Basic English

Prepared by:

Joel M. Torres
Instructor, College of Education
Central Luzon State University

I. Idiomatic Expression

An idiomatic expression is a combination of words that means something different from each
word by itself. For example, in the phrase "pulling someone's leg," pulling means moving
something towards yourself, and the leg is the part of the body above the foot. But pulling
someone's leg doesn't mean to drag that person's leg; it means to try to fool the person.

A. Kinds of Idiomatic Expression

(1) Simile Idioms - Many idiomatic expressions get their meaning by comparing one object
or action to another using the words "like" or "as." (light as a feather; busy as a bee)
(2) Phrasal Verbs - Some idiomatic expressions function as verbs. Phrasal verbs usually
contain one or more individual verbs and prepositions that, when used together in a
sentence, act as a single verb.
(3) Aphorisms - Linguists call idiomatic expressions intended to convey wisdom or morals,
aphorisms. Also colloquially called "sayings," aphorisms may develop organically
overtime, but are often coined in widely read books, famous speeches or other texts.
(4) Cultural and Historical Idioms - Landmark events and important historical figures often
make their way into idiomatic expressions particular to certain cultures. In the United
States, for example, to give your "John Hancock" means to provide your signature.
(5) Metaphorical Idioms - Like similes, metaphorical idioms compare two situations, objects
or actions. However, idioms based on metaphors do not use the words "like" or "as" to
connect the two ideas.
B. Examples of Idiomatic Expression
Sentence containing idiom Explanation
John is absent-minded. He's forgetful.
John is hot-tempered. It's the same as hot-headed.
John is tight-fisted/ close-fisted. He's mean with money.
John is two-faced. He's a hypocrite.
John is down-at-heal. He looks shabby and dirty.
John is long in the tooth. He's very old.
John is stuck up. He thinks too highly of himself.
John is wet behind the ears. He's naïve, inexperienced.
John is bedridden. He's chronically ill and is in bed (usually for a long
time).
John is dead beat. He's exhausted.
John is ill at ease. He's confused and finds it difficult to speak.
John is laid back. He's careless (in a good sense).
John is laid up. He's in bed because he's sick.
John is on the dole. He's jobless.
John looks off colour. He looks slightly ill.
John got tongue-tied. He got confused and didn't know what to say.
John is scared stiff of snakes. He's afraid of snakes.
The book is dog-eared. It's old and has been used by many people.
It's an eye-catching (or a breath- It's a beautiful design.
taking) design.
Houses in this town are few and far There are not many houses.
between.
There's sth fishy about it.
He received a frosty welcome.
It was a hair-raising accident.
It was a long-winded lecture.
I bought a second-hand car.
This car changed three hands
before you bought it.
We give you our whole-hearted
support.
I have a splitting headache.
My car battery is flat.
I have a soft spot for Oxford.
It was a narrow escape (or a hair-
breadth escape).
She escaped by the skin of her
teeth from being knocked down by
a car.
He's a confirmed bachelor.
It's one of my pet hates.
She has a sharp tongue.
The tramp had a square meal.
It's an unwritten law.
I haven't the foggiest (or slightest)
idea.
Samantha's a backseat driver.
Jim is a big shot (or a bigwig).
John's a dark horse.
John's the boss's blue-eyed boy.
John's a fair-weather friend.
John's a general dogsbody.
John's an old hand in teaching.
John's a rough diamond.
John's a smart aleck.
John's a wet blanket.
He's a killjoy.
He's a trouble-maker.
It's a plum job.
It's a dead-end job.
John retired and received a golden He was given a large sum of money from the company
handshake.
It's a tight spot.
It's a tall story.
It's a cock and bull story.
He got his jumper on back to front. He got it on the wrong way.
The committee outlined the pros It outlined the possible advantages and disadvantages.
and cons.
They're always fighting tooth and Fighting fiercely.
nail.
Life is full of ups and downs.
I'm at the end of my tether.
I'm at a loose end.
It was a weight off my mind.
There's sth that's not quite right, sth suspicious.
A very cold welcome.
It was a terrible accident.
It was a very long, boring lecture.
I bought a used car.
It was owned by three people before you bought it.
We support you strongly and unconditionally.
I have a severe headache.
It's empty.
I love Oxford.
It was a miraculous escape.
She was nearly knocked down by a car.
He wants to stay single forever.
It's one of the things I hate most.
She's a scold.
He had a substantial, filling meal.
It is observed by everyone although it's not a law.
I have no idea at all.
She keeps telling the one driving the car how to drive.
He's an important person.
He has latent capabilities that surprised everyone.
He's the boss's favourite employee.
When you need him, he doesn't help as a friend should
do.
He's active and always does the hardest part of the work
that no-one else would do.
He's an experienced teacher.
He appears to be rough but in fact has a heart of gold.
He pretends to know everything.
He's annoying and no-one likes him.
He spoils other people's fun.
He's always causing trouble when there is no need for
that.
It's a lucrative job.
It is profitless and has no prospects.
upon retirement.
It's a difficult situation.
It's an unbelievable lie.
It's an unbelievable lie.
A mixture of good and bad things.
I've given up.
I have nothing to do.
It was a great relief.
 He can't make ends meet. He can't earn enough money.
It slipped my mind. I forgot it.
It was a slip of the tongue. I didn't mean to say that.
I take your point! I agree with you.
Mark my words. Just take my words for granted, and you'll discover I'm
telling you the truth.
I give you my word. I promise you.
She told them off. She reprimanded them.
I've made up my mind to do that. I've decided to do that.
I've changed my mind. I've decided to do sth different.
John dropped me a line. He wrote me a letter.
It's pointless. It's no use.
It's not the end of the world. Don't give up.
I read it between the lines. I conjectured that.
John couldn't keep his head above He can't stay out of debt.
water.
John's in the red. He's in debt.
John saw red. He got angry.
The publication of the magazine It was hindered by bureaucracy.
was hindered by red tape.
We had a whale of a time. We had a very good time.
We had a hell of a time. We had a hard time.
We go back a long way. We've been friends for a long time.
My house is off the beaten track. It's far away from other people, houses, etc.
Playing games is a good way of Spending time.
killing time.
It's all water under the bridge. It happened a long time ago and is unimportant now.
John's got Jill under his skin. He's extremely attracted her.
The two warring countries turned They decided to change their attitudes to each other and
over a new leaf. start a new relationship.

