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1. S. SOKOLNIKOFF
Profe88OT oj Mathematic8
University of California
L08 Angele8
SECOND EDlTlON
T M H Edition
The theory of elasticity, in its broad aspects, deals with a study of the
behavior of those substances that possess the property of recovering their
size and shape when the forces producing deformations are removed.
In common with other branches of applied mathematics, the growth of
this theory proceeded from a synthesis of special ideas and techniques
devised to solve concrete problems. This resulted in a patchwork of
theories treating isolated classes of problems, determined largely by the
geometry of bodies under consideration. The embedding of such diverse
theories in a unified structure, and the construction of the analytical
tools for calculating stresses and deformations in a strained elastic body,
are among the dominant concerns of the mathematical theory of elasticity.
This book represents an attempt to present several aspects of the
heory of elasticity from a unified point of view and to indicate, along
with the familiar methods of solution of the field equations of elasticity,
30me newer general methods of solution of the two-dimensional problems.
The first' edition of this book, published in 1946, had its origin in a
course of lectures I gave in 1941 and 1942 in the Program of Advanced
Instruction and Research in Mechanics conducted by the Graduate
School of Brown University. In those lectures I stressed the contribu-
tions to the theory by the RuSsian school of elasticians and, in particular,
the relatively little--known work of great elegance and importance by
N. I. Muskhelishvili. I planned ~o supplement that book by a com-
panion volume dealing with effective methods of attack on the two-
dimensional and anisotropic problems of elasticity. The developments
in the intervening years, however, were so rapid that I was urged to
puhlish instead a single volume containing an up-to-date treatment of
material presented in the. first edition and supplement it with new topics,
in order to give a rounded idea of the current state of the subject.
The present edition differs from its predecessor by extensive additions
ad ~ Most of the material appearing in the .last three chapters
had no counterpart in the first edition. Throughout r bve tried to give
" .clea1' indieation of the fronti.,rs of the developments, and 1 have con-
stantlY kept in mind those readers whose principal conrero is with prall-
w.l appication of the theory. While nfo) volume of this size can lay
.... to an _ _ _ve list of referenoos to reeeateh lite~, I bave
vi PREFACE
PBml'ACI!l . v
HISTORICAL SKETCH.
46i
ANALYSIS OF STRAIN
1. Deformation. The fir.st two chapters of this book are not specifi-
cally concerned with elastic media. In a great many problems the
atomistic structure of matter can be disregarded and the body replaced
by a continuous mathematical model whose geometrical points are
identified with material poil1ts of the body. The study of such models
is in the province of the mechanics of continuous media, which covers a
vast range of problems in elasticity, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics,
plasticity, and electrodynamics.
When the relative position of points in a continuous body is altered,
we say that the body is strained. The change in the relative position of
points is a deformation, and the study of deformations is the province of
the analysis of strain.
Although aU material bodies are to some extent deformable, it is useful
to introduce an abstraction of a nondeformable, or rigid, body. A rigid
body is an ideal body such that the distance between every pair of its
points remains invariant throughout the history of the body. The
behavior of rigid bodies subjected to the action of forces is investigated
in the mechanics of rigid bodies, where it is shown that the possible dis-
placements in a rigid body consist of translations and rotations. Such
displacements are termed rigid displacement.s, and although they are of
minor concern in the analysis of strain, it is important to learn how to
characterize them analytically.
Let the body r, occupying in the undeformed state some region H, be
referred to an orthogonal set of cartesian axes o-X tX ,X 3 (Fig. 1) fixed in
space. The coordinates of typical point P of 7" in the unstrained state arc
(Xl, X2, xs). In the strained state the points of 7" will occupy some region
H', and we denote the coordinates of the same material point P by
(x;, x~, x~). We shall be concerned only with continuous deformations
of H into R' and shall write the equations characterizing the deformation
in the form,
(1.1) (i ==.1, 2, 3).
We shall further suppose that Eqs. (1.1) have a single-valued inverse
{1.2} Xi = x.(x;, x;, x;) "'" x.(r}, (i = 1, 2, 3),
5
6 MATH~;MATlCAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
The symbol lit;, the Krrineckrr delta, is defined to have the vah,e one if i equal!! j,
ANALYSIS OJ' STRAIN ,.
where the coefficients 4,; are constants, are well known. Since it is
desirable to demand the existence of an inverse, Eqs. (2.1) must be solvable
for the variables :1:1, X2, X3 as functions of x~, x~, x;. 1t follows that the
determinant 18# + a;;1 of the coefficients of the unknowns entering into
the right-hand member of (2.1) must not vanish. It is obvious that, t.he
inverse transformation
(2.2) (i, j = 1, 2, 3),
is likewise linear.
It is easy to see from (2.1) and (2.2) that an affine transformation
carries planes into planes, and hence a rectilinear segment joining the
FlO. 1
points rO(x~, xg, xg) and P(Xl, X2, x.) is transformed into a rectilinear I;leg-
ment joining the corresponding points pO'(xr, xg', xg') and P'(x;, x;, x~)
(Fig. 1). This follows from the fact that the rectilinear segment pop can
be thought of as joining two points po and P on the intersection of two
planCl;! 8 1 and 8 2 ; under the transformation (2.1) points po and P go over
into points po' and P', which lie on the intersection of the planes S~ and
S;, into which the planes Sl and S. are carried by the transformation.
We shall denote the unit base vectors, directed along the coordinate
axes Xl, x., and Xa, by el, e2, and e., respectively. Thus, a vector A whose
components along the coordinate axes are At, AI, As can be written as
(i = 1,2,3).
Since the vector A = e,A, is uniquely determined once its components
A. (i = 1, 2, 3) are prescribed, we can represent the vector A by the
symbol A;. Under the transformation (2.1) the vector A; = x; - x?,
joining the points PO(X O) and P(x), is carried into another vector
A~ = x~ - xf' .
.zero if i durers {rom j. The reason for friting the coefficients of x" x" and x, in the
first, second, and third lines as 1 + "'", 1 + au, 1 + a .. will appear later.
8 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OJ' ELASTICITY
sions for &A, given by (3.1) are inserted in (3.2), one finds that
A iA = avA,As,
or when written out in full,
A aA = "llAr + a .. Ai + aa>A: + (au + a,,)AIA.
+ (0113 + (32)A.A s + (au + al3)AaAI.
Since for a rigid body transformation IlA vaniRhes for all values of AI, A.,
As, we must have
(l11 = (l" = (l .. = 0,
au + au = a.3 + a32 = au + au = O.
Hence a necessary and sufficient condition that the infinitesimal trans-
formation (3.1) represent a rigid body motion is
(3.3) lXii = -ai', (i,j = 1,2,3).
In this case, the set of quantities lXii is said to be skew-symmetric. When
the coefficients aij are skew-symmetric, the transformation (3.1) takes
the form
aA I = - a.,A.
/lA. = a.IA I
/lA. = -a"AI + a32A.
This transformation can be written as the vector product of the infini-
tesimal rotation vector Cd = e."Wj and the vector A, namely I
IlA=CdXA=
if we take
\
WI"" (l32 = -a23 = ~(a32 - au),
(3.4)
{
w. == (l13= - a n = 7\I(a13 - au),
W3 == a21 = -au = ~(a21 - au).
The eque.tions representing the rigid body motion can be obtained by
observing that Ai = x, - x? and that
Mi = A: - A, = (x: - xf;) - (x. - xl')
"" (x: - Xi) - (x~' - xn
= &x, - Ilx2
or
Ox; = ox~ + &Ai = Ilx~ + (Cd X A),.
I We reeall that when a rigid body rotates with the angular velocity 0, the linear
·velocity ... is ... - 0 X A and 8A - 0 X A at - .. X A, where", _.Q Uis the infini-
tesimal angle of rotation.
ANALYSIS OF STRAIN 11
Then the rigid body portion of the infinitesimal affine transformation (2.1)
can be written as
(4.1) &A
A=~'
evA,Ai
FIG. 2
Hence, if all components of the strain tensor with the exception of el1
vanish, then all unit vectors parallel to the Xl-axis will be extended by an
amount 611 if this strain component is positive and contracted by the same
amount if ell is negative. In this event, one has a homogeneous deforma-
tion of material in the direction of the :kaxis. A cube of material whose
edges before deformation are I units long will become a rectangular
parallelepiped whose dimensions in the x1-direction are 1(1 + ell) units
and whose dimensions in the directions of the Xr and x,-axes are unaltered.
A similar significance can be ascribed to the components e22 and e83.
In order to interpret geometrically such strain components as e23, con-
sider two vectors A = etAs and B = eaR. (Fig. 2), initially directed along
the Xr and x,-axes respectively . Upon deformation, these vectors become
A' = el BAt + e,(A + 6A,) + e, flA.,
I
BI == el &B t + e, 6B 2 + ea(Ba + 4B.).
We denote the angle between AI and B' by II and consider the change
/2) - II in the right angle between A and B. From the·definition
CII", ... ( ..
ANALYSIS OF STRAIN 13
of the scalar product of A' and B', we have
A'B' COIl e ... A' . B' '" aA I aBI + (A. + M,) aB. + (B. + liB.) M.
:, A2 liB. + B. IiAa,
if we neglect the products of the cha.nges in the components of the vectors
A and B. To the same a.pproximation, we ha.ve
A'·B'
(4.3) cos e= A'B'
V(M 1) ' + (A. + oA.)· + (M.)' V(IlB 1)' + (oB.)· + (B. + liB,)'
:, (A. aB. + B. IiAs)(A. + 1iA.)-I(B s + IiB.)-1
:, A, IiB z + Bs liA. = liB. + liAs.
A.Bs B. A.
Since all increments in the components of A and B have been neglected
except liA. and liB" the deformation can be represented as shown in Fig.
3. If we remember that
Al = As = BI = B. = 0, ,xa
or
(5.4)
_ _x_' I~_:_
x~ 111 112 113
x~ z., I 122 I ••
X~ 131 1,2 133
in which l;j is the cosine of the angle between the x;- and the xraxes. The
old and the new coordinates are related by the equations
x, = lllx~ + 121X; + lux;,
x. = lux; + lux; + 1,,,:1:;,
x, = lux; + 1.,,:1:; + laax;,
or, more compactly,
(5.6) Xi = l...z~.
But~ are the direction ratios of the normal v to the quadric ~rface (5.5)
"x.
at the point (x,), and it follows that the vec-
tor 6A is directed along the normal to the
Af"--~v
2
plane tangent to the surface eifX;%j = ±k
(see Fig. 5). This property of the 8t~aiU
quadric will prove useful in. the Ilext sectIon,
~\:..""~ ~"" ~~ ~"" 1>~",<6.1>~\. 'U:ea.. 'If. t,ru._
FIG. 6 quadric surface and their signifieance for the
deformation.
S. Principal Strains. Invariants. We seek now the direcfion ratios of
the lines through (X O) whose orientation is left unchanged by jlhe deforma-
tion SA, == e;;A;. If the direction of the vector A is not aH,ered by the
strain, then ~A and A are parallel and their components are pfoportional.l
Therefore
1 1
e1 A j = ej.A •.
2
We mUltiply both sides by Ai and sum over j, getting
1 z 1 1I
(6.4) 61A j A j = ej.A.A,.
2 2
Similarly, from e.A; = e;.A. we have
12 12 12 12
(6.5) e.AJA; = e,.A;A. = e.;A.A; = e;.A.A;,
wherej and k have been interchanged and the symmetry of e;. exploited.
Comparsion of (6.4) and (6.5) shows that
1 2
(6.6) (el - e.)AjA; = O.
Now if we assume tentatively that (6.3) has complex roots, then these
can be written
From (6.6) it follows that, if the roots el and e, are distinct, then
1 1I 1 2
A,A, = A • A = 0,
j
so that the corresponding directions are orthogonal. These directions A
are called the principal directioml of strain, and the strains e" which are
i
the extensions of the vectors A in the principal directions, are termed the
principal strains.
We have seen that at any point (XO) there are three mutually perpen-
.i
dicular directions (assuming, for the moment, that the eo are distinct)
that are left unaltered by the deformation; consequently the vectors
i i i i
A, the deformed vectors A + liA, and 8A are collinear. But (5.11) shows
that liA is always normal to the quadric surface (5.5), and therefore the
principal directions of strain are also normal to the surface and must be
the three principal axes of the quadric ei.jXixi = eA 2. If some of the
principal strains Ii; are equal, then the associated directions become
indeterminate but one can always select three directions that are mutually
orthogonal. If the quadric surface is a surface of revolution, then one
1
direction A, say, will be directed along the axis of revolution and any two
I
mutually perpendicular vectors lying in the plane ·normal to A may be
taken as the other two principal axes. If e1 = e2 = ea, the quadric is a
sphere and any three orthogonal lines may be chosen as the principal axes.
