Educational Measurement is Difficult

Accurate and adequate measurement in educational work is difficult to achieve. There are
several factors that make this important educational task quite hard. Unfortunately, these factors
can only be minimized but can never be entirely eliminated. Among these factors are the following:

(1) Many of the objects of measurement are highly abstract and hence, cannot be measured
directly. For instance, personality, intelligence, knowledge, aptitude, skill, and the like which are
often measured are highly abstract terms. As such they cannot be measured directly. Only their
manifestations are measured. (Bradfield and Moredock, 1819) To measure the knowledge of a
student in Philippine history, he is given a test on the subject. The score that he obtains is only a
manifestation of his knowledge, not the result of direct measurement.

(2) Many of the objects of measurement which are measured as distinct entities by themselves
may actually refer to the same thing. For example, skill, ability, knowledge, and talent are usually
measured separately as distinct from one another but they may refer to the same item or if not they
overlap in meaning. In the words of Bradfield and Moredock "the items are neither mutually
exclusive nor collectively inclusive of all that is significant." (Bradfield and Moredock, 18)

(3) There is no zero point to start measurement from. Physical measurement has a zero point to
start from, educational measurement has none. If knowledge is measured, there is no such thing as
zero knowledge. This makes educational measurement relative. If knowledge of a student in
Philippine history is measured, he is scored in terms of an arbitrary standard or in terms of the
knowledge of other students. For instance, together with other students, he takes a test in Philippine
history with 20 items. This is equated to 100 percent and so each is equal to 5 percent. If the student
gets 15 correct answers, he achieves 75 percent of the test (15 x 5%). Or if the scores are arranged
from highest to the lowest score and a student is fifth from the highest, then he is ranked fifth in
his class. In some cases, the score of a student is located in a scale in terms of a measure of central
tendency such as the median, mean, or mode, or in terms of point measures such as the percentile
or the quartile. All these measures are computed and explained in a later chapter.

(4) Most of the objects of measurement are behaviors and are sub, ject to change. Sometimes they
occur and sometimes they do not. 'Measurement often distorts them." (Bradfield and Moredock,
19) Effort-making for sure, changes. In one examination in a subject a student may study hard
and he scores high but in the next examination he loses interest in studying hard and he scores low.
In such a situation, it is difficult to determine the true knowledge of the student in the subject
matter.
(5) An object of measurement may be measured differently by different persons and for different
purposes. This causes confusion. Educational measurement for the same object may be used for
different purposes such as marking, programming, diagnosis, research, planning, or evaluation.
Bradfield and Moredock cited a case of reading being measured differently, for different purposes,
and by different persons. A teacher needs to give to his fifth graders school marks in reading, and
so he measures them for that purpose. A guidance counselor needs to assign pupils in English
classes for remedial teaching and he measures the reading ability of the same pupils to be able to
determine to which class each belongs. A superintendent wants to show how the mean reading
ability of the pupils in his district is well above a certain norm and he administers a reading or
proficiency test. Because of the varied purposes, each of these persons may use a different test,
may measure the pupils differently, and yet each may consider that he has measured the same
thing-reading. (Bradfield and Moredock, 19) If a pupil obtains different scores in the different
tests, which is the correct one?

(6) There is a lack or scarcity of measuring instruments that give accurate measurement. There are
places where tests that are not suitable for the culture of the place are being used. Naturally the
tests do not give reliable results. Or a test that was used and was good thirty years ago may
t be serving its purpose now but it is still being used. Of course, teacher-made tests are aplenty,
but they are usually prepared to meet the deadline for administration and therefore, far from being
suitable for the different aspects of testing especially in the measurement of personality traits,
Besides, in the construction of tests it is hard to determine what items should be included
and which should not. It is also hard to estimate the weight of each item. Hence, the results of tests
are only approximations of the actual amounts of what are measured.

(7) Environmental factors affect the students' ability to assimilate and also affect their ability to
score in a test. Efficient instruction, adequate facilities, and other conditions conducive to learning
usually enhance intellectual development. On the other hand, inefficient instruction, poor facilities,
and distractive factors often retard intellectual progress. In the latter situation, intellectual ability
is hard to ascertain.

Testing conditions are also important. Generally, students score better in testing rooms that
are quiet, adequately lighted and ventilated and the temperature is just right than in testing rooms
that are noisy, poorly lighted and ventilated, and the temperature is either too hot or too cold. In
the latter case, measurement cannot be accurate.

