YEAR 1 BLOCK 4 MODULE 1 LESSON 3 WEST VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF MEDICINE

Skin and Muscle Histology

By: Dr. Ma. Iris V. Salazar | 10-16-19 | 8:00-10:00 AM LEGEND: þ Book µ Lecturer « Trans Comm

OUTLINE
I. Integumentary System
A. Composition
B. Function
II. Skin Layers
A. Epidermis
B. Dermis
C. Hypodermis
III. Appendages of the Skin
A. Hair
B. Nails
C. Sebaceous Glands
D. Sweat Glands
IV. Muscles
A. Skeletal
B. Cardiac
C. Smooth

I. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
COMPOSITION
Consists of the:
• Skin - largest organ of the body (16% of body weight). It is Figure 1. Layers of the skin.
supplied with blood vessels and nerves
• Accessory structures « See Appendix A for a more complete layers and appendages
→ hair of the skin.
→ nails
→ sebaceous glands
EPIDERMIS
→ sweat glands
þ Varies in thickness from 0.07 to 0.12 nm.
FUNCTION Layers:
• Stratum corneum
• Skin provides protection. • Stratum lucidum
→ protects against invasion by bacteria and other harmful
• Stratum granulosum
agents.
• Stratum spinosum
• Protects delicate cells beneath the surface from injury.
• Stratum basale/germinativum
• Produces a protective pigmentation to protect the body
against excessive exposure from the sun.
µ Medium to dark colored people are protected against
injury
µ Less risk factor for the development of malignancy.
• Helps produce the body’s supply of Vitamin D.
• Regulates body temperature.
→ When the body is too cold, the skin’s blood vessels
constrict. This allows more heat-carrying blood to circulate
to the muscle and organs.
→ When the body is too hot, the blood vessels in the skin
dilate. That brings more blood to the surface for cooling by
radiation. At the same time, sweat glands secret more
sweat that cools the body when it evaporates.
• Provides sensations.
• It contains millions of nerve endings that acts as sensory
receptors for pain, heat, cold, and pressure.
→ When stimulation occurs, nerve impulses are sent to the
cerebral cortex of the brain… and the brain triggers any
necessary response.

SKIN LAYERS
Two layers:
• Epidermis
→ Thin skin – 4 layers
→ Thick skin – 5 layers Figure 2. Layer of the epidermis.
• Dermis or corium « See Appendix B.