II. Verbal Relationship

Verbal analogy exercises will measure one’s reasoning ability. All analogies consist of
four parts which bear a relationship with one another. These can be words, numbers, short
phrases or illustrations. Here are some tips which may help you complete an analogy
successfully.
1. Read the analogy as a sentence.
2. Express a relationship between the first two words. Then substitute the third word for
the first.
e.g. hospital : patient :: restaurant : ___
a. cook b. diner c. food d. knife
3. Express a relationship between the first and the third words by substituting the second
word for the first and figuring out a suitable substitute for the fourth word.
Be alert of commonly used relationships which can be:
a. Definition as in refuge : shelter
b. Defining characteristics, as in courage : hero
c. Class and member, as in frog : amphibian
d. Part of a whole, as in chapter: novel
e. Place, as in clinic: nurse
f. Degree of intensity, as in deluge:rain
III. Figurative Language

Figurative language is language that uses words or expressions with a meaning that is
different from the literal interpretation. When a writer uses literal language, he or she is simply
stating the facts as they are. Figurative language, in comparison, uses exaggerations or alterations
to make a particular linguistic point. Figurative language is very common in poetry, but is also
used in prose and nonfiction writing as well.

There are many different types of figurative language. For example:

 Simile - A simile is a comparison that often uses the words like or as. One example of a
simile would be to say, “Jamie runs as fast as the wind.”
 Metaphor - A metaphor is a comparison made between things which are essentially not
alike. It is similar to a simile, but does not use like or as. One example of a metaphor
would be to say, “Nobody invites Edward to parties because he is a wet blanket.”
 Personification - When something that is not human is given human-like qualities, this is
known as personification. An example of personification would be to say, “The leaves
danced in the wind on the cold October afternoon.”
 Hyperbole - Exaggerating, often in a humorous way, to make a particular point is known
as hyperbole. One of example of hyperbole would be to say, “My eyes widened at the
sight of the mile-high ice cream cones we were having for dessert.”
 Onomatopoeia - When you name an action by imitating the sound associated with it, this
is known as onomatopoeia. One example of onomatopoeia would be to say, “The bees
buzz angrily when their hive is disturbed.”
 Idiom - An idiom is an expression used by a particular group of people with a meaning
that is only known through common use. One example of an idiom would be to say, “I’m
just waiting for him to kick the bucket.” Many idioms that are frequently used are also
considered clichés.
 Symbolism - occurs when a noun which has meaning in itself is used to represent
something entirely different. One example of symbolism would be to use an image of the
American flag to represent patriotism and a love for one’s country.
 Analogy - An Analogy is when we make a comparison between things which are not
alike. Analogies are used everyday and by almost everyone. If you have ever tried to tell
someone something about which they have no knowledge and you use the words "It is
like..."
 Imagery - is language that is used to describe a picture in your mind. For example, "The
young red-headed lass climbed the emerald green hillside above the ocean shore on the
flawless Irish day." You should have seen a red headed girl climbing a hillside much like
the illustration in your mind. That is imagery.
 Alliteration - Very simply, it is a repeating consonant sound. Vowels are A, E, I, O, U
and sometimes Y. So any other letter which is repeated several times in a passage will
make it an alliteration. Here are a couple of examples, Sally sells sea shells by the sea
shore. Or, Wally Walrus wondered where his socks were? One more, Tea for two and
two for tea.
 Assonance - This is a harder concept to get and one which I do not see very often. It is
when there is a resemblance in the sounds that words in a verse make. For example; "The
rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain." Or "holy and stony." Or maybe "It beats as it
sweeps as it cleans." The last one was a marketing pitch for Hoover Vacuums. Pay
attention to the vowels in this one.
 Cliche - A cliche is a tired old expression which everyone uses and no one likes to
hear. Some examples are; "in the nick of time, couldn't catch my breath, for the life of
me, without moving a muscle, without a doubt, to tell the truth, couldn't keep my eyes
open, at the drop of a hat, cut to the chase..." The list goes on and on. Basically it is a
 word or phrase which has become very familiar to everyone. Examples of word cliches
are "awesome, totally, bad..."
 Satire - Let us start by saying that the easiest way to think of satire is to think of making
fun of something. However, satire is not always funny. It can be very pointed and make
us uncomfortable. If you watched Saturday Night Live during the election season, you
noticed they were making fun of the candidates, this is satire. Sometimes it was funny
and sometimes it is not. "The Simpson's" and "South Park" are prime examples of satire
on television these days. A lot of times, sarcasm is used in satire.
 Truism - These are also called Aphorisms. They are statements which are so simple and
true, that you go, "Yeah, you're right." Sometimes they are witty, and sometimes they
just make a point. For example, "Seat belts are not as confining as wheelchairs." Or
"The nice thing about the future is that it always starts tomorrow." One person who has
become famous for his witty truisms, is the former catcher and manager of the New York
Yankees, Yogi Berra, a couple of his famous truisms are, "You can observe a lot by just
watching." and "It's deja' vu all over again."
 Allegory - An allegory is when a story is used to convey a meaning that is beyond what is
written on the page. For example, in class we recently read, "The Masque of the Red
Death" by Edgar Allan Poe. Though Poe did not claim any allegory, most people believe
it is an allegory for the Black Death which swept Europe in the Middle Ages. Most of us
know "The Wizard of Oz," but what many do not realize is that there is a huge discussion
about this story being an allegory for the politics of the time in which is was
written. Some people have claimed the "Lord of the Rings" trilogy was an allegory for
the world wars even though it was written before the Second World War and Tolkien
himself said he hated allegory.
 Allusion - An Allusion is a reference to something which everyone is supposed to know
about. For example, if I say that "It has been raining for 40 days and 40 nights." I have
made an allusion to the story of Noah and the Ark. If I say, "She is no Madonna." Then I
am making an allusion to the singer. Last winter, my family and I went to see a
production of Mozart's "The Magic Flute" in Phoenix, Arizona. During the first act the
hero is lost and comes across someone and asks for directions out of the valley. The
character replies that the 'light rail doesn't run there yet.'
 Rhetorical Question - This is a question which is asked, but for which there is no
reply. Again, we have all seen and done this; here are some examples. "Is the sky
blue?" "Are you out of your mind?!" "Are you insane?!" "Do bears poop in the
woods?" In literature, we will be reading Julius Caesar in the spring. Mark Antony asks
the crowd after Caesar has been killed, "Here was a Caesar! When comes such
another?" This is a rhetorical question because it is not expected to be answered.

