are required to prevent damages of concert building in Auckland.

1.10. Research Objectives

RO1: To investigate the external factors which are the main cause of concrete building damage

in Auckland

RO2: To investigate the damages occurred in the concrete building of Auckland due to the

external factors?

RO3: To Investigate the significance of sensors in prevention of the building damages in

Auckland
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

REFERENCES

Arslan, M., & Korkmaz, H. (2007). What is to be learned from damage and failure of reinforced

concrete structures during recent earthquakes in Turkey? Engineering Failure Analysis,

14(1), 1-22.

Capozucca, R. (1995). Damage to reinforced concrete due to reinforcement corrosion.

Construction and Building Materials, 9(5), 295-303.

Cui, W., & Caracoglia, L. (2016). Exploring hurricane wind speed along US Atlantic coast in

warming climate and effects on predictions of structural damage and intervention costs.

Engineering structures, 122, 209-225.

Deng, L., & Cai, C. (2007). Applications of fiber optic sensors in civil engineering. Structural

Engineering and Mechanics, 25(5), 577-596.

Gu, H., Song, G., Dhonde, H., Mo, Y., & Yan, S. (2006). Concrete early-age strength monitoring

using embedded piezoelectric transducers. Smart materials and structures, 15(6), 1837.

Habel, W. R., & Krebber, K. (2011). Fiber-optic sensor applications in civil and geotechnical

engineering. Photonic sensors, 1(3), 268-280.

Han, B., Ding, S., & Yu, X. (2015). Intrinsic self-sensing concrete and structures: A review.

Measurement, 59, 110-128.

Jang, S., Jo, H., Cho, S., Mechitov, K., Rice, J. A., Sim, S.-H., . . . Agha, G. (2010). Structural

health monitoring of a cable-stayed bridge using smart sensor technology: deployment

and evaluation.

Kelly, S., Crawford-Brown, D., & Pollitt, M. G. (2012). Building performance evaluation and

certification in the UK: Is SAP fit for purpose? Renewable and Sustainable Energy

Reviews, 16(9), 6861-6878.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Kim, J.-T., Park, J.-H., Hong, D.-S., & Park, W.-S. (2010). Hybrid health monitoring of

prestressed concrete girder bridges by sequential vibration-impedance approaches.

Engineering structures, 32(1), 115-128.

Norris, A., Saafi, M., & Romine, P. (2008). Temperature and moisture monitoring in concrete

structures using embedded nanotechnology/microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)

sensors. Construction and Building Materials, 22(2), 111-120.

Ong, J. B., You, Z., Mills-Beale, J., Tan, E. L., Pereles, B. D., & Ong, K. G. (2008). A wireless,

passive embedded sensor for real-time monitoring of water content in civil engineering

materials. IEEE Sensors Journal, 8(12), 2053-2058.

Ou, J., & Li, H. (2010). Structural health monitoring in mainland China: review and future

trends. Structural Health Monitoring.

Rashad, A. M. (2014). A comprehensive overview about the influence of different admixtures

and additives on the properties of alkali-activated fly ash. Materials & Design, 53, 1005-

1025.

Rijal, H. B., Humphreys, M., & Nicol, F. (2015). Adaptive thermal comfort in Japanese houses

during the summer season: behavioral adaptation and the effect of humidity. Buildings,

5(3), 1037-1054.

Salawu, O. (1997). Detection of structural damage through changes in frequency: a review.

Engineering structures, 19(9), 718-723.

Schober, K., & Rautenstrauch, K. (2007). Post-strengthening of timber structures with CFRP's.

Materials and Structures, 40(1), 27-35.

Stewart, M. G., Wang, X., & Nguyen, M. N. (2012). Climate change adaptation for corrosion

control of concrete infrastructure. Structural Safety, 35, 29-39.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Stojanović, G., Radovanović, M., Malešev, M., & Radonjanin, V. (2010). Monitoring of water

content in building materials using a wireless passive sensor. Sensors, 10(5), 4270-4280.

Unzu, R., Nazabal, J., Vargas, G., Hernandez, R., Fernandez-Valdivielso, C., Urriza, N., . . .

Lopez-Amo, M. (2013). Fiber optic and KNX sensors network for remote monitoring a

new building cladding system. Automation in Construction, 30, 9-14.