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 STRATUM CORNEUM
• Outer most layer of the epidermis.
• It is mostly dead cells, filled with a protein substance called
keratin.
• It is thicker on the soles of the feet than on the eyelids.
• Fully keratinized, lifeless cells loosen and ultimately
desquamate are found on outer layers and are sometimes
called stratum disjunction
« As keratinocytes ascend through the several strata, they
enlarge and become more flattened
STRATUM LUCIDUM
• Translucent layer lying directly beneath the corneum.
• Cells in this layer are also dead or are in the process of dying.
þ Consists of four to six rows of very flat cells and is usually not
identifiable in thinner skin of other regions
þ Nuclei are rarely seen because it began to degenerate in
stratum granulosum
þ keratin filaments are closely aggregated and are more
consistent in their parallel orientation to the skin surface
þ cell membrane appears thickened by deposition of dense
materials in inner surface
STRATUM GRANULOSUM
• One or more layers of cells starting to die and become hard.
→ In the process of keratinization becoming fibrous protein
similar to that in hair and nails.
þ More flattened than stratum spinosum
þ Distinguishing feature:
o presence of bodies of large size
o irregular shape that stain intensely with basic dyes
þ Contains keratohyalin granules that do not have a limiting
membrane and are believed to be precursors of an interfibrillar
matrix which is distributed throughout the cytoplasm of fully
keratinized cells
þ Presence of more lamellar granules than in stratum spinosum
which occupies as much as 15% of the cytoplasmic volume
STRATUM SPINOSUM
þ Also known as Stratum Malphigii
þ With less intensely basophilic cytoplasm than the stratum
basale
þ Prominent feature:
→ Presence of numerous bundles of cytokeratin
intermediate filaments that radiate from the perinuclear
region and end in the dense plague of numerous
desmosomes along highly interdigitated cell boundaries
þ Cytoplasm has secretory granules called membrane –
coating granule or lamellar granules which have a limiting
membrane and a distinctive internal structure consist of
closely packed parallel lamellae
STRATUM BASALE
þ Formerly Stratum Germinativum
• Innermost layer of the epidermis
• Single layer of cells supported by basal lamina resting on the
dermis
• Cells are cuboidal or low columnar.
• With large nucleus and basophilic cytoplasm.
• Contains melanin
→ the pigment that gives color to the skin.
→ The more abundant the melanin, the darker the skin color.
• Damage to this layer, such as severe burns, require skin
grafts.
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þ Basal Lamina
• Formerly called basement membrane
• Consists of lamina densa parallel to the membrane of basal
cells of the epithelium
• Separated from the membrane of basal cells by thin lamina
lucida, which is traversed by exceedingly thin filaments
crossing from the cell membrane to the lamina densa
• With anchoring fibrils that extend downward, arch around
collagen bundles in the dermis, and terminate in anchoring
plaques (small bodies with same density and substructure as
lamina densa)
Lamina densa
• Fine meshwork of Type IV collagen and contains heparan
sulfate and glycoproteins
Anchoring fibrils
• Believed to bind epithelium firmly to the dermis
• Have beaded, cross – striated appearance of Type VII
collagen
þ Cells found in the epidermis:
• Langerhan Cells
→ isolated dendritic cells that are usually located in the upper
layers of the stratum spinosum
→ with dark – staining nucleus and pale, clear cytoplasm in
a routine hematoxylin and eosin preparations
→ most numerous in the epidermis but are occasionally
found in the dermis
→ most reliable feature: presence of Birbeck granules
(vermiform granules), which are unique membrane –
limited granules, have a discoid three – dimensional form
and has no enzymatic activity
→ participate in body’s immune responses
o possess surface receptors and immunological
markers similar to macrophages
→ carry T – 4 an tigens on their surface like T – lymphocytes
→ important agents in contact allergic responses and other
cell – mediated immune reactions of the skin
→ come from a pool of precursors in the bone marrow
Figure 3. Cells of the Epidermis
• Merkel Cells
→ found in the basal layers of the epidermis which are more
abundant in fingertips (role in sensory perception)
→ forms Meckel cell – neurite complexes with the naked
terminals of myelinated afferent nerves in the basal lamina
→ bear a superficial resemblance to keratinocytes to which
they may be attached by desmosomes
→ nucleus deeply invaginated and may contain a strange
inclusion consisting of a bundle of short parallel filaments
→ cytoplasm has low electron density and contains loose
bundles of cytoskeletal filaments in perinuclear region and
at cell periphery
→ contains cytokeratins K8, K18, and K19
→ presence of many dense – cored granules in the
perinuclear cytoplasm and in dendritic – like processes
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 → have a role in paracrine regulation of neighboring
epidermal components like the neuroendocrine cells of GI
and bronchopulmonary epithelia
→ origins:
o derivatives of neural crest
o differentiated in the epidermis from cells of the
stratum germinativum
þ MUCOCUTANEOUS JUNCTION
• Transitions from the skin to the mucous membrane lining the
orifices of the body (eg. Mouth, anus)
• Stratified squamous epithelium
• Closely resemble mucosa than skin
• Very thin stratum corneum
→ Color of blood in underlying capillary bed shows through,
gives red tint
• No hairs, sebaceous gland, sweat gland
• Surface is moistened by mucous glands products
DERMIS
þ Mainly Type III collagen
þ Also contains loose network of elastic fibers and
many capillaries
• Reticular layer
→ Deeper, beneath the papillary layer
→ White fibrous tissue that supports the blood vessels
þ Made up of closely packed coarse bundles of thicker
fibers
þ Dominantly Type I collagen – oriented parallel to the
skin surface, some may run obliquely or
perpendicular to the majority.
þ Network of elastic fibers are abundant around
sebaceous and sweat glands
þ Space between fibers are occupied with proteoglycan
– dermatan sulphate (main component)
þ Dermis has rich vascular bed – supply the nutrients
þ Arrector pili muscles – insert into the body of hair follicles
þ Contraction = erection of hairs
þ Muscles of Facial Expression – cross striated muscles fibers
terminating in the dermis of face, scalp, base of the ear
µ Important to know the depth of invasion of tumors in the skin

