FLUID MECHANICS

LABORATORIES
 LABORATORY NO. 1
BERNOULLI’s THEOREM

1. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

For a stationary fluid flow must be valid: the equation of continuity,

= = const
q Sv (1)

Bernoulli's equation applied to the fluid in the tube horizontally:

ρv2
pt =+
p =
const (2)
2

From relations (1) and (2) result for static pressure:

ρ q2 1
=
p pt − (3)
2 S2

where q is the constant volume flow of fluid, and

π
S= D2 (4)
4

S the area of one of the sections of the tube.

Consequently, if Bernoulli's law is correct, pressure probes measure the elevation ha

static pressure manometer fluid:

p= p0 − ρl gh (5)

1
will show that the pump varies linearly with the inverse 4th power of the diameter of the tube.
In fact, substituting (4) and (5) into (3) we obtain:

ρ q 2 16
p0 + ρl gh =pt − (6)
2 π 2 D4

or

pt − p0 8 ρ q 2 1
=h − 2 (7)
ρl g π ρl g D 4

pt − p0 8ρ q 2
Noting with A = şi B = constant coefficients in equation (7), we find
ρl g π 2 ρl g
the measured elevation dependence of the form:

1
h( D )= A − B (8)
D4

Relations (3) and (8) highlight the hydrodynamic paradox, namely:

static pressure, ie the pressure exerted on the walls of a fluid flowing
laminar increases with the decrease of tube section and decreases it.

2. OBJECTIVES LABORATORY

The objectives of laboratory work are to demonstrate Bernoulli's equation when applied
esta a constant flow of liquid in a pipe tapered (conical).

2
3. DESCRITION OF EXPERIMENTAL STANDS

3.1 Description of the experimental stand F 1-15

Fig.3.1.1

1. Test Section
2. Prize pressure
3. Manometer tubes
4. Vent screw
5. Screw the vent tube (air pump)
6. Water pump connection tube on the main stand
7. Exhaust flow control valve
8. Hypodermic probe adjustment screw
9. Water inlet valve flow (valve water pump) (see below)
10. Water tank (main stand) (see below)
11. Start / stop pump (see below)
12. Exhaust duct connection pool water main stand (see below)
13. Manual air pump (see below)
14. Hypodermic probe position adjustment screw

3
 Test section (1) is represented by a line of acrylic, transparent, whose cross-section is
variable.

Over the section are provided a series of outlet pressure (2) connected to the vertical pressure
gauges (3) on the platform. These sockets allow pressure static pressure measurements
simultaneously on the 6 sections. In order to enable calculation of the dimensions of the test
section, the positions of the pressure outlets and the diameter of the section of the test are
detailed as follows:

Position outlets Legend Diameter

pressure gauges (mm)

A h1 25.0

B h2 13.9

C h3 11.8

D h4 10.7

E h5 10.0

F h6 25.0

Tabel 1

Fig. 3.1.2

4
 Fig.3.1.3

It used a hypodermic probe total pressure, which can be moved in different positions.
Moving the probe is done by loosening the screw located in the right end of the test section (14).
The output of the test section (right side) is a flow control valve outlet. The flow rate and
pressure can be varied by adjusting the valve of the inlet valves or of the flow of water (9) on
the main stand (10).

5
 13

Fig.3.1.4

3.2 Description of the experimental stand F 1-10

Fig. 3.2.1

Experimental stand F1-10 is used with the experimental stand F1-15 and other
experimental stands used in laboratory work involving the study of fluid mechanics.

6
 a) F1-15 stand description

- A tank made of glass fiber plastic and has a capacity of 250 liters.
- Allows the measurement of the flow rate between 1-6 liters / min and 5-40 liter /
min.

- Allows easy coupling of different stands.

- The construction allows mounting anywhere near the water source / current due
date castors mobility underlying stand.
- Tank to measure volumetric flow easily and reduce reflection plate flow turbulence.
Two measuring cylinders for determining flow rate.
- The bottom of the tank is an opening which can be obutrată. Typically, during the
experiment, it is kept open to allow circulation of the water in the tank.

- Inside the experimental stand is centrifugal water pump. The pump is operated by
the valve on the front panel of the experimental stand.
- On the basis of the experimental stand is a tank drain valve.

b) Specificatii tehnice

Specifications

- Water pump: centrifugal water jet lifting capacity 21 m, the

rate of 1.35 liters / sec

- Motor power: 0.37kW

- Total capacity of tank: 250 liters

- Upper tank capacity: 40 liters

- Lower tank capacity: 6 liters

- Working height from the ground: 1 meter

7
3.3 Using experimental stands

To perform laboratory work on theorem proving Bernoilli is necessary to use two stands F
1-10 and F 1-15.

F 1-10 experimental stand is placed over the stand F 1-15, making adjustments correct
positioning.

For this purpose act on substrates plate F 1-10 (support legs) which can be adjusted until the
stand is upright.