We recall that 61,62, e, are the extensions of vectors along the principal
axes, while ell, e22, e" are the extensions of vectors along the coordinate
axes. If the coordinate axes Xi are taken along the principal axes of the
quadric, then the shear strains eu, e23, e3l disappear from the equation of
the quadric surface and the latter takes the form
(6.7)
where 6 1, "2, ". are the sums of the products of the roots taken one, two,
and three at a time:
"I = e1 + +
e2 e. "" 6,
(6.8)
{ U2 = ese. + +
" .... 'lete••
esel ele.,
,fty expanding the determinant (6.7), we see that these expressions "Can
• be written as
ANALYBIS Ql!' STBAlN 19
" ... 611 + 6.1 + 6 • .,
iJs = 61tBaa + eu6'u + ellell - eil - eft - ef.
en enl eu en I
eu ell I I 1
(6.8)
I
= e.. e.. + eu en + e12 e22'
". = eueue,s + 2elle..e31 - en4. - ene:l - eaaef.,
eu e12 eu
The expressions for '" and ". can be written compactly by introducing
the generalized Kronecker deUa, B''!o~:::, which we now define. If the sub-
scripts p, q, r, . . . are distinct and if the superscripts i, j, k, . . . are the
same set of numbers as the subscripts, then the value of 0:/':::: is defined to
be + 1 or -1 according as the subscripts and superscripts differ by an even
or an odd permutation; the value is zero in all other cases. We can now
rewrite the formulas (6.9) in the form
{} = eii, (i = 1, 2, 3),
1 ""
(6.10) fl. = 21 B'Jqe",.eq;, (i, j, p, q = 1, 2, 3),
Since the principal strains, that is, the roots e" e., e. of (6.7), have a
geometrical meaning that is independent of the choice of coordinate
system, it is clear that ", "" and ". are invariant with respect to an
orthogonal transformation of coordinates. [Note that this invariance
could have been used to derive expressions (6.8) from (6.9).]
The quantity " has a simple geometrical meaning. Consider as a
volume element a rectangular parallelepiped whese edges are parallel to
the principal directions of strain, and let the length!! of these edges be h,
I" l.. Upon deformation, this element becomes again a" rectangular
parallelepiped but with edges of lengths ll(l + el), l2(1 + e.), l.(l + e.).
Hence the change oV in the volume V of the element is
OV = I,Z.za(l + el)(1 + e2)(1 + e.) - hZ.z.
= 1Il.l.(el + ell + e.)
plus terms of higher order in eo. Thus
BY
~l + e, +61 - " - V'
and the first strain invariant" represents ;he expansion of;i unit ~olume
20 MA.THEMATICAL TllEORY OF ELASTICITY
due to strain produced in the medium, For this reason , ill CAlled the
cubical dilatation or simply the dilatation,
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the principal directions by finding the extremlll values of
Note that the x,/ A - P, are the direction cosines so that e - 6;/PiPj, }'Iaximize this
Bubject to the constraining condition .,V, - 1.
1I. Refer the quadric of deformation to a set of principal axes, and dismISS the nature
of deformation when the quadric is an ellipsoid and when it is a hyperbOloid, Draw
appropriate figures and note that if 61 > 0, e. > 0, e. < 0, then, depending on the
direction of the vector A from the origin of the quadric, one must consider the surfaces
e1~ + es4 - le,lz: - ±kt ,
'1. General Infinitesimal Deformation. In the preceding ~ections, we
have discussed the infinitesimal affine transformation (3,7), which carries
the vector Ai into the vector A: ... Ai + 6A" where
(7.1) 6A,
",;-+2lX;i- + -a.;--21%;;)
= a.;Aj = (- - Ai
= (e;j + "',j)A;;
the 6;J and "'ii were constants and so small that their produ()ts could be
neglected in comparison with their first powers, Now we <,onsider the
general functional transformation and its relation to the affine deformation,
Consider an arbitrary material point PO(x~, xi, xB) in a continuous
medium, and let the same material point assume after deformation the
position PO/(X~', xt', xn
(see Fig, 1). We denote the small d1splacement
of the point po by
u,(x¥, xi, ~) == x2' - xf.
The quantities UI, UI, u, are called the component8 of di8p~' It is
clear from physical considerations that it is desirable to dema)ld that the
functions u; be single-valued and continuous throughout the region
occupied by the body. For reasons that will become apparent in Sec. 10,
it will be assumed that the functions U,(Xl, X2, xs) are of cltlSS C' (that
is, the u; together with their first, second, a.nd third deri~atives are
continuous) .
The character of the deforma.tion in the neighborhood of ttle point po
ean be determined by a.naIyzing the change in the vt)Ctor A joining the
point PO(xY, x~, xl) with an arbitrary neighboring point P(Xl, :t2, x.) of the
undeformed medium. If P'(~, x'" :11,) is the deformed »osUioll of P, then
the displacement u, at the point P is
ANAL'iSIS OF STRAIN 21
The deformed vector. A' has components Ai = xi - X2', and for the com-
ponents of IJA = A' - A we have
M, = (xi - x~') - (x, - xf)
= (xi - x.,) - (x2' - x?)
= u;(xY + At, xi + At, x~ + A 3) - u;(x¥, 4, x~)
= (au,)
ax; 0
Ai
plus the remainder in the Taylor's expansion of the function u,(xY + At,
xi + A 2 ,xg + Aa). The subscript zero indicates that the derivative is
to be evaluated at the point po. The derivative ~Ui will be written by
"X;
introducing the symbol u,,; so that
and the subscript can be dropped without confusion, since we shall deal
only with vectors at po. If the region in the vicinity of po is chosen
sufficiently small, that is, if A is sufficiently small, then one has the
formulas analogous to (7.1),
(7.3) <lA, = u,.;Aj.
Comparison of formulas (7.3) and (7.1) shows that the transformation
of the neighborhood of the point po is affine and that
Cl:j = U',j'
Now if we assume further that the displacements u" as well as their par-
tial derivatives, are so small that their products can be neglected then
(7.3) defines an infinitesimal affine transformation of the neighborhood
of the point in question. Hence the considerations of the earlier sections
are immediately applicable; the transformation (7.3) can be decomposed
into pure deformation and rigid body motion,
(7.4) 6A = u;.A =
• .1 1
(u"j +2 UJ.' + U;,j -2 UJ,') A J
where c.), is the infinitesimal rotation vector about (0, 0, 0) and the Go are
constants representing a trsnslation. It is clear that the transformation
defined by (7.5) is in general no longer homogeneous, inasmuch as both
the strain components /3;; and the components of rotation c.)'J are functions
of the coordinates of the medium. The dilatation
" = ell + Eiu + en
OUI + OU, + oU.
= OXI OX2 ox. = U;••
PROBLEMS
1. Verify the invanance of the functions {J, {J" and ". lsee Eqs. (6.10)J of the strains
in the case of simple estension.
a. Find the dile.tation and the prineips.l strs.ins, and deserihe the strain quadric for
the case of simple extension.
S. Show that the examples of strain given in this seetion ce.n he described by the
fonowin( dispJa.eement components:
a. Uniform dilats.tion, v .. n, II = 61/, W - ez.
b. Simple extension, v' .. n', If' - Wi - O.
c.. Shee.ring strain, ",' -= 2Iy', v' - tJ1' .. O.
d. Plane strain, u - v(.:a:. 11), " .. 11(2:, 11), w = O.
'" Show th.at in the examples of strain given in this sect,ion the rotatioa components
are given by:
$. Uniform dih1.tation, Wn - . . . . . . . . . . - O.
0. 8iDlPle~, _:. - ~... w~ - (l~
ANALYStS OJ' STRAlN
e =
ihI
-+_. au
.. ax ay
The factor ~ was inserted in the formulas (7.5) in order that the set 'of
quantities may transform accorqing to the tensor laws.
Trefftz2 writes for the components of his strain tensor
au au aw
'Y... = 2 ax' 'Y"" == 2 ay' 'Y.. = 2 az'
aw ihI au aw av lJU
'Y.. = ay + liZ' 'Y... = az + ax' 'Y.. = ax + ay'
while Timoshenko' uses
/Ju
E. == ax'
for the components of normal strain and agrees in notation with Trefftz
for the components of shearing strain.
Wha.t restrictions must be placed on the given funetions e;;(xl, Xt, %.)
to ensure the existence of single-valued continuous solutions U,(Xl'
x" XI) of Eqa. (10.1)?
it is clear £,rat of all that specification of the e;j does not determine the
displacementi u; uniquely, for the strain components characterize the pure
deformation ,'of the medium in the neighborhood of the point (x), while
the functions 1'< may involve rigid body motions which do not affect the ~-;.;.
In fact, if one obtains some solution
(10.2)
of the system (10.1), and if PO(x¥, x~, xg) is an arbitrary point of the body,
then the addition to the right-hand member of (10.2) of the terms'
(10.3) u; = u~ + ",MXk - x£),
representing the motion of the body as a whole, will not affect the values
of the prescribed components of strain entering into (10.1). It thus
becomes clear that the solution of the system (10.1) cannot be unique
unless one specifies the components of displacement uS and the compo-
nents of rotation ",1j of some point po of the medium, and we shall suppose
in the following discussion that this has been done.
Inasmuch as there are six conditions imposed on the three functions
u; by Eqs. (10.1), one eannot expect in general that the system (10.1) will
possess a solution for an arbitrary choice of the functions e'j. We seek the
e"
further conditions that must be imposed on the functions if the system
of Eqs. (10.1) is to possess a solution for the triplet of functions u,.
The fact that the strain components e,; cannot be prescribed arbitrarily
can be seen from the following rough geometrical considerations: Imagine
that a body .. is subdivided into small volume elements, which in the
interior of .. may be assumed to have the form of cubes. The strain com-
ponents e;j are given on the faces of each cube, and the displacements u;
of those faces are to be calculated. If each individual cube is subjected
to a deformation so that it becomes a parallelepiped, then it may happen
that it is impossible to arrange the parallelepipeds to form a continuous
distorted body .. '. The points that were coincident on,the interfaces of
the eubes may no longer coincide on the interfaces of the parallelepipeds.
In fact, there may even be gaps between the pairs of initially coincident
points. The requirements of continuity and single-valuedness imposed
on the components of displacement place some restrictions on the choice
of the strain components e"j if the differential equations (10.1) are to
posseIIB solutions.
Let P"(zt, xl, 4) be some point of a simply connected region' .., at
1 Of. formulaa (3.5) •
• A tegion of space is said to be simply connected if fWery eloaed curve drawn in the
l'IIIion _ be shrunk to a point, by continuous deformation, without paasing out of the
ANALYSIS OF STltAIN 27
which the displacements uJ(x!, x~, xl) and the components of rotation
wf;(xt, xt xg) are known. We determine the displacements 'UJ at any other
point P'(x~, x~, x~) in terms of the known functions I eo; by means of a line
integral over a simple' continuous curve C joining the points po and pI:
= u~ + jPfI
(P' elk dx. + jpo
(P' "'I. dx.,
where the last step comes from the definition (7.5). An integration by
parts yields
a 1 a 1
= ax. 2 (UI,; + U;,I) - ax; 2 (U.,I + Ul,k),
where the continuity of the mixed derivatives has been used. It follows
from the preceding equation that
(10,5)
When (10.5) is inserted in (lOA), it is seen that the determination of the
displacements u, at any point (x) has now been reduced to a quadrature,
(lO,6) 'UJ(x~, x;, x.) = u~ + (x~ - x2)"'J. + f::' Uil dx1,
where the integrand
(10.7) UjI = ~1 + (x~ - x.)(el;•• - Bw./)
is a known function.
Inasmuch as the displacements u; must be independent of the path of
integration, the integrands U,l dx1 must be exact differentials. Hence,
applying a necessary and sufficient condition that the integrands in
boundaries of the region. Thus the region between two concentric spheres ill simply
conneeted, bnt the interior of an anchor ring (toruli) is not.
1 The flmctiona e.1 are a8IIUmed to be of cla.se (11 (see Sec. 7).
we have
(10.8) 6j;.1 - 8kl(I!;,.k - e....,) - 8ft•• + 3..(el;.1o - ekU)
+ (x~ - x')(l!;j.kl - e"'.jl - elU.. + ekl.;;) = O.
The first line of (10.8) vanishes identically, and since this equation must
be true for s.n s.rbitrll.ry choice of x~ - x~, it follows ths.t
(10.9). eij,kl + ekl.ij - Bik.;l - Elil." = O.
The system (10.9) consists of 3 = 81 equations, but some of these s.re
4
(10.10)
(11.5)
and since x; = a; + U;, we have
X;,jX;,k = (liij + U;,j)(liik + U;,k)
= liik + 14,. + Uk,j + U;,jU;,k,
and
ds 2 - d8~ = 2E;k da; dak
= (Uj,k + Uk,j + U;,jU;,.) du; dak,
with
(11.6) 2E;. = U;,k + Uk,j + U;,jU;, ••
In order to exhibit the fact that the differentiation in (11.4) is carried out
with respect to the variables Xi, while in (11.6) the a; are regarded as the
independent variables, we write out the typical expressions for '/Uj and E;j
in unabridged notation,
PROBLEMS
1. Show that a tensor a'i can be decomposed into a symmetric tensor e'i = el' and
a. skew-symmetric tensor Wii = -Wi' in one, and only one, way. Hint: Assume that
the decomposition can be made in two ways:
2. From aA, = "'IA I , find aA and aA for a vector lying initially along the x-axis,
that is, A = lA, and justify the statement of Sec. 4 that in this case at = en. Does aA
lie along the x-axis?