HYPODERMIS
• The dermis is connected to underlying tissue by the
subcutaneous tissue.
• It supports, nourishes, insulates, and cushions the skin.
• Composed of:
o adipose
o connective tissue
þ Subcutaneous layer deep to the reticular, composed of adipose
and connective tissue
þ Looser connective tissue
þ Thin collagen fibers are parallel to skin surface
þ Supports, nourishes, insulates,and cushion the skin
þ Panniculus adiposus
→ layer of fat in abdomen, thigh and buttocks 3cm or more
Figure 4. The dermis.
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
• Below epidermis HAIR
• Also called corium
þ Tough leathery layer of connective tissue
þ Makes for the thickness of skin
þ Thickness ranges from 0.6mm (in eyelids) to 3mm (in palm &
sole)
þ Average = about 2mm
þ Thinner in ventral surface of body and extremities
þ Thinner on women
þ Primary ridges – ridges forming dermatoglyphic pattern on
skin surface
→ Dermal papillae rows projects upward from these ridges

Contains:
• connective tissues.
• lymphatics
• nerves
• nerve endings
• blood vessels Figure 5. Hair.
• sebaceous and sweat glands « See Appendix C
• elastic fibers
• hair follicles • Threadlike structure formed by a group of cells that develop
within a hair follicle or socket.
Two layers: • Each hair has a shaft that is visible and a root that is
• Papillary layer - embedded in the follicle.
→ is arranged into microscopic structures that form ridges. • Absent in:
These are the finger and footprints. → palms, soles, lateral surface of the feet, glans penis,
þ superficial, consist of fibroblast and other connective clitoris, inner surface of the prepuce, and labia minora and
tissue cell types majora

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• Pilomotor muscle arrector pili muscle
→ attached to the side of each follicle
→ Stimulated by skin irritants, emotional arousal, or cold
temperatures, and reacts by contracting
→ Causes goose flesh or goose pimples
• Bulb
→ Found at the base of each hair follicle enclosing a loop of
capillaries called the hair papilla and provides
nourishment to the hair.
→ One of the few living parts of the hair, and is responsible
for hair growth.
• Cuticle
→ Transparent
→ Covers the hair shaft like shingles on a roof, protecting it
from the elements and chemicals, and from losing
moisture.
• Cortex
→ provides most of the hair’s weight
→ Contains melanin which provides color to the hair, stores
oils, provides flexibility and elasticity, and adds shape to
hair.
→ When the cuticle is damaged and exposes the cortex, hair
looks dull and dry.
• Medulla
→ inner hollow core that runs the length of the shaft
NAILS
Figure 6. Nails.
« See Appendix D
• Fingernails and toenails are hard keratin structure that
protect the ends of the fingers and toes.
• Nail root, or germinal matrix or nailbed,
→ begins several millimeters into the finger and extends to
the edge of the white, crescent-shaped lunula. This is
where the growth occurs (~1mm per week).
• The under-surface of the nail plate or body of the nail has
grooves that help anchor it.
• Cuticle or eponychium
→ fuses the nail plate and the skin of the finger together to
form a waterproof barrier.
• Hyponychium
→ under the free edge of the nail. It also creates a waterproof
barrier, fusing the skin of the finger to the underside of the
nail plate.
• A lost finger or toenail will regenerate.
• Ingrown nails
→ those that have curled down or around and are growing
into the skin.
→ They may become swollen and inflamed.
• Trim toenails straight across to avoid this growth pattern.
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SEBACEOUS GLANDS
• Oil glands
→ They have tiny ducts that open into each hair follicle.
• Secrets sebum,
→ lubricates the hair and skin. The amount of secretion
varies with age, puberty, and pregnancy.
þ Found in the dermis of the entire integument except for the
palms, soles, and sides of the feet, where hairs are lacking.
þ Appendages of the hair follicle; 0.2-2 mm in diameter, located
above the insertions of the arrector pili muscle.
þ Also occur on the lips, areola of the nipples, labia minora, and
on the inner aspect of the prepuce.
þ Have a lobular structure consisting of elongated acini that
open into a short duct.
þ Acini
o have a peripheral row of small basal cells having a
peripheral nucleus, the usual cytoplasmic organelles,
and a few vacuoles.
o Have no lumen but are filled with large pale-staining
cells with pyknotic nuclei.
Figure 7. Sebaceous gland showing acini.
þ Production of sebum -> holocrine secretion
þ The ducts are lined by stratified squamous epithelium continuous
with that of the external root sheath at their opening into the
follicular canal.
þ Sebaceous glands are relatively inactive until puberty when they
are stimulated by the rising levels of sex hormones.
→ Teenagers suffer from acne, an inflammation of isolated
sebaceous glands, usually on the face, chest, and upper
back.
SWEAT GLANDS
• Sudoriferous glands are the sweat glands.
• About 2 million are distributed over the surface of the body
• More numerous on the palms of hands, soles of the feed,
forehead, and axiallae or underams.
• Produce sweat or perspiration.
→ As sweat collects on the skin surface, it evaporates and
creates a cooling effect.
→ Sweat also gets rid the body of waste through the pores of
the skin.
• As it accumulates, sweat may become odorous by the action
of bacteria.
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• The average person loses approximate ½ liter of fluid þ NERVES
through sweating each day. • Two broad categories of sensory nerve-endings:
→ Free endings
→ Encapsulated nerve endings