Operating Procedure

1) Fill the tank of the stand F 1 to 15 with water to the desired level.
2) Connect the stand F 1-15 from power supply.
3) Connect the inlet pipe (6) to the water pump located CONN F 1-15 bench.
4) The exhaust pipe (12) is connected to the stand F 1-10 end and the other end is placed in
the basin of the main stand (volumetric measuring tank F1-15).
5) fully open the flow control valve outlet (7).
6) completely close the intake valve control water flow (9) on the main stand.
7) Start the water pump (11)
8) Open the control valve progressively (9) to allow the plant to fill up with water while the
complete evacuation of air from piping gauge.

*** To allow for the air intake tube pressure gauge and we use hollow screw (5).
- Unscrew the tube

- The plastic tube is attached to the air valve, the free end

being placed in the tank main stand.

- Close the valves (7) and (9) simultaneously with the opening the air flow adjustment screw
(4).

WARNING!
To avoid overloading will open progressively air flow adjustment screw (4) while closing valves
(7) and (9).

8
 - Valve opens easily control the flow of water (9) to allow movement of fluid
through the tubes gauge and remove all existing air.

- Tighten the screw tube (5) and control valve opens and the exhaust flow (7).

- Hollow screw (5) is directly related to the vent screw (4). Any operation of
aeration or aeration is done with both screws simultaneously.
- Open a little screw pipes (4) to allow air to reach the top of the gauge tube.
Tightens again when the liquid level reaches halfway up the gauge tube.

9) 9) progressively increases the flow rate regulating valve opening of the exhaust stream ( 7) or
stream water inlet valve (9 ) depending on the requirements of the experiment until it reaches
the maximum .

*** If the rate of filling of tubes gauge is too low , open the valve regulating the flow of water
( 9) to increase the value of hydrostatic pressure .
If the fill rate is too high , open the flow control valve outlet ( 7) to reduce the hydrostatic
pressure .

The levels reached by the hydrostatic fluid in the tubes can be adjusted through the use of
the manual air pump ( 13 ) at the back of the stand.
Open the cap of the air tube ( 5) and the air pump hose is mounted . After installing
aeration hose open bolt ( 4).

Note : If excessive static pressure is established in the system, while the flow control valve is
fully open and the exhaust control valve almost closed exhaust stream , using the hand pump in
order to decrease the level of the manometer tube will not be possible . The leaflets must be
adjusted so as to allow the required rate to a lower static pressure .

The tube manometer connected to the pressure relief valve adjacent the outlet flow
control is used as a reference point when the conditions have been created equivalent of flow
through the test section .

Actual water flow can be determined using the volumetric tank ( tank main stand ) and a
timer .

9
3.4 Experimental Procedure

The objective of the experimental procedure is to investigate the validity of Bernoulli 's
equation when applied to a constant flow of liquid
a tapered pipe

. Experimental method refers to the measurement of flow rate , total and static pressure
in a rigid tube convergent / divergent geometry known for different flow rates of the liquid

. For the experiment using two counters F1- 10 for measuring fluid flow in timed relation
to the volume of water collecting and F1 -15 Bernoulli test device plus a timer

. For the calculation should be used the dimensions in Table 1 and Figure 3.1.2 .

Assemble the two stands and all accessories as described in Section 3.3.
It sets the direction for the test section : convergent / divergent fluid entering or
divergent / convergent input . Changing direction is done by reversing the test section ( test
section to reverse acrylic tube position ) .

*** If the test section is reversed , remove hypodermic probe before disconnecting
connectors ( nuts ) acrylic tube .

We ensure that the inlet ducts and outlet fluid flow are attached to the respective valves ,
especially exhaust tube must be positioned in the tank to facilitate volumetric timed collection
of the water volume .
Check the valves ( 7) and (9 ) are closed.

Hydraulic pump is started by pressing the on / off button (11 ) on the main stand .

Valve opens progressively adjusting the liquid flow (9 ) to fill with water testing platform
( tube manometer ) .

Removal of the air intake tube pressure gauge is done by closing two valves ( 7) and (9 )
and the opening of the screw tube ( 5 ) , ( which was previously attached to the tube ) and a
ventilation screw ( 4 ) .

Valve opens easily adjustable fluid flow ( 9 ), which allows water to flow through the
tubes and the tube manometer attached tubular screw ( 5 ) .
In this way it removes air from gauge tubing and acrylic section

Once the air has been removed, it is progressively opens the flow control valve outlet (7)
when the screw is tightened the tubular (5) and a ventilation screw (4).

10
 Opens slightly again, (5) and (4) to allow air to reach the top of the aeration
manometrelor.Cele two screws will be closed when the level of liquid in the manometer tubing
reaches the desired level.

Tube manometer fluid levels can also be adjusted by using the manual pump.