3. Derive Eq. (5.10) from (5.8) and (5.9).
4. Derive Eq. (8.2) by using the invanance of the strain quadric and the equations
of transformation x; = I;IXI.
I. Show that the inverse of the transformation (5.6) is x;
= z,a.X«.
8. Show by differentiation of the strain components
that the equations of compatibility are necessary conditions for the exj8tenoe of con-
tinuons single-valued displacements. Hint:
e;f.loI - }i ('It'.lil + 'ltt.til)
and, by interchange of i, k and likewise of i, l, e""1 = }i(U•. lii + UI.",,)· Add these,
interchange j and k, and show that the compatibility equations (to.9) result. .
'1. ,Show that the shear strain en, for example, can be interpreted as th~ extensIOn
of the diagonal OQ of the rectangle OPQR (Fig. 4), provided the rectanPie 18 a square.
CHAPTER 2
ANALYSIS OF STRESS
c
o
FIG. 7
T
state of stress at the point P. The stress vector can then be calculated
from the Tij for any orientation v of the surface element at P. The mean-
ing of the SUbscripts in the components Tij should be carefully noted.
Observe that in r23, for example, the first 8uhscript, 2, indicates the
2
coordinate axis normal to the element of area on which the stress T acts,
while the second subscript, 3, indicates the direction of the component of
this stress vector~
If the volume element is taken in the shape of a rectangular paral-
lelepiped, with faces parallel to the coordinate planes, and Tis the stress
38
vector acting on .. face of the parallelepiped perpendicular to the ~,
the components 1'# are shown in Fig. 8. The convention in regard to the
signs of the scalar quantities is the foHowing: If one draws an exterior
normal to a given face of the parallelepiped, then the components Til are
reckoned positive if the corresponding components of force act in the
directions of increasing Xl, ;1::, X3 when the normal has the same sense as
the positive direction of the axis to which the face is perpendicular; if,
on the other hand, the exterior normal to a given face points in the direc-
tion opposite to that of the positive coordinate axis, then the positive
values of the components 1',; are associated with forces directed oppositely
to the positive directions of coordinate axes. The arrows in Fig. 8 indi-
cate vectors representing forces which, for positive values of the 1'lj are
o %2
FIG. S
- d ll = Tn,
for the normal stresses and denote the remaining six tangential, or shear,
stresses '1'12, TU, etc., by '1'.." '1'.., etc.
tI. = 1'83
The notation
'I'll = xx, .. " , '1'33 = U
has been suggested by K. Pearson and is quite convenient when one con-
templates using orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. When it appears
desirable to exhibit the dependence of the components of the stress tensor
on the x, 7/, z-system of coordinates, we shall write 'I'll = '1'.., '1'" = Till"
TU =< '1'.." Ttl = '1'"", etc. In this notation, formulas (13.3) read:
MATHEMATICAL TBEOBT OJ' ELASTICITY
f" ... '1'"" 008 (:1:, p) -I; '1'". COllI (1/, p) + '1'"" COS (Ill, p),
TI/ == '1'"" COS (:1:, .) + cos (11, p) + '1'.. COS (z, II),
'1'l1li
T. = '1',.. COS (:1:, .) + '1'... COS (II, .) + '1'.. COS (z, ,,).
From the definition of the stress vector, it follows that the stress vector
T has the dimensions of
force M
or
area
In the cgs system, the stress is measured in dynes per square centimeter,
while in English practical units it is measured in pounds per square inch
or in tons per square inch.
f. F, d1" + 1. T, au = 0,
or, making use of (13.3),
(15.1)
Now if it is assumed that the functions 1";1 and their first partial deriva-
tives'Tj;..... ',,:1:.
!"i< are continuous
.
and single-valued in '1', then the Divergence
Theorem l can be applied to the surface integral in (15.1) to yield
(15.4)
With the aid of (13.3) and the Divergence Theorem, the surface integral
in (15.4) can be transformed as follows:
L e;;kTjk d.,. = 0,
in the interior of the medium and that on the surface bounding the
medium they must satisfy the three boundary conditions (13.3),
PROBLEM
Consider an ela.stic solid acted upon by body forces that exert moments M, per unit
volume (as in the case of a polarized dielectric ~olid under the action of an eleCtric
field). Show that in this case, Eq. (15.5) must be replaced by
eii1(riAl + Mi -- O.
What can be said in this case a.hout the symmetry of the straM components? See in
this connection Eric ReislJner, "Note on the Theorem of the Symmetry of the Stress
T_r," J<iUNUJl oj MatItematics and Phyflc8, vol. 23 (1944), pp. 192-194.
THEOREM: Let the BfJ,rface element8 &T and &T', with unit normal8l' and
.', pa88 thruugh the point P; then the component of the stress vector (acting T
>'
on; &T) in the direction of v' is equal to the component of the stress vector T
(acting on AU') in the direction of the normal v.
In vector notation, the theorem reads:
(1~.1) f. v = f. v'.
The proof of the theorem employs only Eq. (13.3) and the symmetry of
the stress components. For
If' ,,'
(16.3)
where v' is parallel to the x~-axis and " is parallel to the x~-axis. Thus,
(16.2) and (16.3) give
Then
)I: = cos (x~, Xi' == laiJ
II; = cos (X~, Xi) "'" lflj,
and we get
(16.4)
The eqUations of transformation from the ":j to'T,.jl have the form
(16.5)
The law of transformation (16.4) is identical with that deduced in Sec. 5
for the transformation of the strain tensor and exhibits the tensor char-
acter of the quantities 'Tv. Indeed, these equations represent the trans-
formation under rotation of axes of any tensor ·of rank 2 that is referred
to a cartesian coordinate system.
If we set fj == Il! in (16.4) and use the orthogonality relations
lah, = k.1;.. ... Oq,
we see that
or
.' .
I. Show that the symmetry of the stress components T<; = Tj' follows from (16.1),
T·y = T'''',
P Q
I. If T and Tare thc stress vectors at a point and acting across planes P and Q, find
R P Q
the direction of the stress vector T on a plane R containing both T and T.
'- Show with the help of (16.1) that the normal stress has a stationary value (maxi-
mum or minimum) wh,·u the shea.r stress is zero. Hint: Let T11 be the normal and ""
the shear stress across plane (1). Then hy (16.1),
,"" d
121
~w d8
~;:dB
vv
(...., + ~' dB) cos de + (",. + 0;;' de) sin de - ~n COlI de - T,. sin de·
ANALYSIS OJ' STRESS
or
mu
iii - -20, •••
That is, the normal stress across a tmrf'ace element varies 88 the element is rotated and
at a rate which is twice the shear component (with sign changed) perpendicular to the
axis of rotation.
17. Stress Quadric of Cauchy. For the purpose of studying the nature
of the distribution of stresses throughout a continuous medium, we define
at each point P(x) a quadric surface, the stress quadric of Cauchy. The
discussion of this quadric will parallel closely that of the strain quadric
in Sees. 5 and 6.
Consider an element of area with normal " and containing a point
PO(X O), and let T be the stress vector acting on this surface element (Fig.
9). We introduce a local system of axes Xi with origin at po, and we
.
denote by A the vector, in the clirection of the normal ", from po to Bome
point P(x). The vector T may be resolved into normal component N
along" and tangential (or shearing) componeHt S orthogonal to ". The
T
normal component N of can be written
with the help of (16.2) as
.
N = T· " =
.
TiVi = T;jViV"
or since Xi = A Vi,
(17.1) N A2 = Ti,.XiX,..
(17.3)
where k is an 8.l'hitrary real constant and where the sign is chosen so as to
make the surface real. From (17.3) and (17.1) it is seen that
k2
(17.4) N = ± Ai'
Since A! is a positive quantity, kt will be taken with the positive sign
whentwer the normal component N tJf T represents tension and with the
negative sign when it represents compression. (Nate the convention
adopted in Sec. 13.)
46 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
If the coordinate axes are rotated to give a new coordinate system x:,
then new stress components Tij are determined and the equation of the
stress quadric becomes
T:jX;Xj = N A' == ±k·.
But both N and A have values that rio not depend on the particular
coordinate system used, and hence
(17./j)
Thus, the quadratic form T;;XiX; has a value that is independent of the choice
of coordinate system. In other words, it is invariant with re!!pect to an
orthogonal transformation of coordinates.
The invariance of the form r,,:x,,xh shown by Eq. (17.5), affords an easy
means of calculating the equations of transformation (16.4). For (cf.
Sec. 5) if one substitutes in the right-hand member
of (17.5) the expressions for x~ in terms of the x;,
namely,
From 2F(Xl, X" x,) = T,;X;Xj and Eq. (13.3), it is seen that
(17.6)
Thus, the quadratic form F(Xl, x" x.) has some attributes of a potential
function, since its derivatives with respect to the variables Xi are propor-
tional to the corresponding components of force.
Since the :~ are the direction ratios of the normal n to the plane tan-
gent to the quadric surface (17.3) at the point P(x), we see from (17.6)
that the stress vector f is also normal to this tangent pJ.a.ne. This gives
an easy means of constructing the stress vector f from the knowledge of
its normal component N. All that is necessary is to draw the quadric
aurface (17.3) and construct the tangent pJ.a.ne to the quadric through the
terminus P(z) of the vector A (Fig. 10). Then the vector is directed T
along the perpendicular POQ to the tangent pJ.a.ne. If the magnitude of
N is known, one can readily determine the length of the vector T.
ANALYSIS OF STRESS 47
If the direction" is taken along one of the axes of the quadric, then"
(and A) will be normal to the plane tangent to the surface at (Xi). But
of is perpendicular to the tangent plane so that, in this case, of and "
coincide in direction; hence their components must be proportional.
Thus, 1
>
(17.7) Ti. = TV.. = r Oi/Vi
when" lies along an axis of the stress quadric. Since" is a unit vector
i
and = TV, the constant T denotes the magnitude of the stress vector of
that acts on an element normal to the axis of the surface. For any
direction" we have T; = T;;V;, and therefore T;;"; = T 6;;";, or
of the SurfllOO element at the center of the sphere, the stress tlxperienced
by it will be purely normal.
We recall that Tl, T2, T, are the only stresses acting on the Ilurface ele-
ments perpendicular to the principal directions ~, ;, ~, while T11, Tn, Taa
are the normal strlll!8es on elements perpendicular to the coor(iinate axes.
If the coordinate axes are taken along the axes of the quadric, then the
shear stresses T12, T23, T31 disappear from the equation of the surface
T;f£,:&J = ±k2, which now takes the form
(17.10)
The cubic equation (17.9) can be written as
IT" - T 8,;1 = -T' + e1T' - e2T + e. = 0,
where 91, 9., 9. are the invariants of the stress tensor:'
91 = Tl + T2 + T, = Tn + T22 + T33 == e,
9. = TIT. + TtT3 + TaTI
T22 T231 1 T11 :31 1 + I T11 T12I'
A reference to formulas (16.5) shows that one can write down at once
the expressions for the components of the stress tensor T,; in terms of the
principal stresses. Thus, if the direction cosines of the principal axes of
strIlI!8 X; are given by the table
Xl X2 ' X.
Xl III In In
X. l21 I12 In
X3 til In lu
then one has the simple formula
(17.12)
The ehara.eter of the di8tribution, of stress -at the point 1'0($0) -depends
on the signs of the principal stresses. (Note the agreement above con-
I cr. Eq. (6.9).
ANALYSIS OJ' STRESS 49
(leming the choice of the sign of k!.) If the principal stresses are all
positive, then the equation of the stress quadric has the form
1"IX~ + 1",xl + 1"aX: = k",
and the surface is an ellipsoid. Equation (17.4) now reads N = k ' / A "
from which it follows that the force acting on every surface element pass-
ing through the point p. is tensile. If, on the other hand, all 1"0 are nega-
tive, then (17.10) takes the form
or
°
< 0, 1"3 > does not differ essentially from
FIG. 11
that just considered. The only difference is in the regions in which the
medium experiences compression and tension.
18. Maximum Normal and Shear Stresses. Mohr's Diagram. We
have shown in the preceding section [Eq. (17.4)1 that the component N
i
of the stress vector in the direction ", normal to the surface element, is
inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector A\' to the stress
quadric. The extreme values of the radius vector lie along the axes of
50 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
we then have
(18.1)
.