IV. Definition of Phonology, Phonemes and Phonetics

Phonology refers to the system of sounds that a particular language uses. It includes not only the
language’s basic unit of sounds or phonemes, but rules on how we put phonemes together to
form words and rules about the proper intonation patterns for phrases and sentences.
Phonemes are considered basic units of sounds because they are the smallest sound units that
affect meaning.
Phonetics refers to the science and study of speech sounds.

Branches of Phonetics
Articulatory phonetics- focuses on the human apparatuses and describes the sounds in
terms of their articulation in the vocal tract. This has been the central discipline of
linguistics.
 Acoustic phonetics- uses the tools of physics to study the nature of sound waves
produced in human language. It is playing an increasingly larger role in linguistics as
attempts are made to use machines for interpreting speech patterns in voice identification
and automatic voice initiated mechanical operations.
Auditory phonetics studies the perception of sounds by the brain through the human ear.

A. Speech Sounds
Speech sounds are those of vowels and consonants. A vowel sound is a speech sound that
is produced through an open throat and mouth passage without any hindrance or obstruction. A
consonant sound is one that is pronounced with a certain degree of obstruction and restriction at
the lips, inside the mouth and in the throat.
There are eleven recognizable vowel sounds and twenty-four consonant sounds in
English and several more variants which include the vowel types and consonant forms.
Unfortunately, however, the number of sounds is more than the letters of the English alphabet.
Because of the multiplicity of sounds a letter can have, linguists have devised a scientific
codification of sounds, the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet), where a symbol represents a
distinct speech sound (Flores & Lopez, 1984).

1. The English Vowels

The classification of vowel sounds, the name given to each type and the clarity and
accuracy in your pronunciation depend upon the position of the articulators that produce the
vowels, the shape and size of the resonance cavities in the mouth, and the shape and size of the
openings out of which the sound passes (Flores & Lopez, 1984).
The points of articulation for the vowel sounds are less easily discerned than those for
consonant sounds because in producing vowels, the tongue moves freely without contact within a
small area inside the mouth (Robinnet, 1978).
All vowels can be described in terms of tongue height ((high, middle, low), tongue
advancement (front, central, back) and shape of the lips (rounded or unrounded) (Taylor, 1990).

2. The Consonant Sounds

The consonant sounds are more satisfactorily described than the vowels from the point of
view of articulation because students can see more clearly either from a spoken model or from
charts and diagrams exactly how to arrange the vocal apparatus to produce the sound (Robinnet,
1988).
Consonants are the result of friction, squeezing or temporary blocking of the breath
stream. These sounds are caused by an interruption to the flow of the breath by the organs of
articulation. If the vocal cords do not vibrate when the sound is produced, it is a voiceless sound.
If the vocal cords vibrate, it is a voice sound.