Recording the result set

It is recommended that data collection at three different rates of final curgere.La can
reverse the test section to observe the effects of a section converging faster.

a.Flow rate a.Stabilirea

- Note the first set of results in maximum flow rate

- The flow rate is reduced to obtain a difference in height of about 50 mm between h1 and
h5 .

- At the end of the whole process is repeated for another flow rate stabilităă so

that the value of the difference between h1 and h5 to be half that obtained in the first two tests.

b. Reading the static head

- Read values h1 - h5 tubes gauge the levels are stable. It is intended that the total
pressure is not exerted on the test section .

c timed volume collection

- It is recommended timed volume collection using volumetric tank to determine the rate
of collection.

- This is achieved by closing the hole communicating with the lower tank by use of the
plug -type " ball " and the timer to measure the time required to accumulate a known volume of
fluid in the reservoir.

- The fluid was collected for at least one minute in order to minimize timing errors .

d. reversal test section

- When changing the test section (reverse acrylic tube ) hypodermic probe should be
withdrawn completely from the tube. Unscrew the two connections ( nuts) , remove the test

11
section is reversed , and then reinstall the hypodermic probe , the probe tighten nuts and
screws .

e. Registration data into the table

- The data obtained are recorded in the following table :

Volume Time Flow Diameter Section Pregnancy Speed Pregnancy Pregnancy

static dynamics
V t Qv d S v total
h
ht
(m) (m)
( m³) (sec) (m³/s) (m) (m²) ( m/s) (m)

A:

B:

C:

D:

E:

F:

12
 LABORATORY NO. 2
ENERGY LOSES IN PIPES

1. THEORETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Load losses represent energy dissipation in fluid flow (no heat transfer). The name
comes from the hydrodynamic load is measured in meters, which is the fluid specific energy
(energy per unit weight). In the case of the one-dimensional fluid specific energy is:

p αV 2
e=z+ + (m ) (1)
ρg 2g

wherein the symbols have the meanings known in the hydraulics rate.
Friction loss is a function of the fluid flow path and the difference between the specific energy
input section, and output (see Figure 1)

αV12 hr 1-2
2g

αV22
2g
p2
p1 ρg
ρg
Q

z2
z1

Planul de referinţă

Fig.1 Graphic Expression of load losses between two

sections of the fluid flow

Load losses are of two kinds linear (distributed) and local and generally occurs
simultaneously. Linear losses are caused by friction between the fluid and solid contours (pipe

13
walls or channels) on the local inertial effects are caused by uneven flows encountered. In
applications, quantifying miscarriages is based on semi-empirical formulas where interest
experimental analysis of the phenomena causing energy losses.

1.1. LINEAR LOAD LOSSES (hd)

The only form of energy dissipation in the flow of fluids in uniform motion, so in order to
measure only linear load loss is required to carry out such flows.

a) The factors influencing the losses of the linear load are:

• The length of the fluid flow

• hydraulic radius (diameter for circular pipes)

• The average speed of the fluid flow (flow)

• The nature of the fluid (density, cinematic viscosity coefficient ρ ν)

• Nature solid contours (characterized by roughness equivalent)

The calculation formula

λ ⋅ L V2 L ⋅ V2 λ ⋅ L V2 λ⋅L 2
hd = = 2 = = 0,0 8 5 Q2
4 ⋅ R 2g C ⋅ R D 2g (m) (2)
D 
c o cn id r uc

the hydraulic radius R (m) pipe diameter D (m), L the pipe length (m)

4⋅Q  k
v= the average speed in the pipe (m/s), Q flow (m 3
/s), λ = λ R e ,  Darcy
π ⋅ D2  R
v⋅R
coefficient (non dimensional), k equivalent roughness of solid contour (m), Re = Reynolds
ν
criteria, ν cinematic viscosity coefficient (m2/s), C Chézy coefficient. The relation between λ and
1 λ
C is: 2 = 8g . The central issue is the correct estimation of the coefficient of Darcy (or Chézy).
C

 k
b) Dependence λ = λ R e ,  , different relations account
 R

14
 Flow Conditions Re Computing relations Remarks

laminar <2300 A A=64 for circular pipe

λ=
Re

smooth turbulent 2300<Re<23D/k λ=λ(Re) Substrate viscous

(laminar film) covers
1 solid contour roughness
λ= 4 (Blasius)
10R
0 e

1
λ
= 2 l gR( D )
e λ − 0,8

(Prandtl-Nikuradze)

rough turbulent 23D/k<Re<560D/k  k Substrate viscous

λ = λ R e , 
pre quadratic zone  R (laminar film) has the
same order of
1  2,5 1 k magnitude as the
= −2 l g +
λ  R D eλ 3,7 roughness solid contour

(Colebrook-White)

rough turbulent Re>560D/k k Substrate viscous

λ = λ 
quadratic zone R (laminar film) is lower
than solid contour
λ=
1 roughness.
2
  3,7 1⋅ D 
4 l g 
  k 
In Manning formula
(Prandtl-Nikuradze)
n-roughness coefficient
1 1
C= R 6
n
(Manning)

Equivalent roughness values Roughness coefficient k and n are determined

experimentally based on the relationship of their use. These values can be found in Annexes
various works.