T. = 'T.Va,
and since
we get
(18.2)
But from Fig. 9
8 2 = I'fl' - N',
and on substituting in this formula from (18.1) and (18.2) we obtain
(18.3)
It is clear from (18.3) that if the directions" are taken along the axes
of the stress quadric so that
V, = ± 1, V2 = Va = 0,
1', = ± 1, V3 = V, = 0,
V3 = ± 1, PI = V. = 0,
then 8 = O. This merely verifies the known fact that the planar elements
normal to the principal directions of stress are free from shear. Thus the
minimum (zero) values of 181 are associated with the principal directions.
To determine the directions associated with the maximum values of 181,
we maximize the function in the right-hand member of (18.3), subject
to the constraining relation II;Vi = 1. The simplest way of doing this is to
use the method of La.grange multipliers a.nd seek the free extremum of
the function
F = 8 1 - X... I',.
This leads to the three equations,
iJF
iJv;
= °,
ANALYSIS OF STRESS 51
in X and "i which, together with the relation Vi"i = 1, serve to determine
the desired directions.
We dispense with the elementa.ty computa.tions and record the final
results in the accompanying table, the last column of which gives the
values of INI associated with the extreme values of lSI.
VI
" Va
181"" INI
-~
0 0 ±l 0 IT.I
0 ±l 0 0 hi
:1:1 0 0 0 [TIl
~/2 V2 + TIl
0 ±T ±T i ~~lr2 - Ta! ~~[T2
±V2 0 ± V2 \
~ih - Ttl Hlra + Ttl
2 2
±V2 ±~ 0 ~~ITI - T,I ~21Tl + ral
2 2
I
If 1'3 < T. < 1'1, SO that 1'1 is the maximum value of Nand 1'3 is its mini-
mum value, then the maximum value of lSI is,
We see from the table that the maximum shearing stress acts on the sur-
face element containing the X2 principal axis and bisecting the angle
between the X,- and xa-axes. If 1'2 = 1'3, there will be infinitely many
directions associated with the surface elements that are subjected to a
maximum shearing stress. We summarize the main results of this section
in the following theorem:
THEOREM: The maximum shearing stress is equal to one-half the difference
between the greatest and least normal stresses and acts on the plane that
bisects the angle between the directions of the largest and smallest principal
stresses.
The results of this .section can be further illuminated by constructing a
diagram proposed' by o. Mohr.
If we rewrite Eqs. (18.2) and (18.3) in the form
(18,4)
s Q
FIG. 12
The equation
(18.6) S' + (N - 'I",)(N - '1".) = 0
represents a circle 0, with center on the N-axis and passing through the
points ('1"2, 0), (T3, 0). Hence the region defined by (18.5) is ~rior to
the circle (18.6) and includes its boundary. Further, '1". - '1", > 0,
TI - '1"1 < 0, and we conclude from the second of Eqs. (18.4) that
PROBUMS
Discusa the Mohr circle diagram for the case where T, = n, and detennine the orien-
tation of surface elements experiencing extreme shearing stresses. Consider also the
case where 1"1 = 1"2 = Ta.
Any set of orthogonal axes that pass through the point po may be taken .
as principal axes of the quadric. This case corresponds to hydrostatic
pressurei£,."" is negative.
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELA.STlCITY
Thus, the shearing streM is equivalent to tension acr088 one plane and
compression of equal magnitude acr088 a perpendicular plane. This can
also be shown geometrically by considering the equilibrium of the element
PBO (Fig. 13). Hence the stress on the face BO is a pure shear of magni-
tude l' - -'T"" = +'T... This type of shearing stress would tend to slide
planes of the material originally perPendicular to the y'-axis in a direction
parallel to the :r!-axis and planes of the material originally perpendicular
to the :r!-axis in a direction parallel to the y'-axis.
d. Plane St.r_. If one of the principal stresses vauishes, then the
1ItNI8II quadric becomes a cylinder whose base is a eonic, the stress conic.
ANALYSIS OJ' STR1!l88 55
A state of stress, in this case, is said to be plcM. The base of the cylinder
lies in a plane containing the directions of the non vanishing principal
stresses. For example, if this plane is perpendicular to the ,-axis, the
equation of the quadric is
T•..x· + T..Y· + 2T.,xy = ±k·.
For simple tension in the x-direction, the stress conic reduces to the pair
of lines
~
±kt
x == ± -_.
T ...
20. Hooke's Law. It has already been noted that the treatment con-
tained in Chaps. 1 and 2 is applicable to all material media that can be
represented with sufficient accuracy as continuous bodies; this chapter
will be concerned with the characterization of elastic solids.
The first attempt at a scientific description of the strength of solids was
made by Galileo. He treated bodies as inextensible, however, since at
that time there existed neither experimental data nor physical hypotheses
that would yield a relation between the deformation of a solid body and
the forces responsible for the deformation. It was Robert Hooke who,
some forty years after the appearance of Galileo's Discourses (1638), gave
the first rough law of proportionality between the forces and displacements.
Hooke published his law first in the form of an anagram" ceiiinosssttuu"
in 1676, and two years later gave the solution of the anagram: "ut tensio
sic vis," which can be translated freely as "the extension is proportional
to the force." To study this statement further, we discuss the deforma-
tion of a thin rod subjected to a tensile stress.
Consider a thin rod (of a low-carbon steel, for example), of initial cr088-
sectional area ao, which is subjected to a variable tensile force F. If the
stress is assumed to be distributed uniformly over the area of the cross
section, then the nominal8tre8s T = F I ao can be calculated for any applied
load F. The actual stress is obtained, under the assumption of a uniform
stress distribution, by dividing the load at any stage of the test by the
actual area of the cross section of the rod at that stage. The difference
between the nominal and the actual stress is negligible, however, through-
out the elastic range of the material.
If the nominal stress T is plotted as a function of the extension e (change
in length per unit length of the specimen), then for some ductile metals
a graph like that in Fig. 14 is secured. The graph is very nearly a straight
line with the equation
(20.1) T = Ee
until the stress reaches the proportional limit (point P in Fig. 14). The
position of this point, however, depends to a considerable extent upon the
sensitivity of the testing apparatus. The constant of proportionality E is
known as Young's modulus.
EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY 57
In most metals, especially in soft and ductile materials, careful observa-
tion will reveal very small permanent elongations which are the results
of very small tensile forces. In many metals, however (steel and
wrought iron, for example), if these very small permanent elongations are
neglected (less than 1/100,000 of the length of a bar under tension), then
the graph of stress against extension is a straight line, as noted above, and
practically all the deformation disappears after the force has been
removed. The greatest stress that can be applied without producing a
permanent deformation is called the elastic limit of the material. When
the applied force is increased beyond this fairly sharply defined limit, the
material exhibits both elastic and plastic properties. The determination
of this limit requires successive loading
and unloading by ever larger forces U
until a permanent set is recorded. For
many materials the proportional limit
is very nearly equal to the elastic limit,
and the distinction between the two is
sometimes dropped, particularly since
the former is more easily obtained.
When the stress increases beyond the
elastic limit, a point is reached (Yon
the graph) at which the rod suddenly
stretches with little or no increase in Strain
the load. The stress at point Y is called
FIG. 14
the yield-point stress.
The nominal stress T may be increased beyond the yield point until the
ultimate stress (point U) is reached. The corresponding force F = Tao is
the greatest load that the rod will bear. When the ultimate stress is
reached, a brittle material (such as a high-carbon steel) breaks suddenly,
while a rod of some ductile metal begins to "neck"; that is, its cross-
sectional area is greatly reduced over a small portion of the length of the
rod. Further elongation is accompanied by an increase in actual stress
but by a decrease in total load, in cross-sectional area, and in nominal
stress until the rod breaks (point B).
The elastic limit of low-carbon steels is about 35,000 lb per sq in.; the
ultimate stress is about 60,000 lb per sq in. .Hard steels may be prepared
with an ultimate strength greater than 200,000 lb per sq in.
We shall consider only the behavior of elastic materials subjected to
stresses below the proportional limit ; that is, we shall be concerned only
with those materials and situations in which Hooke's law, expressed by
Eq. (20.1), or a generalization of it, is valid.'
I In order to give the reader Ilome feeling regarding the magnitude of deformations
with which the theory of elasticity de&ls, note that a l-in.-long rod of iron with propor-
tionallimit of 25,000 Ib per sq in., a yield point of 30,000 lb per sq in., and Young'swod-
58 Il.\THEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
e CI
lal Ibl
FIG. 15
muof 10,000,000 lb per aq in. will eloncate under & load of 13,000 lb per aq in. about
0.0004 in. Even if the rod is loaded to the yield point, the determiD&tioa of the
extensioa wiD require very refined m _ t s .
EQUATIONS OF ELA8T1CITY 59
hed temperature there is a one-to-one analytic relation
Tij = Fij(en, en, ..• ,en), (i, j = 1, 2, 3)
between the Tij and eoj and that the Tij vanish when the strains eo; are all
zero. This last assumption implies that in the initial unstrained state
the body is unstressed. Now, if the functions Fij are expanded in the
power series in e;; and only the linear terms retained in the expansions,
we get
(21.1) (i, j, k, I = 1, 2, 3).
The coefficients Cijkl, in the linear forms (21.1), in general will vary from
point to point of the medium. If, however, the C,jkl are independent of
the position of the point, the medium is called elastically homogeneous.
Henceforth we confine our attention to those media in which the (;,;kl do
not vary throughout the region under consideration. The law (21.1) is
a natural generalization of Hooke's law, and it is used in all developments
of the linear theory of elasticity.'
Inasmuch as the components Tij are symmetric, an interchange of the
indices i and j in (21.1) does not alter these formulas, so that
Moreover, we can assume, without 1088 of generality, that the C'j'" are also
symmetric with respect to the last two indices. For if the constants
C:jkl and C:;kl are defined by the formulas
then, clearly, c:;>1 = O:jlk and C:;kl = -C:;'k' ThuB Cijkl can be written as
the sum
Cij1cl = C~ikl + C~;kh
in which the C:j11 are symmetric and the C;;kl are skew-symmetric with
respect to k and 1. Accordingly, the law (21.1) can always be written
in the form
Tij = C:;kleH + C:;kle",.
However, the double sum in the second term of this expression vanishes
inasmuch as ekl = eU. and C:;kl = Thus, -C:;11'
Tij == C~.i.l:,eA:l,
where the C#kl are symmetric with respect to the first two and the last two
indices.
, It is Important to note that the generaliJled Hooke'alaw (21.1) is akIo uaed in some
in'\"e8tiptionB. where the Btraina are finite, in the llen&e of Sec. 11. For many materiall
a linear relationship (21.1) holds for an appreciable range of values of the 8</. The
linear theory of elasticity, however, is baaed on the UBe of the infinitesimal straina,
dsfined in Sec. 7, and on the linear law (21.1).
60 MATHEMATICAL THEORY 01' IlLASTICITY
We shall consider henceforth tha.t the CV'I in (21.1) have been sym-
metrized, so that there are at most 36 independent constants in the gen-
eral stress-strain law (21.1).
To avoid dealing with double sums, we can introduce the notation
1"22 = T2t 733 ::e Ta, 723 = T", Tn = Ti, Tn = ra,
elt = e2, e33.= ea, 2e., = e., 2e .. = e" 2eu= eo,
For one can always suppose that the quadratic form (21.3) is symmetric,
and it then follows from (21.4) that
'1', = CVil;,
where 1:<1 = Cj;.
The potential function W was introduced by George Green,1 and it is
called the strain-energy density functUm. Its existence for the isothermal
and adiabatic processes' has been argued on the basis of the first and
1 See See. 14.
• G. Green, TranMJCt:WruJ of the Cambridge PhU<nophic418ocia", vol. 7 (1839), p. 12l.
• See references in this book to Lord Kelvin's papers in the HiBtorical SIMIch. The
isothermal process corresponds to the case of slow loading and unloadiDg involving
JjO temperature changes of the medium. It is of interest in elastostatic problems.
The adiabatic process is approximated in thoae dyDamica.l problema where bodies
execute smaJl and rapid vibrations. The elastic constanta C<j in the two eases cannot
be expeeted to be identical.
JlQUATlONS OF 1IlL.UlTICITY 61
second laws of thermodynamics, and it is now generally accepted that, for
the most general case of an anisotr~pig~!Mtk.body, the number of inde-
pendent elastic constants iil'the generalized Hooke's law is 21. The
matter of the number of elastic constants required to describe the stress-
strain law of the form (21.1) was the subject of a lengthy controversy.
Cauchy and Poisson argued,l on the basis of special mathematical models
of molecular interaction, that the number of independent constants can-
not exceed 15. Their arguments proved wanting and are in contradiction
to experimental evidence.
H an elastic medium exhibits a geometrical symmetry of internal struc-
ture (crystallographic form, regular :urangement of fibers or molecules,
etc.) then its elastic properties become identical in (!ertain directions.'
The geometric symmetry, however, is not equivalent to elastic symmetry
because there may be certain other directions for which the elastic
properties are the same but the geometric ones are not.
H the medium is elastically symmetric in certain directions, then
the number of independent constants Co; in (21.2) is further reduced.
