A plant disease is any disturbance to the normal physiology of the plant brought about by an agent so that the

affected plant changes in appearance and/or is less productive than a normal healthy plant of the same variety .
Over the years, pathologists have come to learn that disease development in a plant population is determined
primarily by the interactions among three major factors. These are: 1) the presence of a susceptible host plant
,2) the presence of a virulent pathogen, and 3) a favorable physical, chemical, and biological environment. The
interactions among these factors have been traditionally conceptualized in the form of a disease triangle.

The disease triangle is a conceptual model that shows the

interactions between the environment, the host and an
infectious (or abiotic) agent. This model can be used to
predict epidemiological outcomes in plant health

A disease cycle is the chain of events involved in the development of a disease, including the stages of
development of the pathogen and the effects of the disease on the host plants. All infectious disease-causing
agents go through a disease cycle.

The chain of events involved in disease development includes inoculation, penetration, infection, incubatio n,
reproduction, and survival.

Bacterial introduction to the plant must occur through natural openings or wounds in the plant. Bacteria
overwinter primarily in soil and in or on plant material that does not decompose, but some survive inside insect
vectors. Whereas, Fungi and Fungal-like Organisms (FLOs) are able to overwinter in soil or on plant debris.

1.Brown spot of rice

Disease Cycle
Brown spot of rice is a localized disease i.e., the pathogen is restricted to the infected zone and cannot pass long
distance through the inner tissue. The built up inoculum from the infected region disseminates further and causes
infection.
During dormant phase, the pathogen is prevalent on seed (both externally and internally) and also on infected
plant debris.
1. from Seed:
During germination of infected seeds, the coleoptile gets infected and then gradually it affects the seedling,
showing blight symptom.
The infected regions of the seedling i.e., coleoptile, leaves, etc., then produce a large number of conidia. These
conidia, after dissemination by wind, fall on the different regions of the same seedling or on different seedlings
and cause infection. This is the secondary cycle, which repeats several times in the growing season and enhances
progress of the disease.
Towards the end of the season, the inoculum from the infected leaf may go to the inflores cence and develops
infected seeds; where the pathogen may present as mycelium (inside the seed) and/or conidia (on seed).
2. from Plant Debris:
Previous year’s infected plant debris also act as source of primary inoculum.
Thus, through infected seeds and infected plant debris, disease may appear in the next season and repeat the
cycle.
The disease may also progress from year to year through collateral hosts, like Leersia hexandra, Echinochloa
colonum and Setaria sp.
Predisposing Factors:
1. A relative humidity of 92.5% or above favours conidial production.
2. Cloudy weather and higher day temperature (28-30°C) during the latter part of the growing season (Sept.-Oct.)
are favourable for the rapid spread and development of the disease.
3. Optimum temperature for germination of conidia is between 25-30°C, minimum at 2°C and humidity of about
92% or more is the best for spore germination.
4. The best development of spots occurs in shade and high humidity. Sunlight retards the growth of spots.

2. Blast Disease of Rice:

Disease Cycle
The pathogen can perpetuate in grain both externally and internally, on straw piles and also on host other than
rice. The inocula, i.e., the conidia, developed from all or any of the above sources can infect the leaf of the rice
plant. The infected regions develop crops of conidia; those are disseminated and infect the different regions of
the same plant and /or the other rice plants.
Towards the end of the season, the pathogen may perennate as coni dia on seed and also on straw piles. Next
season, perennating conidia may serve as a source of primary inoculum. Likewise, in some areas they develop
perithecia containing asci and ascospores. The perithecia remain with the plant debris or straw piles. Next season,
the ascospores may cause infection.
3. Green Smut or False Smut of Paddy
Disease Cycle:
The incidence of this fungus is reported in wild rice and also in many grasses. Thus, it is presumed that
the primary inoculum comes from the collateral host by wind dissemination. Ascospores produced from
the sclerotia serves as primary inoculum and causes primary infection.
Chlamydospores are air borne, play an important role in the secondary infection and their availability is
highly significant at the time of flowering of rice plant. Infection during early flowering causes
destruction of the ovary, but if it is late, grain filling takes place.
The mycelium invades the endosperm and develops a mass of spores. The disease is not seed borne,
thus no success has been achieved to develop infection by artificial floral inoculation.