15
1.3. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS FOR DETERMINING THE COEFFICIENT λ

Linear losses (if circular sections, incompressible fluids)

In Figure 2 the flow between the sections 1 and 2 (of constant diameter) is uniform,
which involves distributions identical speeds in the two sections, namely α1=α2 and V1=V2.

αV12 linie ene hd 1-2

2g rg etică
linie piez αV22
ometrică 2g

p1 p2
ρg ρg

z2
z1
Planul de referinţă

Fig. 2 Experimental determination scheme for linear load losses

Hence:
 p   p  λ⋅L
h d = e 2 − e1 =  z1 + 1  −  z 2 + 2  = H1 − H 2 = 0,0 8Q 2
5 
(m) 2 (4)
 ρg   ρg     Dsm u
m a

The coefficient λ is determined from the relation above in view of the fact that pressure
height difference H1-H2 is measured by using a differential pressure transducer, the flow rate Q
is measured by a flow meter and a diameter D and length L are known from the construction of
the experimental stand.

2. The objectives of laboratory work

All laboratory work relates to water flow (incompressible fluids) in circular pipes under pressure.

 k
• experimental determination of the dependence λ = λ R e ,  for various types of
 D
pipes and different diameters;

16
3. THE EXPERIMENTAL STAND

3.1 Description of the experimental stand F 1-18

17
a) Components

1 - water and mercury manometer scaled (for high pressure)

2 - the section of the inlet pipe test
3 - Screw air monitoring
4 - Pipe inlet head tank located
5 - Cape tank
6 - Test Section
7 - gauge scaled with water (low pressure)
8 - The flow control valve

b) Technical characteristics

Diameter of the pipe: d = 0.003 m

Pipe length: L = 0.5 m
Distance between intake pressure = 0.51 m
Gauges range: 0 to 500mm
Number of gauges: 2

OBS: There are two ways to bring water piping subject to study. For high flow rates, inlet pipe is
connected directly to experimental work stand F1-10. For low flow rates, the inner pipe is
connected to the output of the base of the tank and into the tank connects to the experimental
stand F1-10.

3.2 Description of the experimental stand F 1-10

Fig. 3.2.1

18
 Experimental stand F1-10 is used with the experimental stand F1-18 and other
experimental stands used in laboratory work involving the study of fluid mechanics.

a) F1-15 stand description

- A tank made of glass fiber plastic and has a capacity of 250 liters.
- Allows the measurement of the flow rate between 1-6 liters / min and 5-40 liter /
min.

- Allows easy coupling of different stands.

- The construction allows mounting anywhere near the water source / current due
date castors mobility underlying stand.
- Tank to measure volumetric flow easily and reduce reflection plate flow turbulence.
Two measuring cylinders for determining flow rate.
- The bottom of the tank is an opening which can be obdurate. Typically, during the
experiment, it is kept open to allow circulation of the water in the tank.

- Inside the experimental stand is centrifugal water pump. The pump is operated by
the valve on the front panel of the experimental stand.
- On the basis of the experimental stand is a tank drain valve.

b) Technical Specifications

- Water pump: centrifugal water jet lifting capacity 21 m, the rate of 1.35 liters / sec

- Motor power: 0.37kW

- Total capacity of tank: 250 liters

- Upper tank capacity: 40 liters

- Lower tank capacity: 6 liters

- Working height from the ground: 1 meter

19
3.3 Using experimental stands

To perform laboratory work on theorem proving Bernoulli is necessary to use two stands F
1-10 and F 1-15.

F 1-10 experimental stand is placed over the stand F 1-15, making adjustments correct
positioning.

For this purpose act on substrates plate F 1-10 (support legs) which can be adjusted until
the stand is upright.

Operating Procedure

1) Fill the tank of the stand F 1 to 10 with water to the desired level.

2) Connect the stand F 1-10 from power supply.

3) Connect the hose running from the top of overflow tank to overflow the tank side of the
stand volume F1-10.

4) Open the valve at the bottom of the pipe subject to control study.

5) Close the valve stand F1-10.

6) Start the pump and open the valve stand F1-10 easily, leaving the water to enter the tube
until removes all the air.

7) close links with the mercury manometer equipped with knurled screw at the top, using our
clips Hoffman, and will let water into the manometer with water until all air is removed.

8) Open the mercury manometer connections and closes with water pressure gauge. Opening
the thumb screw at each gauge to let the tube is filled with water.

Note: If excessive static pressure is established in the system, while the flow control valve is fully
open and the exhaust control valve almost closed exhaust stream, using the hand pump in order
to decrease the level of the manometer tube will not be possible. The leaflets must be adjusted
so as to allow the required rate to a lower static pressure.
The tube manometer connected to the pressure relief valve adjacent the outlet flow
control is used as a reference point when the conditions have been created equivalent of flow
through the test section.
Actual water flow can be determined using the volumetric tank (tank main stand) and a
timer.