Free endings
• Lack morphologically recognizable receptor specializations at
their ends.
• Most common are in the epidermis
• Myelinated nerves approaching the epidermis from below lose
their myelin sheath and continue on a vertical course through
interstices among the keratinocytes to terminate in blind
endings in the stratum granulosum.
• Function: pain receptors or thermoreceptors
• Other myelinated afferent nerves have disc-like expansions
called Merkel endings, in contact with the plasmalemma of
Merkel cells near the base of epidermis

Encapsulated nerve endings

• Cellular and extracellular components that are organized so
as to convey a mechanical stimulus to an axon in their interior.
• Several kinds:
→ Pacinian corpuscles
→ Meissner’s corpuscles - mechanoreceptors responding to
slight deformation of the skin
→ Kraus’ end bulbs
Figure 8. Glands of the skin. → Ruffini corpuscles - mechanoreceptor responding to
tensional forces
Eccrine Glands Apocrine glands
No connection with hair follicles Appendages of hair follicles « See Appendix N for the Histophysiology of the Skin
Function throughout life Begin to function at puberty
Watery secretion Slightly viscous secretion MUSCLES
Innervated by cholinergic Innervated by adrenergic nerves • Differentiated cells containing contractile proteins generating
nerves forces for cellular contraction which results to movement
Both have a merocrine mode of secretion • Mesodermal in origin
Table 1. Eccrine vs. Apocrine Gland (Bloom and Fawcett)
• Makes up much of the mass of the body
• Present in close association in many organs of the body
þ BLOOD AND LYMPH VESSELS þ Contracting muscle cells - regulate the position and
• Rete cutaneum movements of the various parts or the body with respect to
→ a plexus parallel to the skin surface at the boundary one another.
between the dermis and the hypodermis. → In the hollow viscera, ducts, and blood vascular system
• Rete subpapillare the muscles propel
→ second plexus formed from the ramification of small → the body liquids and excretions from place to place.
ascending arteries; located at the boundary between the → Muscle cells are always elongated in the direction of the
reticular and papillary layers of the dermis contraction.
• Each hair follicle receives blood from two sources. → usually grouped into bundles which sometimes reach a
• The venous limbs of the capillaries in the dermal papillae drain considerable length.
into a venous plexus beneath the rete subpapillare and veins
from this drain into a venous plexus associated with the rete Terminology
cutaneum à veins descend to large veins in the subcutaneous • Muscle fiber = muscle cell
tissue. • Sarcolemma = plasma membrane/plasmalemma
• Arteriovenous anastomoses • Sarcoplasm = cytoplasm of the muscle fiber (excluding
→ Open: shunting blood directly from arteries to veins myofibrils )
without an intervening capillary bed. • Sarcoplasmic reticulum = smooth endoplasmic reticulum
→ Play an important role in the thermoregulation by
controlling blood flow to the superficial layers of the skin, Types:
where the heat may be lost to a cold environment. • Skeletal
• The skin has a rich lymphatic drainage, beginning in blind-ending • Cardiac
lymphatic capillaries in the dermal papillae that join an extensive • Smooth
network underlying the dermo-epidermal junction.
→ Branches descend through the reticular layer of the dermis Classification:
to its boundary with the hypodermis, where they join a • Function
deeper network of lymphatics associated with the rete → Voluntary
cutaneum. → Involuntary
• Larger lymph vessels with valves • Structural
→ Striated – contract independently of voluntary control
→ Smooth – subject to voluntary control