4. Loose Smut of Wheat:

Disease Cycle
The mass of chlamydospores from the infected ear are disseminated by wind or any other agencies to
the healthy ear of adjacent plants at the flowering stage. The spores lodge between the glumes and
reach the hairy stigmas. The spores germinate on the stigmatic fluid and develop promycel ia. The
promycelia becomes septate and form four uninucleate cells.
The dikaryophase is established by fusion of germ tubes (infection threads) derived from the individual
uninucleate cells of the promycelium and ultimately infection hyphae are developed (Fig. 5.16E). Earlier
it was thought that infection hyphae penetrate the stigma of healthy flowers, but later it has been
shown that normally the entry takes place through the young tissue at the base of the ovary.
After that, the infection hyphae grow intercellularly and ultimately reach the ovule. The infection
hyphae then pass into the space between nucleus and the endosperm and reach the bottom of the
endosperm to reach the scutellum and the embryo. The growth of infection hyphae is intercellular and
haustoria are not formed. The host cells are not affected even at a minimum level.
Along with the above process of fungal growth; pollination, fertilization and embryo formation take
place in the ears. The fungal hyphae continue to grow along with the development of seeds. The fungal
hyphae become thick walled and remain dormant in the seed until the next growing season.
Profuse mycelium is present in the scutellum of the mature infected seed. Healthy and infected grains
cannot be morphologically distinguished. After sowing, the infected seeds will develop seedlings and
simultaneously dormant mycelium becomes active and keeps place behind the growing apex.
There is a great accumulation of hyphae at each ear which ultimately replace the spikelets with masse s
of black spores. During dry weather, almost all the spores are blown off, leaving the rachis as a bare
stalk. After dispersal, the spores again infect the healthy host and continue the cycle.

5. Tikka Disease of Groundnut:

Disease Cycle
The pathogen can perennate through conidia on diseased plant debris that remain in the soil, on
shell of fruits and also on seeds. Perennating pathogen in all the above three places acts as a
source of primary inoculum.
It favours high temperature ranges between 26°C to 31°C and high humidity. Continuous low
temperature along with dew also favours infection. Infection takes place through stomata or by
piercing the host epidermal cell.
Infection commonly takes place through upper epidermis and after entering the host tissue, the
pathogen ramifies and by aggregation of mycelium, stroma develops.
With further development, the stroma creates a pressure and the conidiophores come out
through ruptured epidermis. Conidia are developed on conidiophores. The conidia after
detachment, disseminate through wind to the different regions of the same plant or to the
different plants and cause further infection and thus help to spread the disease. This cycle
repeats several times in the growing season.
6. Red Rot of Sugarcane:
Disease Cycle
Pathogen can perpetuate in infected seed sets, in soil, plant debris and collateral hosts.
Inoculum is present in the form of conidia, setae, chlamydospores, appresoria, thick walled
hyphae and ascospores.
The seed sets of diseased plant are the main source of primary inoculum. The infected seed sets
have inoculum inside the host tissue or have dormant mycelium in the bud scales, leaf scars etc.
These seed sets invariably developed infected shoots. The acervuli developed on the infected
plants produce conidia that are transmitted commonly through irrigation or rain water and
rarely by wind and cause further infection.
The inoculum from soil also infects the propagating stock and gradually the young plants. The
infected plants develop acervulus on root primordia at nodes and also on leaves. The conidia
developed from both the sources are dispersed by rain water or by wind and cause further
infection.
The pathogen may survive in soil in the form of chlamydospores, setae, appresoria and also by
thick-walled hyphae and causes further infection to the next crop, where there is a gap between
the harvesting and next planting. But, the pathogen may remain within the host, where the crops
are available in the field round the year.
The perithecia are not common in India, but play a significant role when present.
Collateral hosts, like Sorghum halepense, S. vulgare, Saccharum spontaneum, Leptochloa
fiiliformis etc., serve a significant role in annual recurrence of disease.
7. Bacterial Leaf Blight of Rice:

Disease Cycle
The disease cycle of bacterial leaf blight of rice (BLB) is not clearly known. The source of primary
inoculum and the initiation of disease also vary in different countries and even in different
places of the same country. The various prepositions regarding disease cycle are based on the
different informations published by the plant-scientists of different countries.
The BLB is a vascular disease. The bacterium can perpetuate in different ways, such as through
soil, seeds, wild grasses, diseased stubbles and straw.
8. Tungro Disease of Rice:

The disease is caused by two viruses:

(a) Rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV), and
(b) Rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV).

Disease Cycle
The disease is caused by both the viruses RTBV and RTSV. They are able to
multiply independently and are transmitted by the green leafhoppers (Nephotettix
virescens and N. nigropictus) and other leafhoppers. The N. virescens is the
principal vector of the disease where adults are more efficient than the youngers.
It can transmit both viruses together after feeding on infected plant. The
RTSV is easily transmitted by both the green leafhoppers (N. virescens and N.
nigropictus), but RTBV is transmitted by N. virescens only in presence of RTSV.
The vectors move during night, but remain with the plant during day.
9. Tobacco Mosaic Virus:

Disease Cycle:
The TMV survives in infected plant debris, on surfaces of contaminated seeds, on
contaminated seedbed cloths, tobacco refuses from warehouses, cigars, cigarettes,
pipe and chewing tobacco which form the source of primary inoculum.
The virus is dispersed from plant to plant by mechanical transfer during
transplanting, through field operations and implements and contact by man
during cultivation. The virus initially infects wounded tissue of the seedling in
seedbed or the transplanted plant in the field. It develops systemic infection in all
plants.
After invading wounds it infects the parenchyma cell. The virus then multiplies
and gradually moves from cell to cell through the plasmodesmata and, after
reaching the phloem, it moves systematically and infects the whole plant. In the
cytoplasm of the host the virus remains as a crystalline body. The infected plant
again serves as the source as the primary inoculum, either directly or indirectly,
for the next season.