Because of their practical importance, we discuss in this section two
particular types of elastic symmetry. These are (1) symmetry with
respect to a plane (in which 13 independent elastic constants are involved),
and (2) symmetry with respect to three mutually perpendicular planes
(involving 9 independent constants Coi)' In the next section we prove
that when the elastic properties of a body are identical in all directions,
that is, if the body is elastically isotropic, the number of essential elastic
constants reduces to 2.: . "' ,,"_,,_
It is obvious frorii"(21.2) that the coefficients c;" in general, depend on
the chosen reference frame inasmuch as the str. components T; and the
strain components e; vary with the choice of coordinate systems. For
certain media the coefficients Cij may remain invariant under a given
transformation of coordinates, and it is this invariance which determines
the elastic symmetry of the medium under consideration. 8
1 o o
o 1 o
o o -1
and from formulas (5.9) and (1604) it is seen that
T~ = 'Ti, e~ = ei, (i = 1, 2, 3, 6),
r~ = -T4, e~ = -e4,
The first equation of (21.2) becomes
1"; = cue; + c,,.e~ + clSe; + cHe~ + cl&e~ + c,.e~,
or
1"1 = cue, + cue. + c,.e. - cue, + C,se.·
ClSe. -
Comparison of this equation with the expression for 1"1 givlln by (21.2)
shows that
c,. = c" = O.
Similarly, by considering 1"~, . . . ,1"~, we find that
Cu = Cu = Cu = Cu = Cu = Cn = 0,
~=~=~=~=~=~=~=~=~
For a material with one plane of elastic symmetry (which. is taken to
be the xlxrplane), the matrix of the coefficients of the linE>,ar forms in
(21.2) can be written as follows,
If the ttl are invariant (so that c'ft - etl) under a given coordinate tr-ansform.ation,
then the tranafo1'lllation Characteril!eB the nature of elastic symmetry. The ~ Iigur-
IJ:c
ing in the law (4) arethedirectionoosines ..ppearinginthetablesofthlslWK!tion,~_
the systeJns X a.nd X' are cartesian.
EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY 63
(21.5) (~: ~ ~
o
Cn
0
Cu c" 0
0Co.0
0
c..
coo
u. ~)
Such materials as wood, for example, have three mutually orthogonal
planes of elastic symmetry and are said to be or.tftoiJ:J!,pic. In considering
such materials, we shall choose the axes '(;r co()rdinates so that the
coordinate planes coincide with the planes of elastic symmetry. Tn this
case, some of the coefficients Co; exhibited in the array (21.5) vanish,
Besides the symmetry with respect to the xlx.-plane, expressed by (21.5),
the elastic constants co; must also be invariant under the transformation
of coordinates defined by the following table of direction cosines,
Xl X. X.
- -- - - - - ---
I
Xl -1 0 0
,
x., 0 1 0
x. 0 0
This change of coordinates is a reflection in the x.x.-plane and leaves the
r, e,
and unchanged with the following exceptions:
e~ = -e5, e~ = -e•.
From (21.5) we have
TI = CUel + Cl2e. + cue. + cue•.
This becomes
or
Tl = CUel + Cl2ll. + Clae. - cue.,
(
~:: ~:: ~:: ~ ~
D
(21.6) Cu Caa 0 0 C..
o 0 0 C44 0
OOOOc"
o 0 0 0 0
Note that elastic symmetry in the ztzrplane and in the "'o2'rplane intplies elastic
1
~ in the """'rplane.
64 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OJ' ELASTICITY
PROBLEMS
1. Are the principal axes of strain coincident with those of stress for an anisotropic
medium with Hooke's law expressed by Eq. (21.2)? For a medil1m with one plane of
elastic symmetry? For an orthotropie mediull1 ? Him: Take the eoordinate axes
along the principa.l "as of strain @() that e. - e. _ .... - o.
EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY 55
I. Show directly from the generalized Hooke's law (Eq. (21.2)) that in an isotropio
body the principal axes of strain coincide with those of stress. Hint: Take the coordi-
nat<, axes along the principal axes of strain (e. - e. - e. = 0), and consider the effect
on Til and Tn of a rotation of axes by 180· about the x.-axis.
We introduce, finally, the coordinate system x;, x~, x;, got from the x" x.,
xa-system by rotating the latter through an angle of 45 0 about the x.-axis.
In this case, we have
1';. = -721'11 + 721'22,
or, noting the definitions on page 60,
T~ = -721', + 721'2, e~ = -e, + e•.
From (21.6) and the relation C66 = c,', we have
T6 = C.ue6.
or
(22.4) e = (3). + 2p.)iJ.
Equations (22.3) can now be solved easily for the strains ei; in terIDS of the
stresses Tij. We have
or
->'8,; 1
(22.5) eo; = 2/J(3).. + 2p,) e + 2; Tij.
It is clear from (22.5) that we must require that p, "F 0 and 3A + 21' "F O.
The constants >.. a.nd p. were introduced by G. L&m~ and are called the
Lame constants.
We .have shown that the stress-strain law for isotropic media involves
no more than two elastic constants. The fact that no further reduction
is posiible is physically obvious from the simple tensile tests, but an
EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY 67
analytic proof of this, utilizing the properties of isotropic tensors, can be
constructed. 1
If the axes x; are directed along the principal axes of strain, then
eoa = en = 612 = O. But from (22.3) we see that in this case'T23, 'Tn, and
T1S also vanish. Hence the axes X; must lie along the principal axes of
stress, and we have the result that the principal axes of stress are coincident
'With the principa~e~.of strain if the medium is isot;opiC: -This property
was used by Cauchy to define the isotropic elastic medium.
Henceforth no distinction will be made between the principal axes of
strain and those of stress, and such axes will be referred to simply as the
principal axes.
23. Elastic Moduli for Isotropic Media. Simple Tension. Pure
Shear. Hydrostatic Pressure. In order to gain some insight into the
physical significance of elastic constants entering in formulas (22.3), we
consider the behavior of elastic bodies subjected to simple tension, pure
shear, and hydrostatic pressure.
Assume that a right cylinder with the axis parallel to the Xl-axis is
subjected to the action of longitudinal forces applied to the ends of the
cylinder. If the applied forces give rise to a uniform tension T in every
cross section of the cylinder, then
(23.1) Tll = T = const, T •• = Ta. = T12 = To. = T31 = O.
Since the body forces are not present, the state of stress determined by
(23.1) satisfies the equilibrium equations (15.3) in the interior of the
cylinder, and equations (13.3) show that the lateral surface of the cylinder
is free of tractions.
The substitution from (23.1) in (22.5) yields the appropriate values of
strains, namely,'
(X + p.)T -XT
(23.2)
{
ell = p.(3X+ 2p.)'
e12 = e23 = e31 = 0,
which clearly satisfy the compatibility equations (10.9). Accordingly, the
state of stress (23.1) actually corresponds to the one that can exist in a
deformed elastic body.
Noting that
e.. -X
ell = 2(X + p.)'
(23.3)
" .., 2(X + p.)'
1 H. Jeffreys, Cartesian Tensors (1931).
• The integratioIl of Eqs. (23.2), yielding the displacements u" is carried out in
See. 30.
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
H the stress T represents tension, so that T > 0, then a tensile stress will
produce an extension in the direction of the axis of the cylinder and a con-
traction in its cross section. Accordingly, for T > 0, we have ell > 0,
e" < 0, eaa < O. It follows that E and 11 are both positive.
Physical interpretations of the elastic moduli E and 11 are easily
obtained. It follows from the first of the formulas (23.4) that the
quantity
represents the ratio of the tensile stress T to the extension e11 produced
by the stress T. Again, from (23.4), it is seen that
22 33
<f = I e611 1 = I 6611 1;
thus .,. denotes the ratio of the contraction of the linear elements perpen-
dicular to the axis of the cylinder to the longitudinal extension of the rod.
The quantity E is known as Young'8 modulu8, and the number 11 is called
the Poisson ratio.
It is easy to verify that one can express the constants A and p. in terms
of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio as
E.,. E
(23.5) A = (1 + (1)(1 - 211)' p. = 2(1 + (1)"
components
Tn = T = CODBt,
---
Consider next the state of pure shear characterized by the stress
Tn = 1'22 = Tn = Til = Tn = 0.
Substituting these values in (22.5) yields
1
(23.6) e" = 21' T, ell = 62. = 6.. = 812 = eu = O.
(23.7)
1"'11 = '1'22 = 1"'33 = -p, 712 = 1'23 = Tn == 0,
{
e = Tn + 1'22 + 1'33 =
-3p,
satisfies the equilibrium equation in the interior of 'I' and on its surface.
From (22.5) we deduce the expressions!
Since Ui.1 + "I.' - 2eH,we have for the determination of displacements the system of
equations,
where aH - -aji and the the integration constants. These integration con-
ao; are
stants are associated with the rigid body motion. If we fix the point Xi .. 0 (assumed
to be in the body) and impose the condition that the rotation vector "" (Sec. 7) van-
ishes, We get
til - -liz..
10 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELABTlCITY
Thus, the quantity k represents the ratio of the compreesi.v~ "ress to the
cubical compression, and for this reason it is called the modul'UI oj com-
pre8Bion. Since for all physical substances a hydrostatic pressure tends
to diminish the bulk, it is clear that k is positive. Substituting in (28.9)
the expreesi.ons for A and p. from (28.5) gives
E
k = 3(1 - 20-}
Since k is positive for all physical SUbstances, it foUows that IT is less than
one-half, and hence [see (23.5)] A is positive. For most structural mate-
rials, the value of IT does not deviate much from one-third. If the mate-
rial is highly incompressible (rubber, for example), IT is nearly one-half and
p. == E13.
The stress-strain relations (22.5), when written by making the Bub-
. stitutions from (23.5), assume the simple form
(23.10)
where e = T". If we recall the notation of Sec. 14, these relations caa
also be given in the following form:
1
en = E [Tu - IT(r,,,, + T..)],
1
e"" = E [T•• - IT(r•• + r;.»),
(23.11)
1
e•• = E [T.. - .,.(T•• + T",,»),
ell_ =
1+1T
-r T e.z =
1+.,. 6Z,
-r'T
1Iz,
The following table gives average values of E, p., and IT for several elastic
materials; the moduli E and p. are given in millions of pounds per square
inch.!
E a
(experimental)
a-'!'-l
2"
lIn. the engineering literature, the modulus of sheAr is often denoted by G, and the
reciproeal of Poillson's ~tio t1 is denoted by m; that is, m - l/a.
BOUATIONS OF ELASTICITY 7I
1. Show that Hooke's law in the form (23.11) can be obtained by the following
argument: An elementary rectangular parallelepiped subjected to tensile stresses
' .. on opposite faces will experience a longitudinal extension e.. = '''/ E and lateral
contractions en ell. = -aeu . Now consider the effect of stresses h~, Tn, 1'.,1, and
:III
where
{J = 11;;,
and [from (7.5)]
(24.3) Il;; = ~(U;.; + 1.4.,).
The systems of Eqs. (24.1) and (24.2) must be satisfied at every interior
point of the body T, and on the surface 2: of the body T the stresses must
fulfill the equilibrium conditions (13.3)
(24.4)
where the v, are the direction cosines of the exterior normal v to the sur-
T
face 2:, and is the stre3S vector acting on the surface element with nor-
mal Y. To these equations one must adjoin the equations of com-
patibility [from (1O.9)J
(24.5) e;j.kl + ekl.'j - e;'.il - ejl." = O.
It will be shown in Sec. 27 that the system of Eqs. (24.1) and (24.2),
subject to the conditions of equilibrium on the surface (24.4), is complete
in the sense that, if there exists a solution of the system, then that solution
is unique. There are nine equations in the system on the set of nine
unknown functions Ti;, u, (i, j = 1, 2, 3). Once the displacements u; are
determined, the strain components eij entering into (24.2) are readily
calculated with the aid of the formulas (24.3). We have assumed that
the displacements Ui are continuous functions of class C' throughout the
region T, and a reference to (24.2) shows that the components of stress
Tij are continuous of class C2 in the same region. The equations of
equilibrium (24.1) contain the components Fi of the body force F, and
they are assumed to be prescribed functions of the coordinates Xi of the
undeformed body. Typical examples of the body forces F, occurring in
practical applications, are centrifugal forces and forces of gravitation.
Furthermore, the components Ti
of the external surface force are i
assumed to be prescribed functions of the coordinates Xi of the unde-
formed surface 2: of the body.
In order that the solution of the problem may exist, it is clear that one
cannot prescribe the body force F and the surface force T in a perfectly
arbitrary manner, inasmuch as Eqs. (24.1) were established on the
hypothesis that the body is in equilibrium. Hence one must demand that
the distribution of the forces F and T, acting on the body T, be such that
1
.
the resultant force and the resultant moment vanish.'
That is, .,. and T must be sufficiently reguls.r and satisfy, for the body as a whole,
the equations immediately preceding (IS.l), and (lS.4).