(8) The human element of the measurer also affects measurement. Generally, different teachers
(measurers) have different standards of excellence. The same teacher may also have different
standards at different times. This makes the standardization of measurement difficult. The errors
of the measurer, his partiality, biases, prejudices, temperament, health, and everyday events that
affect his feelings and emotions often distort his measurements. A teacher who is prejudiced
againts a certain student may magnify the errors of the latter and may minimize the errors of his
favorites.
(9) The health of the measured also affects measurement. Taking all other things equal, a healthy
student achieves more than a sickly one, A student with some ailments usually cannot work, study,
and think up to capacity and hence, his tests do not reflect the true level of his intellectual ability

(10) Cheating adversely affects accurate measurement. If a student (it eats in an examination and
as a result obtains a high score, his score is not a true measure of his knowledge of the subject
matter of the examination.

(11) Absences also affect measurement. If a student is absent on a certain day, he does not learn
about the lesson that day. Then if a quiz or test is given the next day the student may get zero or a
very low score. But this is not the true measure of his ability.

Functions of Measurement
Measurement has important functions in education. There has been no educational activity
without measurement whatsoever in one form or another. The more important functions of
measurement are classified into two major aspects: instructional and administrative and
supervisory.

1.Instructional functions. Measurement is performing instructional functions when it is used to

determine the outcomes of teaching and learning processes and when it is used to make learning
more effective. Instructional functions are classified into principal instructional functions and
secondary instructional functions.
a. Principal instructional functions. The principal instructional functions are the basic
purposes of measurement. They are:
(1) To determine what knowledges, skills, abilities, habit's, and attitudes have been
acquired. Instruction has for its main aim the imparting of knowledge, the development of
skills and abilities, and the formation of desirable habits and attitudes. It is important to
know which of these outcomes have been acquired, Measurement shows this.
(2) To determine what progress has been made in the acquisition of the learning outcomes
mentioned above. It is essential for a teacher to know the extent of learning that his students
have so that he will be able to determine how much reteaching he should do to cover at
least the minimum essentials.
(3) To determine the strengths, weaknesses, difficulties, and needs of the students, This is
a diagnostic function of measurement and it matters much to he teacher. It enables him to
see what remedial measures are to be instituted and how to institute them.

b. Secondary instructional functions. The secondary instructional functions, also called

auxiliary functions, help make teaching and learning more effective. Some of these are
incidental. The secondary instructional functions are as follows;
 (1) To help in the formation of study habits. Students adapt and adjust their study habits to
the type of test they expect to take. If they know that they are to be given an essay
examination, they try to develop their ability in topical discussion and organization. On
the other hand, if their test is an objective type, they concentrate on the mastery of
factual information.

(2) To develop the effort-making capacity of the students. It has been observed that
students exert more effort to study their lessons when there is an examination coming.
They review the materials to be covered by the examination over ' and over again and
this makes learning more permanent. Examinations compel students to exert more
effort to master their materials of study.

(3) To serve as aid for guidance, counseling, and prognosis. Results of measurement show
the strengths, weaknesses, and needs of the students. Hence, the teacher will be able' to
determine who should receive guidance and counseling,' and who should receive more
intensive remedial teaching. Results of measurement will also serve as a basis for
predicting the success of a student in certain areas of educational; activity. When a student
has high scholastic marks or when he scores high in an intelligence test it is believed that
the student will succeed in careers that involve high intellectual capacity. Aptitude and
other psychological tests will show the right career suited for an individual student and so
he is guided and counseled to take a course that is suited to his ability and other
psychological characteristics. This is good for purposes of instruction.
2. Administrative and supervisory functions of measurement. The administrative and
supervisory functions of measurement are those that help in making the instructional functions
more effective. They are very closely related to the instructional functions and in fact there are
cases where they overlap. The administrative and supervisory, functions of measurement are:

a. To maintain standards.
(1) To maintain their standards, some schools, colleges, and universities administer tests to
applicants for enrollment to determine who should qualify to enroll. Only those who are
capable of tackling the work in the courses they, are enrolling in as shown by the results of
the entrance tests are admitted. Those who fail to pass the tests are rejected.
(2) For the same purpose as mentioned above, the government also administers a general
college entrance examination to high school graduating students to determine who should
be allowed to take courses in college that involve much intellectual activity. Those who
fail to pass the cut-off percentile rank are advised to take vocational and other courses that
involve 'less than four years of study. At present, this entrance examination is called the
National College Entrance Examination, more popularly called the NCEE.
 (3) Achievement in school subjects is measured by means of tests and the results serve as
basis for determining who should be promoted to the next higher level and who should
be retained.