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 • Myofibrils
→ found in sarcoplasm which are long cylindrical filamentous
bundles
• Multinucleated
→ fusion of embryonic mononucleated myoblasts
→ Oval peripheral nuclei
þ Arrangement of fascicles varies from muscle to muscle:
→ Short muscle - oriented parallel to the direction of pull and
may continue without interruption throughout its length.
→ Long muscle: fibers are shorter than the muscle and are
connected to one or more transverse bands of connective
tissue spaced at intervals along the length of the muscle
→ Unipinnate – fasciculi are oriented obliquely with respect
to a longitudinal bad of connective tissue along one side
of the muscle
• Histological characteristics of different muscle types:
→ Bipinnate – oblique fascicles that radiate from a
→ Focus on the presence of striations and the position of
connective tissue core in the muscle, resulting in a pattern
the nucleus.
resembling that of the barbs extending obliquely from a
connective tissue core in the muscle, resulting in a pattern
« See Appendix E, F
resembling that of the barbs extending obliquely form the
axial core of a feather.
→ Multipinnate – oblique fascicles radiating from several
longitudinal connective tissue strands within the muscle
an converge on the tendon

CONNECTIVE TISSUES
• Encased by connective tissues
→ Epimysium - an external sheath; dense; surrounds the
entire muscle
→ Perimysium - thin septa; from epimysium extending
inward surrounding bundles of muscle fibers
→ Endomysium - delicate layer; surrounds each muscle
fiber
• Functions of connective tissues:
→ Transmit forces generated by contracting muscle cells
→ Blood vessels and lymphatics penetrate muscle within
connective tissue

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL FIBERS

• Longitudinal sections show cross striations
→ alternating light (I) and dark (A) bands
o A - anisotropic (birefringent in polarized light)
o I - isotropic (do not alter polarized light)
• In the electron microscope:
→ I band - bisected by dark transverse line ( Z line )
• Sarcomere
Figure 9. Types of muscles and location of nucleus. → one Z line to another Z line
→ Smallest repetitive subunit of contractile apparatus
þ Clinical Correlate → 2.5 micrometer in resting muscle
• Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
• Myofibrils
- X-linked
→ Long cylindrical filamentous bundles
- Lacks dystrophin
→ 1 to 2 micrometer in diameter
- Structural weakness of the sarcolemma
→ Parallel to the long axis of muscle fiber
Taken from: Bloom and Fawcett
→ Consists of end to end chainlike arrangement of
sarcomere
µ When we name malignancy:
→ Note: lateral registration of sarcomeres in adjacent
→ if origin is mesenchymal - end with sarcoma
myofibrils is responsible for the striations of muscle fiber
→ If epithelial in origin - end with carcinoma
þ Two types:
o Myosin filaments
SKELETAL MUSCLE → Principal constituent of A bands of
Cellular structure: sarcomeres.
• 1 to 30 cm long cylindrical bundles → Transverse alignment of links creates M- line
• Made up of fasciculi that bisects the paler H-band.
→ a fasciculus is made up of muscle fibers o Actin filaments
• Muscle fiber - contains myofibrils → Dominant component of I -Bands
→ muscle cell → Interdigitate at their ends with myosin
→ 10 - 100 micrometer in diameter filaments in neighboring A-bands to varying
þ Unit of organization degree depending on state of muscle
contraction