EQUA'l'IONS OF ELASTICITY 73
It is clear from physical considerations that, instead of prescribing the
distribution of the surface force f acting on 1:, one could prescribe the
displacements u. on the surfa.ce 1: and that the state of stress established
in the interior of the body by deforming its surface X must also be char-
acterized in a unique way. Thus, we are led to consider the following
fundamental boundary-value problems of elasticity:
Problem 1. Determine the distribution of stress and the displacements in
the interior of an elastic body in equilibrium when the body forces are pre-
JJcribed and the distribution of the forces acting on the surface of the body is
known.
Problem 2. Determine the distribution of stress and the displacements in
the interior of an elastic body in equilibrium when the body forces are pre-
scribed and the displacementa of the points on the surface of the body are
prescribed functions.
In many applicationR, it is important to consider a problem resulting
from the combination of the problems stated above. Thus, one may have
the displacements of the points on part of the surface prescribed and the
distribution of forces specified over the remaining portion. Such a prob-
lem will be referred to as a mixed boundary-value problem.
It should be noted that in Prob. 1 the external forces are as~igned over
the initial, or undeformed, surface of the body, while the equilibrium
under these forces is reached when the body is in the final deformed state.
Since the displacements are small, the error introduced in this approxima-
tion has the order of magnitude implicit in the formulation of the stress-
strain relations, as stated in the concluding paragraph of Sec. 21.
The formulation of the fundamental boundary-value problems of
elasticity given above suggests the desirability of expressing the differen-
tial equations for Prob. 1 entirely in terms of stresses and thoe e for Prob.
2 entirely in terms of displacements. This is not difficult to do.
Let us first obtain the equations in terms of dispJacements u, by sub-
stituting in (24.1) the expressions for stresses in terms of displaceme:Qts.
Making use of the formulas (24.3), we can write the system (24.2) in the
form
(24.6) T;; = >. 6ijUU + !'(u,.j + Uj.i).
Substituting the values of the stress components (24.6) in the equilibrium
equations (24.1) gives
!'U;.jj + (X + !')Uj.;; + F. = 0,
or
(24.7) p.V2u; 0" + F. =
+ (X + !') -;- 0
"Xi
where
" = 8;, = U •• i = div u.
Equations (24.7) are associa.ted with the name of Navier.
74 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Note that we need not adjoin the compatibility equati01l8 (10.9), for
the only purpose of the latter is to impose restrictions on the strain com-
ponents that shall ensure that the 6;; yield single-valued continuous dis-
placements u., when the region 'T is simply connected.
It is clear that Prob. 2 is completely solved if one obtains the solution
of the I!ystem (24.7) subject to the boundary conditions
(i = 1,2,3),
where the Ii are prescribed continuous functions on the boundary of the
undeformed solid. From the knowledge of the functions U;, one can
determine the strains, and hence the stresses by making use of the rela-
tions (24.2).
We now turn our attention to the first boundary-value problem. It
was noted earlier that not every solution of the system of three equations
of equilibrium (24.1) corresponds to a possible state of strain in an elastic
body, because the components of strain, defined by the system of Eqs.
(23.10), must satisfy the equations of compatibility (24.5). We proceed
to derive the compatibility equations in terms of the stresses. If the
expressions (23.10)
and
But
Tn = Tfi = S, ai,9,ii = e,.. = V"e,
and
O;.fJ,H = 0;;9... = 3V"e.
The foregoing equation can be written as
or
1-(1
(24.12) •.,.t,, = --vte
•... 1 +" .
The differentiation of the equilibrium equation
gives
T'i,ij = -Fj .;,
and inserting this in the left-hand member of (24.12) yields the formula
(24.13)
Substituting from (24.13) in (24.11) gives the final form of the com-
patibility equation in terms of stresses,
Equations (24.15) were obtained by Michell in 1900 and, for the case
when the body forces are absent, by Beltrami in 1892. They are known
as the Beltrami-Michell compatibility equations. Thus, in orJer to deter-
mine the state of stress in the interior of an elastic body, onll must solve
the system of equations consisting of (24.1) and (24.15) subject to the
boundary conditions (24.4).
The system of Eqs, (24.1) and (24.15) is equivalent to the system con-
sisting of Eqs. (24.1), (24.2), and (24.5).
If the field of body force F is conservative, so that
F= v"
EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY 77
or
then
div F "" Fi .; = <P.;; "" V'<p,
and
Pi,; = fP.ij,
We shall consider two particular cases of body forces, namely, the case
in which F is a constant vector and that in which the potential function 'I'
is harmonic (that is, div F = V2rp = 0).
If F is constant, then <p is a linear function. In this case the right-hand
member of (24.16) vanishes, and we obtain the equations of Beltrami,
1
(24.17) "';'i; +1+ (f e.;; = o.
From (24.13) it follows that in this case
vte = 0,
so that e = 'T" is a harmonic function. Equation (22.4) shows that the
strain invariant f) = e" is also harmonic; that is,
",Of} = 0
whenever e is harmonic. From (24.17) it is seen that, if the 'Ti; are of
class C., the components of stress satisfy the biharmonic equation
V"";'ij "'" V'rij = 0,
and since the strain components e;; are linear functions of the'Ti;, we have
V'ei; = O.
A function V of class C., and satisfying the equation V'V = 0, is
called a biharmonic function.
If the body force F is derived from a harmonic potential' function, so
that
div F = "'trp = 0,
then from (24.13) and (22.1) we see that
vte = 0, and' ""f} ;= 0.
We can thus enunciate a theorem.
TmlORElIl: When the componen!8 oJ the body force Fare conatant, the
ifwarian!8 e and t'J are harmonic functWns and the IItreaa component& '1'# and
8train component& e;; are biharmonic JunctitmB.
78 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
PROBLEMS
1. Show that the following stress components are not the 8Olution of a problem in
elasticity, even though they satisfy the equations of equilibrium with zero body forces:
T.. - e[y' + .. (z· - y")I, c ... 0,
T. . - C[ZI + ..(y' - zl)I,
T. - "..(z· + y'),
Ta: .. - -2t:c:ny,
T' •• - 1"'•• - o.
.. The solutions of many problems in elasticity are either exa.etJy or approximately
independent of the value chosen for Poisson's ratio. This fact suggests that approxi-
mate 8Olutions may be found by 80 choosing Poisson's ratio as to simplify the problem.
Show that, if one takes.. - 0, then
}. -0, p.-~E, A:-~E,
and consider the case of zero body force. Show that, if Poisson's ratio fT is assumed to
vanish, then the equilibrium and compatibility equations given in the preceding prob-
lem reduce to
V'S = const .
.. Show that, if Poisson's ratio fT has the value ~2, then
I' = HE, X .. 00, k =- OOJ
1M t = to thrQU(Joout T,
a.nd that satUfy on the 8urface 2: of the region.,. the boundary cvnditiona
1M t ~ to.
t If is a function of I, we write _ ~
p (p ~.) d-r.
EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY 81
Problem 2. Determine the displacements U,(XI, X" li:3, t) that llati8fy
in T the system of Eq8. (25.2) and are such that on the surface 2: of T
it follows that the work done in dt sec by the body forces acting on the
volume element dT located at P is F.11.; dT dt. The work performed by the
external surface forces in the same interval of time is 1',11.; du dt, where
du is the element of surface. Denoting by 8 the total work done by the
body and surface forces, we have the following expression for the rate of
doing work on the matter originally occupying some region T,
(26.2)
l T,it.; 1
dn = 'T'I,,11; d'T +1 'Ti,11;,; d'T
1. == 4'"
r.i,JONt
dr +1. .,. TtJ
(U.'i +
2 llj,i + U.,i -2llj'i)
?d'
(26.3)
(26.4)
(26.5)
dB dK
at ... di + 1• at 'Tii
oeii
d'T.
(26.6)
aw
ae. = T ••
de = dK + raw ?_e; dT
dt dt )T ae, at
dK
= at
d
+ di)T WdT.
r
Integrating this equation with respect to t between the limits t = 0 and
t = t, where t = 0 corresponds to the natural state, we obtain
(26.7) e= K + U,
where
(26.8) U == IT W dT,
since both K and e vanish in the natural state. The function W is called
the volume density of strain energy, or the elastic potential, and U is the
strain energy of the body.
Equation (26.7) has a simple physical interpretation. The work e
done by the external forces in altering the configuration of the natural
state to the state at the time t is equal to the sum of the kinetic energy K
and the strain energy U. The strain energy U may be conceived as the
energy stored in the body when it is brought from the configuration of the
natural state to the state at the time t. If at the time t the body is in
equilibrium, then K = 0 and e = U.
We assume now that the strain-energy density function Wee"~ e., ..• ,
e,) can be expanded in a power series
2W = co + 2c,'il. + c.)'il,'ilj + ... ,
and discard all terms of order 3 and higher in the strains; the constant
term Co can be disregarded· since we are interested only in the derivatives
of W. Thus, we have, from (26.6),
To = C, + ;!1 (Cil + cfi)ej.
If the To are to vauish with the straillll e;, we must set c; = 0 and thus
obtain
(26.9)
1 We shall exhibit such a function for an isotropic elastic medium in formula (26.16) •
• It is cleal'ly associated with the initially prestreseed state.
84 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Hence
oW 1
(26.10) T; = oe; = 2 (C;i + CJi)8j.
It is thus seen that the coefficients in the generalized Hooke's law are
symmetric if the strain-energy density function, with the properties
stated above, exists.
If the quadratic form (26.9) is symmetrized in advance, we can write
(26.10) in the form
(26.11) T, = e;;e,;,
where C'i = Ci"
Upon substituting from (26.11) in (26.9), we get the Clapeyron
formula'
W = J,2T,-e; (i = 1, 2, . . . ,6),
which can also be written as
(26.12) W = J,2T,,-e;; (i, j = 1, 2, 3).
When the stress-strain law (26.11) is written in the form
where 13 = r11 +
r22 +
r33.
It is easily checked that
ilW 1+ IT IT
ilr;; = - r r;j - E eo,;
= e;;.
It is clear that lV, the energy of deformation per unit volume, has a
physical meaning that is independent of the ehoice of coordinate axes, and
hence it is invariant relative to all transformations of cartesian axes. It
is also known that every invariant of a tensor e,; can be expressed as a
function of the principal invariants' 6, 6., 6 3• Inasmuch as W is a
quadratic form in the e;/t it cannot depend on 6 3, and hence it must involve
only
6 = e, + +
eu em = e;,
and
6 2 = euem + ellIel + elen = 72 8..,/e",-e.;.
1 It is worth recalling that this law was deduced in Sec. 22 without invoking the
&.lI8umpt,ion that eli - eil in the generalized Hooke's law (21.2).
• See (6.10).
86 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELA.8TlClTY
We have, in fact,!
(26.18)
2'1. Uniqueness of Solution. Remarks on Existence of Solution.
Before proceeding to the proof of the uniqueness of solution of the funda··
mental boundary-value problems of the linear theory of elasticity, we
establish an important theorem concerning the strain-energy function.
CLAPEYRON'S THEOREM: If a body i8 in equilibrium under a gillen BY8Um
of body force8 F; and BUr/ace force8 To, then the 8train energy of deformation
is equal to one-half the work that would be done by the external force8 (of the
equilibrium 8tate) acting through the diBplacementB U; from the unstre8sed
state to the state of equiUbrium.
The theorem asserts that
(27.1)
Now the surface integral in (27.1) can be transformed in exactly the same
way as was done in obtaining the formula (26.3). Making use of the
equilibrium equations (15.3) and of the relation (26.12), we write
(27.4) on l:,
For in the case of the first dynamical problem, T. = 0 on 1:, t ~ to, and in
the case of the second proble~, the components of velocity 0; . . 0 on
}:, t ?: to, since U; - 0 for all t ~ to.
88 MATHEMATICA.L THEORY OJ' ELASTICITY
for all values of t ;:::: to. The first of the above-written relations states
tnai we are deaung wiin a siatic case, and tne second means tnM deforma-
tion of the body is not present, so that the solution (UI, Us, us} represents
a rigid body motion. But the displacements (Ul, us, us) vaniE;b at t = to,
and hence rigid body motion cannot be present in our solution, or
Us = Us = 0
UI = for all t ;:::: to.
Thus, the two assumed solutions (27.2) and (27.3) are identi<lal.
The proof of uniqueness given here is essentially due to Kirchhoff.l
It should be noted that the crucial point in the argument is the positive
definite character of the strain-energy density function W. In nonlinear
theory, where large strains may be present, W need not bEl a positive
definite quadratic form in the strains, and the proof br()aks down.
Indeed, problems concerned with elastic stability and bUckling con-
template large deflections, and it is well known that Boluti()ns of such
problems need not be unique. The reader may be familil\,r with the
situation in the theory of Euler's columns where a column Subjected to
end thrusts may assume several distinct equilibrium configurations.
