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Non-Dimensional Numbers

Need for Non-Dimensional Numbers

The importance of experiments in Fluid Mechanics needs no additional emphasis. Experiments are
required in design and testing of vehicles such as aeroplanes, ships and automobiles, pumps,
turbines, fans and other equipment. We also have experiments which are carried out from the point of
view of understanding a flow and fundamental phenomena such as turbulence. Needless to say that
the experiments have to be planned and executed methodically. The question we must ask ourselves
is :"What are the parameters involved in the given flow? What is their relative significance?" These
are some of the questions facing one that conducts any experiment. At the same time, presentation of
results in a concise fashion also requires thought and planning. A thoughtless experiment (or for that
matter a modern computation) will generate a large body of numbers. It may be difficult to interpret
them. A thoughtful presentation will help to render them in a concise and understandable manner. It is
here that Dimensional Analysis helps us.

Figure 1 : Flow past a Cylinder

Let us consider a concrete situation of one trying to study drag for the flow about a cylinder. The first
question is "What are the parameters that govern this process". The answer is well known -
Freestream Speed V, Diameter of the cylinder D, density of the fluid,  and viscosity of the fluid
 . If one proceeds without thought one will want to determine the influence of each of the
parameters. First one will perform a set of experiments varying free stream speed and keep the other
parameters constant. One curve is produced for Drag vs V, keeping  , , D , the same. But note
that the same experiment has to be repeated for different values of these parameters as well. (Fig 2.).

Then one has to consider Drag vs  keeping other parameters constant. In the end the whole
exercise will become unruly. If each curve requires about ten points for a good definition, it is easy to
see that as many as 10,000 experiments are needed, perhaps requiring one's lifetime?

Luckily, there is a method by which the number of such experiments could be reduced to a minimum.
This is by determining the Non-Dimensional Numbers for the flow. It is somewhat ironical that we
carry out a dimensional analysis to determine the non-dimensional numbers for the flow. These non-
dimensional numbers involve certain combinations of the parameters involved (in the case of drag
about cylinder these are drag force, F,  , , D ,V).
 Figure 2 : Dependence of Drag on Various Parameters

During the experiments, the strategy is to vary only these non-dimensional numbers. For example, we
will see that for the drag problem the non-dimensional numbers are the drag coefficient Cd and
Reynolds number Re (see Fig 3.), which are given by

F
C D= V D
1 2 , Re= (1)
V A 
2
While carrying out the experiment one need to vary only the Reynolds number. How this Reynolds
number is varied is left to the investigator and his or her limitations. It may not be found possible to
change the density or viscosity of the working fluid. Instead it may be easier to conduct the
experiment for different speeds , but still the Reynolds number varies. Alternately it may be the
diameter of the cylinder that can be easily varied.

The second advantage of expressing the results in terms of these non-dimensional numbers becomes
evident now. For this experiment the results are given as drag coefficient, CD as a function of the
Reynolds number Re. The user calculates the Reynolds number for his conditions and finds out what
the value of CD is and then works out the actual value of drag. A certain compactness is what is
achieved.
 Figure 3 : Variation of Cd with Re.

Another advantage of non-dimensional numbers is that the results are independent of the units of
measurement. So a person who is used to a totally different system of units can still interpret the
results.

A further application of these numbers is in Similitude. Invariably whenever new vehicle or any such
application is built it is to be tested out in the laboratory. Many times, it so happens that one cannot
test the prototype in the laboratory. This could be because of the size as in the case of aeroplane or
automobile, or due to the difficulty in obtaining the flow conditions as in the case of spacecraft. The
usual practice is to fabricate a model of the prototype and test it in the laboratory. The question asked
is "What should be the relationship between the model and the prototype? Is it enough to have a
geometrical similarity between the two? Are there any more requirements?". Non-dimensional
numbers answer this question. It will be seen that a few of the non-dimensional numbers will have to
be equal between the model and the prototype.

For any process the Buckingham Pi Theorem helps determine the non-dimensional numbers. This
theorem is stated in the next section.

Buckingham Pi Theorem
Buckingham Pi Theorem relies on the identification of variables involved in a process. Further, a few
of these have to be marked as "Repeating Variables". This would seem to be a major difficulty in
carrying out a dimensional analysis. Let us continue with our example of drag about a cylinder. We
have identified the variables involved - F (drag force), D(diameter of the cylinder), V (the fluid
velocity),  (density of the fluid),  (viscosity of the fluid). Now we mark three of these as the
Repeating Variables - V, D and  . The selection comes by practice. Some general guidelines can
however be given. These variables combine with the non-repeating ones to form the non-dimensional
numbers. Further, they do not form a non-dimensional number themselves. A general prescription is
to consider velocity, linear dimension and density to be the Repeating Variables. But by looking at the
list of variables one can often intuitively tell the Repeating Variables from the rest.

