Julia Merino Fernandez 2

UNIVERSIDAD POLITÉCNICA DE MADRID
ESCUELA TÉCNICA SUPERIOR

DE INGENIEROS INDUSTRIALES
A voltage disturbances prototype

for testing electrical generators
connected to microgrids
TESIS DOCTORAL
Julia Merino Fernández

Ingeniera Industrial
2015
DEPARTAMENTO DE AUTOMÁTICA,
INGENIERÍA ELÉCTRICA Y ELECTRÓNICA
E INFORMÁTICA INDUSTRIAL
ESCUELA TÉCNICA SUPERIOR DE INGENIEROS

INDUSTRIALES
A voltage disturbances prototype

for testing electrical generators
connected to microgrids
Autora: Julia Merino Fernández
Ingeniera Industrial
Director: Dr. Carlos Veganzones Nicolás
Dr. Ingeniero Industrial
Director: Dr. Francisco Blázquez Garcı́a
Dr. Ingeniero Industrial
2015
Abstract
A VOLTAGE DISTURBANCES PROTOTYPE FOR TESTING

ELECTRICAL GENERATORS CONNECTED TO MICROGRIDS
By
The search for new energy models arises as a necessity to have a sustainable power
supply. The inclusion of distributed generation sources (DG) allows to reduce the cost of
facilities, increase the security of the grid or alleviate problems of congestion through the
redistribution of power flows. In remote microgrids it is needed in a particular way a safe
and reliable supply, which can cover the demand for a low cost; due to this, distributed
generation is an alternative that is being widely introduced in these grids.
But the remote microgrids are especially weak grids because of their small size, low
voltage level, reduced network mesh and distribution lines with a high ratio R/X. This ratio
affects the coupling between grid voltages and phase shifts, and stability becomes an issue of
greater importance than in interconnected systems. To ensure the appropriate behavior of
generation sources inserted in remote microgrids -and, in general, any electrical equipment-,
it is essential to have devices for testing and certification. These devices must, not only
faithfully reproduce disturbances occurring in remote microgrids, but also to behave against
the equipment under test (EUT) as a real weak grid. This also makes the device commercially
competitive. To meet these objectives and based on the aforementioned, it has been designed,
built and tested a voltage disturbances generator, in order to provide a simple, versatile, full
and easily scalable device to manufacturers and laboratories in the sector.

Resumen
A VOLTAGE DISTURBANCES PROTOTYPE FOR TESTING

ELECTRICAL GENERATORS CONNECTED TO MICROGRIDS
Por
La búsqueda de nuevos modelos energéticos surge como una necesidad para conseguir
un abastecimiento eléctrico sostenible. La inclusión de generación distribuida (GD) permite
una reducción del coste de las instalaciones, incrementando los niveles de seguridad de la red
y aliviando problemas de congestión a través de la redistribución de los flujos de potencia.
En las microrredes remotas es especialmente necesario conseguir un abastecimiento fiable y
seguro, que permita cubrir la demanda con un coste bajo; por ello, la generación distribuida
se presenta como una alternativa que, de manera masiva, se está introduciendo en este tipo
de redes.
Pero las microrredes remotas son redes particularmente débiles debido a su pequeño
tamaño, sus bajos niveles de tensión, el escaso mallado y la presencia de lı́neas de distribución
con un alto ratio R/X. Este ratio afecta al acomplamiento entre las tensiones de las red y
sus ángulos y la estabilidad se convierte en un problema de mayor importancia que en los
grandes sistemas interconectados. Para asegurar el comportamiento apropiado de las fuentes
de generación antes de su inserción en microrredes remotas y, en general, de cualquier equipo
eléctrico es necesario disponer de equipos de ensayo y certificación. Estos equipos deben,
no sólo reproducir fielmente las perturbaciones que ocurren en las microrredes remotas, sino
también comportarte frente al equipo a ensayar como una red débil real. Para cumplir estos
objetivos y basado en lo anterior, se ha diseñado, construido y validado un generador de
perturbaciones de red, con el objetivo de proveer de un equipo simple, versátil, completo y
fácilmente escalable para los fabricantes y laboratorios del sector.

Let the future tell the truth and evaluate each one according to his work and accomplish-
ments. The present is theirs; the future, for which I really worked, is mine.
NIKOLA TESLA
A mis padres Antonio y Mary Luz y a mi hermano Antonio. A mi tı́a Julia, que hubiera
presumido tanto de mı́.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Y por fin llegó el dı́a. Al volver la vista atrás, no puedo evitar sentir cierta satisfacción de
haber llegado a esta cima, cuyo ascenso se me ha hecho a veces tan empinado, y es justo dar
gracias a los que me han ayudado a conseguirlo. Hoy también son ellos parte de este triunfo.
A mis directores. A Carlos Veganzones, por todo el tiempo que me ha dedicado y por las
enseñanzas que me ha transmitido estos años. Por prestarme su idea para el desarrollo de
este trabajo. Por la ayuda en la configuración y revisión final del documento de tesis. A
Francisco Blázquez por sus sugerencias para el diseño de las máquinas eléctricas.
A Sergio Martı́nez, por su implicación desinteresada en mi formación de posgrado. Por mar-
car la diferencia y ser el que siempre me consideró una compañera y no una alumna.
To the professors and colleagues I was lucky to meet during my experiences as visiting scholar
in UW-Madison and MSU. To Prof. Giri Venkataramanan and Patricio. To Dr. Strangas,
Dr. Foster and the Spartans (Andrew, Cristián, Reemon and Jorge). Thank you for your
warmth and your friendship. Thank you very much for making me feel, at least for some
months, part of a research group.
A otros profesores de la UPM, que me permitieron colaborar y aprender con ellos en sus
Departamentos durante esta etapa doctoral y que me trataron siempre con tanto afecto.
Gracias J. Ángel Sánchez y gracias, Pablo Reina.
Al Departamento de Ingenierı́a Eléctrica de la E.T.S.I. Industriales y al profesorado y per-
sonal que lo componen. A los técnicos de Máquinas Eléctricas, por su soporte (bancada
arriba, bancada abajo...). A Elena, por compartir conmigo los últimos meses de laboratorio.
A mis compañeros de oficina, que en esta recta final me han aguantado con paciencia y
comprensión mientras hablaba, casi obsesivamente, de esta tesis.
viii
A mis padres, mi hermano y mis amigos, por su incondicional apoyo. Por soportar mi
desánimo cuando, por primera vez en mi vida, me vi obligada a “tirar la toalla” y desistir de
seguir persiguiendo mi sueño universitario. Gracias por compartir la alegrı́a de verme hoy
aquı́, más feliz, más fuerte y con nuevas metas que conquistar.
Julia
2015
ix
x
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
LIST OF SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Objectives and contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Outline of the thesis structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Dissemination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Chapter 2 State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.1 Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Definition and structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Remote microgrids with distributed generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Characterization of disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2.1 Voltage dips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2.2 Frequency disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.2.3 Frequency disturbances associated with voltage dips . . . . 19
2.2.3 Worldwide situation of remote microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Regulations applicable to distributed generation sources connected to electri-
cal systems. Grid codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.2 Grid codes structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.3 Requirements in grid codes. Basic concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.4 Codes review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.4.1 Grid codes of interconnected systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.4.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.4.1.2 Voltage requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.4.1.3 Frequency requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.4.1.4 Phase shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.4.2 Grid codes of remote microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.4.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.4.2.2 Major international codes applicable to remote sys-
tems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.4.3 Towards harmonized standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.4.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.4.3.2 ENTSO-E grid code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.4.3.3 Highlights of ENTSO-E grid code . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.4.3.4 ENTSO-E and remote microgrids . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4 Grid disturbances generators to test electrical devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1 Impedance-based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4.2 Electrical machines based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4.3 Full-converter based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.4 Comparative between commercial topologies and the proposed device 46
2.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Chapter 3 General description and operating model of the voltage distur-

bances generator prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1 General description of the device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1.1 The electrical machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.1.1 Variable frequency transformer (VFT) . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.1.2 The induction regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.2 The control program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.2.1 Cascade control design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.2.2 Program I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.1.2.3 Implementation in MATLAB/Simulink R . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 Mathematical expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2.1 Variable frequency transformer - EM1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2.1.1 Steady-state equations and equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . 59
3.2.2 Induction regulator - EM2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.2.2.1 Steady-state equations and equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . 62
3.2.3 Thevenin equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.3.1 Voltage frequency transformer - EM1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.3.2 Induction regulator - EM2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.2.4 Simulation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
xii
3.2.5 Transient analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Chapter 4 Experimental setup, operational procedure and performance

evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1.1 The electrical machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1.2 Control and monitoring system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.1.3 The electric cabinet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2 Operational procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.1 Setup of the voltage disturbances generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.2 Preparation of the test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.2.1 Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.2.2 PI controller tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2.3 Test procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3 Performance evaluation of the prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3.1 Voltage disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3.2 Frequency disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3.3 Combined disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.3.4 Harmonic behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Chapter 5 Guidelines for the design of new prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5.1 Problem approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.1.2 Voltage drop evaluation of the preliminary design . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.2 Minimization of the voltage drop in the induction regulator EM2 . . . . . . . 98
5.3 Criteria design for new prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.3.1 Prototype 2: Leakage reduction by redesigning the magnetic circuit . 100
5.3.1.1 Mutual inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.3.1.2 Leakage inductances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.3.1.2.1 Flux leakage components in wound rotor induction
machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.3.1.2.2 Mathematical expressions of the leakage inductances
in EM2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.3.1.2.3 Validation of leakage inductances in the prototype 1 106
5.3.1.3 Constants and variables in the magnetic design . . . . . . . 108
5.3.2 Prototype 3: Leakage reduction by redesigning the electric circuit . . 112
xiii
5.3.2.1 Optimization of the ampere-turns ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Chapter 6 Sizing, construction and assembly of the new prototypes . . . . 115

6.1 The finite-element methods (FEM) for electrical machines design . . . . . . . 115
6.2 Definition of new prototypes sizing by finite element analysis . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2.1 1. Slot design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2.2 2. Air gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.2.3 3. Transformation ratio & double-layer rotor winding . . . . . . . . . 122
6.3 Simulation of transient response by FEM analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.4 Construction and assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Chapter 7 Experimental results and comparative analysis of the prototypes131

7.1 Determination of the equivalent circuit parameters for new prototypes . . . . 131
7.2 Experimental results. Comparative analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.2.1 No-load test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.2.2 Loaded tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.2.2.1 Test against a passive load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.2.2.2 Test against an active load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.2.2.3 Test against generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.2.2.3.1 Asynchronous generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.2.2.3.2 Synchronous generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Chapter 8 Final conclusions and future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Appendix A Technical Data of the Experimental Setup Equipment . . . . . 149

A.1 Servo Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
A.1.1 Servo motor for EM1 machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
A.1.2 Servo motor for EM2 machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
A.2 Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
A.2.1 Angle drive for EM1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
A.2.2 Speed drive for EM2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
A.3 Encoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
A.3.1 Absolut magnetic encoder for EM1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
A.3.2 Incremental encoder for EM2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
A.4 DSPs dSPACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
xiv
Appendix B Thevenin equivalent for the EM1+EM2 case . . . . . . . . . . . 157
B.1 Thevenin source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
B.2 Thevenin impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Appendix C Calculation of Laplace residuals for transient regime solutions 161

C.1 Rotor current ir (s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
C.2 Stator current is (s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Appendix D Analytical calculation of slot leakage components in EM2 . . . 165

D.1 Slot leakage inductance calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
D.1.1 Rotor slot leakage calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
D.1.2 Stator slot leakage calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
D.1.2.1 Slot permeance due to the lower coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
D.1.2.2 Slot permeance due to the upper coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
D.1.2.3 Slot permeance due to the mutual effects between coils . . . 174
Appendix E Windings and steel sheets drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

E.1 Magnetic material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
E.2 Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
E.2.1 Rotor Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
E.2.2 Stator Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
E.3 Electric steel sheets drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
xv
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 PGM installed capacity limits according to ENTSO-E regions [1] . . 38
Table 2.2 Operating ranges of voltages. a) Voltages from 110 kV to 300 kV. b)
Voltages from 300 kV to 400 kV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Table 2.3 PGMs frequency requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 3.1 Electrical machine parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Table 4.1 Main characteristics of prototype 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Table 4.2 Basic data of prototype 1 magnetic circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Table 4.3 Basic data of prototype 1 electrical circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Table 5.1 Electrical machine parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Table 6.1 Comparison between leakage reactances in prototype 1 and prototype

2 according to changes in the slot openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Table 6.2 Comparison between leakage reactances in original and improved pro-
totype 2 according to the combined effect of the increment of the
air-gap width plus the slot refitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Table 6.3 Data of prototype 3 electrical circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Table 6.4 Comparison between leakage reactances in original and improved pro-
totypes because of the change in the transformation ratio and the
double-layer rotor winding design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Table A.1 Data of Baumüller DS 56 S-3-R-K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Table A.2 Motor data from Pujol Muntalá IPCM 128/90L-4/148 . . . . . . . 151
Table A.3 Gearbox data from Pujol Muntalá IPCM 128/90L-4/148 . . . . . . 151
Table A.4 Main technical characteristics of Baumüller b maXX 4413 . . . . . . 152
Table A.5 Main technical characteristics of Altivar 71 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Table A.6 Data of RM 36 absolut encoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Table A.7 Data of encoder Schneider XCC1506PS50X . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 General scheme of a microgrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Figure 2.2 Classification of microgrids according to the market segment . . . . 10
Figure 2.3 Distribution of microgrids due to the market segments [2] . . . . . . 12
Figure 2.4 Requirements of energy reserves in a remote grid . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 2.5 Number of unscheduled events recorded in La Palma island during
2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 2.6 Present and expected wind power generation in the isolated system
of Gran Canaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 2.7 a) Voltage dip in the remote microgrid of El Hierro island; b) Voltage
dip spread in the grid of Gran Canaria island [3] . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 2.8 Record of a frequency disturbance in a remote microgrid [4] . . . . . 19
Figure 2.9 Record of main electrical magnitudes in a dip in a 400 kV node . . . 20
Figure 2.10 Record of main electrical magnitudes in a dip in a spanish nonmain-
land node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 2.11 Consequences of the use of grid codes in electrical systems . . . . . . 24
Figure 2.12 Classification of voltage disturbances according to IEEE Std. 1159-1995 26
Figure 2.13 Profile types of voltage dips. a) Rectangular profile. b) Profiles with
recovery ramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 2.14 Voltage dip profiles required in main international codes . . . . . . . 29
Figure 2.15 Over/undervoltage and voltage swells requirements in main intercon-
nected grid codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 2.16 Operating frequency ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Figure 2.17 a) Voltage dip profiles for microgrids up to 50M W . b) Voltage dip
profiles for microgrids above 50M W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Figure 2.18 Over/Undervoltage requirements in remote microgrids . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 2.19 Frequency requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Figure 2.20 Voltage dip profiles in ENTSO-E code. a) SPGMs type B and C; b)
PPMs type B and C; c) SPGMs type D; d) PPM type D . . . . . . 39
Figure 2.21 Impedance-based voltage dip generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 2.22 Transformer-based voltage dip generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 2.23 Voltage dip generator based on full power converter . . . . . . . . . 46
Figure 3.1 General scheme of the device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Figure 3.2 Single-phase scheme of the wound rotor induction machine connection 52
Figure 3.3 Single-phase scheme of the induction regulator connection . . . . . . 53
Figure 3.4 Voltage phasor diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 3.5 Control loops for EM1 and EM2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 3.6 Model I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figure 3.7 MATLAB/Simulink
R control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 3.8 Single-phase representation of the EM1 machine . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 3.9 Single-phase representation of the EM1 machine reduced to fr frequency 60
Figure 3.10 Single-phase representation of the EM1 machine reduced to rotor
winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 3.11 Single-phase circuit of EM2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 3.12 Equivalent circuit of EM2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 3.13 Simulation model of the voltage disturbances generator . . . . . . . 67
Figure 3.14 Steady-state comparative between simulation and experimental results 67
Figure 3.15 Steady-state comparative between simulation and experimental results 68
Figure 3.16 Percentage errors between simulation and experimentation results . 69
Figure 3.17 Comparative between the simulation model and the experimental re-
sults in the recovery ramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 3.18 Equivalent circuit representation for transient analysis. a) Time-
domain. b) Laplace domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Figure 4.1 Scheme of the electric drive system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Figure 4.2 HMI of the voltage disturbances prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
xx
Figure 4.3 Voltage disturbances generator cabinet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Figure 4.4 Voltage magnitude output during calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 4.5 Reproduction of voltage swells and dips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 4.6 Angle setpoint and tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 4.7 Voltage dips profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 4.8 Frequency disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Figure 4.9 Combined voltage, frequency and phase jump disturbance . . . . . . 91
Figure 4.10 Harmonic spectra of voltage waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 5.1 No-load and full load voltage dips with the prototype 1 . . . . . . . 95
Figure 5.2 Phasor diagram of the prototype 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figure 5.3 Output voltage at the induction regulator for a generator with cosφ = 1 97
Figure 5.4 Slot leakage flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figure 5.5 Leakage flux paths in the end-windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figure 5.6 Zigzag leakage flux paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figure 5.7 End-winding main dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Figure 5.8 Influence of the geometric parameters over the slot permeances . . . 111
Figure 6.1 Rotor Leakage Reactance contour plot(Ω) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Figure 6.2 Stator Leakage Reactance contour plot (Ω) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 6.3 Carter coefficient variation due to rotor slotting . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Figure 6.4 Variation of main parameters affected by air gap width . . . . . . . 121
Figure 6.5 Magnetic flux density in prototype 3 before and during voltage dip
reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 6.6 Rotor and stator laminations for new prototype designs . . . . . . . 126
Figure 6.7 Electrical machines with taps to be used as EM1 . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 6.8 Main steps in prototypes construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Figure 7.1 Comparison of parameters between the prototypes . . . . . . . . . . 132
xxi
Figure 7.2 Comparison of voltage dips for the prototypes at no-load . . . . . . 134
Figure 7.3 Comparison of voltage dips against resistive load at full rated power 135
Figure 7.4 Asynchronous motor/generator test bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Figure 7.5 Comparative behaviour of tests against asynchronous motor . . . . . 137
Figure 7.6 Comparative behaviour against asynchronous generator . . . . . . . 139
Figure 7.7 DC machine and synchronous generator test bench . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 7.8 Comparative of the behaviour of prototypes connected to synchronous
generators with static excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Figure 7.9 Comparative of the behaviour of prototypes connected to synchronous
generators with static excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure A.1 Servo motors involved in the disturbances generator prototype . . . 149
Figure A.2 Block diagram of dSPACE DS1104 R&D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Figure B.1 Single-phase representation of the device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Figure B.2 Single-phase representation of the device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure D.1 Rotor slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Figure D.2 Fraction of rotor slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Figure D.3 Change of the turns ratio depending on the slot depth . . . . . . . . 169
Figure D.4 Region 3 of the rotor slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Figure D.5 Stator slot geometric dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Figure E.1 BH curve of V600-50A magnetic steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Figure E.2 Rotor winding configuration for prototypes 0 and 1. . . . . . . . . . 178
Figure E.3 Double-layer lap winding design for stators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Figure E.4 Design for prototype 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Figure E.5 Design for prototypes 1 & 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
xxii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
α Electrical angle between rotor and stator windings (deg)
ω Speed (p.u.)
φm Mutual flux
σ Factor for harmonic leakage reactance calculation
τ Slot pitch
τp Pole pitch
Dor Rotor outer diameter
Ir Rotor current
Is Stator current
K Transformation ratio
Uo Output voltage phasor
Ur Rotor voltage phasor
Us Stator voltage phasor
Xσ Leakage reactance
Xm Mutual reactance between rotor and stator referred to rotor side
Z Impedance
b Slots widths
few Permeance factor associated to axial length
fW Permeance factor associated to the coil span
g Air gap width
ge Effective gap considering effects of fringing and saturation

H Inertia constant (s)
h Slots heights
Lew End-winding leakage inductance per unit of length
Lh Harmonic leakage inductance per unit of length
Lslot Slot leakage inductance per unit of length
Lzz Zig-zag leakage inductance
Lew End-winding length
P Poles
p Permeance
Pe Sum of the power of the loads (p.u.)
Pm Sum of the power of the generators (p.u.)
q Slots per pole and phase in rotor
R Resistance
S Number of slots
s Slip
Wew End-winding width
ξ Winding factor
ξh Winding factor for the hth harmonic
kb Back-calculation constant of the PI controller
ki Integral constant of the PI controller
kp Proportional constant of the PI controller
kw Weighting constant of the PI controller
m Number of phases
N Number of turns per phase
n Number of turns per coil
Note: Additional subscripts r and s along the content refer to rotor and stator values
xxiv
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Motivation
The current power consumption involves the emission to the atmosphere of great amounts of
CO2 contributing to accelerated climate change. During the year 2012, 31.6 Gt of CO2 were
emitted, of which 60% belonged to countries outside the OCDE (mainly to the emergent
economies of China, India and Brazil). Due mainly to the growth of these countries, it is
expected that by 2020 the world electricity consumption will be almost 30% higher than at
present [5]. This evidences a crisis in the traditional energy model, posing serious problems
of sustainability in the medium and long term. If we add that fossil fuels are finite and
scarce, which in turn has untied a price war on the markets, it is clear the need to find new
models for energy supply.
On the approach of new models two main objectives are pursued: the replacement of the
conventional generation by renewable energy sources (RES) and the improvement of overall
efficiency. Distributed generation (DG) is presented as the most appropriate alternative in
order to achieve these goals. DG favors the inclusion of non-conventional generation, allowing
the installation of groups located close to the natural resources, at distribution voltage levels.
It also allows an efficiency rise by bringing the generation towards the consumption points
to reduce losses in the transportation of electrical energy.
The massive increasing of wind power plants in electrical systems has forced the deve-
lopment of a more complete and rigorous regulation in terms of connection and operation
requirements for electrical generators. From this new perspective, traditional electrical sys-
tems are gradually fragmenting into smaller ones, with a high percentage of renewable en-
ergy installed. Decentralized generation helps to improve grid security, because the supply
no longer depends on a few critical nodes. The ultimate goal is have a grid formed by a
set of smaller systems called microgrids, connected to each other, self-supplied and with the
capacity of operating in isolated mode in the event they are required.
The needed electricity supply to remote areas, as islands or faraway locations in devel-
oping countries provides a very particular configuration for their electrical systems. They
are a subgroup of special microgrids -remote microgrids- that have a very weak link inter-
connection or even a totally lacking link. In remote microgrids, low levels of short-circuit
power, the weakness of the network, low inertia of the groups and accused variations in the
load profile as main characteristics, make that any abnormal situation ocuring at a point
can affect the whole of the network and can seriously compromise the security and stability
of the system.
It is worth remarking that the availability of a strong link between a microgrid and
the local electric distribution system allows continuity of supply in the microgrid in case of
disconnection of several generators due to maintenance or fault. The absence of this option
requires to establish higher levels of reserve groups to deal with contingencies and to adopt
additional procedures in the management and operation protocols.
The remote microgrids are especially suitable for the inclusion of renewable energy but
they are more vulnerable than any other type of microgrid. Hence the technical requirements
in regulations applicable to these systems are generally more demanding. It is essential for
manufacturers, electrical distributors and certifiers to have flexible equipment, useful to
validate the behavior of their devices according to new grid codes requirements.
2
This thesis discusses the design and construction of a new voltage disturbances prototype,
in order to be employed in the validation and certifying compliance with the grid codes. The
requirements will be those currently in use or those that will foreseeably appear on new
standards. In the previous literature search of this work, detailed in cha. 2, no device has
been found that shares the characteristics and objectives of the one developed, so this new
equipment covers a technological gap.
1.2 Objectives and contributions
The main objective pursued by this thesis involves the design, construction, programming,
testing and validation of a voltage disturbances prototype. This equipment allows the cre-
ation of frequency and voltage disturbances as well as phase jumps, so it can be used for
the certification of electrical equipment prior to its inclusion in particularly weak electrical
networks, as remote microgrids.
This main objetive can be furthered splitted into three intermediate targets that are
listed below:
• Design of two electrical machines, improved from a commercial wound rotor induction
motor intended for operation as part of this prototype, with the aim of increasing
the performance of the device. These machines have modifications on some design
parameters in order to reduce, to a certain extent, the effect of current flow through
the prototype that can have on the disturbance to be created or on the equipment to
be tested.
• Programming of the real-time control system that allows the accurate reproduction of
the desired disturbances and whose main features are precision, speed of response and
flexibility.
3
• Implementation of a data acquisition system for control and monitoring of the variables
of interest, like the development of a human machine interface (HMI) to allow the user
an easy and intuitive handling of the test equipment.
The result of the fulfillment of these goals involves a contribution of knowledge to the
research area that frames this work.
1.3 Outline of the thesis structure
Chapter 2 gathers the information concerning to the state of the art in the main topics
constituting a framework of the work. It has been divided in three blocks of contents. First,
main characteristics defining microgrids and definition of disturbances in these systems are
studied. Second, it has been collected a wide study about grid codes: structure, requirements
and main regulations for isolated grids as well as interconnected networks. And third, a
literature search of commercial devices to reproduce voltage dips as test equipment have
been compiled.
In Chapter 3 the conceptual idea underlying the device and the operational procedure
of the equipment are drafted. The first performance results for the prototype built from
commercial machines are also collected.
Chapter 4 develops the mathematical expressions, the Thevenin equivalents and the
simulation model to represent the steady-state behaviour of the prototype and the equations
to define the transient regime have been explored.
Chapter 5 clusters the main information concerning to the electrical machines design. The
weak points of the commercial setup are analyzed and some improvements for the design of
future prototypes are proposed.
4
Chapter 6 focuses on the final definition of new electrical machines. It also shows the
transient model developed by finite elements and describes the process for construction and
assembly of enhanced prototypes.
Chapter 7 shows the characterization of new prototypes by means of testing, the experi-
mental results reached and the comparison between original prototypes and enhanced ones,
in order to quantify the effectiveness of design changes applied to the electrical machines.
Chapter 8 collects the final conclusions of the dissertation and settles the basis for future
improvements.
1.4 Dissemination
Papers in JCR journals:
• Merino, J.; Mendoza-Araya, P.; Venkataramanan, G.; Baysal, M.; Islanding Detection
in Microgrids using Ambient Harmonics. Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on, vol.
PP, no. 99, pp.1,1, Dec. 2014.
• Merino, J.; Mendoza-Araya, P.; Veganzones, C. State of the Art and Future Trends in
Grid Codes Applicable to Isolated Electrical Systems. Energies, no. 7, pp. 7936-7954.
Nov. 2014.
• Merino, J.; Veganzones, C.; Sanchez, J.A.; Martinez, S.; Platero, C.A. Power System
Stability of a Small Sized Isolated Network Supplied by a Combined Wind-Pumped
Storage Generation System: A Case Study in the Canary Islands. Energies, no. 5, pp.
2351-2369. July 2012.
• Veganzones, C.; Sanchez,J.A,; Martinez, S.; Platero, C.A.; Blazquez, F.; Ramirez, D.:
Rodriguez, J.; Merino, J.; Herrero, J.; Gordillo. F. Voltage Dip Generator for Testing
5
Wind Turbines Connected to Electrical Networks. Renewable Energy, Vol. 36, no. 5,
pp. 1588-1594. May 2011.
Patent application:
• Rodrı́guez, J.; Herrero, N.; Merino, J.; Platero, C.A.; Veganzones, C.; Blázquez, F.;
Martı́nez, S.; Sánchez, J.A. “Generador de perturbaciones de tensión para ensayo de
equipos eléctricos y su procedimiento de operación en redes con generación distribuida”.
WO Patent App. PCT/ES2014/070.099. Feb 25, 2015.
6
Chapter 2
State of the Art
This chapter collects a literature review of the topics on which this thesis focuses. First of all,
microgrids are analyzed as a distinct structure within the electric power systems. Then, the
particularities that define remote microgrids and the characteristics of disturbances occurring
in them are studied. Later, it is examined the legislation that currently must meet generators
-especially wind turbines -before its insertion in electrical systems, and the tendency which is
expected to be followed by new regulations. Eventually, is extensively analyzed the specific
bibliography on voltage disturbances generators employed in the study or certification of DG
systems. These devices are evaluated with the purpose of highlighting the contributions of
the new device over other existing equipment.
2.1 Microgrids
2.1.1 Definition and structure
According to the definition given by the United States Department of Energy (DOE), a
microgrid is an electrical system consisting of a set of generators, storage devices, loads and
interconnection elements that has the ability to operate autonomously or grid-connected
[6]. Researchers at the Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTS)
added, moreover, that a microgrid must be able to provide combined electrical and thermal
energy to users [7].