20
3.4 Experimental procedure

The objective of the experimental procedure consists in calculating the local load loss
when applied to a steady supply of liquid.
For the experiment using the two stands F1-18, F1-10 and permitting the measurement
of fluid flow in timed relation to the volume of water collected.
We ensure that the inlet ducts and outlet fluid flow are attached to the respective valves,
especially exhaust tube must be positioned in the tank to facilitate volumetric timed collection
of the water volume.

For high flow rates

Join tubing hydraulic test bench outlet with the pump off.
Closing valve on the hydraulic bench F1-10, and the maximum valve opening (8) flow control
and start the pump. Now gradually open the valve on the test bench and perform the procedure
until all the air is removed from the system
Hoffman clamps open and remove the air tube mercury manometer.

For low flow rates

Attach Hoffman clamp to the two tubes that connect the two gauges and close.
When the plant is not air valve shut off the bench, stop the pump, close the valve (8) and
remove the tube clamp Hoffman maometrului water.
Disconnect tube test section and keep it high up
Unite tube connecting the outlet of the test bench water tank, start the pump and open the
valve to allow the flow bench. When the water, attach tube test section from him, taking care
not to introduce some air. Then fully open valve (8).
Open head easily scoops water manometer and allow air to penetrate until it reaches a suitable
height, and then close the socket.

Tube manometer fluid levels can also be adjusted by using the manual pump.

Recording the result set

For high flow rates

It is recommended that data collection at three different rates of flow.

Establish a flow rate

- It is recommended timed volume collection using volumetric tank to determine the rate
of collection.

21
 - This is achieved by closing the hole communicating with the lower tank by use of the
plug -type “ball" and the timer to measure the time required to accumulate a known volume of
fluid in the reservoir.

- The fluid was collected for at least one minute in order to minimize timing errors.

- Apply a Hoffman clamp the two tubes of the gauges.

- Close the valve (8), and read the mercury manometer indication of flow null .

- With valve (8) open HHG measure load loss.

- Repeat for at least nine different flow rates, the smaller the HHG = 30 mm.

For low flow rates

It is recommended that data collection at three different rates of flow.

Establish a flow rate

- It is recommended timed volume collection using volumetric tank to determine the rate
of collection.

- This is achieved by closing the whole communicating with the lower tank by use of the
plug -type “ball" and the timer to measure the time required accumulating a known volume of
fluid in the reservoir.

- The fluid was collected for at least one minute in order to minimize timing errors.

- Apply a Hoffman clamp the two tubes of the gauges.

- Close the valve (8) , and read the gauge indication of water flow null .

- With valve (8) open load loss measure h

- Repeat for at least nine different flow rates, the smaller are h = 30 mm.

c) Registration data table

-The data obtained are recorded in the following table.

22
d) Making graphs

It will produce two flow charts for each part: 1 chart with the abscissa ln(λ ) and the
ordinate ln(Re) ; 2nd chart will have the abscissa ln(h / hHg ) and the ordinate ln(v) .

The Reynolds number is calculated by pipeline to observe the type of flow through
that valve.

64
For laminar flow λ = ; for turbulent apply we use Blasius's relationship:
Re
1
λ= 4
10R
0 e

Cinematic viscosity is chosen υ = 1,002 ⋅ 10 −6 m 2 / s

Volume

[m3]

Time

[s]

Flow rate

[m3/s]

Velocity

[m/s]

Manometer

h1

[m]

Manometer

h2

23
 [m]

Load loss

h1- h2

[m]

Reynolds

No

Ln( λ )

Ln(Re)

Ln(h)

Ln(v)

24
 LABORATORY NO. 3
ENERGY LOSES IN FITTINGS
1. THEORETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Load losses represent energy dissipation in fluid flow (no heat transfer). The name
comes from the hydrodynamic load is measured in meters, which is the fluid specific energy
(energy per unit weight). In the case of the one-dimensional fluid specific energy is:

p αV 2
e=z+ + (m ) (1)
ρg 2g

wherein the symbols have the meanings known in the hydraulics rate.
Friction loss is a function of the fluid flow path and the difference between the specific energy

αV12 hr 1-2
2g

αV22
2g
p2
p1 ρg
ρg
Q

z2
z1

Planul de referinţă

input section, and output (see Figure 1)

Fig.1 Graphic Expression of load losses between two

sections of the fluid flow

Load losses are of two kinds linear (distributed) and local and generally occurs
simultaneously. Linear losses are caused by friction between the fluid and solid contours (pipe
walls or channels) on the local inertial effects are caused by uneven flows encountered. In

25
applications, quantifying miscarriages is based on semi-empirical formulas where interest
experimental analysis of the phenomena causing energy losses.