(4). For social control purposes, the government administers examinations to determine
who should be licensed to practice their professions. Examples of these examinations are
the bar examinations and the board examinations for medicine, nursing, dentistry,
optometry, accountancy, engineering, and other professions. The unfit are barred from
practicing their professions by these examinations.

(4) For reason of efficiency, the government administers tests to determine who should
enter the government service. Hence, civil service examinations are given from time to
time. Some private firms also give competitive tests to job applicants.

b. To classify or select students for special purposes. Classification of students serve several
important purposes:
(1) Grouping of students into classes or sections based on ability for instructional purposes
is an old educational practice.

This is placing in the same class students of the same or about the same mental
capacity who can progress at the same rate. This is to produce homogeneity. It is believed
that homogeneity of students in a class facilitates teaching and learning. Handling a
heterogeneous class is quite difficult on account of the diverse capacities of the students to
learn. If the teacher adjusts his teaching to the dull, the bright students do not learn much,
get bored, and become restless. If the teacher adjusts his teaching to the level of the bright,
the dull students cannot catch up with the work.

Some quarters, however, believe that the above practice is psychologically unsound
on account of the stigma of dullness attached to the lower sections. The dull students may
develop inferiority complex which they carry over into their adult life.

(2) Tests are used to discover the extremely bright and talented students, the very dull or
handicapped ones, or those with special talents. Discovering these students is important
because there is a need of organizing special classes for them so that their talents may be
developed to the full. Or, they may be sent to special schools for their kind. Those who are
extremely bright in science may be sent to science schools. Those who are handicapped
may be sent to schools that specialize in training learners with incapacities.
 (3) For purposes of granting scholarships the government, some schools, colleges, and
universities, and private social and civic organizations give competitive examinations for
the purpose of selecting recipients of such scholarships.

(5) For granting honors, the results of measurement serve as basis for the selection of honor
students. Honor students are usually chosen at the end of the school year.

(5) Tests are also given for emotional, educational, and vocational guidance and counseling
purposes. There are tests that reveal the types of personality and emotional problems of
students and these tests are essential in guidance and counseling for social and personal
adjustment. There are also tests that reveal the mental capacities, aptitudes, and vocational
interests of students and those are used to determine just the right careers for the students.

c. To determine the efficiency of teachers, the effectiveness of their methods, techniques and
strategies, their strengths, weaknesses and needs. Taking all other things equal, students under
an efficient teacher score better in a test than students under an inefficient teacher. Tests given to
students may also reveal the weaknesses, difficulties, and needs of the teachers for which their
administrators or supervisors may be able to institute remedial measures. There are also times
when teachers are required by higher authorities to use a certain method or system of instruction.
The efficacy of such a method or system may be evaluated through tests.

d. To determine the standard of instruction of a school, district, division, region, or the

educational system as a whole. This is usually done through survey tests the results of which are
checked against the standard or policy set by higher educational authorities. Schools whose norms
in a survey test are below the national norms are considered to have a low standard of instruction
and the schools whose norms are above the national norms are considered to have a high level of
instruction.

e. To serve as basis or guide for curriculum making and development. By means of tests the
mental age of pupils who ought to be in certain grade may be established. The results of such
tests are good guides in the construction and development of curriculums for the different grades
or instructional levels. The difficulty of the grade or course materials should fit the mental age and
capacity of the pupils and students.

f. To serve as guide for administrators and supervisors in making their educational plans
and programs for their schools. Test results will reveal the strengths and weaknesses of school
programs. Administrators and supervisors should accordingly strengthen the weak points of their
programs. For instance, appropriate tests show that the pupils are generally weak in mathematics.
Plans to improve the teaching of mathematics should then be made for the ensuing year.
g. To set up norms of performance. This is done by standardizing Psychological as well as
educational tests. Tests for intelligence, aptitude, personality, and achievement in different subjects
have been constructed and their norms computed for different ages and grade levels. Norms of
performance are in the form of means, medians, percents and percentile ranks, quartiles, and I.Q.'s.
The performance of an individual in a test may be compared with the norms of the test to determine
the level of his performance.