The ability to work stably and safely in islanded and grid-connected modes, make mi-
crogrids a highly flexible structures. They appear as the best alternative to promote the
integration of DG sources in power systems. The microgrids have regulation systems over
their generation units and loads so they provide, at every moment, a full and complete
power flow control. From the utility grid side, a microgrid is an active electrical system
which behaves like an individual generator or load at the point of common coupling (PCC).
In Fig. 2.1 the general scheme of a microgrid can be observed with the elements that
typically comprise it, although it is not necessary for all of them to be present simultaneously.
The generators can be rotating electrical machines directly connected to the grid, thermal or
hydraulic synchronous units, asynchronous machines or renewable energy sources connected
to the utility grid through electronic converters -wind generators, PV generators, etc-. The
storage systems such as batteries, flywheels or supercapacitors, help stabilize the grid in case
of transient disturbances. They also contribute to restore the equilibrium when generation-
load imbalances take place. The advantages provided by storage are especially needed when
the microgrid is working in islanded mode.
GRID
PCC
MICROSWITCH
M MOTORS
LOADS
G STORAGE DEVICES
CONVENTIONAL
G
GENERATOR
MICROGRID
Figure 2.1: General scheme of a microgrid
8
According to the standard IEEE P1547 [8], the power limit of a source to be considered
as a DG source is 10 MVA and it has to be connected to a distribution grid. This unique
generation/storage unit with their associated controls would already form a microgrid. This
value must be taken as an indicative manner since, in practice, the inclusion of a grid in the
microgrid group is based on topology and functional criteria.
As a summary of the different definitions in the literature, it could be concluded that
there are four common characteristics that a grid must meet to be classified as a microgrid:
• Ability to supply combined electricity and heat.
• Physical proximity between generation and consumption centers.
• Stability in its operation in islanded and grid-connected modes and in the transitions
between them.
• Real-time control and management of power flows.
A microgrid, from the operational point of view, must fulfill two conditions. On the one
hand, any component in the assembly can be critical, i.e., the stability and security of the
grid has to be maintained regardless of the failure of any element of the system. This shows
a similarity with the N-1 safety criterion applicable to the conventional electrical systems.
This first condition means necessarily that each generation/storage unit must have its own
power-frequency controls and its associated protections. On the other hand, within the
microgrid, any two units can be exchangeable without making necessary the redesign of the
grid [9].
The isolated power systems can be considered as a particular case of microgrids, which do
not have the possibility of connection to the mains. These microgrids are known as remote
microgrids.
9
There are unresolved aspects that pose barriers to the bulk introduction of microgrids
in electrical systems. From the technical perspective, those are linked to complex control of
multiple generating sources, detection of abnormal islanding events and the subsequent re-
connection process. In terms of regulations, there are shortcomings in the specific legislation
in a large number of countries, such as Spain. There are difficulties in defining the connec-
tion requirements, who are the agents responsible for the grid management and the trade of
surplus power -if connected to the utility grid - and what will be the suitable remuneration
regime.
2.1.2 Classification
The microgrids can be classified according to several criteria. The most common is to
establish the organization in terms of demand characteristics established by the needs of the
users or according to the market segment, as seen in Fig. 2.2:
Figure 2.2: Classification of microgrids according to the market segment
The institutional microgrids assemble a set of public buildings, and are intended to supply
areas of administrative, medical or educational services. They have a specific design accor-
ding to the required function and are State-owned. This aspect facilitates the technical
10
management of the grid, makes it easily centralized and dependent from a single adminis-
trator in generation and demand. This also happens with economic management, since the
resulting benefits have a direct impact on citizens. A fundamental aspect of their operation
is the need to ensure the continuity of supply especially in buildings, such as, for example,
hospitals.
The industrial or commercial microgrids are, in the essence of their structure, similar to
the institutional, so that in many articles appear as a single group [10, 11, 12]. Technical
management of the grid is more complicated since various stakeholders are involved, for
example, in the case of a commercial complex where there are several types of businesses
with different administration models.
The military microgrids tend to have a strong support of renewable generation sources,
since they are in remote areas and they often operate isolated from the mains. Most of them
are temporary facilities. In these grids the reliability factor is a priority over the quality of
the service.
The community microgrids are intended to supply residential areas. These microgrids
will be an important part of its operation time connected to a larger grid. Being completely
private properties, its development will generally depend on the existence of advantageous
specific legislation for owners. They can serve to palliate congestion problems that exist in
the low- or medium-voltage grids. A planned disconnection of these microgrids from the
utility grid can avoid load shedding in case of an abnormal situation.
And the last group are the remote microgrids, of special interest in this thesis. Its
structure is similar to the community or commercial microgrids. They present the main
difference that unless further developments of the infrastructures, they will never operate
connected to the mains. Compared to the military microgrids, that also operate in islanded
11
mode, the remote microgrids are designed to fulfill additional requirements of reliability,
efficiency and quality of service, because they are intended for permanent installations.
Reduced
Off-grid
energy
2012: (5%, 110 MW)
cost
2020: 16% CAGR
Commercial & Industrial

2012: (25%, 510 MW)
2020: 17% CAGR
Communies & Ulity
2012: (20%, 420 MW)
2020: 12% CAGR
Instuonal & Campus

2012: (42%, 870 MW)
2020: 11% CAGR Military
2012: (9%, 180 MW)
2020: 17% CAGR
Reduced emissions Improved d Power

P
Quality / Reliability
Figure 2.3: Distribution of microgrids due to the market segments [2]
The idea of remote microgrid is not novel itself. Many rural areas had for years a electri-
fication grid that according to the the current standards would come within the definition of
microgrid. It is relatively recent the discovery of the technical and economic advantages they
offer and the establishment of common criteria that are the basis for its development. Com-
pared to very extended models of microgrids, the remote microgrids have a wide progression
ahead.
In the bubble chart in Fig. 2.3 it is observed the current (2012) and planned distribution
(2020) of microgrids according to the segment market. In the figure it can be appreciated
that remote microgrids are the least polluting, by the high proportion of renewable energy
installed, and those which get a cheaper energy supply. At the other end they are the military
microgrids. In them the most important is the security of supply in exchange for high
12
investment costs which would be unacceptable in other contexts. For the remote microgrids
it is expected a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 16% up to 2020. Institutional
and commercial microgrids are the most implemented (almost 70% of them belong to these
two groups). They use a smaller proportion of renewable energy than the community or
remote microgrids, because the security of supply required forces, in some cases, to the use
of back-up diesel units. This reserve of energy required to face up with potential failures of
the microgrid increases the final cost of the installation.
2.2 Remote microgrids with distributed generation
2.2.1 Singularities
Remote microgrids are electrically isolated systems, weak networks that are in geographically
far-off locations -especially on islands or small populations of developing countries-. They
currently remain largely dependent on the use of fossil fuels. Until recently, only diesel
generators were able to ensure a secure and reliable supply in exchange for very high prices
in the transportation of fuel and in the operation of the system. They are in areas of
high ecological interest, which forces to search for the trade-off between energy efficiency
and environmental friendliness. Existing solutions involve a mixed supply, maintaining the
support of conventional generation groups with the advantages provided by RES.
As remote microgrids do not have connection to the mains, the system has to be designed
to autonomously meet the criteria of reliability and quality of service. In addition, a high
percentage of the supply depends on renewable energy, i.e. intermittent energy sources is
necessary to establish new protocols for management of such microgrids. Below, three areas
that make clear the need of operation procedures that gather the incidences derived from
the management of these grids are highlighted:
13
• The reserves managment
• The the security criteria
• The generation and demand forecasting
It becomes clear that the operation is strongly influenced by the impact that contingen-
cies have on the system. This impact is much higher in remote microgrids compared with
interconnected systems, making necessary the establishment of higher reserve levels. The
conventional groups are forced to work below their rated power, leading to cost overruns.
This reserve value tends to be the minimum allowed by the country’s legislation and it is
often insufficient. Due to this, in isolated systems or remote microgrids, it is usual that in
case of an unscheduled failure, load has to be shed in order to retrieve the normal operating
condition.
To emphasize the importance of the need for a proper management of the energy reserves
in an isolated system it is described, as an example, a contingency registered on the Spanish
island of Gran Canaria on November 7, 2006 (Fig. 2.4).

Electricity Demand (MW)
Wind power (MW)
+ 75 MW
- 40 MW
Source: REE
Figure 2.4: Requirements of energy reserves in a remote grid
14
It can be observed that in the period between 16.48h and 18.40h -less than two hours-
there was a simultaneous increase in demand for 75 MW and a sudden decrease of wind
power generation of about 40 MW. The wind power lost had to be compensated by the
reserve planned in the system, assigned to the back-up conventional generation.
In remote microgrids it is difficult to foresee any incidents as they possess a high degree of
uncertainty due to the grid variability of voltage levels. This makes difficult the compliance
regards to security criteria. The lines offer a high impedance which causes a voltage drop
highly dependent on the degree of load, seriously influencing the power quality in the PCC.
In systems that have not yet implemented DG, there is a risk of operation because the
electrical generation is condensed in a few nodes. They are also poorly meshed grids with
low voltage level (< 66kV ). For all the above, in these grids it is usually registered a high
number of breaches of the N-1 safety criteria. As an example, in the Fig. 2.5 data of the
unscheduled events which were recorded during the year 2008 in the Canary Island of La
Palma are shown [13]. The variability in the number of failures that occur in the system is
very high, which complicates the management of the microgrid.
For a proper operation of the remote microgrids it is needed some improvements in the
forecasting systems of the production of the non-dispatchable resources and the demand. It
is also required a good estimation of the ratio between conventional and renewable generation
necessary to ensure stability.
In each graph shown in Fig. 2.6 appears, simultaneously, the value of wind power gene-
rated (in MW) respect to the predicted value by the estimation model and for different time
horizons. The gap between the forecast and the actual generation reaches maximum errors
of up to 80% with 24h in advance.
15
Unscheduled events (2008)
45
40 39
35
30
25
20
15 14
8 9
10
6
5 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
0
Figure 2.5: Number of unscheduled events recorded in La Palma island during 2008.
Real Max. 30.73 MW at 16.00 p.m.

Real Min. 1.13 MW at 10.00 a.m.
Est. Max. 17.78 MW at 13.00 p.m.
Est. Min. 3.56 MW at 1.00 a.m.
(24h before)
Est. Max. 13.87 MW at 15.00 p.m.

(6h before)
Est. Max. 37 MW at 15.00 p.m.

(1h before)
Source: REE
Figure 2.6: Present and expected wind power generation in the isolated system of Gran
Canaria
16
2.2.2 Characterization of disturbances
2.2.2.1 Voltage dips
The contingency that most affects the power quality is the voltage dip since it represents
almost 80% of short-term disturbances in the grid [14].
A voltage dip, as defined in the reference [15], is a sudden decrease in the voltage at a grid
node followed by their subsequent recovery and whose duration is between 10 ms and 1 min.
There are many causes that can lead to the appearance of a voltage dip. These causes are
related to the connection or disconnection of elements in the system, either for operational
reasons or as a result of short-circuits. The remote microgrids are usually reduced power,
nodes are physically close together, connected through very short distribution lines and are
electrically equivalent points. In addition, the relative power of the groups of generation/load
with respect to the total power of the system is important.
These circumstances determine the characteristics that usually present voltage dips in
remote microgrids: they are very deep and their propagation area is very broad. As an
example, in Fig. 2.7a, it is shown the temporal profile of a voltage dip characteristic of those
produced in the distribution grid of 20 kV in El Hierro island. It is noted that the voltage
in several nodes of the grid is almost the same because of the small size of the microgrid.
In addition, in Fig. 2.7b it is displayed the spread of a voltage dip in the isolated electrical
system of Gran Canaria island. Even the latter is a relatively large electrical system within
the remote microgrids, a short circuit at the output of one of the major power plants affects
the entire electrical system (of 66 kV). In these conditions no node is able to stay within the
allowable voltage limits of the system.
17
1.25 MUELLE GRANDE
0. 8
GUIA GUANARTEME
ARUCAS
BUENAVISTA
1 LOMO APOLINARIO
07
0.7
C.T. JINAMAR
BARRANCO SECO
0.75 0.6
Voltage (p.u)
MARZAGAN
SAN MATEO TELDE 0.5

0.5 CINSA
0.4
CARRIZAL
0.25 0.3
0.2
0 ALDEA BLANCA
0 2.5 5 7.5 10
MATORRAL 0.1
Time (s)
C.T. BCO. TIRAJANA
ARGUINEGUIN SAN AGUSTIN 0
LOMO MASPALOMAS
CEMENTOS ESPECIALES
(a) (b)
Figure 2.7: a) Voltage dip in the remote microgrid of El Hierro island; b) Voltage dip spread
in the grid of Gran Canaria island [3]
2.2.2.2 Frequency disturbances
In any electrical system, often frequency disturbances appear as the result of imbalances
between generation and load. The swing equation of the rotor of electrical machines, in
(p.u.) over the base power is shown in Eq. 2.1:
dω
P m − Pe = 2 · H · (2.1)
dt
where
Pm = Sum of the power of the generators (p.u.)
Pe = Sum of the power of the loads (p.u.)
H = Inertia constant (s)
ω = Speed (p.u.)
From the previous equation it follows that the change in the rotational speed of the
generator, and therefore the frequency of the network, is directly proportional to the in-
stantaneous imbalance between generation and demand and inversely proportional to the
sum of the inertia provided by the groups. In the remote microgrids there are mostly diesel
18
groups of low inertia. This means that in case of a disturbance, the frequency deviations are
noticeably greater than those that would occur in an interconnected system.
f (Hz)
50
49.75
49.50
49.25
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 t/s
Source: REE
Figure 2.8: Record of a frequency disturbance in a remote microgrid [4]
Figure 2.8 shows a typical frequency disturbance pattern in a remote microgrid, which
corresponds to an event on the island of Tenerife on April 7, 2011. The trip of one of
the larger generation units caused a sudden drop in frequency. Since the frequency kept
outside of normal operation ranges after an extended time (150 s), the System Operator
shed interruptible load, in order to accelerate grid recovery.
2.2.2.3 Frequency disturbances associated with voltage dips
The changes that happen on the voltage and frequency magnitudes during a disturbance are
not independent from each other.
In interconnected grids a sudden voltage dip creates small frequency deviations. As an
example, in Fig. 2.9 it is displayed the records of main electrical magnitudes in a 400 kV
node of the Spanish grid when a severe fault takes place (a three-phase short circuit).
19
Trip
07/05/2009
22:27:05.253
I/ A K1:Current phase A Baixas K1:K1:Current phase B Baixas K1:Current phase C Baixas
0
-0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
t/s
-10000
U/ V K1:Voltage phase A Baixas K1:Voltage phase B Baixas K1:Voltage phase C Baixas

300000
200000
100000 t/s
-0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
0
-100000
-200000
-300000
I/ A K2:Current phase A Pierola K2:Current phase B Pierola K2:Current phase C Pierola
5000
-0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
t/s
0
-5000
U/ V K2:Voltage phase A Pierola K2:Voltage phase B Pierola K2:Voltage phase C Pierola

300000
200000
100000 t/s
-0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
0
-100000
-200000
-300000
K1:Frequency bar 1A / Hz
50.5
50.0
49.5
-0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
t/s
49.0
Figure 2.9: Record of main electrical magnitudes in a dip in a 400 kV node
The frequency disturbance associated with a harsh voltage dip in the Spanish mainland
grid does not reach the value of 0.1 Hz. Moreover, in Fig. 2.10 it can be observed a voltage
dip recorded in a node of the Spanish nonmainland territory. The fault provokes a very deep
voltage dip (4% of residual voltage) and a frequency change in the node of about 2 Hz. The
comparison of these logs allows to check the statements of the preceding Subsections 2.2.2.1
and 2.2.2.2, i.e., voltage dips are deeper in remote microgrids and frequency deviations are
more pronounced than in interconnected systems.
20
In the interest of this thesis concerns,it has to be highlighted the interdependence between
voltage and frequency which occurs in remote microgrids. This needs the establishment of
devices that can jointly represent both disturbances, such as the one developed in this work.
: -0:00.15
T1 : 0:02.86
T2 TD: 0:03.01 min:seg
51.820
x43 Frec: Ten.UST Bar. A1
49.832
51.816
1.984
Hz
47.571
17184
x6 Ten.URS Bar. A1
14978
15027
48.07
V
3869.9
17165
x6 Ten.UST Bar. A1
14972
15027
54.93
V
3961.9
17140
x6 Ten.UTR Bar. A1
14991
15031
39.83
V
3867.2
Pot Act G11

8783.6
5644.0
--3139.6
KW
Pot React G11
--2448.3
-
-4385.3
-
-1937.0
KVA
-0:00.50 0:00.00 0:00.50 0:01.00 0:01.50 0:02.00 0:02.50 0:03.00 0:03.50 0:04.00 0:04.50 0:05.00 min:seg
Figure 2.10: Record of main electrical magnitudes in a dip in a spanish nonmainland node
2.2.3 Worldwide situation of remote microgrids
The progress in the development of submarine interconnections using HVDC/HVAC links is
making it possible that many of the systems that were remote -islands- have been progres-
sively connected to other grids with similar characteristics or the Mainland. As an example
of the first cases it may be mentioned the North and South islands of New Zealand, Lan-
zarote and Fuerteventura or the main islands of Hawaii. In this sense, there is also projected
21
an interconnection between the islands of Guadeloupe, Martinique and Dominica [16]. As an
example of the second situation, as islands connected to Mainland, it is intended a connec-
tion of the Italian Islands (Island Project) to the continental Italy [17] as it already occurs
in the interconnection of Sri Lanka to India [18].
Also, within this second case, it is important to draw attention to two projects currently
being implemented due to its scale and the technological challenge they pose. The first one
is the Eurasia Interconnector Project, which is developing a link of almost 1000 km long,
with a capacity of 2000 MW, which will join the microgrids of Cyprus and Crete to the
continental territory of Greece and Israel. Its entry into service is scheduled for 2016 [19].
The second project, not yet started, will connect Iceland to the United Kingdom. Iceland
has a very important geothermal, hydraulic and wind potentials, so it is able to generate
nearly five times the energy it consumes at a very low price. The United Kingdom would
take the economic advantage of importing cheap energy from Iceland and, consequently, it
would not need to expand its offshore wind generation capacity [20].
For other remote microgrids their interconnection cannot be planned either because of the
high cost of the construction of the link (not affordable for the remote places in developing
countries) or because of the geographical location. This occurs, for example, in the Canary
Islands: the distance between the islands and the Mainland and the depth of ocean floor do
not make viable the efficient connection at an affordable cost. As solutions for the future,
although unlikely, have been raised inter-connections of islands by means of offshore wind
farms with HVDC links [21]. In this type of grids, without the possibility of later connection,
it is essential the development of codes to allow the replacement of the current energy model
for another, based on RES. It is also in this type of systems in which the work developed in
this thesis is focused.
22
2.3 Regulations applicable to distributed generation
sources connected to electrical systems. Grid codes
2.3.1 Introduction
The increasing integration of non-conventional sources in power systems -mainly wind power
- has forced the transmission and distribution system operators (TSOs and DSOs) to update
and redesign its grid codes. The grid codes are, essentially, sets of rules governing the
connection and behavior that must meet the generators connected in electrical systems. The
regulations are different in each country and the corresponding operator is responsible for
the establishment of such conditions and verification of compliance.
The grid codes take as a reference the electrical characteristics and the design of the
network itself. Their degree of demand is directly linked to the unmanageable power present
in the system and the expected penetration rate. With the new policy it is pursued, as an
end goal, to equate the behavior of renewable generation to the conventional groups already
in service, and to ensure that the replacement of generation units in the system by others,
means no additional risks in reliability.
There is a close relationship between standards, and the consequences they establish for
manufacturers. The graphical summary of this idea can be seen in Fig. 2.11.
Increasing demands on the grid codes requires manufacturers to make improvements
on their devices, thus resulting in an evolution of technology generation system and con-
trol drives. With these improvements, an effective contribution to the maintenance of the
equipment in the network is achieved and the inclusion of new sources of non-conventional
generation is favored.
23
Higher
requirements
in grid codes
Renewable
Technology
energy
evoluon
increase
Figure 2.11: Consequences of the use of grid codes in electrical systems
2.3.2 Grid codes structure
All grid codes are structured in a similar way. In them it can be found three groups of
standards, according to the aspects they regulate [22]:
• Connection requirements: These standards establish the conditions and connection
procedures for generators and consumers.
• Operation and safety procedures: These standards fix the action schemes for the elec-
trical system in normal operation and emergency (disconnection of generators, load
shedding plans, etc.). In addition, the regulation and managment of energy reserves is
included.
• Regulation of the electricity market: They settle the mechanisms of the day-ahead,
intraday and balancing electricity markets, as well as the conditions to access to the
market.
The distinction between the first two groups of standards, which have the most technical
characteristics and are interrelated, is difficult in many regulations. For example, in the
24
Spanish case, all regulations are gathered in the so-called “Operation procedures”, that
include the norms of the three previous groups.
In every country, the regulation framework is particular, complex and changing. In some
cases, the corresponding grid code is equally applicable to the whole generation, as it happens
in India [23]. In others, it is only defined the required response to the wind installations, as
in the P.O.12.3 [15] in Spain, in China [24] o in the procedure still in draft in India [25]. The
German code [26] distinguishes between synchronous generators and the other technologies
that do not employ a synchronous generator directly coupled to the grid. In the same way,
it will be done in the draft Spanish code P.O.12.2 [27]. The code P.O.12.2 includes other
generation sources such as photovoltaics, whenever they are connected to the transport grid,
or to the distribution grids if they are greater than 10 MW. In other relevant grid codes,
such as the Danish, the requirements are different not only in terms of the technology used,
but also depending on the voltage level and the power of the generating plant [28, 29, 30].
2.3.3 Requirements in grid codes. Basic concepts.
This section addresses the general aspects that relate the requirements in grid codes. These
criteria establish the disturbances that the developed test equipment must be able to repro-
duce accurately. Therefore they have been left out of the analysis the obligations of active
or reactive power contribution from generators and, in general, all aspects that depend on
the generator control.
- Requirements facing voltage disturbances
For the proper functioning of the electrical system with DG, system operators (SOs)
must keep the voltage levels within acceptable limits under normal operating conditions in
all grid nodes. Moreover, the generation groups are responsible for helping SOs to meet those
25
requirements, staying connected if unusual circumstances in the system (failures that can
cause voltage dips and over/under voltages) and restoring its previous operating condition
as quickly as possible after clearance of the fault. The standard IEEE Std. 1159-1995
[31] establishes the classification of voltage disturbances that can occur in a power system
by magnitude and duration, as shown in Fig. 2.12. The voltage dip -as defined in [15]-
and voltage sag terms are usually used interchangeably [31, 32, 33]. They will also be
equivalent along this thesis. Care must be taken because in some contexts, sag and dip refer,
respectively, to the voltage drop or the remaining voltage after the fault according to the
pre-fault value [34].
Figure 2.12: Classification of voltage disturbances according to IEEE Std. 1159-1995
Usually, the voltage ride-through requirements (VRT) are defined as patterns, which
relate the admissible voltage levels and the associated duration times. In Fig.2.13 it can be
observed the two types of existing profiles in the codes:
1. - Rectangular profiles: they are set according to the tripping steps of the protection
systems.
26
Figure 2.13: Profile types of voltage dips. a) Rectangular profile. b) Profiles with recovery
ramp
2. - Profiles with recovery ramp: they represent the most severe envelopes obtained by
statistical analysis of the grid failures.
For over/undervoltage and transient overvoltage situations (voltage swells), the require-
ments are always fixed with reference to the different steps and times set for protection
systems.
- Requirements facing frequency disturbances
The frequency of the system is an indicator of the degree of stability, since any instan-
taneous imbalance between the generation and the demand results in a variation of this
magnitude. Furthermore, it is directly related to the obligations of active power input to
the control systems of generation. The amplitude and period of the frequency oscillations
depends on the characteristics of loads connected and the transient response of the gener-
ation groups regulators. Both conventional and renewable generation sources must be able
to stay connected and in operation if disturbances in steady-state or transient regime do
appear. In some regulations, additional rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) requirements
are requested to the groups.
27
- Requirements facing phase shifts
The phase shifts naturally happen in electrical power systems after a fault in the grid
and as a result of a change in the impedance of the equivalent circuit. A phase jump is
a displacement that occur in a voltage wave with respect to a reference that has the same
frequency and harmonic content which is usually the voltage existing in the PCC prior to
disturbance. The phase shift requirements are very specific and are only included in the
most advanced grid codes.
2.3.4 Codes review
In this section several grid codes are analyzed. Firstly, an analysis of the grid codes applicable
to interconnected electrical systems will be made, since they are the most complete and point
the way to future developments in regulations. Later, the inquiry will focus on the codes in
use nowdays in remote microgrids. They are, in number, much smaller. This is due to the
fact that small-sized electrical systems located, sometimes, in developing countries, have not
specific regulations or the reduced number of renewable energy sources installed does not
justify the creation of a code that regulates its integration into the electrical system.
2.3.4.1 Grid codes of interconnected systems
2.3.4.1.1 Introduction
In the review of the literature relevant to the interconnected systems, the grid codes con-
sidered have been those in countries with more wind power installed by the end of 2012 (by
order: China = 75.324 MW; E.E.U.U. = 60.007 MW; Germany = 31.315 MW and India =
18.421 MW) [35]. For the United States it has been selected the code of the North Amer-
ican Electrical Reliability Corporation (NERC) [36]. NERC brings together the users and
operators not only of virtually the whole of the country, but also Canada and a small part
28
of the North of Mexico. For Spain, which remains by its wind power installed in 4th position
worldwide (22.796 MW) has been compared the existing legislation P.O.12.3 [15] and the one
pending approval P.O.12.2. [27]. Eventually, it has been considered of interest the inclusion
of the Danish code. Denmark’s installed wind power is greater in comparison with the total
system generating capacity (30% over the total, 4162 MW is wind power [35]).
2.3.4.1.2 Voltage requirements
- Voltage ride-through requirements (VRT)
In Fig.2.14 it is shown the voltage dip profiles required in the main international codes.
Voltage_RMS (p.u.)
Time (s)
Voltage_RMS (p.u.)
Time (s)
P.O.12.2 Spain China India Denmark
P.O.12.3 Spain USA_NERC Germany
Figure 2.14: Voltage dip profiles required in main international codes
29
Only some regulations include the zero ride-through (ZRT) requirement. Sources co-
nnected through electronic converters are less able to contribute to the short circuit current
compared to conventional units. This causes a more severe requirement regarding the mi-
nimum depth of the voltage dip appearing in electrical systems when conventional sources
are massively replaced by other technologies. To validate this statement it is compared the
current and proposed profiles for the Spanish Peninsular territory which are represented in
Fig. 2.14:
1. The P.O.12.3 came into operation in the year 2006. The profile was the envelope of
voltage dips of a system with a total installed capacity of 83.198 MW. The 13.9%
corresponded to wind power generation [37, 38]. The depth of the voltage dip was set
for the given circumstances in 20% (0.2 p.u.).
2. The profile of the draft PO12.2 was proposed for the new situation in Spain, which in
the late 2012 had an installed capacity of 107,615 MW. Out of these, 25% corresponded
to technologies that do not use a synchronous generator directly connected to the grid
(22.785 MW of wind power and 4.298 MW of photovoltaic solar energy [39]). The
forecasts of the Government set the growth of these energies as values to be reached
the 35,000 MW of wind power and 7.250 MW of photovoltaic solar energy in 2020 [40].
According to this scenario the profile has been modified to include a ZRT requirement
of 150 ms.
- Over/undervoltage and voltage swells
For the other over/undervoltage and voltage swells, depending on their magnitude and
duration and corresponding to the standard IEEE Std. 1159-1995 (Fig. 2.12) the require-
ments are displayed in Fig. 2.15.
30
Dra P.O.12.2- Spain P.O.12.3 - Spain Germany USA_NERC Denmark China India
P > 11 kW y P < 25 kW P > 25 kW y P < 25 MW P > 25 MW
1,2
200 ms <100 ms
1,175 Defined in figures 8.2.1.b
500 ms <100 ms
1,15
2s
1h
1s
1,115 30 min* 100 ms
1,1
200 ms
1,07 60 s 60 s
1,06 60 s
Not defined Always Always if