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þ Tropomyosin
Pathway: (from lecture slides)
→ Associated with actin filaments
• Acetylcholine release
→ Bound to each molecule are complex of three troponin
peptides (Tn-T, Tn-I and Tn-C) which play roles in shifting • Acetylcholine receptors in sarcolemma
filaments during muscle contraction. • Open channels permitting entry of sodium in
o Tn-T- binds the complex to tropomyosin sarcoplasm
o Tn-C- has binding site for calcium • Depolarization of membrane
o Tn-I- inhibits binding of myosin heads to actin resting • Generates electrical signal of action potential
muscle • T-tubule
þ Gelsonin • Release of calcium
→ depolymerized actin filaments in which delicate strands • New cycle of bridge making and breaking
seen extending the full length of I-band are called titin.
þ Titi
→ main stuctural basis for myofibrillar elasticity. It maintains MUSCLE DIVERSITY
the central position of the thick filaments in sarcomere. Vary in:
þ Band region
• color
→ forms an elastic connection between the thick filaments
• diameter
and Z-line.
þ Z-disc • cytochemical and physiological properties
→ link myofibrils of successive sarcomeres end to end.
þ Filamin þ Two major categories of muscle fibers:
→ actin binding protein originally found in smooth muscle is → Twitch fibers (Fast Fibers) – propagate an action
also found in Z-discs of skeletal muscle. potential and respond with all-or-none contraction
→ Tonic Fibers (Slow Fibers) – unable to propagate an
« See Appendix G, M. action potential and requires series of nerve impulses;
contraction is more prolonged than that of twitch fibers
ACTIVATION OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION Three fiber types:
• Red fibers
Series of events/pathway: (from lecture slides) • White fibers
• Activated by an action potential at myoneural junction • Intermediate
• Sarcolemma
• T-tubules and terminal cisternae Red Fibers
• Release of calcium into sarcoplasm • Slow twitch fibers
• Binding to troponin C in the actin filaments • Smaller
• Activates myosin ATPase • Dark color (more myoglobin and cytochrome)
• Flexion of myosin head • Large abundant mitochondria
• Conformational change exposing myosin-binding sites • Lipid droplets in sarcoplasm
on actin filaments • Wider Z bands
• Sliding of actin filaments toward the middle of A band • Slender axons with simple motor end plates
• Heads of myosin molecules detach and reattach to the • Contracts slowly
next binding sites on the actin filaments • More resistant to fatigue (greater ATP generation)
• Activates myosin ATPase • High ATPase, succinate dehydrogenase, NADH
• Flexion of myosin head dehydrogenase, neural fat
• Sliding of actin filaments toward the middle of A band
• Myosin heads then detach and reattach to the next White Fibers
binding sites
• White fibers
• New cycle of bridge making and breaking
• Fast twitch
« See Appendix H • Largest
• Smaller sub-sarcolemmal mitochondria and few in between
þ Sliding Filament Mechanism of Contraction myofibrils
• Large axons innervation with larger motor end plates
• When muscle contracts, the thick and thin filaments maintain • Contract rapidly generating strong forces
the same length as in resting muscle, but the thin filaments are • Fatigue rapidly
moved relative to the thick filaments, sliding more deeply into
• Low ATPase, succinic dehydrogenase, NADH
the A-band thus shortening the sarcomeres along the entire
dehydrogenase, neural fat
length of the myofibrils.
Intermediate Fibers
INNERVATIONS
• Intermediate
• Axons from spinal cord
• Mitochondrial disposition is similar in red fibers
• Divides into multiple branches in a muscle penetrating the
• Thick interfibrillar columns of mitochondria are seldom found
interior via perimysial septa
• Into the endomysium forming nerve endings (myoneural « See Appendix L for tabular comparison of different fiber
junctions) on muscle fibers
types.
• Motor unit
→ axons and muscle innervated (motor end plate)
• Axoplasm of each ending contains small vesicles
(acetylcholine)
• Synaptic cleft
→ narrow space between axon terminal and sarcolemma

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 CARDIAC MUSCLE Conduction system of the heart
þ The contraction of the atria must be completed slightly before
the onset of ventricular contraction
þ All myocytes are autonomously excitable cells that undergo
rhythmic depolarization and repolarization independent of
nervous influences, but the inherent rate of this activity in
myocytes of the atria is greater than that of the ventricle
þ The sinoatrial node is the site of initiation of excitation and the
"pacemaker" of the heart
þ Nodal myocytes
→ the pale-staining branched cells that makes up the
sinoatrial node
þ Transitional myocytes
→ more slender and having more fibrils than nodal myocytes.
It is relatively slow thus contributing to the atrioventricular
delay which is essential for optimal filling of the ventricles
þ Purkinje myocytes
→ found at the periphery, increases the area of cell to cell
Figure 10. Cardiac muscle. contact due to their irregular shape

« See Appendix J INNERVATIONS

• Cardiac myocytes
• Joined end to end at junctional complexes (intercalated
disks)
• Branch and form oblique interconnections with neighboring
columns
• Ovoid central nucleus
• Lipochrome
→ abundant in elderly (20% of dry weight of myocardium)
• Less sarcoplasmic reticulum than skeletal muscle
o Corbular reticulum - subsarcolemmal network with
large caliber T-tubules
• No terminal cisternae thus no triads
• Dyads
→ saccular dilatations of certain longitudinal tubules of the
reticulum with close contact to T-tubules.
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Pathway: (from lecture slides)
• Muscle excitation
• T-tubules via spanning proteins (transmembrane
particles)
• Bridge gap of T-tubules and terminal saccules
• (calsequesterin + dyads) of sarcoplasmic reticulum
• Increase in calcium concentration
• Depolarization of sarcolemma and T-tubules
þ The heart is innervated and its rate is modulated by the
autonomic nervous system.
þ Parasympathetic nerve fibers from the vagus and fibers
from the sympathetic trunk form extensive plexuses as the
base of the heart.
þ Ganglion cells and numerous nerve axons are found in the
wall of the right atrium, especially in the regions of the
sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes.
þ The heart rate is slowed by stimulation of the vagus and
accelerated by the sympathetic nerve stimulation
þ Autonomic nervous system
→ acts on the myocardium indirectly by modifying the
inherent rhythm of the pacemaker
SMOOTH MUSCLE
• Wall of GIT, arteries, uterus
• Spindle-shaped
• Central elongated nucleus
• Contractile elements in the peripheral sarcoplasm
• Cytoplasmic dense bodies
→ contain actin-binding protein alpha-actinin
• Contraction is slow