The Theorem

The Buckingham Pi Theorem enables one to "discover" the non-dimensional numbers for a given
process and is stated as
If a physical process has "n" variables and from these "k" are Repeating Variables, then the there are
"n-k" independent non-dimensional numbers that can describe that process.

For the example we have been considering there are 5 variables that govern the process. So n = 5.
We have marked three repeating variables, making k = 3. The theorem tells us that there are two
non-dimensional numbers.

Application of Buckingham Pi theorem

The theorem we have stated is a very general one, but by no means limited to Fluid Mechanics. It is
used in diversified fields such as Botany and Social Sciences and books and volumes have been
written on this topic. But we do not need much theory to be able to apply it. What we will consider is a
procedure to use the theorem and arrive at non-dimensional numbers for a given flow.

1. List all the variables that govern the process. These variables should be independent of each
other. For example, one should not choose density, gravity and specific weight. Density and
Specific Weight should do. For our problem we have F, D, V,  and  . We have n = 5.
2. Mark the Repeating variables. In our case these are D, V and  making k = 3.
3. Decide how many non-dimensional numbers are there. For our case we have n - k = 2. Our
problem has 2 non-dimensional numbers,  1 and  2 .
4. Define the non-dimensional numbers by grouping the variables into n - k groups so that each
group has all the repeating variables and one non-repeating variable. Thus for our problem
we have
 1=1  D , V ,  , F 
 2= 2  D ,V ,  ,  (2)
Let
a b c
 1=D V  F
e f g
 2=D V   (3)

5. Now express each variables in terms of its dimensions. Let us use the MLT system according
to which the variables for our problems have the following dimensions.

Variable Dimensions
F, Force M L / T2 or M L T-2
D, Diameter L
V, Velocity L/T or LT-1
 , Density M/L3 or ML-3

 , Viscosity ML-1T-1

6. Substituting these dimensions into Eqn. 2 , we have

 1= La ¿−1b  ML−3 c MLT −2

 2= Le  L T −1  f M L−3 g  M L−1 T −1 (4)

or
 1=L ab−3c1 T −b−2  M c1

 2=L e f −3g−1  T − f −1  M  g 1  (5)

 7. Noting that  1 and  2 are non-dimensional we have,

a + b - 3c + 1 = 0; -b - 2 = 0, c + 1 = 0

e + f - 3g - 1 = 0; -f - 1 = 0;g + 1 = 0 (6)

8. Solving the equations yields,

a = -2, b = -2, c = -1

e = -1, f = -1, g = -1 (7)

9. Now our non-dimensional numbers become,

F
 1=−1 V −2 D−2 F =
 V 2 D2

−1 −1 −1 
 2= V D = (8)
V D

Thus we have found the non-dimensional numbers for the flow of interest, namely, drag about a
circular cylinder. The functional relationship between the two numbers may be expressed as

F
2
V D 2
= fn
 

V D  (9)

But note that the form of term  2 we have derived is somewhat different from what we assumed
at the beginning. The right hand side of the equation is actually the inverse of Reynolds number! This
points to the drawback of the analysis that the exact functional form between the  numbers
cannot be obtained. Any coefficient or index obtained cannot be determined by this analysis. This
should be determined by experimentation or by computations. But since the numbers are non-
dimensional we can always write,

F
2
V D 2
= fn
 
V D
 (10)

Importance of Non-Dimensional Numbers

In Fluid Mechanics we come across several non-dimensional numbers, each of them derived
following the method outlined. It is important to realise is that these are not just numbers. They have a
deeper physical significance. It turns out that each of these numbers is the ratio of a pair of forces.
The magnitude of the number indicates the relative importance of the forces for a given flow.

Reynolds Number
Reynolds Number given by:
V L
Re= (11)

is the ratio of inertial force to viscous force. A large Reynolds number indicates that for the flow
intertial forces dominate the viscous forces. A large Re also indicates that viscosity has an important
effect in a restricted region around a body. A smaller Reynolds number means that the viscous forces
are considerable in a large region around the body. We will be encountering Reynolds Number
through out any study of fluid motion. Its additional significance will brought out as and when the need
arises.
Froude Number
Froude Number is given by:

Fr=  
V2
gL
(12)

and is the ratio of inertial forces to gravity forces. It is important for flows with a free surface such as
the flow about ships.