1
U<400kV.
Always Always Always If U =400kV,
0,97
Always Umax= 1.05.p.u.
0,95
0,9 1s 10 s - 60 s
3h
0,875
30 min *Depending on system frequency up to 30 min
0,85
Figure 2.15: Over/undervoltage and voltage swells requirements in main interconnected grid
codes
2.3.4.1.3 Frequency requirements
- Allowable frequency ranges
In Fig. 2.16 it is shown the conditions required to generation sources in several grid
generation codes to remain connected when frequencies outside the normal operating limits
appear in the system.
- ROCOF requirements
In some grid codes the generators are required to remain connected to the mains not
only when the frequency is outside normal ranges for a given time but also when facing to
ROCOF events. Thus it occurs, for example, with the new P.O.12.2.It will oblige the plants
with synchronous generators not directly connected to the grid to withstand variations in
the frequency for up to ±2Hz/s without disconnection. The Danish legislation sets a higher
value of ±2.5Hz/s but only for those wind farms with a rated power between 11 kW and 25
kW. The current code in India [23] makes no reference to this requirement, but nevertheless,
31
Dra P.O.12.2- Spain P.O.12.3 - Spain Germany USA_NERC Dermark China India
Eastern Western Quebec Ercot
66
5s
63
62,5
62
61,8 90 s
30 s
61,7 30 s
61,6
61,5 180 s 540 s
660 s
61
60,6
60,5
60 Always Always Always Always
59,5
59,4
59
180 s 660 s 540 s
58,5
58,4 30 s
30 s
58
90 s
57,8 2s
7,5 s
57,5
57,3
0,75 s 2s
57
56,5
0,35 s
55,5
53
52,5 f > 52 Hz - 200 ms
52
51,5 2 min
51 Not defined.
0.85 p.u. < U < 0,875 p.u. - 30 m
30 min
50,5
50,3
0,875 p.u. < U < 0,9 p.u. - 3 h P.O.1.6 establishes Always
50
the disconnecon Always
49,5 Always Always
49,2 0,9 p.u. < U < 1.115 p.u. - Siempre condion if frequency
49 drops to 48 Hz for 3s.
1.115 p.u. < U < 1.5 p.u. - 1 h
48,5 30 min
48 20 min 10 min
47,5 10 min
47
f < 47 Hz - 200 ms
Figure 2.16: Operating frequency ranges
wind farms will be asked to support ROCOF events when it the new regulation currently in
draft [25] enters into force.
2.3.4.1.4 Phase shift
The most advanced code up to the date, the Danish, is the only one that includes the
requirement of withstanding with an instantaneous 20o phase shift. The P.O. 12.2 will be
even more strict, establishing a phase shift criterion of up to 30o . Note also that in this
code, the requirement for the DG is more severe than for conventional generators, which are
forced to remain connected to phase jumps of 20o and only occasionally to 30o , as a result
of transport lines switches closures.
32
2.3.4.2 Grid codes of remote microgrids
The current regulations in remote microgrids are scattered and incomplete. It has been
identified two countries which host a significant number of isolated grids in their electrical
system, Spain and France. This has forced them to develop specific grid codes for these
remote microgrids.
In the island territories of Spain, very small systems can be identified as, for example, El
Hierro island with just 11.180 MW [41]. In the nonmainland territories of France some islands
have installed capacities between 27 MW and 435 MW -Córcega, Guadaloupe, Martinica,
Reunión, St. Pierre et Miquelon y St. Martin & St. Barthelemy- [42].
In all these remote microgrids it is essential to maintain a high proportion of conventional
generation to ensure security. The French SO can order the shedding of RES when they reach
a 30% instant penetration[43]. Under Spanish law the limit depends on each territory, but in
no case may exceed 40% of the instantaneous production [44]. By the year 2015 in Canary
islands it is expected a rate of renewable energy penetration both in peak and off-peak hours
that can reach 100% of demand [45] and that will oblige, either a search of efficient storage
solutions, or significant wind energy spills.
2.3.4.2.2 Major international codes applicable to remote systems
- Voltage ride-through
Figure 2.17 shows different profiles of voltage ride-through required by the different SOs
of the aforementioned power systems. In the upper and lower part of the figure it is distin-
guished depending on the size of the grid between systems up to and below 50 MW.
33
Figure 2.17: a) Voltage dip profiles for microgrids up to 50M W . b) Voltage dip profiles for
microgrids above 50M W
In general it can be concluded that the voltage dip profiles are demanding as smaller
the size of the microgrid is since virtually all include the ZRT capability. In contrast, the
interconnected systems only have to withstand a zero voltage dip in those systems with a
higher proportion of wind power installed, such as us (NERC), Germany or Spain (P.O.12.2).
In the EDF-SEI code in service, the required voltage dip depth is 0.05 p.u. [46]. To allow
for the increase of RES, it is in process a modification of the profile for future regulations
requiring the VRT with a depth of 0.01 p.u [47]. It is also expected the next approval
34
of a new profile in an amendment to the standard IEEE P1547 (IEEE P1547a/D2). In the
P.O.12.2-SEIE, applied to the Spanish Canary islands, it is demanded a pattern of 0 p.u. and
lasting 500 ms. For the rest of the island territories, the profile is the same as in Mainland.
- Overvoltage/Undervoltage/Voltage swell
Ranges of operation at over/undervoltage regimes required on remote microgrids are
shown in Fig. 2.18. The wider operation limits applicable to an interconnected system are
collected in the new Spanish procedure P.O.12.2. According to this standard, the generating
source must remain connected during 30 min when the voltage level drops to 0.8 p. u. and
50 ms if the voltage is maintained at 1.20 p.u. Up to 1.40 p.u. during 1s is required for the
Puerto Rico island. It can be observed that, in general, the required operating limits are
greater in nonmainland territories.
EDF- SEI Spain - SEIE IEEE P1547 Hawaii - HECO Iceland Cyprus Jamaica PREPA NZ_North NZ-South
1.4 P< 100 kVA P>100 kVA

1.25
1.23 1s
1.21
1.2 5s U=1.23-0.125t
1.18 Instantaneous trip U=1.21-0.167t
0.16 s
1.175 2s
1s
1.16
1.15 0.4 s
1s 0.2 s
1.115 3s
1.1 Inst.Trip 1.5 s
1.07 Always
1.06 60 min
1.05
Always Always
1 Always Always
UNE 50160 Always
0.97 Always Always
Always Always
0.95
0.9
0.875
60 min
0.85 60 s
Voltage dip
0.8 Instantaneous trip Voltage dip
Voltage dip 5s
Figure 2.18: Over/Undervoltage requirements in remote microgrids
- Frequency requirements
Figure 2.19 shows the different bands of frequency operation due to different SOs req-
uisites. In some countries it is appreciable the variations in frequency that must withstand
35
the generators in steady-state regime. This is the case, for example, of the South Island of
New Zealand, where the steady-state frequency may vary up to 8 Hz.
EDF- SEI Spain - SEIE NZ - North NZ - South Jamaica Iceland Cyprus IEEE 1547 IEEE 1547a Hawaii - HECO PREPA
55
53 P ≤ 30 kW P > 30 kW
52.5
5s
52 63
3 min
51.5 Abnormal 62.5
51 (P condions) 60 min 62 0.16 s 6s
30 s
50.5 61.5
30 min
50.3 61 20 s
50 Always A Always 60.5 0.16 s 0.16 s
Always * Always Always l
49.5 60
***Always Always
49.2 59.8 Always Always
49 Abnormal 59.5 Always
Always
48.5 (P condions) 60 min 59.3 0.16 s Adjustable
48 30 min 59 0.16 s to
20 s
47.5 **120 s 58.5 300 s
47.3 3 min 3s **20 s 5s 58
47.1 **5 s ** Intermediate values 57.5
0.16 s 0.16 s 10 s
47 60 s **0.1 s obtained by interpolaon 57
46 0.4 s 30 s ***If 0.9 <U<1.05 56.5
6s
45 *49.85 Hz <f< 50.15 Hz --Always If 0.85 <U<0.9 --- t= 60 min 56
49.75 Hz <f< 50.25 Hz -- t<5min If 1.05 <U<1.10 ---t= 60 min Instantaneous trip
Figure 2.19: Frequency requirements
- Derivatives of frequency
The requirement for generation sources to remain connected under derivatives of fre-
quency is not common to all analyzed codes, but it is reflected in some of them. For example,
ROCOF requirements up to 0.37 Hz/s in Hawaii, 0.75 Hz/s in New Zealand, and up to 1.3
Hz/s in Cyprus are obliged.
2.3.4.3 Towards harmonized standards
The dependence of the legislation in each country forces to manufacturers to certify their
equipment according to every grid code of the territories in which their products are installed.
36
That is why it seems more necessary to harmonize the different regulations. The creation
of a common European code will increase the levels of security and the stability in the grid
and will facilitate the insertion of new RES in the system.
2.3.4.3.2 ENTSO-E grid code
The European Network of Transmission System Operators (ENTSO-E) brings together the
technical operators of the European electrical systems and it is responsible for both coordi-
nation between different TSOs and control of energy exchanges through European borders.
This organization, in collaboration with the Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Reg-
ulators (ACER) and the operators of the electricity markets, have been working on the
development of a joint code [48].
By means of adopting a common grid code among the members of the European Union
it is intended to achieve several benefits [49]:
• To assure a few requirements that must be specified in all the codes of the member
states.
• To unify terminology, parameters and conditions between the different grid codes.
• To establish compliance obligations and exceptions equal to all European countries.
In the section on Requirements for Grid connection (NC RfG) the new pan-european
code defines what are called “not exhaustive requirements”. Not exhaustive requirements
flexible operating limits that each national TSO must adapt and supplement. The ENTSO-E
grid code will prevail over the national regulations and it will be only applicable to the new
generators that want to get connected to the European transport system. The obligation of
compliance or not by the existing wind power plants will depend on each national TSO.
37
The code is complex, and consists of several regulations that will be adopted with a
temporal sequence still not defined, so the final schedule is not fixed. It is expected the NC
RfG entry into force throughout 2015. Since then, there will be a three-year period for the
adaptation of the national codes to the new common framework.
2.3.4.3.3 Highlights of ENTSO-E grid code
It table 2.1 the classification of power plants, named Power Generation Modules (PGMs), in
four categories according to the ENTSO-E code is shown. PGMs go from A to D taking into
account several factors like power installation, location and the generation technology -power
plants with conventional synchronous generators (SPGMs) or power plants with generators
connected to the grid through electronic converters (PPMs).
Synchronous area Maximum capacity Maximum capacity Maximum capacity

threshold from which threshold from which threshold from which
which on a PGM which on a PGM which on a PGM
is of Type B is of Type C is of Type D
Continental Europe 1 MW 50 MW 75 MW
Nordic 1.5 MW 10 MW 30 MW
Great Britain 1 MW 10 MW 30 MW
Ireland 0.1 MW 5 MW 10 MW
Baltic 0.5 MW 10 MW 15 MW
Table 2.1: PGM installed capacity limits according to ENTSO-E regions [1]
It can also be noticed how the requirements increase when the installation power incre-
ments. The PGMs type A, with a power over 0.8 kW, must remain connected within the
normal operating limits of voltage and frequency in steady state. For the D-type, it is also
demanded controls over active and reactive power, response against disturbances, etc., as
the loss of a PGM would be a potential risk for grid security.
38
The following paragraphs show the margin requirements that establish the limits inside
every TSO must define the voltage and frequency requirements.
- Requirements related to voltage disturbances
As one of the not exhaustive requirements, it is defined a feasible region of operating
RMS voltage-time, in which each SO must fix its own profile according to the particular
conditions of its power system. The maximum and minimum limits to frame the profiles,
depending on the technology and the power of the plant are depicted in Fig. 2.20:
Figure 2.20: Voltage dip profiles in ENTSO-E code. a) SPGMs type B and C; b) PPMs
type B and C; c) SPGMs type D; d) PPM type D
For the PGMs type A and B it is not specified normal operating ranges against voltage
variations. These limits will be set directly by the grid aggregator and for type C, the levels
shall be fixed by agreement between the grid aggregator and the national SO. As an example,
allowable ranges for voltages in type D PGMs are shown in tab.2.2:
39
Synchronous area Voltage Range Time period
for operation
0.85 p.u. — 0.9 p.u. 60 min
0.9 p.u. — 1.118 p.u. Unlimited
Continental Europe 1.118 p.u. — 1.15 p.u. To be decided by
each TSO while respecting
the provisions of Art. 4(3)
but not less than 20 min
a)
Synchronous area Voltage Range Time period
for operation
0.85 p.u. — 0.9 p.u. 60 min
0.9 p.u. — 1.05 p.u. Unlimited
Continental Europe 1.05 p.u. — 1.0876 p.u. To be decided by
1.0875 p.u. — 1.10 p.u. 60 min
b)
Table 2.2: Operating ranges of voltages. a) Voltages from 110 kV to 300 kV. b) Voltages
from 300 kV to 400 kV
- Requirements facing to frequency disturbances
In Table 2.3 the minimum times that the PGMs must remain connected depending on
the frequency in the continental region are collected:
It can be seen that the code only establishes the minimum times of operation at several
frequencies in which the system should continue working. It is required a continuous oper-
ation of the wind farm for frequencies between 49 Hz to 51 Hz and they have to withstand
during 30 min for an overfrequency of up to 51.5 Hz before disconnection. According to
the location, these requirements will be different. It remains for the Regulatory Authorities
the responsibility for setting the bottom time limits for unassigned frequency steps. These
values must be labeled with sufficient time prior to the entry into force of the code to make
the necessary investments in order to ensure the system reliability.
40
Synchronous area Frequency range Time period for operation
47.5 Hz — 48.5 Hz To be decided by
Continental Europe 48.5 Hz — 49.0 Hz To be decided by
but not less than the
period for 47.5 Hz — 48.5 Hz
49.0 Hz — 51.0 Hz Unlimited
51.0 Hz — 51.5 Hz 30 min
Table 2.3: PGMs frequency requirements
It is also a condition in the code for the generators to stay connected and operating when
facing frequency ramps. It is the responsibility of the National Operator the setting of the
limit values.
2.3.4.3.4 ENTSO-E and remote microgrids
According to the European directive 2009/72/EC a small isolated network had a power con-
sumption of less than 3000 GWh in the year 1996 and obtained by means of interconnections,
less than 5% of annual consumption [50].
There are various European territories that meet the characteristics of isolated systems
such as the Canary Islands, Cyprus, Malta, Madeira or the Aland Islands. ENTSO-E code
aims at the harmonization of the grid codes for the future construction of a unified European
electrical system. The isolated power systems would presuppose a very small impact on the
global system (if they could lately be connected to the Mainland) or no impact if they would
keep isolated because of geographical circumstances. In either case, the effects of electrical
systems will be minimal and it is excluded in this initial version of the ENTSO-E code.
41
Nevertheless the importance of the harmonization between the different territories has
forced the creation of a group within the structure of ENTSO-E, focused on isolated systems:
the Regional Voluntary Group Isolated Systems (VRG IS). It is composed by four large
European operators: REE (Spain), Terna (Italy), Landsnet (Iceland) and CTSO (Cyprus).
Its mission is to ensure the proper management and operation of the isolated power systems
and the provision of its expertise in the development and updating of the grid codes. The
experience provided by the VRG IS is expected to be included in future versions of the
code. This is also intended to also advance the harmonization status in grid codes applied
to isolated systems [51].
2.4 Grid disturbances generators to test electrical de-
vices
In Subsection 2.2.2.1 the differential characteristics have been described that define the
disturbances that appear in remote microgrids respect to other electrical power systems of
larger size and strongly meshed. It is essential to have devices to test and predict the behavior
of the generating plants against combined voltage and frequency disturbances. This will be
needed to certify its operation in accordance with the requirements set by the relevant SO
before being installed.
The aspects related to the certification of distributed generation sources have been
broadly addressed in the scientific sphere, where many examples of technical papers on
this topic can be found.
Most of the papers and patents found in literature search raise the physical constitution
and the development of equipment that exclusively generate voltage dips. Only some of the
latest devices allows the reproduction of more than one disturbance type. The development
42
validation and certification devices have always been closely linked to the evolution of the
requirements demanded by the grid codes. Voltage dips are the most severe disturbances
that can occur in the system. In the past they were responsible for massive disconnection
of wind power plants. Hence the SOs modified the grid codes to establish new requirements
for the response of the wind generation plants when facing voltage dips.
This section is a review of the current state of the art in the existing solutions for
certification of DG sources. Three are the common topologies of voltage dip generators:
those based on impedance, those using an electric machine, static (transformer) or rotating
and those which use electronic converters.
2.4.1 Impedance-based
The insertion of a ground impedance allows an alternative path to the current and generates a
voltage variation on the point of common coupling (PCC).These generators are the simplest
and, therefore, they are widely used. The adjustment by using electronic devices of the
impedance value, determines the voltage dip depth in the experiment. They are easily
scalable up to the usual power of the devices to be tested. By using a precise control over
the electromechanical or static contactors, they can generate single-phase, two-phase and
three-phase voltage dips. In [52] it is displayed the most common setup of this voltage dip
generator type that schematically can be seen in Fig. 2.21. In [53] the impedances are the
ones of a transformer, but the equipment maintains the usual T-configuration. Because of
this, it has been considered as belonging to the first group.
In Spain, this voltage dip configuration is recommended by the Asociación Empresarial
Eólica (AEE) in their document titled “Procedimientos de verificación, validación y certi-
ficación de los requisitos del P.O.12.3 sobre la respuesta de las instalaciones eólicas y foto-
43
Zs
EUT
Grid
Zg
Figure 2.21: Impedance-based voltage dip generator
voltaicas ante huecos de tensión” [54] for testing wind turbines. In [55] it is specified for
this topology that if the short-circuit power in the PCC is less than five times the rated
power of the EUT, there are effects in the dynamic response of the device due to the series
impedance. This is its main drawback and therefore the operation code of the AEE requires
the adjustment of the certification equipment at no-load or loaded according to relationship
between the PCC and the EUT powers.
2.4.2 Electrical machines based
This voltage dip generator type uses as main element an electric machine, either static or
rotating. There has only been found two references [56, 57] in which voltage dip generators
with synchronous machines, which reproduce the voltage dip profile by modification of the
excitation voltage are mentioned. The implementation at a larger scale of voltage dip gene-
rators with synchronous machine involves a very high cost and, as a consequence, it has not
been a widespread topology.
Most of voltage dip generators based on electrical machine use a transformer in combi-
nation with any kind of electronic switches (SCRs or IGBTs) [58, 59] as observed in Fig.
2.22.
44
Stac switches
EUT
Tapped transformer
Grid
Figure 2.22: Transformer-based voltage dip generator
These systems are easy to scale, because the component elements exist commercially
up to the required levels of voltage and power to test the available wind turbines. Its
main disadvantage is that the voltage dip depth is fixed by the value of the transformers
inductance. It is common to install tapped transformers, which allow the testing of various
voltage dip patterns. Within this topology it is convenient to emphasize the model proposed
in cite [60, 61]. In it, the authors described a voltage dip generator oriented to microgrids.
Through simulation, it is checked the analysis of the interaction between a conventional
voltage dip generator based on transformers and the SCRs with the SCRs of the microswitch
that connects the microgrid to the mains. Reference [62] shows a device consisting of a tapped
transformer with also tapped inductances, so both voltage dips and phase jumps disturbances
are defined in various steps depending on the number of connected inductances. This device
is versatile, and it allows to testing in high voltage and power of the EUT up to 10 MW. It
reproduces voltage sags, frequency disturbances and phase jumps, but never simultaneously.
It is perhaps the device found throughout the literature revision that better approaches to
the objectives defined for this thesis device.
2.4.3 Full-converter based
This is up to the present the type on which has been done a greater number of developments
[63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68] The scheme of a device with this topology can be seen in Fig.
45
2.23. It has two back to back converters between the grid and the EUT which permits a
complete control over the dip to be generated. However, the full-converter based voltage
disturbances generators distort the wave and the devices are more expensive than the other
classes abovementioned. The electronic components themselves have a high price and they
also require a complex control system. Therefore, the implementation of such equipment
remains in low voltage levels, and there are no commercial devices based on this technology.
EUT
Figure 2.23: Voltage dip generator based on full power converter
2.4.4 Comparative between commercial topologies and the pro-
posed device
The prototype developed in this thesis fits into the second class (voltage dip generators
with electrical machines), but it is based on an induction regulator and is the only one that
uses this type of machine. By making the voltage changes through an induction regulator,
continuous adjustment is achieved. This gives the device the possibility of reproducing
any profile, any depth and any recovery ramp settled with independence of the grid code,
eliminating the main disadvantage linked to disturbances generators based on transformers.
It is also the first device whose design has been specifically oriented to be used in the
certification of equipment before its connection to remote microgrids. The use of a second
electric machine in cascade allows simultaneous reproduction of more than one disturbance.
In remote microgrids, as described in Subsection 2.2.2.3, disturbances are characterized by
46
synchronous changes in voltage, frequency and phase. As the device can synchronously
reproduce all these disturbances, and no other commercial equipment with this characteristic
has been found, it is specially suitable to emulate the real behavior of remote microgrids and,
therefore, to test devices before its connection to such grids.
2.5 Conclusions
In this chapter three main points of interest have been analyzed in regard to this thesis. The
progressive integration of DG in power systems has led to two main consequences, addressed
in the first two parts of the chapter. On one hand, the evolution of the topology of power
systems, from large electric systems interconnected to smaller, decentralized systems, which
can operate in isolated or grid-connected mode, called microgrids. On the other hand,
increased requirements in the grid codes, derived from the replacement of the conventional
groups by intermittent generation. In particular, the microgrid is a very suitable structure
for isolated areas (such as islands or populations of developing countries). But in dealing
with especially weak grids, there are also greater requirements on the grid codes for remote
microgrids. The need to certify DG sources before its insertion into the power systems has
led to the search of different technological solutions, collected in the third part of the chapter.
47
48
Chapter 3
General description and operating
model of the voltage disturbances
generator prototype
3.1 General description of the device
The device proposed along this dissertation is mainly composed by two electrical wound
rotor machines, their associated electrical drives, the set of electromagnetic contactors and
the control & monitoring system. The two major advantages of this equipment are the
absence of electronic power components (so there is no additional distortion of the voltage
waveform) and its capacity to reproduce any voltage dip profile existing in the grid codes,
including their recovery ramps.
A general scheme of the device is displayed in figure 3.1.
The voltage disturbances prototype is located between the undisturbed grid (input of
contactor KM1) and the EUT (output of contactor KM7). Throughout this section, the
operational information, the control system description and the mathematical models for
static and dynamic regimes are gathered.