Myocardial conduction tissue

• SA node
→ Specialized myocytes
→ Pacemaker
• AV node
→ impulse conduction
→ Richly vascularized
→ Connected by Purkinje fibers (impulse conducting fibers)
• Purkinje fibers
→ Wider than ordinary cardiac myocytes
→ Few myofibrils
→ Nucleus have large amount of glycogen
→ Branches through myocardium
Figure 11. Smooth muscle.
þ Human heart beat rate is 60-100 times a minute.
þ Contraction is myogenic (independent of nervous stimulation)
þ All cardiac myocytes are capable of spontaneous rhythmic
depolarization and repolarization of their membrane

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 þ CONTACT OF SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS WITH ONE → When living smooth muscle is fixed, some cells are often
ANOTHER fixed in contraction, while adjacent cells are in relaxation.
• Smooth muscle fibers are scattered singly or in small groups
in the ordinary connective tissue. Pathway: (from lecture slides)
→ Closely welded to the collagenous bundles surrounded by • Influx of calcium ion via calmodulin
thin elastic fibers. • Binding to myosin light chain kinase
→ During contraction they throw the tissue into fine folds and • Phosphorylation of myosin light chain
wrinkles • Interact with actin
o this can be well seen in the skin of the mammary • Contraction
papillae or the scrotum.
→ Several parallel fibers unite to form a small cylindrical
bundle whose ends are covered by elastic fibers.
« See Appendix K
o An example is the smooth muscles connected with
the hairs. « See Appendix I for comparison between the three types of
→ In other cases the smooth muscle fibers are arranged muscles.
parallel to one another in one plane
o as in small arteries, because of the small lumen, each
fiber bends sharply to surround the vessel. TRANS COMM
→ The smooth muscle cells are arranged in layers or bundles Prepared by: SGD 1 Abellana, Alovera, Doce, Dupra, Esperanza,
in the walls of certain large hollow organs: Leray, Magan, Pama, Ruzgal, Sainz, Uy
o Intestine Format Editor: Leray, P.
o Bladder
o Uterus
→ The direction of the fibers is the same in each layer, but
varies between the different layers or bundles.
→ The cells are so arranged that the thick, middle portion of
one cell is opposite thethin ends of adjacent cells
o in cross sections through a smooth muscle bundle,
some of the cells have nuclei in the plane of section,
and some do not.
→ The connective tissue fibers outside the muscle cells
continue into the spaces between the cells and bind them
into bundles.
• Loose connective tissue is present in small amounts.
Between the thicker bundles and layers of smooth muscle cells.
It contains:
o fibroblasts and wandering cells,
o collagenous and elastic fibers, and
o a network of blood vessels and nerves.
→ Connective tissue cells, however, do not occur in the
narrow slitlike spaces between the individual smooth
muscle cells
• Reticular fibers - branch irregularly and pass longitudinally
REFERENCES
and transversely between the bodies of the smooth muscle
1. Salazar, (2019). Integumentary System and Muscles
cells
2. Fawcett, D. W. (1994). Bloom and fawcett. A textbook of
→ They can be stained with:
o Mallory's aniline blue method histology, 260-304; 525-556.
o Silver impregnation methods. 3. Junqueira, L. C., & Mescher, A. L. (2013). Junqueira's basic
→ A characteristic of smooth muscle all over the body is the histology: text & atlas/Anthony L. Mescher. New York:
intimate association it bears with elastic fibers. McGraw-Hill Medical,.
o This is so extensive that some authors consider them
as forming a "myoelastic" tissue.