Weber Number

Weber Number is defined as

We=  V 2 L
  (13)

is the ratio of inertia forces to surface tension force. If the number is small it implies that surface
tension effects are important.

Pressure Coefficient

Pressure Coefficient is a very good non-dimensional representation of pressure and is frequently used
in aerodynamic studies. It is given by
P−P ∞
C P=
1 (14)
 V 2∞
2
where P is the pressure and P ∞ is the pressure at freestream and V ∞ is the freestream speed.

Drag and Lift Coefficients

These are defined as

D L
C D= C L=
1 2 , 1 2 (15)
V A V A
2 2

where D and L are drag and lift forces respectively.

Some of the common non-dimensional numbers in Fluid Mechanics have been listed in
Table 1.
Table 1. Important Non-Dimensional Numbers.
Non-Dimensional Definition Significance Application
Number
Reynolds Number, Re V L Inertial Forces All branches of Fluid
 Viscous Forces Dynamics

Mach Number, M V Flow Speed Compressible Flow

a Speed of Sound

Froude Number, Fr V2 Inertial Forces Free Surface Flows

gL Gravity Force

Prandtl Number, Pr C p Viscous Dissipation Heat Transfer

k Heat Conduction

Ratio of Specific Heats, Cp Enthaply Compressible Flow

k Internal Energy
Cv

Roughness Ratio e Height of Roughness Turbulent Flows

L Length of Body

Pressure Coefficient, CP P−P ∞ Static Pressure Aerodynamics,

Dynamic Pressure Hydrodynamics
1
V 2
2

Force Coefficient, CX X Force Aerodynamics,

1 Dynamic Pressure× Area Hydrodynamics
V2 A
2

Firction Coefficient, Cf  wall Wall Shear Stress Boundary Layer

1 Dynamic Pressure Flow
V2
2

Similitude

Now we consider Similitude which is an important application of non-dimensional numbers. The issue
is the relationship between the model and the prototype in testing. Suppose a new aeroplane is to be
manufactured and one wishes to test in a wind tunnel first. A scale model of the prototype is
fabricated and tested. What should be the flow conditions for such a test if the laboratory results are to
be applicable to the real life situation, namely, the prototype. From an engineering point of view it
appears that three types of similarities are to be achieved between the model and the prototype.
These are Geometrical Similarity, Kinematic Similarity and Dynamic Similarity.
Geometrical Similarity

It is an obvious requirement and imposes that the corresponding lengths between the model and the
prototype bear the same ratio as indicated in Fig 4.

Figure 4 : Geometric Similarity

 
L
B model
=
L
B prototype
'
 
T
B model
=
T
B prototype
, etc. (16)

Kinematic Similarity

This similarity requires that the length and time scales be similar between the model and the prototype
implying that velocities at corresponding points be similar as shown in Fig 5. Under this similarity
streamline patterns for the flow over the model and the prototype will be similar. Obviously, kinematic
similarity includes geometrical similarity.

Figure 5.5 : Kinematic Similarity

 
vA
uA prototype
=
 va
ua model
,
 
vB
uB prototype
=
vb
ub model
, etc. (17)

Dynamic Similarity

Dynamic Similarity exists between the model and the prototype when forces at corresponding points
are similar (Fig. 6.).

 
FAv
FAh prototype
=
 
Fa v
Fa h model
,
 
FBv
FBh prototype
=
 
Fbv
Fbh model
, etc. (18)
 Figure 6 : Dynamic Similarity

Of the three similarities, the dynamic similarity is the most restrictive.

The Dimensional Analysis that we have carried out in this chapter clearly indicates that to achieve
dynamic similarity the all the non-dimensional numbers relevant to the flow must be preserved
between the model and the prototype. In other words,

 1 model=1  prototype ,  2 model = 2 prototype  , etc.. (19)

But it is common experience that this is something not easy to achieve. There seem to be many
problems. One such is in the field of aerodynamics. In order to obtain total similitude between model
and prototype it comes out that Reynolds Number and Mach Number should be the same between
the model and the prototype. When one considers the inflight Reynolds numbers of today (108 or near
about) it appears that this is a difficult target with the wind tunnels in existence. A tradeoff is
necessary. But nature comes to our rescue. It turns out that at lower speeds (Mach Number 0.3 and
below) it is the Reynolds Numbers that are important and it is simply enough to preserve Reynolds
number alone. At higher speeds where compressibility is important only Mach Number need be
preserved.

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