2.1 Consonant Articulation

 To produce consonants such as [p, t, g, v, f, s], speakers obstruct in various ways the air
flow through the oral cavity. The area in the mouth where the air flow is obstructed is called the
place of articulation, which gives its name to the consonants it produces:
 Bilabial [p, b] – The two lips come together.
 Labiodental [f, v] – The upper teeth touch the lower lip.
 Dental [ᶿ,ᶞ] – The tongue tip touches the upper teeth.
 Alveolar [t, d] – The tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge.
 Alveo- palatal [ʤ, ʦ] – The tongue tip or blade touches the hard palate.
 Velar [k, g] – The root of the tongue touches or comes near the velum.
 Glotal [h] – The vocal folds narrow.

2.2 Place of Articulation

Consonants can also be distinguished and labeled according to the manner of articulation,
the manner by which the air flow is obstructed:

 Stop [p, d] – The vocal tract is closed completely, with the lips for [p] and with the
tongue for [d], allowing air pressure to build up behind the closure, which is then
abruptly opened.
 Fricative [ f, z] – The vocal tract is partly closed, forcing air through the constriction at a
velocity high enough to produce hissing noise.
 Nasal [m,n] – As the oral cavity is closed, air flows through the nasal cavity.
 Liquids [l, r] – The center of the tongue closes, and air escapes around the sounds in the
lateral [l]; the tongue tip curls upwards and back, and the center of the tongue is hollow in
a retroflex [r].
 Affricate [ʤ, ʦ] – A complete closure is released into a partial closure; or the sound
begins as a stop but ends as a fricative.
 Glide (semi vowel) [j, w] – Vowel like sounds that precede or follow true vowels.
 Voiced/voiceless [b, d/p, t] – The vocal folds vibrate in producing voiced consonants but
not voiceless ones.

Manner Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glotal

Stop vl p t k

v b d g

Affricate Vl ʦ

V ʤ

Fricative vl f ᶿ S h

v v ᶞ Z

Liquid V l, r

Nasal v m n Ŋ

Glide V J W

B. The Rhythm of English

Stress is sometimes called accent. It is given to a syllable by pronouncing it with force to give
more importance than the other syllables in the word. In the word level, for example, the first
syllable is stressed because a) the first syllable is louder than the second b) the first is higher in
pitch, and c) the length of the vowel is greater than that in the second.
To enhance rhythm, students must learn to apply stress, which is changes in pitch, force and
duration, and intonation which is the pattern or melody of pitch changes.

Every time one has doubts as regards on where to put the stress of a word, it is advisable to
consult the dictionary. It is also wise to remember some generalizations regarding stress.
(Soriano and Soriano, 2000)
 Majority of two-syllable words are stressed on the first syllable. (ABsence, ACcent,
Selfish, Never, PROfile, PUBlish, SUMmon, Finish, Actor, SURface, PURchase, ARgue,
Cocoa, Impious, Ensure, MENace, PREfix)
 Compound nouns have a primary stress on the first component and a secondary stress on
the second. (BLACKbird, HEADache, PASSport)
 Compound verbs have a primary stress on the second component and a secondary stress
on the first. (understand, overflow, underline)
 Numbers ending in teen may receive the stress in the last syllable to distinguish clearly
between thirty and thirteen for example.
 Many words show a shift in stress to indicate their use either as a noun, or as a verb.
 Intensive-reflexive pronouns receive a stronger stress on the second syllable (yourSELF,
mySELF, herSELF)
 Generally, when a suffix is added to a word, the new form retains the stress on the same
syllable or the word from which it was derived. (HAppy-HAPpiness, asSIGN-
assignment, CLOUdy-CLOUdiness)
 Words ending in –tion, -sion, -ic, -ical, and –ity always have primary stress on the
syllable preceding the ending. (examiNAtion, adMIssion, economic, logical, serenity)

B.1 Word stress on the first syllable

amicable comparable genuine lamentable
ancestors colleague (n) gondola literature
applicable ceremony hospitable lunatic
admirable circumstance hostile memorable
amiable despicable impious miscreant
blatant equitable indolent piquant
bodice exquisite infamous placate
characterize explicable intricacy preferable
comfortable formidable inventory purposive
cocoa laboratory poignant reputable
requisite respite talented
B.2Words stress on the second syllable
amenable imprint (v) cuisine plebian
accessory inevitable champagne repetitive
cashier indictment enunciate semester
canary incomparable epitome utensil
circuitous intuitive explicit unanimous
committee irreparable extraordinary presumptuous
condolence lugubrious facsimile impiety
concomitant malign ferocious
contribute quietus plateau
B.3Word stress on the third syllable
acquiescence persecution diagnosis lackadaisical
acrimonious parsimonious disconnected medieval
argumentative reconnoiter epileptic multitudinous
circumstantial consequential ignominious
contradictory dissolution instantaneous
B.4Word stress in the last syllable
abyss dessert attaché indict
awry devotee bamboo lament
amass dishabille carousel melee
 amateur forsake chalet monsegnieur
apropos garage chagrin picturesque
assent grimace colleague repartee
assignee guarantee demise saboteur
connoisseur renaissance

C. Sentence Stress
Sentence stress refers to the stress that falls on certain words in a sentence. In the sentence,
Every culture has its own body of language, for example, some stresses fall on one syllable
words- has, its, own which have no word stress.

D. Function and Content Words

Words may be classified into content words and function words. Content words are those
which have meaning in themselves. They are referred to as thought or idea words. Function
words, on the other hand, are those that have little or no meaning in themselves as words but
perform a grammatical function in relation to other words in the sentence.