h. To keep parents informed of the progress made by their children in school. This is for
keeping good public relations between the school and the community. The records of the
performance of the pupils and students are sent to their parents to keep the later well informed of
what the school is doing for the children. The cooperation of the parents may then be gained and
the class work of their children may be improved.

i. To serve as basis for research. The results of measurement are very rich sources of problems
and topics for research. There are vital problems which can be solved by research based on the
student's scholastic records. One important question which research may be able to find answer to
involves promotion and retention of pupils and students. For instance, what amount of subject
matter must be mastered by a pupil or student to be able to pass? Or what amount of subject matter
does a student fail to master for him to be retained? In quantified terms, what amount and quality
of performance may be considered excellent (1 or A), good (2 or B), fair (3 or C), and poor (failed)?
If these things are clear to all concerned why is it that complaints and criticisms are flying thick
and high that the products of our educational system are becoming poorer and poorer? It is
claimed that many students are promoted to the next educational ladder although they are not
capable of tackling the work in that level. Research can do much to solve this.

Scope and Functions of Evaluation

Evaluation, using the results of measurement, has the following scope and functions:

1. Evaluation makes appraisal of the educational objectives, programs, curricula, instructional

materials, and other facilities.

a. Evaluation sees to it that the objectives, general and specific, and formulated by the teachers
are in accord with the national, regional, community, and school economic, social, moral and
spiritual development goals. It sees to it that the objectives are behavioral, that is, they are
specific, observable, measurable, and attainable.

b. Evaluation sees to it that instruction goes on smoothly in accordance with the school
program. Generally, the school program is drawn up cooperatively by the school staff and
 instruction must follow it. This program, however, through evaluation has to be revised from
time to time to meet the challenges of the changing times and the increasing complexity of life.

c. Evaluation also appraises the curriculum which has to be made and developed according to
the needs of the learners. There should be provisions for individual differences and the teachers
should see to it that in giving individual assignments, the individual differences of the learners
should be considered.

d. Evaluation also appraises instructional materials. It pays attention especially to their

adequacy, appropriateness, and their proper and maximum utilization for the betterment of
instruction. Textbooks and references, laboratory equipment and other audio-visual aids and
the use of the modern technological gadgets should be looked into closely through evaluation.

e. Classrooms and their sizes, lighting, ventilation, temperature, the seats, chalkboards,
freedom from noise and other distractions, are also within the scope of evaluation.

2. Evaluation makes appraisal of the teacher, his methods and strategies, attitudes, and values.
His qualifications are important especially if he is teaching his specialization. Are his methods and
techniques appropriate and effective? Are the teaching aids appropriate and skillfully presented to
produce the maximum desired effects? Does he maximize his time for teaching? All these have to
be looked into by evaluation.

3. Evaluation appraises the learner. Measurement makes an intensive and extensive testing of
the students to give their complete psychological and educational picture. Evaluation analyzes the
results of the tests and accordingly makes the proper steps to maximize the development of the
learners in their educational aspirations particularly in their emotional and social adjustment and
their choice of careers and vocations. This function is guidance and counseling.
4. Evaluation makes appraisal of the public relations of the school. The usual means of
promoting the public relations of the school are by sending report cards of students and pupils to
their parents, forming the Parent-Teachers Association and calling meetings of the same, inviting
parents and important persons in the community to attend to important school activities, granting
awards or honorary degrees to persons who have rendered some service to the school, and the like.
All these have to be appraised by evaluation for purposes of fostering closer relations between the
school and the community to effect a more effective accomplishment of educational goals.
5. Evaluation makes appraisal of the achievement scores of the learners. This is one important
function of evaluation. This is the process of converting or transmuting raw achievement scores
from the teachers' tests into qualitative school marks or grades. This is changing quantitative into
qualitative achievement. This is for purposes of promotion and placement of students in the
educational ladder.
6. Evaluation conducts research. The ultimate aim of evaluation is to maximize learning. If in the
process, evaluation finds impediments and impairments to the maximum acquisition of the desired
outcomes of learning, then it conducts research to find out the causes of such impediments and
impairments and institutes remedial measures to remove them.