Wind turbine
Electrical grid
1 3 5 1 3 5
1 3 5 1 3 5
K1 KM7 K1
KM1 2 4 6 2 4 6
2 4 6 2 4 6
KM4 KM6 – KMT1

K1
K1
5
6
1 2 1 2
3
4
3 4 3 4
1
5 6 5 6
1 3 5
1 3 5
1 3 5
KM5 K1
1 3 5 2 4 6
KM2 K1 2 4 6
2 4 6 KM3
K1
2 4 6
5
1 2
3
3 4
1
5 6
MAGNITUDE
ω (EM2)
ROTOR
STATOR
ROTOR STATOR α
FREQUENCY Rlim KMT2
K1
PHASE
5
1 2
(EM1)
3
3 4
1
5 6
KMT3 KMT4 Rcc

K1
K1
6
5
1 2 1 2
3
4
3
3 4 3 4
1
2
1
5 6 5 6
Figure 3.1: General scheme of the device
50
3.1.1 The electrical machines
3.1.1.1 Variable frequency transformer (VFT)
Identified as EM1 in Fig. 3.1, this machine is powered by the mains with a voltage of a
settled frequency. The output is connected to the PCC of EM2, as presented in Fig. 3.2.
The variable frequency transformer it is a relative new electrical machine. The first one in
service started its operation in 2004 to interconnect the USA and Canadian power systems,
with different frequencies [69, 70]. By means of a continuous and controlled phase shift, the
VFT can regulate the power flows between asynchronous grids.
Even if EM1 has the same design that a regular VFT, in the voltage disturbances genera-
tor it has two other functions not directly related with the power flow control. The first one
is to modify the frequency of the input voltage and the second is to set up an initial phase
to obtain the controlled phase jump. The modifications of the frequency and the phase are
achieved through the control system, which adjusts the initial angle between the rotor and
the stator axis as well as the rotational speed.
3.1.1.2 The induction regulator
The induction regulator, identified as EM2 in Fig. 3.1 is the electrical machine responsible
for creating voltage magnitude disturbances. Because of the importance that voltage dips
have in power systems, justified in Subsection 2.2.2.1, the production of voltage dips will
be the main task of the voltage disturbances generator and in which primarily will focus
subsequent design targets.
The induction regulator is constructed like a wound rotor induction machine. Due to this,
it is an economical, robust and easily scalable device. Despite these advantages, it has never
been a industrially relevant machine. In its nascency, at the first half of the 20th century, it
51
Ug EM2 Ui
ω Ur Us
WOUND ROTOR
INDUCTION MACHINE
Figure 3.2: Single-phase scheme of the wound rotor induction machine connection
was used to control voltages in railway traction, but the development of tapped transformers
definitely relegated it to the background [71, 72]. With this dissertation it is intended to
recover the induction regulator as a suitable machine with a commercial purpose.
EM2 is placed between the grid and the EUT. The grid can be directly the PCC of the
distribution network or the output of the machine responsible of the frequency and phase
changes, located upstream. To use the induction regulator in this device, windings have to
be connected in parallel and to the PCC, as observed in Fig. 3.3. The rotor is also linked
to a servo motor controlled by a servo drive. The servo drive takes action over the relative
angle position between the windings (α). Voltage applied to the EUT is always the difference
of rotor voltage phasor (U r ), which is equal to the input voltage (U i ), and stator voltage
phasor (U s ). Equation 3.1 shows this relationship.
Uo = Ur − Us (3.1)
52
Us
Ui EUT Uo
Ur
α
INDUCTION REGULATOR
Figure 3.3: Single-phase scheme of the induction regulator connection
With the use of an induction regulator can be achieved a simple buck-boost voltage
device. A graphical image of the machine phasor diagram is represented in Fig. 3.4 for two
shaft angles. It can be observed that depending on the physical position, it is obtained a
different output voltage in both magnitude and angle [73].
Using the Law of Cosines applied to the phasor diagram it can be easily deduced the Eq.
3.2:
Uo2 = Ur2 + Us2 − 2 · Ur · Us · cos (α) (3.2)
Magnitudes of rotor and stator voltages are related through the module of the transfor-
mation ratio, expressed in terms of the number of phases in rotor (mr ) and stator (ms ) and
the corresponding effective turns en each winding (kws · Ns for the stator and kwr · Nr for
the rotor), as shown in Eq. 3.3:
Us m s · ξ s · Ns
= =k (3.3)
Ur m r · ξ r · Nr
53
Ur
α
Us
Uo
Figure 3.4: Voltage phasor diagram
With this expression, above equation 3.2 it can be rewritten as Eq. 3.4 to present the
output voltage magnitude of the prototype as a function that depends on the input magnitude
value.
Uo2 = Ur2 · (1 + k 2 − 2 · k · cos (α)) (3.4)
The transformation ratio is close to unity, so without committing an excessive error, the
Eq. 3.4 can approach the more simple expression 3.5. It can be ascertained that depending
on the mechanical angle turned by the shaft, output voltage can vary approximately from
zero to double of the input value.

Uo = Ur · 2(1 − cos(α)) (3.5)
54
3.1.2 The control program
3.1.2.1 Cascade control design
The control program developed in MATLAB/Simulink

R was carried out by setting as its
main objectives: flexibility, precision, high performance and extensiblity. It has also been
searched the simplicity in the design. The structure of the control is equal for both sets of
servo motors plus electrical machines, as observed in Fig. 3.5. They are based on a cascade
control scheme composed by two nested loops.
f
f* n*
PI c c
PI c
SM1 EM1
n
MATLAB/Simulink
CONTROL LOOP ALTIVAR CONTROL LOOP
U
U* α*
PI c c
PI c
SM2 EM2
α
MATLAB/Simulink
CONTROL LOOP BAUMÜLLER CONTROL LOOP
Figure 3.5: Control loops for EM1 and EM2
The use of the cascade structure grants a better control of the primary variable —me-
chanical angle or mechanical speed—, which is less affected by external disturbances. It also
enables a faster operation and it improves the system dynamic response. Due to this, the
cascade control helps to fulfill the objetives previously defined for the control system. The
external PI controllers developed in MATLAB/Simulink

R for the dSPACE DSPs, act as
55
the master controllers while the commercial drives regulate the internal loops, behaving as
slaves.
In the control of EM1, the error between the reference frequency (f*) and the measured
frequency (f) sets the speed control for the servo motor of EM1. The speed measurement
read by the encoder establishes the feedback for the secondary loop. Similarly, in the machine
control EM2, the comparison between the magnitudes of the reference voltage (U*) and the
measured value (U) results in the generation of a set-point angle (α). The feedback through
the encoder installed on the actuator shaft, closes the internal control loop.
3.1.2.2 Program I/O
In Fig. 3.6 it is presented a graphical scheme of the control program inputs and outputs.
UrEM1, UsEM1, UiEM1

UrEM2, UsEM2
α*
IrEM1, IsEM1
Analog I/O n*
IrEM2, IsEM2
α, f
DR
D1
Digital I/O
D2
D3
Figure 3.6: Model I/O
Analog variables U iEM 2 y f are the values of the voltage magnitude at the output of the
induction regulator and the frequency measured at the terminals of the machine EM1. These
two quantities are used as control variables. The remaining analog inputs are measurements
for logging and monitoring purposes.
56
In terms of the digital outputs, DR Controls the sequence of actions of the contactors
that allows the creation of voltage dips. D1 , D2 y D3 are digital signals that configure the
device contactors according to the type of disturbance to be produced. They are equivalent
to the operation of the buttons on the front panel of the cabinet.
3.1.2.3 Implementation in MATLAB/Simulink

R
The program has been accomplished following a block structure which general scheme as
shown in Fig. 3.7.
Figure 3.7: MATLAB/Simulink

R control
57
Blocks from the A to D correspond to the generation of over/undervoltage disturbances
and voltage dips, namely corresponding to the electric machine control EM1. Block A acts
on the initial calibration of the equipment, controlling the complete rotation of EM1 in both
directions necessary for the establishment of maximum and minimum reference voltages. The
process of searching for maximum and minimum voltages, the corresponding values of angle
where they are reached, and the storage of these values for the following reproduction of the
disturbance, are made in subsystem C. Once the initial calibration of the test equipment is
finished, voltage dips or over/undervoltage disturbances are generated with the programming
in block B. D block encloses the PI controller for voltage magnitude disturbances.
The subsystem E includes the necessary algorithms for the reproduction and control of the
frequency disturbances and phase jumps, that is, the whole regulation system corresponding
to the electrical machine EM1.
Blocks F and G are general program blocks. Block F centralizes the entire system of
measurements acquisition as well as sensors calibration and adjustment. The preset of the
contactors of the equipment according to the type of disturbance can be done both manually
and automatically, managed by the MATLAB/Simulink

R program. G block allows the
direct action of the program on the power cabinet, replacing the manual panel switches.
3.2 Mathematical expressions
In this section the analysis of the mathematical expressions that govern the disturbances
generator behavior will be presented. Separately, the equations are studied corresponding
to each of the two electrical machines that compose the device; on one side, the variable
frequency transformer (VFT) used to produce the frequency oscillations and controlled phase
jumps (EM1), and on the other side, the induction regulator (EM2). In order to simplify the
58
nomenclature, the use of EM1 and EM2 subscripts are avoided in reference to the magnitudes
of the rotor and stator of the machines.
3.2.1 Variable frequency transformer - EM1
3.2.1.1 Steady-state equations and equivalent circuit
The process of obtaining expressions of EM1 electric machine is similar to that used for the
analysis of an induction motor. There are two major differences between the operation of
the machine as asynchronous motor and the operation of the VFT (EM1) as part of the
voltage disturbances equipment. The first one is the rotor motion it does not occur free
but controlled by a variable speed servodrive, so the slip and the frequency disturbance
associated is imposed by the operator; the second is the magnetization of the machine is
conducted from the rotor side.
The original single-phase equivalent of the VFT is shown in Fig. 3.8. The winding
Rr Ir jXσr Rs jXσs
Is
Ur ω Er Es Us
Figure 3.8: Single-phase representation of the EM1 machine
powered with the mains at a rated frequency —primary winding— is the rotor. The spinning
of rotor coupled with the servomotor shaft induces an emf on the stator whose frequency
depends on the slip. To study the behavior of the machine EM1 under different operating
conditions, it is desirable to obtain an equivalent to simplify the analysis that does not
directly involve the transformation ratio between windings. Since frequency is different in
both windings, the circuit should be reduced to an equivalent which is referred to the rotor
59
frequency and that remains constant. It is known from the general theory of electrical
machines, the expression of the slip, Eq. 3.6, representing the relationship between the
difference of speeds of synchronism and the shaft turn as a fraction of the synchronous
speed, and thus between the frequencies of the rotor and the stator.
ωs − ω ωs s · ωr
s= , fs = = = s · fr (3.6)
ωs 2·π 2·π
Applying the definition of slip to the equation that relates frequency stator with emf in
that winding the Eq. 3.23 is obtained. In this formula, ξs is the stator winding factor and
φm the common flux that goes through the air gap.
Ess = 4.44 · ξs · Ns · fs · φm = 4.44 · ξs · Ns · s · fr · φm = s · Es (3.7)
Es is the electromotive force in the stator if the frequency was the same as in the rotor,
i.e. if there is no relative motion between the windings (stationary rotor). On the other hand,
the frequency has a direct influence over the value of the stator reactance (Xσss = s · Xσs ).
The mesh equation in the stator winding is then expressed as shown in Eq. 3.8
Us = s · Es + (Rs + j · s · Xσs · Is ) (3.8)
And divided by the slip it can be attained the final equivalent circuit that has been
represented in Fig. 3.9.
Rr Ir jXσr Rs/s Is jXσs
Ur Er US
Es s
Figure 3.9: Single-phase representation of the EM1 machine reduced to fr frequency
60
To simplify the analysis of the original stator circuit, it is reduced to an equivalent stator
with the same number of turns as the rotor and physically aligned with it. The variables
in this new circuit are denoted with ’. Voltages and emfs of the original stator and the
equivalent are related through transformation ratio K as displayed in Eqs. 3.9 and 3.10:
E s = K · E s (3.9)
U s = K · U s (3.10)
When replacing the secondary circuit by an equivalent, it must be accomplished that
the apparent power has to be equal on both stators. The current ratio is then expressed as
shown in Eq. 3.11:
1
S s = U s · I ∗s = U s · I s −→ I s = ∗ · I s (3.11)
K
An analogous development is used to obtain the relationships between the resistances
and the leakage inductances in both stators. The dissipation of active and reactive power in
the original winding must be identical to the equivalent winding, leading to the Eqs. 3.12
and 3.13 and to the circuit referred to rotor-side —Fig. (3.10)—:
Rs2 · Is2 = Rs2 · Is2 −→ Rs = Rs · K 2 (3.12)
Xs2 · Is2 = Xs2 · Is2 −→ Xs = Xs · K 2 (3.13)
Rr Ir jXσr R’s/s I’s jX’σs
U’S
Ur jXm s
Figure 3.10: Single-phase representation of the EM1 machine reduced to rotor winding
61
3.2.2 Induction regulator - EM2
3.2.2.1 Steady-state equations and equivalent circuit
In Fig. 3.11 is shown the single-phase equivalent of the induction regulator, EM2, where
• U r and U s are the rotor and stator voltages
• Rr and Rs are the rotor and stator resistances
• Xσr and Xσs symbolize the leakage inductance in the windings
• Xm is the mutual inductance between windings, associated to the rotor-side.
• E r and E s are emfs in the rotor and stator windings
• I r and I s are the currents in the rotor and the stator
Rr Ir jXσr Rs Is jXσs
Ur jXm Er Es Us
B
Uo A
Figure 3.11: Single-phase circuit of EM2
The rotor voltage phasor is taken as reference for angle measurements and α is the
electrical angle between the electromotive forces of the rotor and the stator. This angle
is positive when the stator voltage is in delay with regard to the rotor. Therefore the
transformation ratio K is defined as in Eq. 3.14:
1 jα
K= ·e (3.14)
k
62
The writing of the equations from the electrical circuit of the induction regulator leads
to the Eq. 3.15:
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
j · Xm
Rr + j · Xσr + j · Xm
⎜ Ur ⎟ ⎜ K∗ ⎟ ⎜ Ir ⎟
⎝ ⎠=⎜
⎝
⎟·⎝ ⎠=
Us j · Xm j · Xm ⎠ I
Rs + j · Xσs + s
K K2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
Zr jα
j · k · Xm · e ⎟ ⎜ I r ⎟
⎜
=⎝ ⎠·⎝ ⎠ (3.15)
j · k · Xm · e−jα Zs Is
Z r y Z s are the total impedances of both rotor and stator windings.
If changing the stator to a another one, equivalent, and reduced to rotor side, the circuit
of the induction regulator is depicted on figure 3.12 and the glean of the equations, previously
shown, that govern its operation is immediate from the mesh equations.
Rr Ir jXσr R’s I’s jX’σs
Ur jXm U’s
Figure 3.12: Equivalent circuit of EM2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ U r ⎟ ⎜ Rr + j · Xσr + j · Xm j · Xm ⎟ ⎜ Ir ⎟
⎝ ⎠=⎝ ⎠·⎝ ⎠ (3.16)
Us j · Xm
Rs + j · Xσs + j · Xm I s
This equivalent circuit will be later used as starting point for the development of the
transient regime equations.
63
3.2.3 Thevenin equivalents
Based on the equivalent circuits developed in Subsections 3.2.1.1 and 3.2.2.1 it is prompt
the deduction of the Thevenin equivalent for both machines. The equivalents will allow to
work in a more comfortable way with the circuits and will be used for the simulation and
validation of the mathematical models.
3.2.3.1 Voltage frequency transformer - EM1
• Thevenin source
Let be Ug the voltage of the mains supply. The calculation of the no-load terminal voltage
in the stator leads to the following expression 3.17:
Us j · U g · Xm
U o1 = = (3.17)
s Rr + j · X r
• Thevenin impedance
The Thevenin impedance calculated as the ratio between the no-load voltage and the
short-circuit current(Icc = −Is ) then fulfills the Eq. 3.18:
Uo R +j·X + Xm2
Z th1 = = s + j · Xσs m (3.18)
Icc s Rr + j · X r
Expressing the equivalent in the real stator magnitudes, final equations of Thevenin source
and impedance are displayed in Eqs. 3.19 and 3.20:
Us j · U g · Xm j · U g · Xm · k · e−jα
U o1 = = = (3.19)
s K · (Rr + j · Xr ) (Rr + j · Xr )
Uo Rs j · Xσs Xm2
Z th1 = = 2 + + j · X m + (3.20)
I cc k ·s k2 Rr + j · X r
64
3.2.3.2 Induction regulator - EM2
• Thevenin source
Again U g represents the rotor voltage supply. In Eq. 3.21 is presented the no-load
voltage:

j · k · Xm · e−jα
U o2 = U g − U s = U g · 1− (3.21)
Rr + j · X r
• Thevenin impedance
The induction regulator impedance is, then, displayed in Eq. 3.22:
Uo Xm2
Z th2 = = Rs + j · Xs + (3.22)
Icc Rr + j · X r
If the equivalent is expressed in stator real variables, but referred to rotor-side the final
formulation is shown in Eqs. 3.23 and 3.24:

j · k · Xm · e−jα
U o2 = U g − U s = U g · 1− (3.23)
Rr + j · X r
Uo Rs j · Xσs j · Xm · (Rr + j · Xσr )

Z th2 = = 2 + + (3.24)
I cc k k2 Rr + j · X r
It can be seen the similarity of the equations that govern the behavior of the two electrical
machines. In the first case, the angle α offset is a constant, but the slip is a variable.
Meanwhile, in EM2 the slip will be very close to the unit throughout all the operation regime
but the angle value varies in a controlled way to adapt the output to the disturbances profile
set by the user.
The development of a global Thevenin equivalent, involving both machines, supposes a
more complex mathemathical approach. Since it has not been directly used in the simulation
65
model and in order to keep the clearness of this document, this circuit and its equations have
been obtained and embodied in Appendix B.
3.2.4 Simulation model
This section demonstrates the validity of the simulation model developed in the Simulink
R
environment for the verification of the equivalent circuits deducted in the previous section.
To have a model is important for two reasons: firstly, if the model is valid, the preceding
reckoning of the induction regulator parameters is also well-grounded; and secondly, a tested
model constitutes a powerful tool to analyze later, if necessary, the effect of connecting
different loads to the device.
The verification of the simulation model in steady-state regime is shown for the base
prototype, being equally valid for the other designs by the substitution of the equivalent
circuit parameters according to the convenience. The general scheme, whose image is shown
in Fig. 3.13 incorporates the two electrical machines. The validation is displayed with
independent disturbances carried out by EM1 and EM2, being trivial the extension to the
general case with combined disturbances.
Through preliminary lab experiments, the induction regulator parameters have been
determined, and are shown in Table 3.1.
Rr Rs Xr Xs Xmrs
Lab measurements (Ω) 2.42 3.06 192.7 228.8 181.05
Table 3.1: Electrical machine parameters
66
Figure 3.13: Simulation model of the voltage disturbances generator
(a) Induction regulator output (simulation) (b) Induction regulator output (experimental)
Figure 3.14: Steady-state comparative between simulation and experimental results
In Figs. 3.14a and 3.14b, the validation of the operating model of the first machine, EM1,
is observed. The data displayed has been contrasted for two different types of disturbances at
two load levels. The one in Fig. 3.14a compares the frequency set-point and the response in
the machine terminals for an overfrequency disturbance with a 20% load level. The second,
Fig. 3.14b, represents an underfrequency ramp with a 2.5 Hz/s drop and the machine
operating at full load.
Figure 3.15 shows a comparison of the results in permanent regime for different load steps
tested (from no-load to full load) and for diverse angles. In Fig. 3.15a it has been represented
67
Simulaon results Experimental measurements
250 250
200 200
150 150
Uo (V)
Uo (V)
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
α(º) α(º)
No load Is=1A Is=2A Is=3A No load Is=1A Is=2A Is=3A
Is=4A Is=5A Is=6A Is=7A Is=4A Is=5A Is=6A Is=7A
(a) Induction regulator output (simulation) (b) Induction regulator output (experimental)
Figure 3.15: Steady-state comparative between simulation and experimental results
the simulation results while in Fig. 3.15b the experimental measurements are displayed. The
angles between 0 ◦ and electrical degrees 60 ◦ are, approximately, the range of angles swept by
the induction regulator for the reproduction of different dip profiles discussed in this thesis
and, therefore, it has been considered an ambit of interest to study.
From the values shown in Figs. 3.15a and 3.15b and in order to quantify the differences
between the simulations and the experimental results, errors have been evaluated depending
on the motion angle and the load level. Collected results appear in Fig. 3.16.
The percentage errors are much greater in absolute value for low angles (< 10 ◦ ) and
higher currents. As the values for very low voltage values (low angles) are very small,
any imprecision can contaminate the results, leading to important estimated errors in the
comparison between the model and the real output voltage of the regulator. For angles above
(> 10 ◦ ), and output voltage values over 20V errors between simulations and measurements
are always below 6%. As expected, for a given value of angle, an increase in the circulation
of current through the stator means higher voltage drops in the machine, that brings on a
lower voltage at the induction regulator terminals. Dut to this, the Thevenin impedance
68
16
14
12
10
Error (%)
8
10
6 20
4 30
40
°)
2 50
α(
60
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Load (A)
Figure 3.16: Percentage errors between simulation and experimentation results
estimation becomes more important and there is a greater mismatch of the model. By
examining no-load situation, where there is only influence of the Thevenin voltage source,
the fitness between model simulation and measurements is very precise.
Next the model has been proved for a voltage dip disturbance at several load steps.
This is intended to determine whether or not a specific transient model is necessary for the
study of the behavior of the generator prototype. In the operation of the equipment for the
production of a severe disturbance two facts can be pointed out:
• The changes in frequency and angle produced in the machines are, most of the time,
very slow. Frequency disturbances in remote microgrids have either a long period or
they have not very pronunced ramps as it has been shown in Chapter 2. In the voltage
dip recovery ramp, the angle modification is also gradual.
• In the deep part of the dip, or the upper value of the overvoltage disturbance, the
induction regulator remains at a constant angular position, i.e. stopped. It can be
69
considered during the greater part of the disturbance, EM1 is operating at a permanent
regime.
Figures 3.17 shows the output of the simulation model in comparison to the output of
the induction regulator for two extreme situations previously analyzed —for a determined
load and angle—. The first, Fig. 3.17a is in the situation where the machine running with
low load (20%) and the second, Fig. 3.17b, with the machine fully loaded (100%). In the
first case the transient at the connection created by the contactors has been also included.
Voltage dip regulator output

300
Uomeas
Uosim
200 ang
ref
100
Uo(V)
−100
−200
−300
0 0.5 1 1.5
Time(s)
(a) a) Induction regulator output of a 20% load case
Voltage dip regulator output

300
Uomeas
Uosim
200 angref
100
Uo(V)
−100
−200
−300
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Time(s)
(b) b) Induction regulator output of a 100% load case
Figure 3.17: Comparative between the simulation model and the experimental results in the
recovery ramp
The adjustment of the response of the model with respect to the actual behavior is very
accurate throughout the whole profile of voltage dip except at the first 2-3 connection cycles
70
(≈ 40 ms over a total dip length of several seconds). It can be concluded that the steady-
state model is sufficient in almost all the voltage dip time for accurate representation of the
behavior of EM2. Despite the availability of the mathematical model in transient regime for
the machine EM2, which will be shown in the following section, its implementation in the
simulation model for fine tuning in those first few cycles present no interest for the purpose
of this thesis. A subsequent model will consider the analysis of the transient effects in the
machine by its representation through the finite element method.
3.2.5 Transient analysis
The induction regulator, working within the voltage disturbances generator, suffers a sudden
transient at the beginning of the over/under voltage disturbance. At that moment, the stator
of the EM2, which was open circuited, becomes connected to the EUT. The EUT can be
a voltage source or a Thevenin equivalent circuit in case of a conventional generator, or a
current source if a non-conventional source is connected by a converter.
The transient event, created at the induction regulator connection, cannot be eliminated
or even mitigated by a device like the one proposed, which lacks power converters. The
significance of this work is not rooted in the transient model of the electrical machine EM2.
In spite of this, and due to the fact that the induction regulator is a not a well-known
electrical machine, it has been considered of interest the inclusion of the transient model as
an additional contribution of this thesis.
In Fig. 3.18a the final circuit to study, according to its representation in the time domain
is presented. S is the equivalent switch that simulates the connection of the stator through
the contactors. In t<0s there is no current flowing through the stator and the regulator is in
71
Rr jXσr S jX’σs
Ir I’s R´s
t=0
Ur jXm U’s
a)
Lms i´s Lms ir

Rr Lr·s L’s·s R´s
ir + ı + ı i´s
ur UM1(0-) UM2(0-) u´s
b)
Figure 3.18: Equivalent circuit representation for transient analysis. a) Time-domain. b)
Laplace domain
a stand-by position. In t=0s it happens the sudden closure of the switch, which will already
stay in that position for every t>0s.
An analysis of the transient regime is carried out through the approach and resolution,
using the Laplace transform, of the differential equations that model the circuit’s behavior.
Each of the windings can be represented as an inductance initially discharged t=0 in series
with a voltage source. Its value is the initial charge of the inductance plus a voltage source
dependent upon the current flowing through the other winding. This source symbolizes
the existing mutual coupling between the two windings. In Fig. 3.18b it is displayed the
equivalent circuit in the Laplace domain, where the initial values of the voltage sources U M 1
and U M 2 will be as shown in Eq. 3.26:

UM 1 (0− ) = − (Lσr + Lm ) · ir (0− ) = −Lr · ir0 (3.25)
UM 2 (0− ) = −Lm · ir (0) = −Lm · ir0 (3.26)
At the beginning, the value of the rotor current is obtained from the resolution in the
time domain of circuit Eqs. 3.27.
72

Ur Ur
ir0 = = ∠90 (3.27)

j · Xσr + j · Xm t=0− Xr
The rotor will be powered by a source of sinusoidal voltage with frequency ω. This ω will
depend on the operating mode of the device, and the supply to EM2 -either from the mains
or from EM1-. With this consideration, the instantaneous value of the rotor current for t<0
is expressed according to Eq. 3.28.
Ur
ir (t) = − · cos(ωt) (3.28)
Xm
With these results, the system of equations in transient regime are shown in 3.29
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ur + Lσr · ir0 ⎟ ⎜ Rr + Lr s Lm s ⎟ ⎜ ir ⎟
⎝ ⎠=⎝ ⎠·⎝ ⎠ (3.29)
us + Lm · ir0 Lm s Rs + Ls s is
The resolution of this system leads to the expressions of the rotor and the stator currents
in the Laplace domain, Eqs. 3.30 and 3.31.