1.1. Local load losses (hl)

The only form of energy dissipation in the flow of fluids in uniform motion, so in order to
measure only linear load loss is required to carry out such flows.

a) The factors influencing the losses of the linear load are:

• The length of the fluid flow

• Hydraulic radius (diameter for circular pipes)

• The average speed of the fluid flow (flow)

• The nature of the fluid (density, cinematic viscosity coefficient ρ ν)

• Nature solid contours (characterized by roughness equivalent)

b) The calculation formula

v2 16Q 2 ζ
h1 = ζ =ζ 2 4 = 0,0827 ⋅ 4 Q 2 (m) (3)
2g π d 2g d

 
ζ = ζ R eo e 
ζ Local drag coefficient (dimensionless) and is the
g e e , o
,r am dp d e t
  
 t e u r

essential parameter to be estimated correctly calculate local load losses. Similar with λ (C),
coefficient ζ depends on the flow regime, but local resistance geometry dependence is more
important in determining the fair value of ζ. Complexity of the phenomenon makes the
theoretical determination of the coefficient ζ is only possible for simple geometries,
experimental research is the primary means of investigation.

Therefore, the coefficient ζ for two sections is calculated using the formula

∆h
ζ =
v2
2g

26
2. The objectives of laboratory work
All laboratory work relates to water flow (incompressible fluids) in circular pipes under
pressure.

• experimental determination of the dependence ζ = ζ (R ge e, o m

) for
different types of local resistance.

3. THE EXPERIMENTAL STAND

3.1 Description of the experimental stand F 1-22

27
a) Components

28
1 - Long Elbow

2 - Zoom section

3 - Shrink the section

4 - Short Elbow

5 - Screw enabling evacuation

/ air to gauge

6 - Elbow 900

7 - Pressure Meter

differential

8 - valve adjustment

9 - valve that regulates the flow

10 - Elbow pitched (450)

11 to 12 gauges (6 gauges

differential)

b) Technical characteristics
Diameter of the pipe: d = 0.0183 m
An apparatus for measuring the differential pressure: from 0 to 3 bar
Enlarged sectional diameter d = 0.0240 m
Diameter narrowed section: d = 0.0183 m
Gauges range: 0 to 440mm
Number of gauges: 12
Differential Pressure Gauges: 6

29
3.2 Description of the experimental stand F 1-10

Fig. 3.2.1

Experimental stand F1-10 is used with the experimental stand F1-18 and other experimental
stands used in laboratory work involving the study of fluid mechanics.

a) F1-15 stand description

- A tank made of glass fiber plastic and has a capacity of 250 liters.

- Allows the measurement of the flow rate between 1-6 liters / min and 5-40 liter / min.

- Allows easy coupling of different stands.

- The construction allows mounting anywhere near the water source / current due date castors
mobility underlying stand.

- Tank to measure volumetric flow easily and reduce reflection plate flow turbulence. Two measuring
cylinders for determining flow rate.

- The bottom of the tank is an opening which can be obutrată. Typically, during the experiment, it is
kept open to allow circulation of the water in the tank.

- Inside the experimental stand is centrifugal water pump. The pump is operated by the valve on the
front panel of the experimental stand.

- On the basis of the experimental stand is a tank drain valve.

30
 b) Technical Specifications

- Water pump: centrifugal water jet lifting capacity 21 m, the rate of 1.35 liters / sec

- Motor power: 0.37kW

- Total capacity of tank: 250 liters

- Upper tank capacity: 40 liters

- Lower tank capacity: 6 liters

- Working height from the ground: 1 meter

3.3 Using experimental stands

To perform laboratory work on local load losses is necessary to use two stands F 1-10 and F
1-22.

F 1-22 experimental stand is placed over the stand F 1-10, making adjustments correct
positioning.

To this end plate holders acting on F 1-10 (support legs) which can be adjusted until the
stand is upright.

Operating Procedure

1) Fill the tank of the stand F 1 to 10 with water to the desired level.

2) Connect the stand F 1-10 from power supply.

3) Connect the inlet pipe stand F1-22 to connect the water pump located on stand F 1-10.

4) the flexible discharge tube is connected to the stand F 1 to 22 with one end and the other end of
the main stand is placed in the basin (volumetric metering reservoir F1-10).

5) fully open the flow control valve outlet on stand F1-10 and valves (7) and (9).

6) fully closed intake valve control water flow from the main stand.

7) Start the water pump

8) Open the control valve progressively (9) to allow the plant to fill up with water while the
complete evacuation of air from piping gauge.

31
 *** To allow for the air intake tube pressure gauge and we use that allows venting screw gauge (5).
- Unscrew the tube;

- Thin plastic tube attached to the air valve, the free end being located in the basin of the main stand;

- The closing valves (8) and (9) simultaneously with the opening of the adjusting screw of the air flow
(5).

WARNING!
To avoid overloading will open progressively air flow adjustment screw (5) while closing valves (8)
and (9).