Generally, content words are stresses whereas function words are not unless the speaker
wants to give special emphasis to them.

Content words are the words in spoken English that contain the most stress. These are important
so we can make the meaning out of a sentence. Content words are:

NOUNS ADVERBS
MAIN VERBS DEMONTRATIVES
ADJECTIVES WH- questions and HOW

Function words are those that are pronounced weaker and shorter. These are:

DETERMINERS (a, an, the, this, that) CONJUNCTIONS (and, or, but, so)
PERSONAL PRONOUNS (him, her, it) AUXILIARY VERBS (is, are, was, has, will)
PREPOSITIONS (to, on ,in, with) POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES (my, your, our)

V. Levels of Comprehension- The three levels of comprehension, or sophistication of thinking,

are presented in the following hierarchy from the least to the most sophisticated level of reading.

 Least = surface, simple reading

 Most = in-depth, complex reading

A. Level One (LITERAL - what is actually stated.)

 Facts and details

 Rote learning and memorization
 Surface understanding only

TESTS in this category are objective tests dealing with true / false, multiple choice and fill-in-
the blank questions.

Common questions used to illicit this type of thinking are who, what, when, and where
questions.

B. Level Two (INTERPRETIVE - what is implied or meant, rather than what is

actually stated.)

 Drawing inferences
 Tapping into prior knowledge / experience
  Attaching new learning to old information
 Making logical leaps and educated guesses
 Reading between the lines to determine what is meant by what is stated.

TESTS in this category are subjective, and the types of questions asked are open-ended,
thought-provoking questions like why, what if, and how.

C. Level Three (APPLIED - taking what was said (literal) and then what was meant by
what was said (interpretive) and then extend (apply) the concepts or ideas beyond
the situation.)

 Analyzing
 Synthesizing
 Applying

In this level we are analyzing or synthesizing information and applying it to other information.

VI. Commonly Confused Words: Glossary of Usage

A, An, & And

Use the indefinite articles "a" and "an" before nouns: "a" before a noun that begins with a
consonant sound; "an" before a noun that begins with a vowel sound. "And" is a coordinating
conjunction: use it to join words, phrases, and clauses.
Adapt and Adopt
"Adapt" means to take something and make it suitable for a specific use or situation. "Adopt"
means to take something and make it one's own as is.
Advice and Advise
The noun "advice" means guidance. The verb "advise" means to recommend or counsel.
verb, "effect" means to cause.
All Ready and Already
The phrase "all ready" means completely prepared. "Already" is an adverb meaning previously
or by this time.
All Together and Altogether
The phrase "all together" refers to people or things gathered in one place. The adverb
"altogether" means entirely or wholly.
Amount and Number
Use "amount" to refer to a quantity. Use "number" to refer to people or things that can be
counted.
Anxious and Eager
Although "anxious" has been used as a synonym for "eager" since the 18th century, many usage
guides insist that "anxious" should be used only when its subject is worried or uneasy about the
anticipated event.
Anyone and Any One
The indefinite pronoun "anyone" refers to people but not to particular individuals. "Any one" is
an adjective phrase that refers to specific but unidentified things or individuals.
Beside and Besides
"Beside" is a preposition meaning next to. "Besides" is a preposition meaning except or in
addition to. As a conjunctive adverb, "besides" means also.
Breath and Breathe
"Breath" is a noun. "Breathe" is a verb.
Capital and Capitol
"Capital" has multiple meanings: (1) a city that serves as the seat of government; (2) wealth in
the form of money or property; (3) an asset or advantage; (4) a capital letter (the type of letter
used at the beginning of a sentence). "Capitol" refers to the building in which a legislative
assembly meets.
Clothes and Cloths
The noun "clothes" means clothing. "Cloths" is the plural of "cloth" (fabric).
Complement and Compliment
"Complement" means "something that completes or brings to perfection." A "compliment" is an
expression of praise.
Continual & Continuous
"Continual" means frequently repeated (that is, going on with occasional interruptions).
"Continuous" means unceasing (going on without interruption).
Council and Counsel
The noun "council" refers to a government body or an assembly of officials. The noun "counsel"
means advice, guidance, or consultation. As a verb, "counsel" means to advise.
Device and Devise
The noun "device" means a gadget. The verb "to devise" means to plan.
Envelop and Envelope
"Envelop" (with the accent on the second syllable) is a verb meaning cover or enclose.
"Envelope" (first syllable accented) is a noun meaning container used for mailing.
Every Day and Everyday
The adjective "everyday" (written as one word) means routine, ordinary, or commonplace.
"Every day" (two words) means each day.
Hanged and Hung
For centuries, "hanged" and "hung" were used interchangeably as the past participle of "hang."
Most contemporary usage guides insist that in formal writing "hanged," not "hung," should be
used when referring to executions: convicted killers are hanged; posters are hung.
Historic and Historical
Historic means important, momentous, or historically significant. Historical means relating to the
past.
Imply and Infer
A speaker "implies" (suggests) something; a listener "infers" (or deduces).
In and Into
A person who is "in" a room may decide to move "into" another room. "Into" suggests
movement.
Last and Latter
"Latter" refers to the second of two persons or things that have been mentioned. When more than
two have been mentioned, use "last."
Later and Latter
Lay and Lie
The verb "lay" means to put; it takes a direct object. The verb "lie" means to rest; it does not take
a direct object.
Lightening and Lightning
The noun "lightening" means making lighter in weight or changing to a lighter or brighter color.
"Lightning" is the flash of light that accompanies thunder.
Many and Much
"Many" refers to people or objects that can be counted. "Much" refers to a large quantity.
Premier and Premiere
As an adjective, "premier" means first in rank or importance. The noun "premier" refers to a
prime minister, or the head of a state, province, or territory. The noun "premiere" refers to the
first performance (of a play, for example). "Premiere" is similarly used as a verb, meaning to
give a first public performance.
Prescribe and Proscribe
The verb "prescribe" means to establish, direct, or lay down as a rule. The verb "proscribe"
means to ban, forbid, or condemn.
Shall and Will
In contemporary American English, the auxiliary verb "shall" is rarely used. In British English,
"shall" and "will" are often used interchangeably with no difference of meaning in most
circumstances. Internationally, "will" is now the standard choice for expressing future plans and
expectations.
Should and Would
Use "should" to express an obligation. Use "would" to express a customary action.
Sometime, Some time, and Sometimes
"Sometime" means at an indefinite or unstated time in the future. "Some time" means a period of
time. "Sometimes" means occasionally, now and then.
Stationary and Stationery
The adjective "stationary" means remaining in one place. The noun "stationery" means writing
materials.
Statue and Statute
A "statue" is a carved or molded figure. A "statute" is a rule or law.
Troop and Troupe
As a noun, "troop" refers to a group of soldiers or a collection of people or things. As a verb,
"troop" means to move or spend time together. The noun or verb "troupe" refers specifically to a
group of theatrical performers.
VII. Adding new words to a language