(ur + Lr · ir0 ) · Rs + Ls s − ·Lm s us + Lm · ir0
ir = (3.30)
(Rr + Lr s) · (Rs + Ls s) − L2m · s2

(Rr + Lr s) · us + Lm · ir0 − Lm s · (ur + Lr · ir0 )
is = (3.31)
(Rr + Lr s) · (Rs + Ls s) − L2m · s2
The input voltage ur is considered as sinusoidal and establishes the phase origin. The
voltage us it will be also a sinusoidal source with a determined phase lag φs . Laplace
transforms for these two power supplies are displayed in Eq. 3.32:
73
Ur · ω Us · [s · sin(φs ) + ω · cos(φs )]
L [ur ] = 2 L us = (3.32)
s + ω2 s2 + ω 2
Substituting the Eq. 3.32 in Eqs. 3.30 and 3.31 it can be reached the characteristic
polynomial shown in the formula 3.33:

p(s) = s2 + ω 2 · A · s2 + B · s + C (3.33)
where
A = Lr · Ls − L2m
B = Rr · Ls + Lr · Rs
C = Rs · R s
The roots of this equation are listed in Eq. 3.34, where r1 and r2 are the forced poles,
depending on the nature of the supply to EM2, and r3 y r4 are the natural poles of the
system.
√
−B ± B2 − 4 · A · C
s = ±jω = r1, r2 ; s= = r3, r4 (3.34)
2·A
Breaking down the functions ir (s) e is (s) into simple fractions and applying the inverse
Laplace transform, two analogous expressions can be achieved for both the rotor —Eq.
3.35— and the stator —Eq. 3.36— currents:
74
ir (t) = (N1 + N2 ) · cos (ωt) + j · (N1 − N2 ) sin (ωt) + N3 · er3 t + N4 · er4 t (3.35)
is (t) = (N5 + N6 ) · cos (ωt) + j · (N5 − N6 ) sin (ωt) + N7 · er7 t + N8 · er8 t (3.36)
N3 y N4 are complex conjugate residues, as well as N7 y N8 . In Appendix C it is gathered
the detailed calculation of these residues from the parameters of the equivalent circuit of the
induction regulator. The real value is (s) would be obtained by simply returning to the
original circuit through the transformation ratio K.
3.3 Conclusions
In this chapter the experimental setup used along this dissertation has been described, by
analyzing the main commercial components involved, as well as the electric machines that
are part of the initial proof-of-concept accomplished with prototype 1, that will serve as a
basis for subsequent improvements. It has also been deduced the mathematical models and
the equivalent circuits that represent the behavior of the two electrical machines involved in
the voltage disturbances generator. This mathematical analysis has been complemented, in
case of EM2, with the transient model that could be used in future developments, out of this
thesis framework. Subsequently, a simulation model has been established for the operation
in permanent regime of the device; it allows the checking of the electromagnetic parameters
of the machines, calculated from lab tests. This model also serves as a basis for further study
of the device when connecting different types of generators or loads. It has been observed,
a high degree of fitness of the simulation model in steady-state operation during the whole
frequency disturbance and almost all the dip —except the first cycles—. Due to this, it has
75
been justified that, for the purpose of this thesis, is not necessary to develop a simulation
model that specifically represents the transient regime of the full device.
76
Chapter 4
Experimental setup, operational
procedure and performance evaluation
4.1 Experimental setup
4.1.1 The electrical machines
A commercial induction regulator has been used for the prototype 1 of the voltage distur-
bances generator. With the purpose of establishing the starting point for future designs
improvements, in Tables 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 it is gathered the main information about the
magnetic configuration and electrical circuits, used for the leakage inductances evaluation
detailed in next section. Extra information and steel and winding diagrams are collected in
Appendix E.
Magnitude Value Description

Ur (V ) 400Δ / 690Υ Rated rotor voltage
Us (V ) 400Δ / 690Υ Rated stator voltage
Ir (A) 7.5 Rated rotor current
Is (A) 7.5 Rated stator current
P (kW ) 5 Rated power
Table 4.1: Main characteristics of prototype 1

Steel V600-50A Non-oriented electrical steel (DIN)
l(mm) 120 Core length
ks 0.97 Stacking factor
sn 1 Rotor skew in slots
g(mm) 0.5 Air gap width
Table 4.2: Basic data of prototype 1 magnetic circuit
Magnitude Description Value

Rotor Stator
P Number of poles 4 4
nr |ns Number of turns per coil 68 29
Nr · ξr |Ns · ξs Turns per winding factor 262.2 289.5
ξr |ξs Winding factors 0.964 0.832
qr |qs Slots/pole/phase 2 3
k Transformatio ratio 1.1
Table 4.3: Basic data of prototype 1 electrical circuit
A second commercial electrical machine has been also used in order to get the first proof-
of-concept of the complete device. However, it will be later demonstrated that, due to the
operating mode of the device, it is the induction regulator the machine to be improved by
subsequent design so the information about the features of the second machine lacks interest
and they are not collected in this thesis document.
4.1.2 Control and monitoring system
The experimental setup is based on the employment of DSP-based electric systems. The
dSPACE products integrate the MATLAB/Simulink

R environment and provide high per-
formance for real-time applications.
The main components of the DSP-based electric systems engaged for the voltage distur-
bances generator are the servo motors, the drives, the dSPACE controller boards and the
78
software packages ControlDesk Next Generation and MATLAB/Simulink
R . A schematic
view of the control and monitoring system is shown in figure 4.1. The green arrows repre-
sent the relationships between components through control signals and the blue ones, the
test points where signals are collected for monitoring. In Appendix A is clustered further
information about the commercial devices involved in this prototype and their technical fea-
tures. The electric machines were used as primitive component of the device and which were
subsequently replaced by new designs that will be employed as EM1 and EM2. The charac-
teristics and manufacturing drawings of these electrical machines are shown in appendix E
of this thesis.
PC
dSPACE rti 1104 (2 units) dSPACE connector
pannels
Angle drive
EM2 Baumüller DS 56 Baumüller
b maxx 4400
Speed drive
Schneider – Altivar 71
EM1 Geared motor – Pujol Muntalá

IIPCM
PCM 128/90L-4/148
128/90L 4/148
Figure 4.1: Scheme of the electric drive system
• Servo Motors and related equipment
The voltage disturbances generator has two actuators, each of them attached to the
rotor of machines EM1 and EM2. The servo motor corresponding to EM1 is a per-
79
manent magnet synchronous motor. It is equipped with a brake to avoid accidental
movement due to the power provided to EM2. On the machine’s shaft it also placed
an absolute magnetic encoder, to provide feedback about the angle position, used with
control purposes.
An asynchronous geared motor has been chosen for EM1. It allows the control over
speed rotation needed for the frequency disturbances. The control loop is closed by
means of an incremental encoder and its corresponding encoder interface card. By
regulating the initial shaft position, it is achieved a controlled phase jump shift.
The PWM voltage for both servo motors is supplied by the associated drives.
• Angle and Speed Drives
Two independent drives are used to provide the required PWM voltage. The EM2
control drive belongs to the Baumüller company. It is a vector controlled based con-
verter which allows an accurate and fast response. The internal PLC is responsible
for the angle control loop. The speed drive is a commercial equipment from Schneider
company.
Both setpoints needed for the drives are provided by two dSPACE DS1104 controller
boards. The setpoints are given as analog signals 0 - 10 VDC, proportional to the
magnitude of the required disturbance.
• dSPACE DS1104 R&D Controller Boards and dSPACE pannels
The dSPACE DS1104 R&D Controller Boards are used to establish the analog setpoint
signals required to create the disturbances. They are also responsible of the control
of the set of electromagnetic contactors through its digital ports. The action that the
controller boards have to take is programmed with the use of the MATLAB/Simulink
R
interface. Between the setup and the controller boards the dSPACE pannels are lo-
80
cated. Analogs signals are adapted by means of sensor boxes and connected to the
pannels via BNC connectors. Sub-D connectors allows the I/O of the digital signals.
• Related software: MATLAB/Simulink

R and ControlDesk
R Next Generation
I/O digital and analog ports of the dSPACE panels are accessible from a special
Simulink library. MATLAB/Simulink

R environment allows an easy way to define the
control structure for the controller boards. The Simulink

R program, once compiled,
is transformed in a real-time application implemented in the dSPACEs DS1104. The
software ControlDesk
R Next Generation is used to permit the entry in real time to
variables. The development of the HMI has been rooted on a look and feel requirement,
in order to facilitate the interaction of the user with the device interface. This HMI
allows the user to communicate with the boards, to select the desired perturbation, to
change the set-points and to have a complete access to the variables for monitoring.
In Fig. 4.2a) it is shown the general view of the HMI developed for the interaction of
the user with the voltage disturbances prototype.
Figure 4.2: HMI of the voltage disturbances prototype
81
A
D
C
G
B
H I
E
J
F
K
(a) Outer aspect of the cabinet (b) Inner aspect of the cabinet
Figure 4.3: Voltage disturbances generator cabinet
4.1.3 The electric cabinet
An electrical cabinet to integrate the DSPs, the switchgear and the controlgear devices was
built to tie all the elements and compact the final device. As the voltage disturbances
generator is intended to be used as a field test equipment that would be transported by a
truck if scaled with commercial pursposes, the compactness is a valuable variable that was
considered in this equipment. In Figs. 4.3a and 4.3b are displayed the inner and outer aspect
of the electric cabinet of the voltage disturbaces generator.
The following pictures show the main elements placed in the front pannel of the cabinet.
The synchronoscope (A) used to synchronize generators to be tested. The power analyzers
(B) and the LEDS indicators (D) permit a quick overview by the user of the main magnitudes.
In the case that any abnormal event happens during the testing procedure, the emergency
stop (C) blocks the supply and disconnects the device to test. The selection of the disturbance
82
to be applied can be selected both automatically or manually, by using the selection buttons
(E).
Concerning to the inner distribution of the cabinet, (F) it encloses the switching circuit
for voltage disturbances’ relays. The mechanical contactors (G) and (J) are associated to
frequency and voltage disturbances respectively. The relays that can substitute the use of
the manual selection buttons are (I). The current transformers (H) adapt the measurements
to the values allowed by the sensors located in the sensor boxes (L). The output of the sensor
boxes is then introduced to the DSP by using dSPACE connector pannels (K).
4.2 Operational procedure
As described in Section 3.1, the voltage disturbances generator prototype is placed between
the undisturbed grid and the EUT. The electrical supply to the device is received from the
utility grid and at the output, it is created the required disturbance to be applied to the
EUT. The logic associated with the set of electromechanical contactors which are shown in
Fig. 3.1 allows the application of the desired disturbance pattern to the EUT. With the
contactors KM1, KM4, KM6-KMT1 and KM7 closed and the remaining opened, a total
independence is maintained between the grid and the EUT with respect to the equipment.
4.2.1 Setup of the voltage disturbances generator
The first step to conduct a test with the device is to select, from the HMI, the desired type
of disturbance and its characteristic parameters. In case of a voltage disturbance, selectable
parameters are the step magnitude, the span as well as the recovery ramp, for both dips and
over/undervoltages. If it is a frequency disturbance, multiple patterns as steps, ramps or
swing disturbances can be elected. Additionaly, it is also feasible the selection of the initial
phase shift.
83
If the test to be performed is a disturbance which requires a modification in the voltage
magnitude -and the employment of machine EM2-, the contactor KM6-KMT1 must be
initially closed. This is due to the obligation for, at first, separate the induction regulator
operation from the EUT, since the voltage at regulator terminals can reach up to 2 p.u. The
grid to supply the rotor voltage can be directly the the mains without disturbing, through
KM4 and KM5, or the grid with modified frequency and phase (with KM2 and KM3 closed)
and KM4 opened.
If the user selects any disturbance that involves the use of the machine EM1, the contactor
KM4 switches its position to grant the supply to the EUT via the grid with variable frequency
and phase. In turn, contactors KM2, KM3 y KM5 also closed. If the EUT is a synchronous
generator, KM7 will be automatically closed by a synchronouscope when needed conditions
meet. Otherwise, it will be closed with KM2, KM3 y KM5, all at once.
4.2.2 Preparation of the test
4.2.2.1 Calibration
With the preset position of the contactors, the voltage disturbances generator is supplied
from the utility grid. At laboratory scale, the undisturbed grid is an autotransformer with
a transformation ratio of 400V/400V.
Prior to the performance of the experiment, the EUT must be calibrated. From Eq. 3.5
can be deduced that a full turn of the induction regulator, i.e., a variation of mechanical
angle between 0 ◦ and 360 ◦ , the module of the output voltage follows a curve like the one
shown in Fig. 4.4.
Two maximum and minimum values are reached in each turn, because both the original
machine and the new designs have two pole pairs. Ideally, the minimum voltage value would
84
2.5
Umax
2
Voltage (p.u.) 1.5
0.5
Umin
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
α(°)
Figure 4.4: Voltage magnitude output during calibration
be 0 p.u. and the maximum, 2 p.u. This would happen on the occasion that the emfs of
rotor and stator should be fully compensated and the machine should lack internal voltage
drop. Faced with the impossibility of that occurring in a practical way, it is indispensable
to perform a calibration to calculate the real value of the maximum and minimum voltages,
and to store the angles where the extrema are found. These values are the foundations for
the entire process of control and regulation of the voltage disturbance. Once the calibration
process is completed, the regulator remains in standby, waiting for the control program
triggering action. EM1 angle is such that, at the time of connection, it gets in the device
output the voltage value settled at the beginning of the disturbance.
4.2.2.2 PI controller tuning
Once the calibration stage is completed, the PI controller comes into operation and places
the induction regulator in the angle corresponding to the initial voltage of the disturbance
to be created. For example, if it is a voltage dip, it will correspond to the value of the dip
depth. When the order to create the voltage dip is given, it takes place a very sharpen
decrease of the voltage in terminals of the EUT until the preset voltage in the regulator
output is reached.
85
The global system is highly non-linear. The reproduction of the different patterns de-
mands the system the operation in wide ranges. The PI controller was designed by adding
an anti-windup scheme to avoid the saturation of the integral term, thus reducing sudden
transients due to this effect. Among the different anti-windup classic schemes collected in
the literature [74] the back-calculation and tracking method was selected. If there was a sat-
uration effect, the normal calculation path would break, and the additional feedback signal,
multiplied by a constant kb , would prevent the system to work in open loop. The distur-
bances occur in a sudden step in reference, which seriously affects the performance of the
PI controller. The step in the reference leads to a boost in the control signal. To avoid this
effect the reference signal was weighted with a constant kw . As it is a proportional action it
only affects to a fraction of the reference so the overshoot in the system response is highly
reduced.
The adjustment of the proportional (kp) and integral (ki) terms of the controller should
be done according to the current that is going to circulate between the EUT going through
the voltage disturbances generator. The device introduces an impedance between the grid
and the EUT -the stator impedance of the induction regulator- and its power is similar to
the power of the EUT. If it cannot be guaranteed that the short-cirtuit power in the PCC
(KM1) is 5-times bigger than the power of the EUT, the PI controller adjustment has to be
done with the rated load for the specific test. This requirement is actually prescribed in [54]
for type 1 voltage dip generators. An impedance also remains in this topology between the
grid and the EUT so the rule may be extrapolated to this new design.
4.2.3 Test procedure
Once it has been configured the device for a voltage dip or an over/undervoltage disturbance,
the user gives the order for the test execution. At that moment, contactor KM6-KMT1 opens
and simultaneously KMT2 closes. The resistance Rlim prevents the short-circuit associated
86
(a) Voltage Swell (b) Voltage Dip
Figure 4.5: Reproduction of voltage swells and dips
to the open-close transient. An moment later KMT4 closes and opens, with the aim of
provoking a very brief short-circuit with a resistance Rcc . This results in an initial sharp
drop of the RMS voltage value if the disturbance is a dip. When contactor KMT4 opens,
KMT3 closes and bypasses the Rlim . Since that moment, the EUT is connected to the
output of the induction regulator and the angle control will result in a continuous change
of the voltage applied to the EUT, and, as a result, the selected voltage dip pattern will be
created. If the EM1 machine is connected in cascade, it will also be applied the corresponding
frequency and phase jump disturbances.
4.3 Performance evaluation of the prototype
4.3.1 Voltage disturbances
The proposed device is capable of emulating all voltage disturbances described in IEEE Std.
1159-1995 and appearing in the Fig. 2.12 of the previous chapter. Therefore it serves as
certification equipment for compliance with the requirements of both LVRT and HVRT. As
an example, Figs. 4.5a and 4.5b show, respectively, a voltage swell and a voltage dip with
rectangular profiles.
87
In both figures it has been displayed the voltage set-point and tracking curves followed
by the EM2 machine. It has also been included, in Fig. 4.5a and in a demonstrative way,
the value of the voltage in the induction regulator output, plotted with a red line. The
induction regulator, after the calibration process finishes, is positioned to reach the initial
value of the disturbance set by the user (in this case 1.1 pu). According to the operation
procedure at the time the electromechanical contactors act, the device to be tested changes
from being supplied from the mains to be connected through the regulator. Hence the blue
line represents the resulting voltage applied in EUT terminals.
Regardless to the rise time and the overshoot, it is observed that there is a delay in the
reference tracking of approximately 100 ms. This delay is due to the lag in the response
of the commercial angle controller (internal EM1 control loop). It appears as a systematic
error independent of the control programming developed in this thesis. To validate this
claim, the Fig. 4.6 shows the response of the inner control loop EM2 where the angle
set-point generated and the absolute magnetic encoder measurement are compared. The
delay, consequence of the performance of commercial regulators, it will also appear in the
reproduction of frequency disturbances. As it is a device for testing and certification to be
used offline, speed of response is not a priority requirement. Note that this systematic error
occurs in both regulators and so it does not affect the final disturbance applied to the EUT,
which will have the extent set by the user as defined in each grid code.
One advantage that has been highlighted in this device is that it is capable of reproducing
different patterns -and ramps- in diverse grids code due to the possibility of regulating
the voltage continuously. In Fig. 4.7 it is shown the profiles used in this dissertation
as reproduced by the preliminary device. As a complement of the patterns found in the
grid codes, shown in Chapter 2, it has also been defined an additional profile called ISOL,
88
Figure 4.6: Angle setpoint and tracking
representing the envelope of all isolated systems profiles analyzed, with a depth of 0 during
650 ms followed by a recovery time of 3s to reach 0.75 p.u. of the pre-fault value.
Figure 4.7: Voltage dips profiles
4.3.2 Frequency disturbances
The machine EM1 allows the initial positioning of the phase in the device and the reproduc-
tion of the frequency disturbances, with different shapes and up to a value of ±5 Hz. This
89
range is sufficient for testing according to all the grid codes, for both interconnected systems
and isolated. Three general profiles, corresponding to the most common frequency distur-
bances types have initially been preprogrammed and sample set-points and trackings are
shown in Fig. 4.8. The steps of different value and duration can appear due to unscheduled
events, ramps allow EUTs validation against the derivates of frequency established in the
codes, and over and under frequency oscillations could represent the frequency disturbances
resulting from voltage sags. Any other profile could be easily programmed if needed.
Figure 4.8: Frequency disturbances
4.3.3 Combined disturbances
A combined disturbance reproduced by the voltage disturbances generator is shown in Fig.
4.9. In the lower subfigure it can be seen the phase jump naturally occurred as a result of
the fault, by the change in the circuit impedances. This angular difference coming from the
operation of the induction regulator must be combined with the EM1 machine offset to get
the phase output required for testing in compliance with grid codes.
90
Figure 4.9: Combined voltage, frequency and phase jump disturbance
4.3.4 Harmonic behaviour
Apart from the simultaneous reproduction of disturbances, one of the highlighted features
of this device is that it does not introduce additional harmonic distortion on the EUT. To
check and verify this, it has been represented in Fig. 4.10 the spectral analysis of the input
and output voltage waveforms for harmonics up to order 20th . It is easily seen that very
similar magnitude peaks appear at harmonics of the same order.
(a) Harmonic spectra of the input voltage (b) Harmonic spectra of the voltage applied to the EUT
Figure 4.10: Harmonic spectra of voltage waveforms
91
4.4 Conclusions
In this chapter has been described the main topological features of the voltage grid distur-
bances generator. These aspects include the physical description of each one of the main
components in the equipment: the electromagnetic devices and the essential control system
elements. Subsequently, it has been depicted the operation practice and testing procedure
with the device. In the last part of the chapter, the preliminary device has been proved and
verified as a certification equipment capable of reproducing voltage disturbances, frequency
changes and phase jumps required by the codes. It has also been checked that the device
introduces no additional harmonic distortion over the existing pollution in the grid. Ap-
pendix A complete the information gathered in the chapter, detailing the characteristics of
the commercial equipment involved.
92
Chapter 5
Guidelines for the design of new
prototypes
5.1 Problem approach
5.1.1 Overview
In Chapter 3.1 the composition and operation procedure of the voltage disturbances gene-
rator proposed as a global target of this thesis has been described. The use in the original
prototype of commercial machines has allowed a first conceptual validation of the device.
In accordance with the EM2 electrical machine operation, its output is the difference
between the rotor and stator phasor voltages. Theorically, if those voltages were perfectly
balanced for an angle, 0 ◦ , it would be possible, if desired, to get a zero voltage in the EUT’s
point of interconnection .
The EUT connected in the voltage dip generator will impose a fixed current. This current
corresponds to the load level established by the verification procedures linked to the grid
codes. In the Spanish regulation currently in use for mainland territory, the PVVC 12.3
[54], the load levels for testing the electrical devices are settled to 10% − 30% of the nominal
power of the EUT —partial load— and over 80% of nominal power —full load—. In other
territories, like Great Britain [75], the tests have to be done with the EUT working at full
load.
In the operators procedures for the verification of distributed energy sources connected
to grids, the suggested testing equipment belongs to the impedance-based type. These are
rooted on the primary model as defined in IEC61400-21 [76]. The document PVVC is not
so specific, referred to the possibility of other devices to be used in the certification process.
The only condition is that the behavior of both devices must be comparable.
The flow of the generator current demanded for grid code compliance by the Thevenin
equivalent impedance of the EM2 machine causes a voltage drop. This voltage drop estab-
lishes a minimum voltage dip depth that can be reached, with independence of the profile
defined by the user. In agreement with PVVC, if the short-circuit power in the PCC is below
5 times the power injected by the EUT, the voltage dip profile has to be achieved with the
EUT operating at full load. This is the situation applicable to remote microgrids, which are
characterized by a low short-circuit power in the PCC. Not specific verification standards
have been found for remote microgrid codes.
The problem can be that the lower value of the voltage level in EM2 machine working
at full load could be higher than the required by the code. As an example it is shown in
Fig. 5.1a a voltage dip profile created by the device with a zero voltage output reference
at a no-load regime. A minimum value of voltage remains in the output due to the current
circulation by the rotor winding.
Figure 5.1b shows the test of a synchronous generator under a voltage dip pattern accor-
ding to the exising P.O.12.3 procedure. It can be observed that the current flowing for both
the inductances of the synchronous generator and the induction regulator stator effectively
94
Ref = 0%
Ref = 20%
(a) Voltage dip at no load and at zero voltage setpoint(b) Voltage dip with synchronous generator at rated
power
Figure 5.1: No-load and full load voltage dips with the prototype 1
avoids the voltage to reach the 20% imposed by the user. Even with the test of a synchronous
generator it cannot be separated the effect coming from each inductance, the improvements
in new designs will be compared for the same EUT.
In order to regulate effectively the voltage at the output of the device regardless of the load
that is connected, it is necessary to minimize the internal drop in EM2. This voltage drop
is intended to be reduced by design considerations, developing a more appropriate machine
for the proposed operation. This will favor the independence of the voltage disturbances
generator operation from the EUT.
5.1.2 Voltage drop evaluation of the preliminary design
The internal voltage drop in an electrical machine is defined as the difference between the
voltage output at rated power with respect to the voltage in the no-load case. It matches
with the input voltage minus the drops in the resistances and leakage inductances of the
windings. The circumstances are sligthly different in the induction regulator. The voltage
drop of the machine is coincident with the drop in the Thevenin impedance which is a huge
value, in magnitude, in comparison with the drops in, for example, a transformer.
95
One phasor diagram extracted from experimental measurements has been represented
in 5.2. The black axis apply to the voltages while the blue axis correspond to the current
magnitudes. The variables with the subscript “nl” designate the magnitudes associated to
the no-load case. It shows the voltage drop in case of a synchronous generator operating at
a rated power for a steady angle between the rotor and stator phasors.
Figure 5.2: Phasor diagram of the prototype 1
It can be clearly observed from Fig. 5.2 how the current circulating by the stator decreases
the stator phasor voltage, according to the reference system defined in Chapter 4. Thus, the
output voltage is higher than the one at no-load.
A numerical computation has been carried out for the loaded and non-loaded cases pre-
viously shown.
Uo = 167 58.64 ; Uo−nl = 179 68.3
And expressed in percentage, the internal voltage drop value is, from Eq. 5.1:
96
|Uo − Uo−nl |
· 100 = 7.18% (5.1)
Uo
The voltage drop depends on the angle α between the rotor and stator voltages and the
current circulating due to the EUT. As an example, it can be observed in Fig. 5.3. In
there, a spectrum of output voltages for several angles and currents ranged from no-load to
full load is shown. It has been evaluated from the simulation model and allows to check the
behavior of the induction regulator while testing converter-based generating sources, working
at cosφ = 1, as the usual power factor requirement for sources connected to the grid through
electronic converters.
Figure 5.3: Output voltage at the induction regulator for a generator with cosφ = 1
This confirms the hypothesis that the limit is determined by the internal voltage drop
of the machine, and depending on the operating point, sets a settle depth that cannot be
surpassed. It limits the capacity of the voltage disturbances prototype to fulfill perfectly the
deeper voltage dip profiles required in some grid codes.
97
5.2 Minimization of the voltage drop in the induction
regulator EM2
In agreement with the equations obtained for the Thevenin equivalent of the induction
regulator (see Eq. 3.21), it is clear that the reduction of the voltage drop in the machine
can be achieved as a result of the simultaneous Thevenin source and equivalent impedance
minimization. The expressions will be deduced without considering the resistances of the
windings. Even if this is not real, it will allow to draw approximate conclusions.
The minimization of Thevenin voltage in these circumstances is obtained in fulfillment
of the condition —Eq. 5.2—:

j · k 2 · X · ejα
m
≈1 (5.2)
j · Xm + j · Xσr
which results in a relationship between the rotor leakage inductance, the transformation
ratio and the mutual inductance, shown in Eq. 5.3:
Xσr ≈ Xm · (k − 1) (5.3)
On the other hand, and due to the need of a voltage drop reduction in the series Thevenin
impedance, the objetive function to be minimized in the new induction regulator designs is
Eq. 5.4:
Xth = Xσr · Xσs + Xm · (k 2 · Xσr + Xσs ) = 0 (5.4)
98
From here it can be reached the expression of the stator leakage reactance 5.5:
−Xm · k 2 · Xσr
Xσs ≈ ≈ Xm · k · (1 − k) (5.5)
Xσr + Xm
All the terms involved in Eq. 5.5 are strictly positive so the only feasible solution to assure
the accomplishment of the equation is by making null the rotor leakage reactance and, as a
result, the stator leakage reactance too. The Eqs. 5.3 to 5.5 obtained from this simplified
analysis suggest that a transformation ratio equal to unity would turn in a minimum value
of the rotor and stator leakage reactances.
If rolling back to the Thevenin impedance and using Eq. 5.3, it is explicit than the
Thevenin reactance can be expressed as a function of the stator and rotor ones, as displayed
in Eq. 5.6, thus the minimization of both leakage reactances implies the global Thevenin
reactance minimization.
Xth ≈ Xσs + k · Xσr (5.6)
Conforming to the previous, the solution adopted for the new designs is based on a
two-step improvement conducted in as many prototypes. It has to be noticed that one of
the design targets has been to make the required improvements in the prototype 1 trying
to keep the design as close as possible to commercial machines, not introducing additional
complexities for future large-scale manufacturing.
• In the second prototype (Prototype 2) the magnetic circuit in the machine will be
designed in order to reduce the leakage inductance by acting over the diverse leakage com-
ponents. It will also have a drastic impact over the magnetizing inductance.
99
• In the third prototype (Prototype 3) the magnetic circuit will be kept as in the previous
but a change in the design of the electric circuit will be done to reduce the leakage inductance
through the transformation ratio.
5.3 Criteria design for new prototypes
5.3.1 Prototype 2: Leakage reduction by redesigning the magnetic
circuit
All the inductances along this section are specified per unit of effective length (le ) and
pointed out with ’. According to the basic sizing equations of electrical machines design,
2 )
the power of EM2 is directly proportional to the product of the rotor inner diameter (Dor
by the effective length. The power of the original prototype (prototype 1) is going to be
maintainedas a design criteria in the new induction regulators constructions, to make the
machines easily comparable.
5.3.1.1 Mutual inductance
The mutual inductance for the machine EM2, magnetized from the rotor winding is presented
in 5.7:
48 2 μ · Dor
Lm = · ξr · Nr2 · 0 (5.7)
π ge
100
Nr is the number of series-connected turns in the rotor winding, Dor is the rotor outer
diameter and ge is the effective gap, which takes into account the fringing effect and the core
saturation.
5.3.1.2 Leakage inductances
5.3.1.2.1 Flux leakage components in wound rotor induction machines
The leakage inductance in induction machines represents the portion of the flux created by
the primary winding which is not linked by the secondary circuit.
The calculation of leakage flux components in electrical machines suppose a complex
problem. To estimate the values of leakage flux reactances it is required to know the magnetic
permeance, which depends on the circuit geometry. The existence of analitycal expressions
or tabulated parameters grant a numerical approach.
In induction machines, several leakage flux components can be found [77]. The total
leakage will be the sum of all these items gathered in the following list.
• Slot: It is produced by the flux that goes from one tooth to the next through the slot
but without crossing the airgap. This leakage flux appears inside every slot but also
between contiguous slots. In Fig. 5.4 it is shown the slot leakage flux lines associated
to this leakage component flux:
• End-winding leakage flux: it corresponds to the portion of leakage flux derived from
the circulation current in the end-winding, as seen in Fig. 5.5. This leakage flux runs
almost exclusively by a circuit of air. As the computation of this component is difficult
due to the geometry, it is usually calculated by applying empirical correction factors.
101
Figure 5.4: Slot leakage flux
Figure 5.5: Leakage flux paths in the end-windings
• Zigzag: It is the leakage flux that passes from one tooth to another through the airgap,
as observed in Fig. 5.6:
Figure 5.6: Zigzag leakage flux paths
• Harmonic leakage flux: The difference between a quasi-sinusoidal emf, due to the
distribution of the winding, with respect to a perfect sinusoidal waveform, favors the
102
production of harmonic fluxes which are not linked in the same way by stator and
rotor. In squirrel-cage induction machines, the rotor harmonic component would be
null.
• Skew leakage: It appears when there is a skew in the rotor or stator slots. This skew
is intended to reduce the high order harmonics that appear due to slotting. The main
difference in comparison with the other components is that it does not appear as a
natural phenomenon but it is caused by the effort to compensate the pulsating torques
linked to the harmonics components of the mmf.
5.3.1.2.2 Mathematical expressions of the leakage inductances in EM2
For both the rotor and stator windings, the total leakage inductance is the sum of the slot,
end-winding, zigzag, harmonic and skew leakage components. The skew effect is directly
computed through the winding factor.
• Slot leakage inductance
For the single-layer winding in the rotor, the leakage inductance in terms of the number
of slots (Sr ), the number of turns in the winding (Nr ) and the permeance of the magnetic
circuit (pr ) is shown in Eq. 5.8. The deduction of these equations is based on the theory
of [77, Ch. 4].The mathematical equations for the permeance of the slots for the shape of
interest has been developed and shown in Appendix D, as well as the geometric dimensions
required for its evaluation.
pr
Lrslot = 12 · Nr2 · (5.8)
Sr
103
In the double-layer winding of the stator, the total permeance is the sum of several
components, one due to the lower coil (pL ), another due to upper coil (pU ) and a third one
that takes into account the mutual effects between both coils (pLU ). For a pitch of p = 23 .
(pU + pL + pLU )
Lsslot = 3 · Ns2 · (5.9)
Ss
• End-winding leakage inductance
The end-winding leakage inductance is figured out through the use of permeance factors.
These factors vary depending on the winding type. For a three-phase two plane distributed
winding, the permeance factor associated to the axial length is few = 0.55 and the factor
related with the coil span is fW = 0.35 [78, Ch. 4].
Figure 5.7: End-winding main dimensions
Conforming to the end-winding dimensions shown in Fig. 5.7, the end-winding induc-
tances for the rotor and stator can be written as in Eqs. 5.10 and 5.11, where qr and qs are
the slots per pole per phase in the windings.
12 · qr · Nr2 · μ0 · lw · fw
Lewr = (5.10)
Sr
104
12 · qs · Ns2 · μ0 · lw · fw
Lews = (5.11)
Ss
The product of the average length in the winding and the permeance factor is obtained
through the Eq. 5.12:
lw · fw = 2 · Lew · few + Wew · fW (5.12)
• Zigzag leakage inductance
The zigzag leakages inductances have a direct relationship with the mutual inductance
as displayed in Eqs. 5.13 and 5.14 [79, Ch. 4]. It is associated with the slot harmonics so
it is also a function of the number of slots and the number of poles (P ). A second comma
has been included in the notation for the stator. The first one, represents, as usual along
this chapter, the mutual inductance per core length unit and the second one, refers, as in he
previous chapter to the evaluation of the mutual inductance as seen from stator-side.
π 2 Pr2
Lzzr = Lm · · (5.13)
12 Nr2
π 2 Ps2
Lzzs = Lm · · (5.14)
12 Ns2
• Harmonic leakage inductance
Eventually it is shown the expressions for the leakage inductances due to the harmonic
fluxes created as a consequence of the distributed windings. It considers the different dis-
105
tribution of the current circulating in the diverse coils, so it reckons on the coil pitch. In
a simpler formulation, the harmonic leakage inductance can be evaluated depending on the
mutual inductance and a tabulated factor (σ) based on the number of slots per pole and phase
and the phase belt of the winding. Both equations for the rotor and stator are displayed in
Eqs. 5.15 and 5.16 [77, Ch. 4].
∞
3 8 N2 τpr ξ 2
Lhr = · 2 · r · μ0 · · hr
= Lm · σr (5.15)
2 π Pr ge h
h=2
∞
3 8 N2 τps ξhs 2
Lhs = · 2 · s · μ0 · · = Lm · σs (5.16)
2 π Ps ge h
h=2
In these equations, ξhr and ξhs represent the winding factors for the h harmonic and τpr
and τps , the pole pitches.
5.3.1.2.3 Validation of leakage inductances in the prototype 1
The validation of the leakage reactances for the EM2 machines has been accomplished
through the use of a commercial finite-element analysis software, since in lab tests it is
not possible to separate the different components.
Three components are shown in Table 6.1 concerning the results in simulations: slot leak-
age reactance, end-winding leakage reactance and spread harmonic reactance. The spread
harmonic reactance —named as differential in most literature references— includes the two
leakage reactances affected by harmonic components. The zigzag leakage reactance, pro-
duced by the harmonics linked to the slotting and the harmonic leakage —or belt leakage—
associated to the space harmonics. The evaluation by means of analytical formulas is usually
106
less exact than the evaluation by finite element software, but it allows a first and approximate
appoach to the problem. Additionally, by applying the mathematical formulas, the different
leakage components can be estimated separately. In the third column it is registered the
leakage reactance value derived from the lab tests where the different leakage contribution
terms cannot be distinguished so it can only be compared in terms of total leakage fluxes.
Simulation (Ω) Calculated (Ω) Lab tests (Ω)

slot 3.031 2.702
end-winding 3.458 3.811
Stator 1.816 1.762
differential harmonic 1.759
zigzag 0.003
Total 8.305 8.275 8.093
slot 4.494 3.808
end-winding 2.994 2.536
Rotor 4.315 4.176
differential harmonic 4.171
zigzag 0.004
Total 11.803 10.520 11.650
Table 5.1: Electrical machine parameters
Several points can be highlighted from the analysis of the results shown in table 6.1
• The harmonic inductance in the rotor is higher in comparison to the stator. When
increasing the slots per pole and phase, the mmf in the air gap becomes closer to a sinusoidal
waveform, reducing the harmonic content.
• Most of the harmonic flux produced in the machine comes from the space harmonics
(pitching) and it is very reduced the harmonic flux component due to the slotting.
107
• It has also been accomplished the calculation for the slot leakage reactances from the
mathematical expressions developed for the slot shape and shown in Appendix D. It has
to be taken into account the permeances estimation from the formulas trust on the fraction
of conductors distributed in every portion of the slot, which is obviously unknown. The
difference between the real placing and the foreseen distribution of the conductors in the
slots can lead to the variations observed.
• The differences between the calculated parameters and the results obtained by finite
element algorithms for the end-winding leakage flux were expected due to the influence of the
geometric parameters, which makes the estimation complicated. An exact evaluation of the
end-winding leakage components, would imply the use of 3D finite elements models, since
the distribution of the end-turn leakage fluxes implies an analysis in three axes. Due to the
computational effort to develop 3D models for the end windings, it is commonly accepted
the precision provided by the tabulated coefficients.
• It can be seen that the global reactance evaluated by the finite element model matches
properly with the lab experiments.
5.3.1.3 Constants and variables in the magnetic design
In the second prototype it will be only modified the parameters linked to the magnetic circuit,
leaving aside the transformation ratio. From the equations shown along the section, several
variables can be selected to reduce the leakage inductance associated to the prototype.
The suitable parameters are listed below.
• Effective length: le
108
• Rotor inner diameter: Dor
• Slot permeances: p
• Effective airgap: ge
• Slots per pole and phase: q
• Poles: P
• Number of slots S
From those shown in the some of them it will be kept as constants regarding the original
prototype. The effective length and the rotor outer diameter determine the power of the
device designed, because the machine is magnetized with the rotor which acts as primary
winding. Since the power of the new devices has to be maintained because it is linked to
the power of the EUT, these two parameters will also be kept as constants. But the inverse
relationship between the mutual inductance, and, as a consequence, with the harmonic
leakages and the zigzag leakage inductances suggest the need to increase the airgap. This
will be done by extending the stator inner diameter.
The increment of the airgap supposes a novelty and a contradiction over the conventional
electrical machines designs, that try to maintain the airgap as small as possible. An increment
in the airgap acts over the leakage flux components by reducing them, opposing an extra
obstacle to the closing of the leakage flux paths between the rotor and the stator. It has also
to be remarked that an increase of the airgap will upturn the reactive current required to
magnetize the machine, inflates the Joule losses and, from that point of view, has a negative
effect. It will be essential to establish a design compromise between the airgap enlargement
and the rotor current in the new designs.
109
In the prototype 1 the relationship between the number of stator and rotor slots is one
of the classical combinations established for motor design to avoid vibrations. A greater
number of slots in prototype 2 would reduce the slot leakage inductance and would shorten
the end windings, minimizing the effect of the end-turn inductances. A bigger number of
slots would also make possible to increase the number of slots per pole and phase, which is
positive in order to reduce harmonic leakage fluxes. The combinations 36/36 and 48/36 where
tested during design attemps by the finite element model. Since these combinations would
be prohibited for standard motor designs due to the cogging during start up, the movement
of EM2 thanks to a servomotor avoids the uncertainty. The unacceptable saturations levels
reached in the machine teeth made recommendable to keep also the number of slots and the
q parameter as in the prototype 1.
Eventually two parameters where selected to improve the original design: the air gap and
the slot permeances. In the slot permeances, several geometric parameters are involved. In
a first approach, the effect of changing the different parameters was studied. This is only an
approach since the restrictions such as saturation limits, that will be taken into account in
the design process developed in next chapter, were not considered. In Figs. 5.8a and 5.8b
it is shown the values of the slot permeances in the rotor and stator when changing any
geometric dimension from its rated value to another one 50% higher.
Figure 5.8 shows the influence of the tooth and slot design in the slot permeances values
where it can be observed that the widths parameters decrease the slot permeances while the
heights increase them. The slot opening is the most influential variable if trying to reduce
the stator permeance. An increase in the parameters b1 and the b0 would also suppose a
noticeable reduction in the rotor slot permeances, with slight differences between the effect
that every one can produce. It is common in motor design processes to establish a maximum
value of the slot opening to keep the windings correctly placed inside the slots while the
110
b1
b0
d0
d1
d2
d3
2ro=b3
(a) a) Variation of rotor slot permeance due to changes in geometric magnitudes
b1
b0
d0
d1
d2
b2
b3 d3
d4
b4
(b) b) Variation of rotor stator permeance due to changes in geometric magnitudes
Figure 5.8: Influence of the geometric parameters over the slot permeances
machine is spinning at high speed. An abnormal value of slot openings in the new prototypes
will be the second unusual characteristic in these designs —apart from the wider air gap—.
Since this electrical machine is going to be stopped or spinning at a very low speed, this will
not represent a handicap.
111
5.3.2 Prototype 3: Leakage reduction by redesigning the electric
circuit
5.3.2.1 Optimization of the ampere-turns ratio
As deduced in the first part of the chapter a transformation ratio in the machine equal to
unity is theoretically required to minimize the voltage drop in the machine.
Since the number of turns is bigger in the stator winding, the change in the turns will
be done over this electrical circuit. A reduction in the number of series connected turns is
positive to reduce the leakage components associated to:
• slot
• harmonics
• end-leakage
The zigzag leakage flux will be bigger in the prototype 3 with respect to the prototype 2,
but due to the drastic reduction in the mutual inductance, it will be in both cases, noticeably
smaller that in the original prototype. If considering the weight of the zigzag over the global
leakage reactance, this can be considered negligible.
The second rotor winding will be also designed as a double-layer winding. Since q pa-
rameters and slots will be kept as constants -not affecting the end-leakage and the harmonic
components-, it will suppose and additional cut back in the slot leakage component.
112
5.4 Conclusions
In this chapter the problems associated to the operation of the original voltage disturbances
generator have been described. The circulation of current by the stator inductance joined to
the magnetic couplings in the induction regulator establishes a minimum voltage level that
cannot be exceeded. This level fixes the dip profiles that can be reproduced.
It is required for testing devices being independent in its operation from the EUTs.
In every voltage disturbances generator commercially available this affection between the
testing device and the EUT can be detected. It also happens in this new topology.
Along the chapter it has been analyzed and quantized the effects of some magnetic and
electrical magnitudes over the equivalent Thevenin impedance of the induction regulator and
thus, over the behavior of the device. It has been deduced the dependence of this voltage
drop with the leakage inductances and the number of turns in the windings. Eventually,
and rooted on the previous, the guidelines for new designs have been settled according to a
detailed study of the leakage components.
113
114
Chapter 6
Sizing, construction and assembly of
the new prototypes
6.1 The finite-element methods (FEM) for electrical
machines design
The finite element method is currently very used in electrical machines design. It allows a
precise real-time study of the electromagnetic behavior, considering the non-linearities and
saturations. It is also widely flexible with independence of the geometry, the materials or
the supplying sources. The method is based on a discretization process where the solution
of the Maxwell equations in a complex domain is simplified until it is transformed in the
addition of multiple simple solutions.
The objective of the application of the FEM techniques concerning to the interest of this
dissertation is the definition of the specifications for the electrical machines that are part of
the voltage disturbances generator. The modeling with this method allows the simulation of
the expected behaviour of the machines in their usual operating conditions in order to define
the final electromagnetic designs.

In the literature it has been extensively gathered a number of examples that prove the
results obtained by FEM software faithfully representing the reality. Every finite element
process can be considered as to be done in three steps:
• Pre-processing
• Analysis
• Post-processing
The first phase is the definition of the geometry from the ad-hoc design toolbox included in
the commercial FEM packages or imported from any other design program. The application
of symmetries can noticeable reduce the problem sizing. Then it is assigned the materials,
the excitations, from internal sources o through an external connection circuit —if required—
and the motion. For running the analysis, it is required to define the mesh. The generation
of the mesh is the most important step when applying the FEM methodology. It has to be
defined over the basis of a trade-off between accurate enough results for the solution of the
problem and the computation time required. Finally, and depending on the study purposes,
it is selected the type of study (Electrostatic, Magnetostatic, Transient...). The results of
computations, including parameters, field distributions, vector plots, flux lines, etc, can be
further explored in the post-processing step.
To study the voltage generator disturbances by means of the FEM software, it is repre-
sented the device with the help of an additional software package. This package allows the
connection of external components to the electromagnetic design model of the machine. It
adds adaptability to the model by permitting multi-technology co-simulations. The connec-
tion of the induction regulator with a common point requires the use of this external tool
due the need to have accesibility to the inputs and outputs of the windings. This model will
be used for the steady-state analysis as well as for transient regimes —voltage dips—.
116
6.2 Definition of new prototypes sizing by finite ele-
ment analysis
The design process was accomplished by subsequent improvements. They were listed in
Chapter 5 and repeated here to focus the attention over them. The starting point was the
redefinition of the slot shapes, for both rotor and stator magnetic circuits. Once the new slot
shape was defined, it was studied the effect of the air gap modification. These two changes
in the magnetic circuit were applied to the design of the second prototype. Eventually, the
changes over the electrical circuit were introduced in the third prototype. These changes
were the modification of the ampere turns ratio to make it as close as possible to the unity,
as well as the transformation of the rotor winding in a double-layer configuration.
6.2.1 1. Slot design
The slot shape was finally defined by considering the expected changes in leakage inductances
due to slot opening values.
The contour plots shown in Fig. 6.1 and Fig. 6.2, based on FEM analysis, display the
ranges of values for the total leakage reactances according to the slots openings, from the
starting width to the selected geometric value. Over that maximum, the teeth of the machine
are highly saturated introducing an unnecessary inflation of the saturation levels that would
boost the iron losses.
Even the study about the influence of the different parameters over the slot permeance
shown in Chapter 5 suggests that an increment over the magnitude b1 in rotor would imply
a higher effect over the slot leakage reduction —see Chapter 5, Fig. 5.8a—, this is only an
117
approach that does not consider the combined effect due to multiple changes. The more
profound analysis accomplished by finite elements confirms that an additional increase of b1
magnitude with regards to the rotor slot would have an stronger effect in slot permeance
reduction. The quantification of the effect in rotor slot leakage reduction —if the magnitude
was increased in 1 mm— hints an additional reduction of around 4%. In terms of the new
design, that increment would be translated into a narrowing of the teeth at b1 height that
would generate points where the magnetic flux would concentrate, creating hot spots in
the machine. As a consequence, the b1 modification has been rejected in terms of width
parallelism maintenance.
By comparing the original design, in the simulation environment, with regards to the new
prototype, and if only considering the modifications leakage inductances in this first step, it
is expected to achieve a reduction over the slot leakage reactances of 20.716% in the rotor
and 28.07% in the stator.
7
8.2
49
6.5
6
10.
179
5.5
b0 stator (mm)
7.8
10.5
63
5
65
4.5
10.9
51
4
9.40
9.02
8.63
9.79
11.3
5
1
7
3
3.5
37
3
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
b0 rotor (mm)
Figure 6.1: Rotor Leakage Reactance contour plot(Ω)
Table 6.1 summarizes the expected improvement in leakage reactances for the new pro-
totypes due to the refitting of the slots.
118
7 5.9773
5.9773
6.5 6.2195
6.2195
6 6.46
18
6.4618
5.5 6.7041
b0 stator (mm)
5 6.94 6.704
64 1
4.5 7.1886 6.946