- Valve opens easily control the flow of water (9) to allow movement of fluid through the tubes gauge
and remove all existing air.

- Tighten screw air flow (5) and control valve opens and the exhaust flow (8).

- Opens the adjusting screw least the air flow (5) to allow air to reach the top of the gauge tube.
Tighten again when the liquid level reaches halfway up the gauge tube.

9) progressively increases the flow rate regulating valve opening of the exhaust stream (8) or valve
inlet water flow (9) depending on the requirements of the experiment until it reaches the maximum.

*** If the rate of filling of tubes gauge is too low, open the valve regulating the flow of water (9) to
increase the value of hydrostatic pressure.

If the fill rate is too high, open the flow control valve outlet (8) to reduce the hydrostatic pressure.

The levels reached by the hydrostatic fluid in the tubes can be adjusted by using the hand pump
and the air at the back of the stand.

Open the cap of the air flow regulator (5) and the air pump hose is mounted. After installing
aeration hose open bolt (5).

Note: If excessive static pressure is established in the system, while the flow control valve is fully
open and the exhaust control valve almost closed exhaust stream, using the hand pump in order to
decrease the level of the manometer tube will not be possible. The leaflets must be adjusted so as to
allow the required rate to a lower static pressure.

32
 The tube manometer connected to the pressure relief valve adjacent the outlet flow control
is used as a reference point when the conditions have been created equivalent of flow through the
test section.

Actual water flow can be determined using the volumetric tank (tank main stand) and a
timer.

33
3.4 Experimental procedure

The objective of the experimental procedure consists in calculating the local load loss when
applied to a steady supply of liquid.

For the experiment using the two stands F1-22, F1-10 and permitting the measurement of
fluid flow in timed relation to the volume of the water collecting and F1-10, plus a timer.

For the calculation will use the dimensions in Table 1. Attach the two stands and all
accessories as described in Section 3.3.

It is not possible to make measurements for all fittings once, that is why it is necessary to execute
two separate tests.

Test A - measured load losses , less the flow control valve (7)

We ensure that the inlet ducts and outlet fluid flow are attached to the respective valves ,
especially exhaust tube must be positioned in the tank to facilitate volumetric timed collection of the
water volume .

Check the valves ( 8) and (9 ) are closed.

Hydraulic pump is started by pressing the on / off button located on the main stand .

Valve opens progressively adjusting the liquid flow (9 ) to fill with water testing platform
( tube manometer ) .

Removal of the air intake tube pressure gauge is done by closing two valves ( 8) and (9 ) and
the opening of the screw while controlling the air flow ( 5 ) , ( which was previously attached to the
tube ) .

Valve opens easily adjustable fluid flow (9 ), which allows water to flow through the tubes
and the tube manometer attached tubular screw ( 5).

In this way it removes air from gauge tubing and acrylic section .

Once the air has been removed , the valve gradually opens the flow control outlet (8 ) when
the control screw is tightened the flow of air ( 5).

Opens slightly again, ( 5) to allow air to reach the top of the pressure gauges . The two screws
aeration will close when the liquid reaches the desired level gauge tubes .

Tube manometer fluid levels can also be adjusted by using the manual pump .

Test B - measures load losses just over valve (8).

Departs clip on tubes that connect the intake pressure of the sharp elbow (10) (to prevent
air entering the system). The process begins with the valve (8) closed, but having valve (9) and the

34
valve test bench F1-10 opened. Open valve (8) 50% of rotation. The rate varies with the valve on the
test bench for at least 5 different flow rates and pressure drop as read by the apparatus (7). The
procedure is repeated for about 70% and 80% of rotation.

Recording the result set

It is recommended that data collection at three different rates of flow.

Establish a flow rate

- It is recommended timed volume collection using volumetric tank to determine the rate of
collection.

- This is achieved by closing the hole communicating with the lower tank by use of the plug-
type "ball" and the timer to measure the time required to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the
reservoir.

- The fluid was collected for at least one minute in order to minimize timing errors.

- Note the first set of results at minimum flow rate for very small values of differential
pressure gauges;

- Increase the flow rate to obtain a height difference greater than previously established.

- At the end of the whole process is repeated for another flow rate higher than the previous
one.

b) Reading the static head

To read the values of the levels are manometer tubes stable.

c) Registration data table

-The data obtained are recorded in the following table.

d. Making graphs

It will draw two graphs for each valve individually: 1 chart with the abscissa load loss ∆h
orderly and dynamic load v 2 / 2 g ; 2nd chart will have on the abscissa the flow Q and on the ordinate
coefficient ζ.

The Reynolds number is calculated for each valve individually to observe the type of flow
through the valve in question.