• In smooth muscles:
→ the pull of each contracting cell is first transmitted to the
surrounding sheath of reticular fibers
→ continue directly into those of the surrounding connective
tissue.
→ permits the force of the contraction of the entire layer of
the smooth muscle
→ to be uniformly transmitted to the surrounding parts
o narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels
o peristalsis of the intestine.
• If a bit of fresh smooth muscle is stimulated by an electric
current,
→ each spindleshaped cell shortens and becomes thicker.
→ sarcoplasm flows to a central point which thickens In the
spontaneous contraction of smooth muscle.
→ the nucleus and the mitochondria move passively.
→ No fibrils can be seen in such living cells.

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 APPENDIX
APPENDIX A

Figure 1. Layers and appendages of the skin. (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

APPENDIX B

Figure 2. Layers (strata) of epidermis in thick skin. (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

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 APPENDIX C

Figure 3. Hair. (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

APPENDIX D

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 Figure 4. Nail. (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

APPENDIX E

Figure 5. Three types of muscle (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

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 APPENDIX F

Figure 6. Development and organization of muscles (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

APPENDIX G

Figure 7. Organization of a skeletal muscle fiber. (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

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 APPENDIX H

Figure 8. Events of muscle contraction. (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

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 APPENDIX I

Figure 9. Important comparisons of the three types of muscle. (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

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 APPENDIX J

Figure 10. Cardiac muscle. (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

APPENDIX K

Figure 11. Smooth muscle contraction. (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

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 APPENDIX L

Fiber Type White (Fast twitch, Red (Slow-twitch, Intermediate (Fast twitch
glycolytic) oxidative) oxidative, glycolytic)

Structural
Characteristics:
- Color White Red Pink
- Fiber diameter Large Small Medium to small
- Mitochondria Few Many Many
- Capillary density Sparse Rich Rich

Metabolic
Characteristics:
- Twitch rate Fast Slow Fast
- Rate of Fatigue Fast Slow Intermediate
-Primary pathway for Anaerobic Aerobic Aerobic
ATP synthesis
-Myosin ATPase activity Fast Slow Fast
- Myoglobin content Low High High

Histochemistry:
- Glycogen content High Low Intermediate
- Neutral fat content Low High Intermediate
- ATPase, pH 9.4 High Low High
- ATPase, pH 4.3 Low High Low
- Succinic Low High Medium to high
dehydrogenase
- NADH dehydrogenase Low High Medium to high

Table 1. Different fiber types (Fawcett, 1994).

APPENDIX M

Figure 12. Molecules composing thin and thick filaments. (Lifted from Junqueira and Mescher, 2016)

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 APPENDIX N
HISTOPHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN (FROM BLOOM AND
FAWCETT)
Protective Function
• Heavy keratinization and presence of lipid-rich extracellular
material in the stratum corneum provide some degree of
protection against mechanical damage, fluid loss, and entry of
noxious substances from the environment
• Biogenesis of vitamin D
• Ability to increase production of melanin on prolonged
exposure to sunlight and minimize the potentially harmful
effects of sunlight
Permeability Barrier
• Maintenance of the normal internal environment of the body
depends on the relative impermeability of the epidermis
• Complex intracellular lipids play a major role
• Protection against loss of water and electrolytes
• Prevents entry of water-soluble toxins
• Permit entry of lipid-soluble substances
• Enzymes of the epidermis are capable of transforming certain
compounds or drugs from an inactive to an active form
→ Ex.: cortisone
o An anti-inflammatory drug that is activated into
hydrocortisone in the epidermis
• Epidermal enzymes may break down certain potentially
carcinogenic compounds to harmless products
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Thermoregulation
• Heat produced continuously as a by-product of metabolism is
lost by radiation and evaporation from the skin surface
• Evaporation is the only mechanism of heat dissipation subject
to physiological control and it depends on the secretory activity
of 3 million sweat glands in the skin
• Sweating is controlled by centers in the pre-optic area of the
hypothalamus that function like a thermostat
• Efficient temperature control also requires regulation of
cutaneous blood flow because it is the blood that conducts
deep body heat to the surface where it can be dissipated
• Elevated temperature à vasodilation and opening of the
arteriovenous anastomoses
• Cooling à vasoconstriction and the return of the anastomoses
to their normal state of contraction
Sensory Perception
• The rich sensory innervation of the skin transmits to the central
nervous system information that triggers thermoregulatory
mechanisms and pain that elicits the avoidance of further
injury
• Touch, heat, cold, or pain (also itch)
Immunological Function
• Large surface area continually exposed to irritants, toxins,
viruses, and bacteria
• Involves lymphocytes, keratinocytes, and Langerhan cells
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