 Acronyms: forming by taking the initial sounds or letters of the words of a phrase and
uniting them into a combination that is itself pronounceable as a separate word: NATO.
 Blends: combinations of the parts of two words, usually the beginning of one word and
the end of another: smog from smoke and fog, brunch from breakfast and lunch, chortle
from chuckle and snort.
 Clipping: a way of shortening words without paying attention to the derivational
morphology of the word (or related words). Exam form examination, dorm from
dormitory, taxi and cab from taxi cab that is from taximeter cabriolet.
 Conversions: created by shifting the part of a word to another part without changing the
form of the word: laugh, run, buy, and steal all started out as verbs but can now also be
used as nouns. Position, process, and contrast are nouns from which verbs have been
formed (also called functional shift
 Coinages: created without using any of the methods described and without using any
other word or word parts already existing. Created out of thin air, like the brand names
Kodak, Exxon; and words like pooch and snob.
 Eponyms: words, often places, inventions, activities etc. that are named for persons
somehow connected with them. Washington, DC; German village etc.

VIII. Inventory of Literary Lexicon

 Allegory--a universal symbol or personified abstraction. Example: Death portrayed as a

cloaked "grim reaper" with scythe and hourglass, or Justice depicted as a blindfolded
figure with a sword and balances. Also a literary work or genre (e.g., John Bunyan's
Pilgrim's Progress) that makes widespread use of such devices.
 Apocalyptic literature--writings that aim to reveal the future history of the world and
the ultimate destiny of the earth and its inhabitants. Examples: the prophetic books of the
Old Testament; Revelations. From the sermons of Puritan ministers to the latest popular
work of science fiction, American literature has always had a pronounced apocalyptic
tendency.
 Autobiography--An author's own life history or memoir. Example: The Education of
Henry Adams. Thoreau's Walden is also an example of autobiography, and Whitman's
Leaves of Grass, though it is not specifically an autobiography, contains numerous
autobiographical elements.
 Blank Verse--a verse form consisting of unrhymed lines of iambic pentameter.
Shakespeare's plays are largely in blank verse.
 Black humor--comedy mingled with horror or a sense of the macabre; extremely bitter,
morbid, or shocking humor. Examples (increasingly common in post-WWII film and
literature) include Kurt Vonnegut's novel Cat's Cradle and the recent films Pulp Fiction
and Misery.
 Catalogue--a traditional epic device consisting of a long rhetorical list or inventory.
Homer's catalogue of ships in the Iliad is probably the most famous example, though
almost any poem by Whitman will supply a prize specimen or two.
 Classicism, classical--referring to the art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome.
 Comedy--film or dramatic work depicting the uphill struggle and eventual success of a
sympathetic hero or heroine; usually about ordinary people in difficult but non-life-
threatening predicaments. Examples: Shakespeare, As You Like It; Shaw, Pygmalion.
 Consonance--repetition of the same or similar consonant sounds in a line or succeeding
lines of verse. Example: the r and s repetitions in Shakespeare, A Midsummer Night's
Dream: "Or, if there were a sympathy in choice/ War, death, or sickness did lay seige to
it . . ."
 Drama--a literary work designed for presentation by actors on a stage. Examples:
Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice; Miller, Death of a Salesman.
 Dramatic romance--play which adapts the themes, characters, and conventions of
narrative romance for the stage. Example: Shakespeare's The Tempest.
 Epic--a long narrative poem usually about gods, heroes, and legendary events; celebrates
the history, culture, and character of a people. Examples: Homer's Iliad and Odyssey,
Milton's Paradise Lost.
 Essay--literally a "trial," "test run," or "experiment" (from the French essayer, "to
attempt"); hence a relatively short, informal piece of non-fiction prose that treats a topic
of general interest in a seemingly casual, impressionistic, and lively way. Montaigne was
the great originator of the form; Emerson was its most influential 19th-century American
practitioner.
 Fantasy fiction--modern adventure novels or tales that adapt many of the conventions
and devices of medieval romance (e.g., imaginary worlds, creatures, heroes). Though
often considered a sub-category of science fiction, fantasy literature usually doesn't
involve the concern with modern science and technology that distinguishes true SF.
Example: Tolkein's Lord of the Rings.
 Farce--comedy that makes extensive use of improbable plot complications, zany
characters, and slapstick humor. Examples: films by the Marx brothers and the Three
Stooges; George S. Kaufman and Moss Hart's You Can't Take It with You.
 Form--metaphorically, the "container" or "mold" of a work of art, as opposed to its
material or contents; hence any of the structural patterns or organizing principles that
underlie and shape a work. Forms can be traditional and very rigid and specific--e.g., the
sonnet in poetry, the sonata in classical music--or vague and flexible, as in most modern