We conclude this section with a few remarks on the existenCE! of solution
of the fundamental boundary-value problems in linear elasticity. Because
of the resemblance in the formulation of such problems tt:J the basic
problems of Potential Theory, it is natural that the early ~ttempts to
establish the existence of solution center.ed on methods simil.ar to those
1 G. Kirchhoff, JoumalffJ.r Mathematik (CrelU Joumal), vol. M (1859).
EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY 89
developed for the problems of Dirichlet and Neumann. The resulting
proofs were not distinguished by simplicity since they depend on con-
struction of certain auxiliary functions analogous to Green's functions in
potential Theory. The demonstration of existence of such auxiliary
funetions proved to be a problem of the same order of difficulty as the
original problem. I
With the development of powerful methods of the theory of integral
equations, it proved possible to demonstrate the existence of solution of
the fundamental problems of elasticity under very general conditions
both as regards the types of regions and the character of tractions and
displacements specified on their surfaces. It suffices to suppose that the
regions admit the application of the Divergence Theorem and that the
functions assigned on the surfaces of such regions have piecewise con-
tinuous derivatives. 2
28. Saint-Venant's Principle. It is obvious from the formulation of
the fundamental boundary-value problems of the theory of elasticity that
the exact solution of these problems is likely to present formidable mathe-
matical difficulties because of the complicated form of the boundary
conditions. Frequently it is possible to obtain a solution of the problem
if the boundary conditions are somewhat modified, and it is worth noting
that in the technological applications of the theory of elasticity one can
only approximate the mathematical formulation of the boundary condi-
tions, so that the mathematical solution of the problem represents only
an approximation to the actual situation. In 1855, B. de Saint-Venant,
in his famous memoir on torsion, proposed a principle that can be stated
as follows:
1 In the special ease of a l!emi-infinite space hounded by the plane the auxiliary
functions were constructed by V. Cerruti, Atti della accademia naWmale dei Lincei,
Memorie, Clas.e di scienze ji8iche, matematiche, e naturali (1882), who utilized the
method of singularities developed by E. Betti, II Nuovo cimento, vols. 6-10 (1872).
Cerruti used this method to solve the problem of BouBBinesq treated in Chap. 6.
, The existence of solution of basic three-dimensional problems was considered by:
1. Fredholm, Arkiv fUr M atematik, ABtronomi och Fytrik, vo!. 2 (1906), pp. 3-S.
G. Lauricella, AUi della 1lCC4demia. '1IIJ2wnale dtri Linctri, Rendiconti, Classe di 8eienz.
ji8iche, matematiche e naturali, vo!. 15 (1906), pp. 426-432; II Nuovo cimento, vo!' 13
(1907), pp. 104--118, 155-174,237-262, 501-51S.
A. Kom, Annales de lafa.cult6 des sciences de l'uni_triU de Toolouse pour leo sciences
maiMmatiqueB, et leo .ciences phytriqu.e., vol. 10 (I90S), pp. 165--269; Annale. de l'kole
normale BUpbieure, vol. 24 (1907), pp. 9--75; MathematiBche Annalen, vol. 75 (1914),
pp. 497-544.
H. Weyl, Rendiconti del circola matematico di Palermo, vol. 39 (1915), pp. 1--49.
L. Lichtenstein, MalhematiBche ZeitBchrilt, vol. 20 (1924) pp. 21-2S; vol. 24 (1925),
p.640.
D. I. Sherman, Prikl. Mat. Mekh., Akadcmiya Na.uk SSBR, vol. 7 (1943),pp. 341-
360.
For corresponding contn'butions to the two-dimensional problems of elasticity see
Chap. 6.
MATHEMATICAL THEORY 0]1' ELASTICITY
ax + iff""
iff%%
ay + iff""
az = F
-z,
aT. + aT•• + F
(29.1) ax z
Ty Tz - - •.
iff•• _
aT•• + aT.. _ F
ax + Ty
iff. z
Tz- -"
au 1
ax "" E [T%< - cr(T •• + T••»),
lJv 1
ay "" E [T.. - cr(T.. + T=)],
aw 1
az == E [T.. - cr(T•• + T..)],
(29.2)
(Iv + au = 2(1 + cr) T
axay E'"
aw + ~ = 2(1 + 0-) T
ay az E ..,
au + aw _ 2(1 + cr)
az ax - E T,z,
{
~~+~~=~ .
(29.4) T.z~. + T ..V. = 0, on the lateral surface of the cylinder.
Ts~J1:1l + T.f/V21 = 0,
PROBLEMS
1. Show that if the stress components Tu, Tz., T . . and the body forces F, vanish, then
.J'T.. .J'T.. .. a'T.. = 0 ; t h at IS,
ax - iijjI azr . t h e stress component 'T.., IS
. I'Inear In
. x, In
. y, and In
. z.
t
Write out the most general form of the function in this case.
2. Integrate the dilierential equations of equilibrium T,;.; + F, = 0 throughout
the volume of an elastic solid, apply the Divergence Theorem, and show that the equa-
tion8 of static equilibrium
are satisfied and hence that the resultant force on the body vanishes.
3. Show with the help of the Divergence Theorem that if the following dilierential
equations of equilibrium
1 One may equally proceed by assuming that the distribution on the cross section
of the stress constituting each component of the resultant force and couple is the same
at all sections. This is equivalent to assuming that for Probs. 1 to 3, stated on p. 93,
we have
iJru == iJT. ,1 == Ch.. == 0
az a. .Jz '
while for Prob. 4 it is assumed that
ti'1115 "l>pr..ssing t,h.. vanishing of the x-component of the resultant mompnt on the body.
30. Extension of Beams by Longitudinal Forces. Let a force t,
directed along the z-axis, be applied at the center of gravity of the area a
of the cross section of the base z = I of the cylinder. If the stresses giving
rise to the force T are assumed to be uniformly distributed, then
T" : ~ =_ p (a COllSO, } on z = I.
'Tn - T'II - 0,
If we assume
Tu = p, Txx = Tyy =- Try = 'Ty,; = Tz% = 0,
throughout the cylinder, then the equilibrium eqnations (29.1) and (29.4)
are obviously satisfied.' The Beltrami-Michell compatibility equations
are also satisfied, since the components of the stress tensor are constants.
The displacements u, can be readily calculated. Thus, from (29.2),
au u av u aw p
ax = _ E p, ay = _ It p, az = E'
~+~
ax ay =0
, aw+~=o au+aw=o
aJ! az ' az ax '
and since the right-hand members of these equations are constants, one
is justified in assuming that the solutions are linear functions of x, y, and z.
A simple calculation gives
up up
u = - EX, V = - FfY'
if one neglects the terms representing rigid motion of the beam as a whole.
Of ('ourse one could obtain the displacements by making use of the general
formula (10.6). This problem has already been discussed in Sec. 23.
PR.OBLEMS
1. Consider a bar of length I in., area of cross section a sq in., Young's modulus
E lb per sq in., and stretched by a force of T Ib applied at each end. Use both Eq.
(26.12), W = ~T;;e;;, and Eq. (27.1),
1 The body forces F, are assumed to vanish. The extension of a beam by gravita.-
tional forces is considered in the next section. The combined effect of extension of
beams by Ion gil udinal and gravitational forees can be obtained by applying the
principle of superposition,
96 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
to show that the strain-energy density Wand the tota.! strain energy U - I. W dr
stored in the bar are given by
T1
W - 2a'E in.-lb per cu in.,
T'1
U _ 2aE . lb
m.-.
I. Find the greatest amount of strain energy per unit volume that can be stored in
a steel bar under tensile forces T without producing permanent set. Take the elastic
limit to be 30 X 10' lb per sq in. and Young's modulus as 30 X 10'lb per sq in.
3. In Prob. 1 take I = 10 in., a = 2 sq in., T = 50 X 10' lb, E = 30 X to' lb per
sq in. Find the strain-energy density W, and show numerica.!ly that the total strain
energy U is one-ha.lf the product of the force T by the elongation of the rod.
" Two gage marks 1 in. apart are made along the axis of a steel bar 10 in. long and
of 2 sq in. cross-sectional area. The bar is then subjected to a tensile force of 50,000
lb. Find the stress, strain, elongation between gage .marks, and total elongation of
the bar. What is the total change of volume of the bar? What is the change in the
cross-sectiona.! area of the bar? Take E = 30 X 10' lb per sq in., " = 0.3.
Ii. Consider a beam stretched by a tensile force T applied at each end. The magni-
n
tude of the stress vector acting on a section with normal n is T = T /(a sec "')
T T
- 1"., cos '1', where a is the area of tht" {,fOS8 section. Resolve T into normnl anoslu->;ar
stresses T"I T" and show that
Tn = Tu COS! (/I, 7, = Tn sin fP cos fP.
Derive these 'results also from the formulas of Sec. 19b. Show that the maximum
normal stress is r.. (at", = 0) and the maximum shear stress is hr.. (at 'I' = 45°).
Compare this with the theorem of Sec. 18. What are the inclinations of the cross sec-
tions on which the shear and normal stresses are equa.! in magnitude?
6. Find the maximum shear stress in the beam of Prob. 4. What is the normal
stress on the planes on which the shear stress is a maximum?
7. Consider a rod under uniform longitudinal stress r .. = p. Let the rod be so con-
strained that there is no lateral contraction in the x-direetion (e u = 0), while the rod
is free to contract laterally in the y-direction. Define the effective Young's modulus
by E' == Ttl.le .. and the effective Poisson's ratio by (T' == -evlI/el." and show that,
owing to the lateral constraint, one has
E' == __§_, , fT
1 - ,,'
" =--.
1-"
What is the range of possible values for E'? For ,,'?
8. Let the rod in the preceding problem be so constrained as to prevent any lateral
contraction. Show that the effective Young's modulus has the value
I-fT
E' = (1 _ 20-)(1 + ..) E.
What is the effective Poisson's ratio?
EXTENSION, TORSION, ANi} FLEXURE OF BEAMS 97
31. Beam Stretched by Its Own Weight. Before proceeding to the
problem of bending of beams, we shall discuss one example of a problem
requiring a consideration of the body force.
Let a beam of length l, shown in Fig. 16, be supported in a suitable
manner at its upper base, and assume that the force of gravity, directed
downward, is the only external force acting on the beam. If the xy-plane
of the coordinate system is chosen to coincide with the lower base of the
beam before deformation takes place and if the positive direction 'of the
z-axis is vertically upward, then the stress components T.; satisfy the sys-
tem of Eqs. (29.1) with F. = p. = 0 and P, = -P(J, where P is the
density of the beam. The stresses acting on each cross section of the
beam are produced by the weight of the lower part of the beam, and we
shall suppose that the stresses are distributed uniformly. Thus, we
assume the system of stresseR
z
T z% = pgz, Txr = Tuv = Tzu = TII~ = 'fez = 0,
which obviously satisfies the equations of equi- l_t Jt
I
librium and the compatibility equations (24.15). I
T
I I
The conditions (29.4) that no forces are applied to I I
I I
the lateral surface of the beam are likewise fulfilled. J I
J I
There are no tractions applied at the lower e'1d; I I 1
hence all components of stress vanish there, while
at tht' upper end we have T" = p(Jl, which is directed
J I
I ,
vertically upward. Thus, the assumed distribution
x
of stress requires that the upper end of the cylinder ~
wherc w" is a fUlJetioll of ,r and !J alonc, and it follows from the last two
of £';'18. (:l1.2) that,
au awo av awo
a; -
fii' and a; = -ay'
Hence
aw. awo
u= -z 7£1: + 110(2', y), and V = -z a!I + I',,(X, u),
98 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
where u.o and PD involve x and y only, Substituting the values of u and v
just found in the first two of Eqs. (31.1) gives
(31.4) _o"w o = 0
ax oy ,
OUo + avo = o.
ay ax
It is clear from the first. two of the differential equations (31.3) that
Uo = F(y), and Po = G(x),
where F is a function of y alone, while G is a fUnction of x. The functions
F and G, as follows from the second of Eqs. (31.4), satisfy the equation
dF(y) + dG(x) =0
dy dx '
· reqUires
and t hIS . t hat dF
dy = a, dx ha'IS a constant.
dG = -a, were Thus,
U = - u;: zx - a'z + ay + b,
upg
v=-1fzy- b' z-ax + 1',
,(31.5)
ru = - q;: ZX, I) = - ";} zy,
It is seen from this solution that points on the z-axis are displaced
vertically according to the law
All other points of the beam have both vertical and horizontal displace-
ments on account of the contraction in the transverse direction. The
shape of the beam, after deformation, is indicated by the dotted lines in
Fig. 16. Any cross section of the beam is shrunk laterally by an amount
proportional to the distance from the lower end and is distorted into a
paraboloid of revolution. This can be seen by noting that, for a cross
section z = c,
z' = c + w = c + Pfl(_c;i l22 + ";J (x' + yO).
The upper ba.'le of the cylinder is warped upward (see Fig. 16) because
of the assumed uniform distrihution of the stress component T" over that
face and the fixing of the point (0, 0, l).