4
7.4309
7.188
4 6
7.6732
7.430
9
3.5
8.1577 7.673
7.9155 2
3
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
b rotor (mm)
0
Figure 6.2: Stator Leakage Reactance contour plot (Ω)
Rotor Stator
b0 (mm) b0 (mm) b0 (mm) b0 (mm)
3.6 9 3 7
slot 4.494 3.563 3.031 1.842
Leakage end-winding 2.994 2.994 3.458 3.458
differential 4.315 1.578 1.816 0.68
Table 6.1: Comparison between leakage reactances in prototype 1 and prototype 2 according
to changes in the slot openings
It has to be noticed that the increment of the slot opening widths (b0 ) has an expected
effect over the slot leakage, but also it has a noticeable consequence in the harmonic leakage
reactances, which would be reduced in a 63.03% in the rotor and in a 62.51% in the stator.
This is as a consequence of the increment in the effective air gap.
The effective air gap takes into account the slotting in the machine through the multipli-
cation of the mechanical air gap by the Carter factor, where τ r is the slot pitch and g, the
air gap width. An increment of b0 parameter in the slots leads to a cut of the Carter factor.
The modification of the Carter reduces the mutual inductance and the magnetic flux in the
air gap so in consequence, the harmonic fluxes responsible of the harmonic leakage reactance
119
too —see Chapter 5, Eqs. 5.15 and 5.16—. The variation of the Carter factor as a function
of the rotor opening is plotted in Fig.6.3.
Figure 6.3: Carter coefficient variation due to rotor slotting
As a summary of the proposed changes for the prototype 2 design, the expected effect
over the total leakage reactance is a decrement of 31.96% in the rotor and a 28% in the
stator.
6.2.2 2. Air gap
According to the conclusions of Chapter 5, an increment in the air gap has a positive effect
over the harmonic leakage reactance. Even the action over the slot openings has demon-
strated an appreciable impact on the harmonic leakage, an extra cutback can be achieved
by increasing the air gap length.
This modification will be slight in order to find a compromise between the reduction of
the harmonic leakage inductance while avoiding an excessive increment of the rotor current
consumption for magnetizing the machine. With this purpose, a parametric analysis was ac-
complished for steady-state conditions. In Fig. 6.4 it is shown the variations of the harmonic
120
2 90 5
1.8 4.8
85
1.6 4.6
80
1.4 4.4
Xhs (Ω)
75
1.2 4.2
I (A)
X (Ω)
1 70 4
Xhr (Ω)
m
m
0.8 3.8
65
0.6 3.6
60
0.4 3.4
55
0.2 3.2
0 50 3
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
g (mm)
Figure 6.4: Variation of main parameters affected by air gap width
reactances for the rotor and the stator, the magnetizing reactance and the magnetization
current as functions of the air gap width.
It can be deduced from Fig. 6.4 that the decrease of the harmonic leakage reactances is
smaller in comparison with the magnetizing reactance, that is clearly reduced in a drastic
way. A final air gap width of 0.8 mm was defined in order not to overpass the magnetizing
current value in more than a 50%.
With this second step, the results for the calculated leakage reactances are shown in table
6.2. With the proposed air gap width, a 22% of improvement was achieved for the rotor and
a 28% for the stator.
121
Rotor Stator
g (mm) g (mm) g (mm) g (mm)
0.5 0.8 0.5 0.8
slot 3.563 3.563 1.842 1.842
Leakage end-winding 2.994 2.994 3.458 3.458
differential 1.578 1.23 0.68 0.49
Table 6.2: Comparison between leakage reactances in original and improved prototype 2
according to the combined effect of the increment of the air-gap width plus the slot refitting
6.2.3 3. Transformation ratio & double-layer rotor winding
It was previously demonstrated in Chapter 5 that if an induction regulator prototype had
a transformation ratio equal to unity, the leakage inductance would be zero. This approach
is obviously not realistic and thus the definition of a theorical transformation ratio equal to
unity will involve an improvement, but far away from the zero value. Due to the effect of the
number of rotor turns in the magnetizing reactance, which had been previously undermined,
the adjustment of the number of turns was done over the stator circuit.
In the design of the electrical circuit for the new prototypes, it has also been substituted
the single-layer rotor winding by a double-layer winding short pitched by 2 slots. The
use of double-layer windings with short-pitch is a traditional solution among the electrical
machines since the short-pitching helps to the cancellation of undesireable harmonic fluxes.
Main characteristics of new electrical circuit in prototype 3 are summarized in Table 6.3.
And as a result of the new winding design and according to the FEM method, the
improvement over the leakage reactances due to the new electrical circuit design for prototype
3 and the comparison with the protoypes 2 and 1 is summarized in Table 6.4.
122
Magnitude Description Value
Rotor Stator
P Number of poles 4 4
nr |ns Number of turns per coil 34 25
Nr · ξr |Ns · ξs Turns per winding factor 246.5 249.6
ξr |ξs Winding factors 0.964 0.832
qr |qs Slots/pole/phase 2 3
qr |qs Transformation ratio 1.03
Table 6.3: Data of prototype 3 electrical circuit
Rotor Stator
Prot 0 Prot 1 Prot 2 Prot 0 Prot 1 Prot 2
slot 4.494 3.563 2.63 3.031 1.842 1.458
Leakage end-winding 2.994 2.994 1.4056 3.458 3.458 2.831
differential 4.315 1.23 0.566 1.816 0.49 0.3
Table 6.4: Comparison between leakage reactances in original and improved prototypes
because of the change in the transformation ratio and the double-layer rotor winding design
The stator leakage reactances are reduced due to the decrease of the number of turns. For
the rotor, the change from a single to double-layer winding has a contribution to the cutback
of the slot leakage reactance. If the double-layer winding is short-pitch, an additional effect
crops up when the two coils inside the slot belong to different phases [79, ?]. The effect of
the short-pitching is also reflected in the reduction of the harmonic leakage component, as
can be observed from Eq. 5.15. The new distribution of the rotor winding and the shorten
of the end-turn causes a drop in its end-leakage reactance. The final quantification of the
expected effect in leakage reactances reductions due to modifications in electric machines
design are a 61% in the rotor and a 44.74% in the stator.
123
6.3 Simulation of transient response by FEM analysis
As a preliminary step to the final manufacturing of the new prototypes, the transient FEM
model was developed. By the dint of the co-simulation tool of the FEM software package
the induction regulator with the parallel connection of the windings was modeled.
The transient FEM model reproduces the whole voltage dip reproduction cycle. In every
simulation step a full snapshot of the variables of interest: voltages, currents, dip depth,
electromagnetic fields, fluxes, etc. can be taken. In addition, it is also used to estimate the
operating temperature of the induction regulator or the losses in the different components,
such as Joule, iron losses or parasitic current losses. It was previously mentioned that due
to the purpose of this machine, it is going to be used for very brief periods of time. Due to
this, the thermal study did not suppose any constraint for the design and it is not shown in
this thesis document.
Several virtual tests were accomplished:
• No-load and short-circuit tests for figuring out the parameters of the equivalent circuit
and the subsequent Thevenin impedance
• loaded tests for evaluating the induction regulator response in normal operating con-
ditions
The results from Thevenin reactance calculation due to FEM model are compared with
experimental results in the following chapter. In the comparison of the virtual tests with
regards to the lab results for voltage dip reproduction and for all the cases of interest,
discrepancies between real and simulated values of voltage in the PCC, in the deep part
124
of the dip, were below 10%. Apart from the analysis of voltages and currents, it was also
checked that in none of the reproduced use cases, the magnetic flux density was high enough
to invalidate the calculated inductances due to saturation.
a) Magnetic flux density for α = 29.8o
b) Magnetic flux density for α = 0.19o

Figure 6.5: Magnetic flux density in prototype 3 before and during voltage dip reproduction
The model is also valid for checking the behaviour of the prototypes when facing to
power converters. The power converters are main parts in RES not composed by synchronous
generators directly coupled to the mains. The converters can be represented, at their simplest
way, as current sources with controlled angle. These virtual tests could not be reproduced
125
in the lab due to the lack of commercial equipment with the required power and being
impossible to withstand the voltage dips without disconnecting.
6.4 Construction and assembly
The electrical machines were built with demostrative purposes. Under this perspective some
considerations were taken into account when manufacturing these ad-hoc prototypes.
In order to facilitate the access to the rotor, the machine structure was defined to be
opened and without shields. The magnetic core was inserted into a metallic case realized from
a steel pipe. The absence of shields implied the use of bearings with very small tolerances
to avoid misalignments in the shaft. The laminations were laser cut. One example of the
laminations with the new slot design can be observed in Figs. 6.6a and 6.6b.
(a) Rotor laminations (b) Stator laminations
Figure 6.6: Rotor and stator laminations for new prototype designs
The machines has been thought to be interchangeable, to allow the comparison of two
different variants over the design. Even if the targets were mainly oriented to the use as an
126
Figure 6.7: Electrical machines with taps to be used as EM1
induction regulator, the two constructed machines can be inserted in the prototype for their
operation as VFT or induction regulator. For this reason, a special coupling was used, in
order to be adaptable for multiple servo motor models. Also the elastic coupling placed at the
end of the shaft grants the permutation between the absolute magnetic and the incremental
encoders depending if the use of the electrical machine is as EM1 or EM2.
The design of the machine with a bigger air gap entails a higher current consumption
when used as variable frequency transformer and, as a consequence, a bigger voltage drop.
To compensate this effect, the electrical machines were provided with intermediate taps in
the winding to adjust the transformation ratio if needed, as observed in Fig. 6.7.
The main steps leading to the construction and assembly of the electrical machines are
gathered in the following pictures:
• In Fig. 6.8a the stacking of the stator laminations is shown. An analogous procedure
was followed to conform the rotor.
127
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 6.8: Main steps in prototypes construction
• In Fig. 6.8b the magnetic package is inserted inside the case and fixed due to the
dovetails. Simultaneously, the stator winding was inserted in its place and held with
the wedges introduced in the slots.
• In Fig. 6.8c, the bench is configured, over a reinforced metallic basement, with high
precision bearings and the supports previously grinded.
• The last step of the prototype construction process is the final mounting and the
installation of ancillary parts, such as the rings, the brushes, the brushes yokes or the
encoder, as displayed in Fig. 6.8d.
128
6.5 Conclusions
Along this chapter, it has been accomplished the sizing of the new prototypes with the finite-
elements tools. This has been done by taking into consideration the expected positive effects
in the leakage reactances reduction analyzed in Chapter 5. Later it has been shown, also
within the FEM environment, the model for the study of the behaviour of the new designs
during a voltage dip reproduction. Eventually, a summary of the process for the construction
and the assembly of the new prototypes has been gathered in order to show the specifics on
physical implementation at a laboratory scale.
129
130
Chapter 7
Experimental results and comparative
analysis of the prototypes
7.1 Determination of the equivalent circuit parameters
for new prototypes
In this section, the equivalent circuit parameters of new prototypes are evaluated. Once the
parameters are determined they can be applied for the evaluation of the prototypes in steady-
state regime through the simulation models developed in Matlab/Simulink.

R These models,
detailed in Chapter 4, grant a precise study of the prototypes behavior without the need of
long computation times required by the FEM models in order to fulfill the accomplishment
of the design targets.
The Thevenin impedance is evaluated through the equivalent circuit parameters. The
reduction of that Thevenin impedance has been considered as the key performance indica-
tor to predict a better behaviour of the prototype in its operation as part of the voltage
disturbances generator prototype.
The characterization is attained by the no-load and short-circuit tests. In Fig. 7.1 the
magnetizing and leakages reactances of the three prototypes are gathered as well as the value
of the Thevenin reactances . The differences between simulation and comparative results
for the resistances have been neglected, due to their scarce modification between prototypes.
For every variable, the predicted values according to the FEM model are displayed together
with the experimental results.
Xσr Xσs
14 9
12 8
7
10 6
8 5
6 4
3
4
2
2 1
0 0
Sim 11,803 7,787 4,607 Sim 8,305 5,790 4,589
Exp 11,652 7,257 4,481 Exp 8,093 5,616 4,418
Xm Xth
200 30
25
150
20
100 15
10
50
5
0 0
Sim 180,248 64,512 52,842 Sim 21,780 14,305 8,906
Exp 181,051 63,481 51,920 Exp 23,825 13,624 8,556
Figure 7.1: Comparison of parameters between the prototypes
Differences can be appreciated in the comparison between the magnetizing reactances
in the second and third prototypes, where the magnetic circuit has remained unchanged
in its design. Apart from possible inaccuracies that could derive from manufacturing, the
substitution of the single layer by a short-pitched double layer winding introduces variations
over the winding factor (mainly over the harmonic factor). This provokes a cut over the
harmonic content of the field waveform that favours the machines magnetization, causing an
effective reduction in the magnetizing reactance Xm .
With the design changes proposed in this work and according the the results shown in
Fig. 7.1 it can be concluded that a reduction of 61.56% was achieved in the rotor leakage
132
reactance and a 45.41% over the stator leakage reactance. The expected percentages of the
decrease according to FEM simulations were 61.01% and 44.74% for the rotor and the stator
respectively.
These results in the leakage reactances lead to the fulfillment of the design target of
decreasing the Thevenin reactance. In the analysis of the experimental values from the lab
tests, it can be concluded that a reduction of 42.81% over the original value was reached with
the first improvement and, reaching at the end, a total cutback of 64.09% over the original
value.
7.2 Experimental results. Comparative analysis
In the following sections it is displayed the experimental results of the comparison between
the three different prototypes. This comparison has been established based on the laboratory
tests for diverse load status (passive and active) and generators operating in different points
of the PQ plane. This dissertation has put the attention on the electromagnetic performance
of the various prototypes used as induction regulators but not in the control systems of the
generating sources. Due to this and for contrasting purposes, the tests of the voltage distur-
bances generator with the three electrical machines that can be used as EM1 independently
of the type of source connected —but working under the same conditions—proves to be
sufficient.
7.2.1 No-load test
The no-load tests grant an initial validation. Since there is no current circulating by the
stator, the effect of the mutual coupling is cancelled. In Fig. 7.2 it is shown the compari-
133
son between the voltages at the output of the voltage disturbances generator for the three
induction regulators.
Prototype 1
X: -0.412 X: 0.351
Y: 16.37 Y: 15.74
Prototype 2
X: -0.412 X: 0.351
Y: 15.12 Y: 17.17
Prototype 3
X: -0.412 X: 0.351
Y: 12.33 Y: 13.61
Figure 7.2: Comparison of voltage dips for the prototypes at no-load
Prototypes 2 and 3 present a reduced Thevenin impedance with respect to the original
prototype, as was presented in Fig. 7.1. Although the reduction of the Thevenin impedance
is evident, it is also clear that the current consumption required to magnetize the machine
increases due to the air gap widening. As there is no other effect involved due to the absence
of coupling with the stator winding, the voltage drop does not evidence this impedance
reduction since it is partially balanced with the magnetizing current enlargement. The
60.09% of Thevenin reactance reduction between the prototype 1 and the prototype 3 is
later translated into a 24% of voltage drop cutback. Slight differences can be appreciated
between the voltages in steady-state condition prior to the disturbance. In that situation,
the induction regulator has reached its theoretical minimum value achievable in the regulator
at the no-load condition.
134
7.2.2 Loaded tests
7.2.2.1 Test against a passive load
The first trials of the voltage disturbances generator working at diverse load regimes were
attained with passive loads. Fig. 7.3 shows the limiting case where EM1 is operating at
full-power. The voltages in the output of the prototypes are plotted, where the ENTSOE
D4 profile has been programmed (see Chapter 2).
400
Prototype 1
200 X: 0.379
Y: 20.68
0
Voltage at the induction regulator output (V)
−200
−400
−0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
400
Prototype 2
200 X:X:0.379
0.379
Y:Y:15.23
15.23
0
−200
−400
−0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
400
Prototype 3
200 X: 0.379 1
Y: 12.13
0
−200
−400
−0.5 0 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)
Figure 7.3: Comparison of voltage dips against resistive load at full rated power
As expected, bigger differences can be observed while there is current circulating along
the whole dip profile with respect to the no-load case. To focus only on the electromagnetic
behavior of the prototypes, the comparison is established for the deep part of the voltage dip
when reached the steady-state condition. From the prototypes 1 and prototype 2 responses
it can be deduced there is a reduction in the remnant voltage of 26%. An additional 20.35%
can be achieved with prototype 3. The voltages in the deep part of the voltage dip are
obviously greater with respect to the ones in the no-load case because of the circulation of
current through the stator during the dip.
135
The tests with resistive load represent the advantage of not introducing additional tran-
sients coming from the load behaviour. However, due to the resistance nature, the sudden
voltage drop during the disturbance is translated into a similar reduction in the current.
Even if it is clear that the new prototypes present a reduced voltage drop with respect to the
original electrical machine, the impossibility of maintaining a noticeable current circulating
during the dip implies that an accurate quantification of the effect cannot be achieved by
means of resistive tests.
7.2.2.2 Test against an active load
In Fig. 7.4 it is shown the bench used for the tests with the asynchronous machine, operating
as motor or generator. It is composed by a high-efficiency asynchronous motor mechanically
coupled to a synchronous machine. For the operation as a motor, the asynchronous machine
is connected to the output of the voltage disturbances generator while the synchronous
machine connected to a resistor bank allows the variation of motor loading.
Figure 7.4: Asynchronous motor/generator test bench
136
Testing with the asynchronous motor makes it possible a more direct check of the differ-
ences between the Thevenin reactances of the three prototypes. But following considerations
must be taken into account:
• When a small-sized motor, like the one in the lab test bench is subjected to a voltage
dip, it suddenly stops. If the voltage recovers, the motor starts, consuming a current
several times bigger than the rated.
• If the starting current is limited by a higher short-circuit impedance, considering the
series Thevenin impedance of the voltage disturbances generator, the voltage recovery
time slows down.
In Fig. 7.5 it can be easily observed the differences between the responses of the three
prototypes for the tests conducted at rated power. From the comparison it can be observed
that the recovery time after the dip for prototype 2 is reduced in almost half with regard to
the original prototype and an additional third decrement can be achieved with prototype 3,
as a direct effect of the contraction of the Thevenin reactances in similar proportions.
400
Prototype 1
200
0
−200
−400
−0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
400
Prototype 2
200
−200
−400
−0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
400
Prototype 3
200
−200
−400
−0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
Time (s)
Figure 7.5: Comparative behaviour of tests against asynchronous motor
137
7.2.2.3 Test against generators
Once it has been concluded the loaded tests with active and passive loads, the behaviour of
the device when connecting generators has to be checked. These generators should represent
the diverse generating technologies commercially available suitable to be certified by the
disturbances generator prototype. Three types of suitable sources can be found:
• Asynchronous generator: which represents the simplest wind power technology cur-
rently in service.
• Synchronous generator: which is the usual machine used in conventional energy sources,
present at microgrid voltage levels mainly in diesel units and hydraulic groups.
• Generators coupled to the grid through converters: existing in all the technologies not
employing a generator directly connected to the grid. It is a widely extended topology
in distributed generation.
Due to avoid the interference of the control systems of the converters over the voltage
disturbances prototype, affecting the response of the device against disturbances, the third
technology has been rejected for the validation of the new electrical machines design. It
has also to be remarked that the non-existence of commercial full-power converters with the
required power able to withstand when facing to voltage dips, would have made impossible
to carry tests with this technology at lab scale.
7.2.2.3.1 Asynchronous generator
These machines cannot naturally stand up voltage dips. The voltage drop in machine termi-
nals leads to a decrease of the electric torque that causes an overspeed issue. In a real loca-
138
tion, this technology, used in primary wind power turbines, usually tripped by the overspeed
protections performance. Due to this, it was progressively substituted by other topologies,
such as doubly-fed induction generators or generators coupled through full-power converters
(synchronous or asynchronous). At a lab scale and with the testing purposes related to this
work, the asynchronous machine allows to keep some current circulating through the stator
impedance during the whole voltage disturbance, with the generator sign criteria and adding
the extra transient regime of the electrical machine to the voltage disturbances generator.
This is carried out with the aim of validating the design target of the internal voltage drop
reduction.
Prototype 1
X: 0.435
Y: 67.61
Prototype 2
X: 0.435
Y: 47.13
Prototype 3
X: 0.435
Y: 28.34
Figure 7.6: Comparative behaviour against asynchronous generator
The bench used was the one previously presented in Fig. 7.4. The synchronous generator
drove by the converter, is used as turbine emulator for the asynchronous machine. It can be
observed that when using the prototype 2 a reduction of 30.29% in the voltage dip depth
can be achieved over the prototype 1 whereas prototype 3 shows a decrement of 58.08%. At
the same time, these results also demonstrate that the cutback in the Thevenin reactance
139
has also a noticeable effect in the transient regime drop time at the first beginning of the
voltage dip.
7.2.2.3.2 Synchronous generator
The tests with synchronous generator machines were conducted with the bench that can be
observed in picture 7.7. It is composed by the joint of a DC machine and a synchronous
generator with the same rated power than the voltage disturbances generator. The DC
machine acts as the turbine by means of the control of the active power injected while the
regulation of the voltage over the excitation system allows the management of the reactive
power flow.
Figure 7.7: DC machine and synchronous generator test bench
Several cases were tested with the synchronous generator. They were carried out with two
different power factors, meeting the requirements in [54], 0.9 inductive and 0.95 capacitive.
These power factors in current regulations are required for wind turbines, and it was used
as guidance. Even the type of generating source used is different, from the point of view of
the disturbances generator prototype, the importance roots on the current injected by the
generating source, since the goal is not the testing of the associated control systems. Four
140
loading situations in steady-state were selected (≈ 10%, ≈ 35%, ≈ 60% and ≈ 85%) covering
the scenarios required in the regulations for the testing procedure (between 10% − 20% and
over 80% of rated active power).
The field current is provided by an independent power source which is directly supplied
by the output of the generator when rectifying the AC voltage. Due to the low price, it is
the widespread solution in medium to large conventional power plants. When facing to a
voltage dip, the field current is affected by the voltage drop in the machine terminals. The
non-existence of control over the excitation allows a better appreciation of the improvement
in the response of the ad-hoc prototypes over the original model.
An example of the whole profile for one of the cases, with a 10% of loading is displayed
in Fig. 7.8. It can be observed that during the transient mode, the prototype 2 also reaches
a very low value of remnant voltage but the system achieves the steady-state regime faster
with prototype 3, where the effect of the Thevenin reactance reduction becomes more visible.
400
Prototype 1
200
0
−200
−400
−0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
400
Prototype 2
200
−200
−400
−0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
400
Prototype 3
200
−200
−400
−0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)
Figure 7.8: Comparative of the behaviour of prototypes connected to synchronous generators

with static excitation
141
The whole range of tests accomplished are summarized in Fig. 7.9 where it can be
easily observed the reduction in the voltage dip generator disturbances output when facing
a voltage dip with a depth reference of 10%. In all the cases, the remaining voltage is higher
if compared with any other type of loads/generator because the transient reactance of the
synchronous generator is high enough (around 25Ω) to limit the level of the voltage drop
in the connection node. As expected, a smaller decrease is achieved with the prototype
2 with regards to prototype 3. The improvement with prototype 2 can be estimated in a
range between 55% − 60% depending on loading condition while 70% − 75% of enhancement
is obtained with the modified prototype 3, both of them considered over the commercial
electrical machine response.
100 Prototype 1
90 40 Prototype 2
80 Prototype 3
70 30 PF=0.9 ind
60 % dip depth PF=0.95 cap

Uo(V)
50
20
40
30
20 10
10
0
10 35 60 85
% Load
Figure 7.9: Comparative of the behaviour of prototypes connected to synchronous generators

with static excitation
7.3 Conclusions
Thorough this chapter the experimental verification of new prototypes behaviour have been
accomplished. With that purpose, the electrical machines specifically designed in this work
142
have been characterized, in order to find the new parameters of their equivalent circuits.
As a result, the new Thevenin reactances have been calculated. Once has been checked
the effective curtailment of the Thevenin reactance, the new prototypes have been validated
by their testing from no-load conditions to fully-loaded with loads/generators with diverse
characteristics. The comparative analysis of the three prototypes evidences the better suit-
ability of the new designs (mainly prototype 3) to reduce the affection of the EUT current
injection over the testing device.
143
144
Chapter 8
Final conclusions and future work
The expected growing in the insertion of distributed generation in electrical systems has
forced the tightening of requirements in grid codes. For isolated microgrids and due to
their specificities, this trend is more pronounced. On the other hand, the deployment of
regulations is linked to the need for experimental equipment to certify the devices according
to those regulations.
Among all the diverse topologies existing from a theoretical perspective just a few of them
are commercially available. To this small group it is added the voltage disturbanes generator
developed in this dissertation. It presents the advantages of being a complete equipment for
reproduction of the whole voltage dip pattern, including the recovery ramp, as well as the
frequency disturbances and the controlled phase jumps. In this thesis, an initial small-scale
prototype was built for its study, in order to setting the basis for a further development at
a bigger scale.
Thorough this work a complete study from different perspectives was accomplished. It
included the assembly and the proof-of-concept tests, the study in permanent regime —ma-
thematical expressions, simulations and testing— and the transient regime —mathematical
expressions and FEM—. A nuclear part of this dissertation was focused on the enhacement
of the induction regulator design to be used for the voltage dip reproduction. In the vali-
dation of the new prototypes it could be verified the predicted reduction of the Thevenin
reactance, around 65%, which is translated into a lower value of remnant voltage dip depth
depending on the loading condition.
As a future work for validation, the study of the prototype behaviour against a source
of constant current is suggested. Since the current injected to the prototype would not be
affected by the disturbance, it would be the best option to quantify, precisely, the effect of
the design over the remaining voltage. This possibility was not available during this work
due to the absence of the required equipment in the lab testing site.
Some other actions have also been identified, with the purpose of going one step further
towards a scalable prototype up to the power of suitable EUTs (up to 5 MW).
With regard to the construction and assembly of the new voltage disturbances generator:
• Substitution of the electromechanical contactors by static contactors in order to reduce
the transients peaks in the voltage dips reproduction.
• Centralization of the servo motors controls in a single drive, to simplify the equipment
and reduce, to the possible extent, the areas for potential failure.
Concerning the electrical machines:
• Once checked the guidelines proposed for the design of the new prototypes, these are
aligned with the goal of improving the voltage disturbances prototype response, it
could be possible to get an optimized electrical machine by applying any optimization
algorithm during the design process.
146
APPENDIX
147
148
Appendix A
Technical Data of the Experimental
Setup Equipment
A.1 Servo Motors
Two commercial servo motors for its use in the voltage disturbances generator were selected.
Traditionally, the basic reasons for using servo systems include the demand of improved
transient response times, the reduction of the steady state errors and the decrease of the
sensitivity to load parameters. In Fig. A.1 the two servo motors in the experimental setup
can be observed.
Figure A.1: Servo motors involved in the disturbances generator prototype

A.1.1 Servo motor for EM1 machine
EM1 servo motor is a permanent magnet synchronous motor. This type of machine is
identified by its high dynamic response, big torque density and accurate position and control.
The main characteristics of the Baumüller servo motor chosen for this application are shown
in Table A.1 [80].
Manufacturer : Baumüller
Model : DS 56 S-3-R-K