works.
 Free Verse--poetry without any fixed pattern of meter, rhythm, or rhyme, but which
instead exhibits its own natural rhythms, sound patterns, and seemingly arbitrary
principles of form. Example: most of the poems in Leaves of Grass.
 Genre--a collective grouping or general category of literary works; a large class or group
that consists of individual works of literature that share common attributes (e.g., similar
themes, characters, plots, or styles). Examples: drama, epic, lyric poem, novel, etc.
 Iambic pentameter--popular English verse form consisting of five metrical feet--with
each foot consisting of an iamb (i.e., an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed
syllable: daDUM). Rhymed pairs of iambic pentameter are called heroic couplets (a form
associated with Chaucer and Pope). Unrhymed iambic pentameter is called blank verse
(a form associated with Shakespeare and Milton).
 Image--a word or phrase in a literary text that appeals directly to the reader's taste, touch,
hearing, sight, or smell. An image is thus any vivid or picturesque phrase that evokes a
particular sensation in the reader's mind. Example: Whitman's "vapor-pennants" and
evocations of "golden brass" and "silvery steel" in "To a Locomotive in Winter";
Bryant's "lone lakes" and "autumn blaze" in "To an American Painter. . . ."
 Irony--originally a deceptive form of understatement (from the Greek eiron, a stock
comic character who typically equivocated, misled his listeners, or concealed complex
meanings behind seemingly simple words); hence an attribute of statements in which the
meaning is different--or more complicated--than it seems. A subtle form of sarcasm,
verbal irony is a rhetorical device in which the speaker either severely understates his
point or means the opposite of what he says (as when a guest politely describes a host's
unimpressive wine as "nicely chilled" or a conspicuously dull person is described as "not
a likely Mensa candidate." Dramatic irony arises in situations where two or more
individuals have different levels of understanding or different points of view. More
 specifically, it occurs when the audience or certain characters in a play know something
that another character does not--as when Oedipus, ignorant that he himself is the person
he seeks, vows to track down Laius's killer.
 Lyric--a short, highly formal, song-like poem, usually passionate and confessional, often
about love; a song expressing a private mood or an intense personal feeling. The sonnet
and the ode are two specific types of lyric.
 Melodrama--a film or literary work marked by "good guys" vs. "bad guys," unexpected
plot twists, surprise endings, action and suspense. Examples: Most horror movies and
detective thrillers.
 Meter--the expected pattern or theoretical number and distribution of stressed and
unstressed syllables in a line of verse of a given type. For example, in iambic
pentameter the prescribed pattern is da DUM, da DUM, da DUM, da DUM, da DUM--
five iambs.(See Rhythm.)
 Mock epic--a long narrative poem that lightly parodies or mimics the conventions of
classical epic. Whitman's elaborate "invocation" of a muse in "Song of the Exposition" is
a mock-epic device.
 Modernism--European and American literary and artistic movement that arose and
flourished during the first half of the twentieth century. Modernism can be understood as
in large part an avant-garde reaction to mass culture and to middle-class Victorian values
and tastes. Its techniques and aesthetic principles are illustrated in the works of Picasso,
Stravinsky, Klee, Proust, Joyce, Eliot, Faulkner, and others.
 Neo-classicism--eighteenth-century literary and artistic movement dedicated to the
recovery and imitation of classical (i.e., Greek and Roman) styles and models. Neo-
classical architectural principles are evident in most of the federal government buildings
in Washington, D.C. Joel Barlow's Columbiad (1807--a fulsome poetical extravagance
widely admired in its time but seldom read or even mentioned today) is an example of
neo-classical epic.
 Novel--a long fictional narrative in prose, usually about the experiences of a central
character. Examples, Dickens's David Copperfield, Dostoyevsky's Crime and
Punishment, Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury.
 Ode--a classical lyric form, typically of medium length with complex stanzas and ornate
prosodic effects. Ancient odes were usually written to commemorate ceremonial
occasions such as anniversaries or funerals. The Romantic poets wrote odes in
celebration of art, nature, or exalted states of mind.
 Onomatopeia--literally "name poetry"; in verse, the use of words (e.g., clank, buzz, hiss,
etc.) that imitate natural sounds. Example, Shakespeare, The Taming of the Shrew: "Have
I not in a pitched battle heard/ Loud 'larums, neighing steeds, and trumpets' clang?"
 Parody--a literary or artistic work that mimics in an absurd of ridiculous way the
conventions and style of another work. Also known as travesty, lampoon, or burlesque.
Twain's Connecticut Yankee is in part a parody of Mallory's Morte d'Arthur. Vonnegut's
Cat's Cradle parodies everything from calypso lyrics and commercial advertising to
detective fiction and Moby Dick.
 Pastoralism--A cultural outlook that values (or at least sympathizes with) the disciplines