35
 Kinematic viscosity is chosen υ = 1,002 ⋅ 10 −6 m 2 / s

Long Short Elbow Mitre

Fitting Enlargement Contraction Valve (7)
bend bend 900 (450)

Manometer

h1

[m]

Manometer
Differential
h2 manometer
=
[m]

Load loss

h1- h2

[m]

Volume

[m3/s]

Time

[s]

Flow rate

[m3/s]

Velocity

[m/s]

v2/2g

[m]

36
 LABORATORY NO. 4
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
The problem to be considered is shown schematically in Figure 1.1. A cold fluid at
200C flows into the pipe through a large inlet, and mixes with a warmer fluid at 400C that
enters through a smaller inlet located at the elbow. The pipe dimensions are in inches, and the
fluid properties and boundary conditions are given in SI units. The Reynolds number for the
flow at the larger inlet is 50,800, so a turbulent flow model is required.

CREATING THE GRID:

37
SETTING UP THE SOLUTION

1 Select k-epsilon from the Model list by clicking the radio button or the text, so that a black
dot appears in the radio button. The Viscous Model panel will expand.
2 Select Realizable from the k-epsilon Model list.
3 Click OK to accept the model and close the Viscous Model panel.
4. Select Components from the Velocity Speciation Method drop-down list. The Velocity
inlet panel will expand.
5. Enter 0.4 m=s for X-Velocity.
6. Retain the default value of 0 m=s for both Y-Velocity and Z-Velocity.
7. Select Intensity and Hydraulic Diameter from the Speciation Method dropdown list in the
Turbulence group box.
8. Enter 5% for Turbulent Intensity.
9. Enter 4 inches for Hydraulic Diameter.

RESULTS

38
39
 LABORATORY NO. 5
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

This problem considers a 2D section of a tube bank. A schematic of the problem is

shown in Figure below. The bank consists of uniformly spaced tubes with a diameter of 1 cm,
which are staggered across the cross-fluid flow. Their centers are separated by a distance of 2
cm in the x direction, and 1 cm in the y direction. The bank has a depth of 1 m. Because of the
symmetry of the tube bank geometry, only a portion of the domain needs to be modeled. The
computational domain is shown in outline in Figure below. A mass flow rate of 0.05 kg/s is
applied to the inlet boundary of the periodic module. The temperature of the tube wall (Twall)
is 400 K and the bulk temperature of the cross flow water (T1) is 300 K.

CREATING THE GRID:

Quadrilateral cells are used in the regions surrounding the tube walls and triangular
cells are used for the rest of the domain, resulting in a hybrid mesh (see Figure above). The
quadrilateral cells provide better resolution of the viscous gradients near the tube walls. The
remainder of the computational domain is filled with triangular cells for the sake of
convenience.

40
SETTING UP THE SOLUTION

(a) Select k-epsilon from the Model list by clicking the radio button or the text,
so that a black dot appears in the radio button.
The Viscous Model panel will expand.
(b) Select Realizable from the k-epsilon Model list.
(c) Click OK to accept the model and close the Viscous Model panel.

RESULTS

41
42
 LABORATORY NO. 6
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

The problem considers the flow around an airfoil at an angle of attack 40 and a free
stream Mach number of 0.8 (M1 = 0.8). The flow is transonic, and has a fairly strong shock
near the mid-chord (xc = 0.45) on the upper (suction) side. The chord length is 1 m. The
geometry of the airfoil is shown in Figure below.

CREATING THE GRID:

Quadrilateral cells were used for this simple geometry because they can be stretched
easily to account for different flow gradients in different directions. In the present case, the
gradients normal to the airfoil wall are much greater than that tangent to the airfoil.
Consequently, the cells near the surface have high aspect ratios. For geometries that are more
difficult to mesh, it may be easier to create a hybrid mesh comprised of quadrilateral and
triangular cells.
A parabola was chosen to represent the far-field boundary because it has no
discontinuities in slope, enabling the construction of a smooth mesh in the interior of the
domain.

43
SETTING UP THE SOLUTION

(a) Select the Spalart-Allmaras in the Model list.

(b) Select Strain/Vorticity-Based Production in the Spalart-Allmaras Options list.
(c) Retain the default settings in the Model Constants group box.
(d) Click OK to close the Viscous Model panel.

RESULTS

44
45
 LABORATORY NO. 7
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

The geometry to be considered in this tutorial is shown in Figure 4.1. Flow through a
simple nozzle is simulated as a 2D planar model. The nozzle has an inlet height of 0.2 m,
and the nozzle contours have a sinusoidal shape that produces a 10% reduction in ow
area. Due to symmetry, only half of the nozzle is modeled.

CREATING THE GRID:

Quadrilateral cells were used for this simple geometry because they can be stretched

easily to account for di_erent ow gradients in di_erent directions. In the present

46
case, the gradients normal to the airfoil wall are much greater than those tangent

to the airfoil.

SETTING UP THE SOLUTION

(a) Select the Spalart-Allmaras in the Model list.

(b) Select Strain/Vorticity-Based Production in the Spalart-Allmaras Options list.

(c) Retain the default settings in the Model Constants group box.

(d) Click OK to close the Viscous Model panel.

RESULTS

47
48