P (kW ) 1.4 Electrical Power
nn (rpm) 3000 Rated Speed
Mn (N m) 3.8 Rated Torque
In (A) 1.8 Rated Current
ke (v/1000rpm) 95.2 Back e.m.f at 1000 rpm
kt (N m/A) 1.57 Torque constant
kd (N m/1000rpm) 0.030 Torque loss referred to 1000 rpm
Mr (N m) 0.154 Bearing friction
w(kg) 6.6 Weight
J(kgcm2 ) 5.7 Rotor inertia
Table A.1: Data of Baumüller DS 56 S-3-R-K
A.1.2 Servo motor for EM2 machine
An asynchronous geared motor for the frequency disturbances generation was selected. In
the application of interest it is not required a very high performance. Due to this, a geared
motor is convenient because of its simplicity and low cost. The fundamental parameters of
the motor and the gearbox are shown in Tables A.2 and A.3 [81].
150
Manufacturer : Pujol Muntalá
Model : IPCM 128/90L-4/148
- Motor

P (kW ) 1.5 Electrical Power
nn (rpm) 1400 Nominal speed
V (V ) 210-230Δ / 370-400Υ Rated voltage
I(A) 6.02/3.48 Rated Current
f (Hz) 50 Frequency
cosφ 0.79 Power factor
Table A.2: Motor data from Pujol Muntalá IPCM 128/90L-4/148
- Gearbox

n2 (rpm) 148 Rated low speed
M2 (N m) 93 Rated torque at low-speed shaft
i 9.43 Reduction ratio
Table A.3: Gearbox data from Pujol Muntalá IPCM 128/90L-4/148
A.2 Drives
A.2.1 Angle drive for EM1
Baumüller b maXX 4400 [82], which data appears in A.4, is a modular servo controller. As it
is a modular and scalable structure it can be adopted for multiple applications. It is suitable
for its usage in the voltage disturbances prototype due to its speed response in positioning
control, required for the accurate reproduction of voltage disturbances profiles.
151
Manufacturer : Baumüller
Model : b maXX 4413-STO-01200-03

Pm (kW ) 2 Motor power
Vs (V ) 400 (3 phases) Power supply voltage
In (A) 4.5 Rated current
Imax (A) 9 Maximum current
F 2 Overload factor
Table A.4: Main technical characteristics of Baumüller b maXX 4413
A.2.2 Speed drive for EM2
Altivar 71 (Table A.5) is a variable speed drive of Schneider Electric company [83]. It is a
cost effective device that provides an easy and complete performance.
Manufacturer : Schneider Electric
Model : Altivar 71

Pm (kW ) 7.5 Motor power
Vs (V ) 380V...480V (3 phases) Power supply voltage
I380V /I480V (A) 27/22.2 Line current
Pa (kV A) 17.8 Apparent power
Ic380 /Ic480V (A) 17.6/14 Maximum continuous current at 380V/480V
It60 /It2 (A) 26.4/29 Maximum transient current for 60s/2s
fo (Hz) 0.1...599 Speed output frequency
w(kg) 5.5 Weigth
Table A.5: Main technical characteristics of Altivar 71
152
A.3 Encoders
A.3.1 Absolut magnetic encoder for EM1
An absolute encoder was installed in the shaft of the machine EM1. As the control loop of
angle is closed through Baumüller drive, the encoder is used just with information purposes.
The main characteristics of the selected RM 36 are gathered in Table A.6 [84]. The RM 36
encoder is based on the magnetic principle. A magnet rotates jointly to the shaft, activating,
without direct contact, the Hall sensors placed in the non-rotating part. The rotation angle
between 0 ◦ -90 ◦ gives a proportional analog signal varying between 0-10 VDC.
Manufacturer : Elap
Model : RM 36

Vs (V DC) 20-30 Voltage supply
Vo (N m) 0-10 Output voltage
I(mA) 10 Maximum output loading
Table A.6: Data of RM 36 absolut encoder
A.3.2 Incremental encoder for EM2
An incremental encoder translates rotary motion into a group of digital pulses. The three
signals collected are: A for the rotational speed, B for the direction of rotation and Z for
the absolute position of the zero. They are processed and decodified by the encoder card
VW3A3401, installed in the Altivar 71 [85] drive.
153
Manufacturer : Schneider Electric
Model : XCC1506PS50X

D(mm) 58 Diameter
Ds (mm) 6 Shaft diameter
Resolution 5000 Points per revolution
Us (V ) 4.75..40 VDC Rated Supply Voltage
Table A.7: Data of encoder Schneider XCC1506PS50X
A.4 DSPs dSPACE
The dSPACE DS1104 R&D [86] control boards are responsible for the control of the operation
of the voltage disturbances prototype. The simplicity of its use, due to the human machine
interface (HMI) that can be used with the MATLAB/Simulink

R environment, makes it a
powerful tool to be used in rapid control prototyping experiments. The signals are collected
through Hall sensors boxes. These sensors adapt the measured voltage and current levels to
corresponding 0-10 VDC required for the DSPs. In Fig. A.2 can be observed the internal
structure of the board.
Each board integrates an A/D converter with 8 channels, that will be used for amass
the measurements. Four channels are multiplexed and have a conversion time of 2 μs. The
other four are parallel, and have a faster conversion time of 0.8 μs. The D/A transforms
the signals from the RT interface in analog setpoints to command the drives. The digital
outputs will control the opening and closing of selected switches of the voltage disturbances
prototype.
154
Figure A.2: Block diagram of dSPACE DS1104 R&D
155
156
Appendix B
Thevenin equivalent for the
EM1+EM2 case
This annex collets the mathematical development from the equivalent circuit that allows the
achivement of the Thevenin equivalent expressions of the global equipment. In figure B.1
it is shown a single-phase scheme of the device. Subscripts r and s are used for rotor and
stator windings and 1 and 2, for EM1 y EM2 machines.
s·R´r1 jX´σr1 Rs1 jXσs1 Is1 Is2 Rs2 jXσs2
Ir2 E22
I´r1 I´m Rr2
jX´m1
jXσr2 Uo
s·U´r1
jXm2 E21
Figure B.1: Single-phase representation of the device
This scheme has been considered the simplest representation to find the equations of
interest. Two relevant considerations concerning to this scheme must be highlighted:

• The VFT is represented through its equivalent as seen from stator-side. It means
that the parameters of the circuit are referred to the variable frequency f2 , related with the
frequency of the grid U1 through the slip.
• The induction regulator is shown as its real equivalent circuit, so the voltage input to
the rotor is fed from the variable frequency supply. The parameters of EM2 machine are
referred to rotor or stator depending on the corresponding winding.
B.1 Thevenin source
The calculation of the Thevenin source leads to the following expression B.1
·s·U
Z r2 · j · Xm1 1
Uth = + jX ) · (Z + Z ) + jX · Z (B.1)
(s · Rr1 σr1 s1 r2 m1 r2
where the impedances Z s1 and Z r2 are:

Z s1 = Rs1 + jXσs1 + jXm1
Z r2 = Rr2 + jXσr2 + jXm2
B.2 Thevenin impedance
The circuit to obtain the Thevenin impedance by short-circuiting the independent sources
is displayed in B.2:
The equivalent impedance corresponding to the VFT, Ze q is then B.2:
158
Rs2 jXσs2
E22
Rr2
Zeq
jXσr2 Icc
jXm2 E21
Figure B.2: Single-phase representation of the device
+ jX ) · jX
(s · Rr1
Z eq = (Rs1 + jXσs1 ) + σr1 m1 (B.2)
+ jX
s · Rr1 + jX
σr1 m1
And the Thevenin impedance is displayed in B.3. It can be easily observed than a
particular case where Zeq = 0 leads to the previously deduced equations for EM2 shown in
the main body of this thesis document.

Z eq jXm2 jXm2 Xm22
Z th = · − Z r2 · −1 + + Z s2 (B.3)
Z r2 + Z eq K ∗m2 Z r2 · K m2 Z r2 · Km2
2
159
160
Appendix C
Calculation of Laplace residuals for
transient regime solutions
C.1 Rotor current ir (s)
The equation in Laplace domain of the current circulating by the rotor of EM1 and obtained
from 3.2.5 is shown in C.1:

(ur + Lr · ir0 ) · Rs + Ls s − Lm s us + Lm · ir0
ir (s) = (C.1)
(Rr + Lr s) · (Rs + Ls s) − L2m · s2
After replacing in the previous expression the value of the rotor and stator voltages, the
resulting equation is presented in C.2:

Ur · ω + s2 + ω 2 · Lr · i0 Rs + Ls s
ir (s) = 2 −
s + ω 2 · Lr · Ls − L2m · s2 + (Rr · Ls − Lr · Rs ) · s + Rr · Rs
(C.2)
Lm · s · U s s · sin (φs ) + ω · cos (φs ) + s2 + ω 2 Lm · i0
− 2
s + ω 2 · Lr · Ls − L2m · s2 + (Rr · Ls − Lr · Rs ) · s + Rr · Rs
The equation C.2 can be splitted in simple fractions attending to the poles number:
N1 N2 N3 N4
ir (s) = + + + (C.3)
s − jω s + jω s − r3 s − r4
with the subsequent values for the residuals:

j · Ur · Rs + jωLs + ω · Lm · Us · (j · sin(φs ) + cos(φs ))
N1 = (s − jω) · ir |s=jω =
2 · [−A · ω 2 + jω · B + C]
(C.4)

−j · Ur · Rs − jωLs + ω · Lm · Us · (−j · sin(φs ) + cos(φs ))
N2 = (s + jω) · ir |s=−jω = = N1∗
2 · [−A · ω 2 + jω · B + C]
(C.5)
2
s + r32 · [Lr · i0 · Rs + Ls · r3 − L2m · i0 · r1 ]
N3 = (s − r3 ) · ir |s=r = +
3 A · (s2 + r32 ) · (r3 − r4 )
(C.6)
Ur · ω · (Rs + Ls · r3 ) − Lm · r3 · Us · (r3 · sin(φs ) + ω · cos(φs ))
+
A · (s2 + r32 ) · (r3 − r4 )
2
s + r42 · [Lr · i0 · Rs + Ls · r4 · L2m · i0 · r4
N4 = (s − r4 ) · ir |s=r = +
4 A · (s2 + r32 ) · (r3 − r4 )
(C.7)
Ur · ω · (Rs + Ls · r2 ) − Lm · r2 · Us · (r2 · sin(φs ) + ω · cos(φs ))
+
A · (s2 + r32 ) · (r3 − r4 )
C.2 Stator current is(s)
Similarly, the residuals calculation for i s(s) breeds the following formulas:
162
j · Us (Rr + jωLr ) · (j · sin(φs ) + cos(φs )) + j · Lm ω · Ur
N5 = (s − jω) · ir |s=jω = (C.8)
2 · [−A · ω 2 + jω · B + C]
−j · Us (Rr + jωLr ) · (−j · sin(φs ) + cos(φs )) − j · Lm ω · Ur

N6 = (s + jω) · ir |s=−jω = = N5∗
2 · [−A · ω 2 + jω · B + C]
(C.9)
2
s + r72 · [Lm · i0 · (Rr + Lr · r7 ) − Lm · Lr · i0 · r7 ]
N7 = (s − r7 ) · ir |s=r = +
7 A · (s2 + r72 ) · (r7 − r8 )
(C.10)
Us · ω(Rr + Lr · r7 ) · (r7 · sin(φs ) + ω · cos(φs )) − Lm · ωr7 · Us
+
A · (s2 + r72 ) · (r7 − r8 )
2
s + r82 · [Lm · i0 · (Rr + Lr · r7 ) − Lm · Lr · i0 · r8 ]
N8 = (s − r8 ) · ir |s=r = +
8 A · (s2 + r82 ) · (r8 − r7 )
(C.11)
Us · ω(Rr + Lr · r4 ) · (r4 · sin(φs ) + ω · cos(φs )) − Lm · ωr8 · Us
+
A · (s2 + r82 ) · (r8 − r7 )
Once calculated all residuals, it can be defined the transient regime of the electric ma-
chines that act as a induction regulator according to its equivalent circuit parameters.
163
164
Appendix D
Analytical calculation of slot leakage
components in EM2
D.1 Slot leakage inductance calculation
D.1.1 Rotor slot leakage calculation
In every electrical machine, the value of the differential inductance that provoke the slot
leakage flux is directly related with the magnetic permeance derived from the geometry, P .
It is also linked with the winding distribution and the number of conductors inserted in the
slot, ns , according to D.1:
dL = n2 s · P (D.1)
The inductance can be determined in terms of the flux linkages created by the magnetic
field (λ) with regard to the current which created it, (I), as shown in D.2:
λ
L= (D.2)
I
The rotor slot has a shape like the one shown in D.1:
Figure D.1: Rotor slot
where n(x) is the number of conductors included in a stip with differential height in the
x axes. According to Ampère Law D.3:
2
H · dl = n(x) · I (D.3)
1
For a generic region containing conductors and assuming the magnetic field in every
section with differential height is constant, the following expression D.4 is satisfied.
Hy · y = n(x) · Ix (D.4)
166
μo · n2 (x) · I · le · dx
dλ = n(x) · dΦ = (D.5)
y
μo · n2 (x) · le · dx
dL = n(x) · dΦ = (D.6)
y
Matching the expressions D.1 and D.5 and dividing for the specific length of the machine
le , the equation relating the slot specific permeance is shown in D.7
μo · n2 (x) · dx
dp = n(x) · dΦ = (D.7)
y
The function n(x) has different values depending on the slot region where is placed.
Therefore the value of this function has to be calculated for each of the four zones marked
on the figureD.1.
• Regions 1 y 2
The leakage flux that close their path in this area link no conductors. This supposes that
n(x) = 0 and, as a consequence, the slot specific permeance in this area is also null.
• Region 3
For region 3, the mathematical calculation is more complex. In this case, n(x) varies
within the section. The starting point to calculate the permeance in this region is also
D.7. To solve the integral that leads to the permeance value, it is required to establish a
relationship between x and y. From figure D.2 can be determined by double similatiry, the
relation D.9.
167
Figure D.2: Fraction of rotor slot
ν ν + x ν + x − r0 − d 3
= = (D.8)
b2 /2 y/2 y/2
ν ν + d2
= (D.9)
b2 /2 b1 /2
Through the matching of these equations can be finally established the relationship bet-
ween the variables x e y, as shown in figure D.10:
b − b2
y = b2 + 1 · (x − r0 − d3 ) (D.10)
d2
Then it is necessary to establish the relationship between the coils that encompasses a
line of leakage flux passing through the slot to a certain height x with respect to the number
of total coils into the slot. From figure D.3 can be deduced D.11.
168
Figure D.3: Change of the turns ratio depending on the slot depth
n(x) 1
= · (x − (r0 + d3 )) (D.11)
ns d2
With all the known terms, specific permeance in slot region 3 is calculated by solving the
integral D.12
r +d +d
0 2 3 1 dx
p3 = μ0 · 2 · (x − r0 − d3 )2 · b −b
(D.12)
r0 +d3 d2 b2 + 1d 2 · (x − r0 − d3 )
2
Performing the following change of variable
b − b2 t − b2
b2 + 1 · (x − r0 − d3 ) = t −→ x − r0 − d3 = ·d (D.13)
d2 b1 − b2 2
b1 − b2 d · dt
· dx = dt −→ dx = 2 (D.14)
d2 b1 − b2
The equation D.12 is expressed in terms of the t variable as:
b
μ 1 (t − b2 )2 · d32
p3 = 20 · dt (D.15)
d2 b2 (b1 − b2 )3 · t
169
The final expression for the permeance in the region 3 is displayed in D.16:

μ0 b21 − b22 b
p3 = 3
· d2 + b22 · ln 1 − 2 · b2 · (b1 − b2 ) (D.16)
(b1 − b2 ) 2 b2
• Region 4
In region 3, the factor n(x)/ns is the unit due to every leakage flux path will include all
the conductors. According to the geometry D.4:
Figure D.4: Region 3 of the rotor slot
The coordinates of a generic point P placed over the edge of the slot can be expressed
according to D.18:
x = x − d1 − r0 = r · cos θ (D.17)
y = y = 2 · r · sin θ (D.18)
The area on which the calculation of permeance must be done is the difference between
the areas marked as A1 y A2 in D.4, and that will be named A3:
170
r2 b 2
A1 = π · =π· 1 (D.19)
2 8
And the area of the circular segment A2 can be expressed as the difference between the
area of the circular sector that sweeps a 2θ degree angle less two times the triangle which
b
base is d1 and height 20 :
2θ b b 2 b b ·d
A2 = π · r2 · − b1 · 0 = 1 arcsin 0 − 0 1 (D.20)
2·π 2 4 b1 2
where the angle θ can be expressed according to the geometrical dimensions of the slot
as D.21:
b
θ = 2 arcsin 0 (D.21)
b1
The area A3 is then D.22:
b 2 b 2 b b ·d
A3 = A1 − A2 = π · 1 − 1 arcsin 0 + 0 1 (D.22)
8 4 b1 2
The permeance of the semicircular region is shown in the equation D.23:
0
dx −r · sin θ · dθ 1
pA1 = μ0 · = μ0 · = · μ0 · π (D.23)
y π 2 · r · sin θ 4
2
Applying the proportionality of areas between sections A1 and A3, A3 permeance asso-
ciated to the area is expressed as D.24:
171

A3 π 1 b0 b0 · d 1
pA3 = · p = μ0 · − arcsin + (D.24)
A1 A1 4 2 b1 b21
• Region 5
In this region, in contrast to what happened in region 1, all conductors would be within
the leakage flux path which closed in this area, n(x) = ns , and the integral expression that
allows the calculation of specific permeance in that area is very simplified:
r +d +d
dx 0 1 2 dx d
dp5 = μ0 · −→ p4 = μ0 = μ0 0 (D.25)
y r0 +d0 +d1 +d2 b0 b0
And the total permeance in the rotor slot, pr , is the addition of all the permeances in
every slot region.

4
μ0 b21 − b22 b1
pr = pi = 3
· d2 · + b2 · ln − 2 · b2 · (b1 − b2 ) +
i=1 (b 1 − b 2 ) 2 b2

π 1 b b ·d d
+μ0 · − arcsin 0 + 0 2 1 + μ0 0 (D.26)
4 2 b1 b1 b0
Multiplying by the total effective length and the number of turns connected in series in
the slot, can be deduced the final expression for the rotor leakage inductance for one slot
D.35:
Lrotor−slot = n2c · le · pr (D.27)
172
D.1.2 Stator slot leakage calculation
The stator winding is a double-layer. The value of the inductance of the slot must take into
account the effect of the leakage flux of each of windings and the interaction among the two.
The leakage inductance equation for the rotor slot is displayed in D.28.
Lstator−slot = n2c · le · (pL + pU + pLU ) (D.28)
D.1.2.1 Slot permeance due to the lower coil
For the lower coil placed in the slot and assuming there is no upper coil, the slot permeance
expression is gathered in D.29, with the geometry parameters that appear in D.5.

4
μ0 b24 − b23 b4
pL = pi = · d4 · 2
+ b3 · ln − 2 · b3 · (b4 − b3 ) +
i=1 (b4 − b3 )3 2 b3

π 1 b0 b0 · d 1 d0 d2 + d3 b
+μ0 · − arcsin + + μ0 + μ 0 · ln 1 (D.29)
4 2 b1 b12 b0 b1 − b3 b3
D.1.2.2 Slot permeance due to the upper coil
Exactly the same procedure is followed for the upper coil. The value of the permeance due
to the presence of the upper coil and taking out the lower one, allows the calculation of the
expression D.30:
173
b1
b0
d0
d1
d2
b2
b3 d3
d4
b4
Figure D.5: Stator slot geometric dimensions

4
d0 π 1 b0 b0 · d 1
pU = p i = μ 0 + μ0 · − arcsin + 2
+
b0 4 2 b1 b 1
i=1
μ0 2
b2 − b12 b2
+ · d 2 · + b 1 · ln − 2 · b1 · (b2 − b1 ) (D.30)
(b2 − b1 )3 2 b1
D.1.2.3 Slot permeance due to the mutual effects between coils
The methodology for the calculation of the mutual inductance is based on the integration of
the effects one strip of the upper coil has over the lower coil. The distance x is measured as
a height with the origin in the lower side of the upper coil. The differential of flux produced
in a band of height dx has the equation D.31:
x dx
dΦ = F (x) · le · dp (x) = I · nc · · μ0 · l e · (D.31)
d2 y
And, thus, the specific permeance is D.32:
174
x dx
dp(x) = μ0 · · (D.32)
d2 y
The permeance will be obtained by integrating D.32, where, y is a function of x that can
be written due to geometric considerations as D.33.
b − b2
y = b2 + 1 ·x (D.33)
d2
The solution to the integral give the final expression of the permeance associated to the
mutual flux created between coils D.34.

b3 b
p2 = 2 · μ0 · −1 − · ln 2 (D.34)
b3 − b2 b3
The total specific mutual permeance, taking into account the regions b0 − d0 and b1 − d1
is D.35:

d0 1 b2 − b0 b3 b
pLU = p0 + p1 + p2 = μ0 · + · arcsin + 2 · −1 − · ln 2
b0 2 b2 b3 − b2 b3
(D.35)
175
176
Appendix E
Windings and steel sheets drawings
In this annex additional information about the prototypes is clustered. Some information
is common to all the electrical machines, since the magnetic material or the stator winding
distribution is the same for all of them. It is also gathered the designs of the electric steel
sheets to compare the differences in the slot design between the original prototype and the
new ones.
E.1 Magnetic material
The magnetic material is a V600-50A according to the specification of the DIN 46400 stan-
dard. The BH curve is shown in figure E.1:
V600-50A
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
B (T)
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
H (A/m)
Figure E.1: BH curve of V600-50A magnetic steel

E.2 Windings
E.2.1 Rotor Windings
Prototypes 0 and 1 are designed as single layer windings, with two slots per pole and phase,
as shown in Fig. E.2.
A C B A B
C
Figure E.2: Rotor winding configuration for prototypes 0 and 1.
In prototype 2 the rotor winding was changed to a double-layer winding with q=2 and a
pitch of 1-5 (short pitch of 2 slots).
E.2.2 Stator Winding
In Fig. E.3 is displayed the double-layer lap winding in the stator. It is the same winding
distribution for the stators of the three machines, with three slots per pole and phase and the
pitch shorted in three slots (1-7). In order to make the figure easier to comprehension, only
178
phase A end windings have been drawn. The other phases have been plotted maintaining
the code color and the direction of the current flow.
A B C B A C
Figure E.3: Double-layer lap winding design for stators
E.3 Electric steel sheets drawings
Next are detailed the electric steel sheets drawings for the prototypes, where can be clearly
observed the increment in the slot openings for both stator and rotor magnetic circuits.
179
Figure E.4: Design for prototype 0
180
Figure E.5: Design for prototypes 1 & 2
181
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UNIVERSIDAD POLITÉCNICA DE MADRID

ESCUELA TÉCNICA SUPERIOR

A voltage disturbances prototype

Julia Merino Fernández

ESCUELA TÉCNICA SUPERIOR DE INGENIEROS

A voltage disturbances prototype

Autora: Julia Merino Fernández

Director: Dr. Carlos Veganzones Nicolás

Dr. Ingeniero Industrial

Director: Dr. Francisco Blázquez Garcı́a

Dr. Ingeniero Industrial

A VOLTAGE DISTURBANCES PROTOTYPE FOR TESTING

Julia Merino Fernández

redistribution of power ﬂows. In remote microgrids it is needed in a particular way a safe

generation is an alternative that is being widely introduced in these grids.

greater importance than in interconnected systems. To ensure the appropriate behavior of

and easily scalable device to manufacturers and laboratories in the sector.

A VOLTAGE DISTURBANCES PROTOTYPE FOR TESTING

Julia Merino Fernández

un abastecimiento eléctrico sostenible. La inclusión de generación distribuida (GD) permite

y aliviando problemas de congestión a través de la redistribución de los ﬂujos de potencia.

En las microrredes remotas es especialmente necesario conseguir un abastecimiento ﬁable y

sus ángulos y la estabilidad se convierte en un problema de mayor importancia que en los

grandes sistemas interconectados. Para asegurar el comportamiento apropiado de las fuentes

de generación antes de su inserción en microrredes remotas y, en general, de cualquier equipo

eléctrico es necesario disponer de equipos de ensayo y certiﬁcación. Estos equipos deben,

objetivos y basado en lo anterior, se ha diseñado, construido y validado un generador de

perturbaciones de red, con el objetivo de proveer de un equipo simple, versátil, completo y

fácilmente escalable para los fabricantes y laboratorios del sector.

A Sergio Martı́nez, por su implicación desinteresada en mi formación de posgrado. Por mar-

months, part of a research group.

Gracias J. Ángel Sánchez y gracias, Pablo Reina.

Al Departamento de Ingenierı́a Eléctrica de la E.T.S.I. Industriales y al profesorado y per-

comprensión mientras hablaba, casi obsesivamente, de esta tesis.

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

LIST OF SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

Chapter 2 State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Chapter 3 General description and operating model of the voltage distur-

Chapter 4 Experimental setup, operational procedure and performance

Chapter 5 Guidelines for the design of new prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Chapter 6 Sizing, construction and assembly of the new prototypes . . . . 115

Chapter 7 Experimental results and comparative analysis of the prototypes131

Chapter 8 Final conclusions and future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Appendix A Technical Data of the Experimental Setup Equipment . . . . . 149

Appendix C Calculation of Laplace residuals for transient regime solutions 161

Appendix D Analytical calculation of slot leakage components in EM2 . . . 165

Appendix E Windings and steel sheets drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Table 2.3 PGMs frequency requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Table 3.1 Electrical machine parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Table 4.1 Main characteristics of prototype 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Table 4.2 Basic data of prototype 1 magnetic circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Table 4.3 Basic data of prototype 1 electrical circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Table 5.1 Electrical machine parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Table 6.1 Comparison between leakage reactances in prototype 1 and prototype

Table 6.3 Data of prototype 3 electrical circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Table A.1 Data of Baumüller DS 56 S-3-R-K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Table A.4 Main technical characteristics of Baumüller b maXX 4413 . . . . . . 152

Table A.5 Main technical characteristics of Altivar 71 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Table A.7 Data of encoder Schneider XCC1506PS50X . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Figure 2.1 General scheme of a microgrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Figure 3.1 General scheme of the device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Figure 4.1 Scheme of the electric drive system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79