and routines of rural living over those of urban life. In pastoral literature the author
typically adopts the perspective of a country dweller in order to expose the numerous
shams, absurdities, and nuisances of life in the city or the court. Examples of traditional
pastoral include Virgil's Eclogues and Spenser's The Shepherde's Calendar. Pastoral
elements can also be found in Walden and "Leaves of Grass."
 Plot--in narrative or dramatic works the sequence of events or episodes that link up to
provide a sense of unified action.
 Post-modernism--catch-phrase or jargon term used extensively in film and literary
studies to identify certain trends in contemporary media and fiction. Post-modernist
works tend to be highly self-referential and are typically saturated with irony and
allusion. Such works also tend to subvert traditional models of unity and coherence and
instead try to capture the sense of discontinuity and apparent chaos characteristic of the
electronic age. Post-modernism is typically associated with writers like William Gaddis,
 Thomas Pynchon, and John Barth, with film-makers like David Lynch and Quentin
Tarantino, and with so-called deconstructionist forms of criticism.
 Prosody--the technical analysis of all the sound elements (e.g., rhythm, alliteration,
rhyme) in poetry or speech.
 Rhyme--the use of the same or similar sounds either internally or at the ends of lines in
order to produce an audible echo effect; when this effect is regularly repeated over the
course of a poem or stanza and obeys a precise and predictable formal pattern, it is called
a rhyme scheme. To avoid rhyming notes that are too blatant or insistent, modern poets
sometimes use near rhyme (e.g., bald, cold; brim, stream), which produces a subtler
musical effect.
 Rhythm--in prosody, the actual number and distribution of stressed and unstressed
syllables in a line of verse of a given type when it is naturally spoken. (As opposed to the
ideal or theoretical number and distribution as specified by the metrical form.) (See
Meter.)
 Romance--a literary genre typically involving fantastic or perilous adventures. Medieval
verse romances were usually about knights and ladies, sorcerers and dragons, daring
deeds, and secret love. Example: the tales of King Arthur and his knights.
 Romanticism--an intellectual and artistic movement of the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries. Originating in Europe, where it was associated with Rousseau,
Wordsworth, Goethe, and other artists and philosophers, the influence of Romanticism
eventually spread to America, where it found adherents in figures like Bryant, Emerson,
and Thoreau. Valuing imagination over intellect, passion over reason, and artistic self-
expression over reverence for tradition, the Romantics reacted to what they viewed as the
excessive rationalism and classicism of the European Enlightenment.
 Science fiction--prose fiction usually set in the future or in some remote region of the
universe; often adapts the characters of conventions of ancient myth or medieval
romance to the modern age of science and technology. Example: Jules Verne, Twenty
Thousand Leagues Beneath the Sea; H.G. Wells, The Time Machine.
 Sonnet--a lyric form consisting of fourteen lines of iambic pentameter (usually divided
into an eight-line octave and a six-line sestet) and exhibiting a regular rhyme scheme.
Example: Bryant's "Sonnet--To an American Painter Departing for Europe."
 Symbol--an object, sign, or image that is used to stand for something else, as a flag may
be used to symbolize a nation. Whitman uses the hermit-thrush as a symbol of American
poetry; Henry Adams uses the dynamo as a symbol of vast, inhuman power.
 Symbolism--the systematic use of recurrent symbols or images in a work to create an
added level of meaning. Example: most of the characters and incidents in Melville's
Moby Dick can be interpreted symbolically. Similarly, the raft, the river, the towns, and
"the territory" combine to provide a pattern of symbolic meaning in Twain's Huckleberry
Finn.
 Theme--a controlling idea or a subject for philosophical reflection in a literary work.
Themes can be mythical and archetypal (e.g., the fall of man, symbolic death and rebirth,
a quest for knowledge) or moral and psychological (passion vs. reason, the futility of
anger, the vanity of selfishness, the need for love, etc.). Thus the same themes can be
found in works by different authors in different eras in a variety of genres and styles.
 Tragedy--drama or film portraying the doomed struggle and eventual downfall of an
admirable but flawed hero. Usually about powerful leaders or extraordinary individuals
torn between opposing goals or difficult choices. Examples: Sophocles, Oedipus the
King; Shakespeare, Hamlet.
 Tragicomedy--drama or film in which the serious actions, harsh truths, and threatening
situations of tragedy are combined with the lighter tone and generally happy conclusions
of comedy. Example: Shakespeare, Measure for Measure; M. Nichols, Carnal
Knowledge.
 Utopian literature--prose fiction which aims at a richly detailed and generally realistic
depiction of an ideal society or alternative world. Strictly speaking, utopian literature
depicts attractive alternatives; whereas dystopian literature presents nightmarish or
hellish visions of the future. Examples: Huxley, Brave New World; Orwell, 1984.