PROBLEMS
1. Discuss the solution of the "'"",tostat.ic probl~m for the cas" wher..
T:z = T'II" = Tn = -p + pgz,
This state of stress corresponds to that found in a body immersed in a fluid whOlle
density is the same as that of the body, where p is the pressure of the fluid at the level
of the origin of coordinates.
ll. Determine the displacements in a cylinder of length 21 and of density p when sus-
pended in a fluid of density p'. Let the pressure of the fluid at the lev..l of the center
of gravity of the cylinder be p. Choose the origin of the coordinate system at the
100 MATHlllMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
center of gravity of the cylinder, and let the z-axis be vertical. Hint: Assume a sya-
tem of stresses
S. Obtain tbe solution given in (31.5) from the general solution (10.6).
4. Show from Eq. (7.5) that the displacement components
u = - ry + qz + a,
v= rx - pz + b,
w = -qx + py +c
represent an (infinitesimal) rotation (p, g, r) and a translation (a, b, c).
Ii. Show that some of the results of Sec. 31 on a beam stretched by its own weight
may be obtained readily by the procedure sketched below (used in strength of materials
theory). As before, the stress on the faces of an element of cross-sectional area a and
length dz is given by T" = pyaz/a = pg.. The elongation of this element is pgz dz/E.
Integrate this expression over the length of the beam, and compare the result with
that obtained from Sec. 31. Show that the total elongation in a beam stretched by
its own weight W is the same"" that produced by a load HW applied at the end of th~
beam (with weight neglected).
e =
ds - ds o
~-dS;- =
(R + d)RdOdfT-----
~--
R dO d
= Ir
This extension d/ R of the longitudinal filaments can be thought to be
produced by a longitudinal stress T, which, from the third of Eqs. (29.2), is
E
T = lid.
Obviously, T denotes tension if the point in question is above the central
line and compression if it is below. We choose the z-axis to coincide with
the central line of the beam and take the x- and y-axes along the principal
axes of inertia of the cross section A. From this choice of axes and from
the definition of the central line as the line of centroids of the sections, we
have
fA J: du = fA Y du = fA XY du = O.
It follows that the distribution of stress in any section will be character-
ized by the formula
E
Tzz=-/iX,
where the negative sign arises from our convention in regard to the signs
of tensile and compressi ve stresses.
We shall now verify that the boundary conditions on the ends of the
beam are satisfied, namely, that the resultant force and moment acting
on the bases (or on any other cross section of the ('ylinder) reduce to It
moment about the y-axis. The resultant force T acting on any section A
has the components
.llz =
J.4r !fT" du = -l!R- f.{ xydu = 0,
102 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Formula (32.1), connecting the curvature of the central line with the
bending moment, is called the Bernoulli-Euler law. It will recur when we
come to consider this problem in a rigorous way.
It appears from the foregoing discussion that the stress in a beam giving
rise to a couple M is a longitudinal stress of magnitude
M E
r•• = - y x = - Ii x.
Under the action of the tensile stress r." the cross section of the beam
will be deformed, and the amount of the transverse contraction (or exten-
sion), from the definition of Poisson's
S R ratio tT (see Sec. 23), is
p
Q~. cross section PQRS (Fig. 18), then, as
Q' will be shown in the rigorous discussion
of this problem [see. (32.10)], the parts
"
FIG. 18 RS and PQ of the boundary are each
bent into a parabola whose radius of cur-
vature is approximately RIIT. The neutral plane of the beam (that is, the
plane in which there is no extension) and the faces of the beam that were
originally parallel to the yz-plane are deformed into saddle-shaped, or
anticlastic, surfaces.
The experimental measurement of the principal curvatures of the anti-
clastic surfaces provides a method of determining Poisson's ratio' tT,
while the measurement of the radius of curvature of the central line serves
to determine Young's modulm E.
It is clear from formula (32.1) that.a beam with a large value of EI will
1 The subscript y on I and M has been dropped, since no confusion is likely to arise
here.
t Those interested in the experimental determination of u are referred to S. Timo-
Penko and .T. N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, p. 254, ",he..., further references OJ)
this subject will be found.
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLJ<JXURE OF BEAMS 103
bend only slightly under the action of the couple 114, and hence the magni-
tude of E I provides a measure of the rigidity of the beam. For this
reason the constant EI is called the modulU8 oj flexural rigidity. In order
to increase the flexural rigidity of a beam, one must design it so as t.o make
, the moment of inertia I as large as possible. This is one of the reasons for
making beams with cross sections in the shape of the letters I, T, Z, etc.
We are now rAady to considAf rigoTOuRly the prohlem of ~nding of a
heam.
Assume the system of Rtreslles
(32.2)
and choose the axes of coordinates as before (see Fig. 19). Then, as
shown above, the resultant force on
any section vanishes, and the direc-
tion of the moment 114 of the couple
is that of the y-axis. It is obvious
that the equations of equilibrium
throughout the interior and on the
lateral surface of the cylinder are
satisfied, as are the equations of FIG. 19
com9atibility,'
Using (32.2) and the formulas (29.2), we find
iJv 17M
iJy = El x,
(32.3)
iJw+~=O
iJy iJz '
The expressions for the displacements 14 can be obtained from the
formulas (10.6) or by assuming u, v, and w to be functions of the second
degree of x, y, and z with unknown coefficients and then determining the
coefficients so as to satisfy Eqs. (3e.3). We choose to integrate Eqs.
(32.3) directly.
Thus, from the third of Eqs. (32.3), we obtain
M
w = - ElxZ + wo(x, y),
. where Wo is an unknown function of x and y. The fifth avd sixth of
Eqs. (32.3) give
Hence
_ M aWo
u - 2EI z - z
2
ax + Uo ( x, y),
(32.4)
aWo
\
V = - z-
ay
+ vo(x " y)
where !to and Vo are unknown functions of x and y. Substituting these
vallI!'" in the first two of Eqs. (32.3) gives
Thus,
df, (1M
(32.8) and dy + EI Y = a,
where a is a constant. We note from (32.6) and (32~7) that Wo is a linear
function of x and y, say
Wo = fjx + 'YY + C;
furthermore, integrating Eqs. (32.8) gives
I. = -ax + b,
tTM
il = - 2EI y2 + a1J + a,
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 105
where b and a are arbitrary constants. Thus, the expressions for the dis-
placements become
u = 3!_ (zt
2EI
+ ITxt - try2) +ay-,8z+a,
[ M
(32.9) 1V= EI ITX'g - ax -- 'YZ + b,
llO=-~XZ + ,8x + 'YY + c.
The constants of integration appearing in the solution can be determined
from the mode of fixing the beam. We can determine them in the same
way as was done in Sec. 31, namely, by fixing the centroid of the left-hand
end of the beam at the origin and by fixing an element of the z-axis and
an element of the xz-plane at the origin. These conditions ensure that
there is no rigid body motion of translation or rotation about the origin.
They can be formulated explicitly as follows:
U = V = 10 = au =. ~ = av = 0 at (0, 0, 0).
az az ax
It follows from these relations that
a = {J =_ 'Y = a = b = c = O.
The vanishing of the constant8 of integration also follows readily from
Eqs. (3.5), from which it is seen that a, b, c represent a rigid body trans-
lation, while a, ,8, 'Y characterize a rigid body rotation about the origin.
The solution can now be written in the form
M
u = 2EI (z· + ITx' - try'),
M
(32.10) v=EI ITxy ,
M
10 = - EI XZ.
It is clear from (32.10) that the filaments lying in the central plane x = 0
suffer no extensions; that is, the plane x = 0 is the neutral plane of the
beam. The longitudinal filaments on one side of the central plane
(x > 0) are contracted, whereas those on the other side (x < 0) are
extended. Points which, prior to deformation, had the coordinates x; go
into points with coordinates x:, where x; = Xi + Ui. Hence the points
on the z-axis (that is, the points on the central line of the beam) go into
. points
(32.11) Y' = 0, Z' = z.
106 MATHEKATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
2
which is nearly equal to dz7
d
2
' dx'
if dz' is small. It follows from (32.11) that
for small deflections
1 M
R = EI'
which is the Bernoulli-Euler law, discovered earlier from rough geo-
metrical considerations. This formula states that the magnitude of the
bending moment M is proportional to the curvature of the central line
of the beam. The Bernoulli-Euler law forms the point of departure for
all considerations in the technical theory of beams.
Consider a cross section of the beam made by the plane z = c. Mter
aeiormation, points in tillS cross section mIl lie in tile plane
z' = c +w = c - ~ xc = c (1 - Ii}
If the curvature is small, we can replace x by x' and obtain
y' = ±b (1 + i x')-
Thus, the vertical sides become inclined, as shown in Fig. IS. The points
in the section z = c, which lie on the upper and lower faces J: <==±a of the
EXTENSION, TOaBION, A.ND FLEXTJRE OF BEAMlS 107
beam, will go into points
1
x' = ±a + u = ±a + 2R [e l + 0'(a 2
- 1/2)J.
~- = +n
- 1 f,'-' + (T(a'
+- 2f( - 1/2)}
-, ,
planes normal to the z-axis will remain plane after deformation and that
the action of the couple will merely rotate each section through some
angle 0. The &mount of rotation will clearly depend on the distance
of the section from the base z = 0, and since the deformations are small,
it is sensible to assume that the amount of rotation 0 is proportional to the
distance of the section from the fixed hase. Thus,
0= az,
where a is (,he I,wist, per unit length, that is, the relative angular displace-
y ment of a pair of crOSR sections that are
unit distance apart.
If the cross sections of the cylinder
'I'
remain plane after deformation, then
the displacement w, along the z-axis, is
zero. The displacements u and v are
P
readily calculated. Thus, consider any
point P(x, y) in the circular cross sec-
tion, which, before deformation, occu-
pied the position shown in Fig. 20.
After deformation, the point P will oc-
}>'IQ,2O cupy a new position P'(x + u, y + v).
In terms of the angular displacement IJ of the point P, we have
u = r cos ({3 + IJ) - r cos (3 = x(cos 8 - 1) - Y sin 8,
V = r sin ({3 + 8) - r sin {3 = x sin () + y(cos () - 1),
where {3 is the angle between the radius \'ector r and the x-axis so that
x = T cos {3, y = T sin {3. If thc angle 0 is small, we can write
u = -8y, v = 8x.
Since () = az, we have for the displacements of any point with coordinates
x, y, z
(33.1) u = -azy, V = azX, w = O.
The system of stresses associated with the displacements (33.1) is given
at once by the formulas (24.0). We thus have
(33.2) 1'•• = p.ax, T,u = -/-laY, Tzz = 1'YII = TZI& = T:r;y = 0,
I
cos (Z, .) ... Bin (Z, 1') '"' - COS (1/, "),
(34.2)
:: = sin (z, 8) = cos (x, ..),
80 that, upon dividing out the nonvanishing factor 1-'01, Eq. (34.'.) becomes
x d:t; + y dy = O.
-+--------.-_:1& This is the differential equation of a family
of circles. Thus, circular cylinders are
the only bodies whose lateral surfaces can
R be expected to be free from applied exter-
nal forces if the state of stress characterized
by the formulas (33.2) obtains in the
I' interior.
A natural modification of Navier's as-
sumption is to suppose that, for cylinders
FIG. 21
other than circular ones, cross sections do
not remain plane but are warped and that each section is warped in the
same way. This leads us to assume displacements of the form
(34.3) 'II = -azy, .V = azx, W = a'l'(x, y),
where 'I'(x, y) is some function of x and y and a, as before, is the angle of
twist per unit length of the bar. The function 'I'(x, y) must be so deter-
mined as to satisfy the differential equations (29.1) and the boundary
conditions (29.4).
A simple calculation of the stresses corresponding to the displacements
(34.3) gives
(3404)
{ :: : :: ~~~.~ ~:. ;~.~
: = 1-'01 ( : : - Y).
A substitution of these values in the equilibrium equations (29.1) shows
that the equilibrium equations will be satisfied if 'I'(x, y) satisfies the
equation
(34.5)
where C is the boundary of the cross section R of the cylinder (Fig. 21).
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS III
But
ax COB (x '
0", J') + ay
IJ", cos (y v)
, l5 tLp,
d.
80 that the boundary condition can be written in the form
d",
(34.6) dll = Y cos (x, v) - X cos (y, v) onC.
= Ie (y dy + xdx) = 0,
since the integrand is the exact differential of the function 72(:1;2 + y2) +
constant.
It is easy to show that the distribution of stresses given by Eqs. (34.4)
, See Sec. 42.
112 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
where the line integral is evaluated over the boundary C of the region R.
The integral (34.8) vanishes on account of the boundary condition (34.6).
It is shown in a similar way that
V r •• dxdy = 0,
so that the resultant force acting on the end of the cylinder vanishes.
It rema.i.ns to show that the system of stresses defined by Eqs. (34.4) is
statically equivalent to a torsional couple. The resultant moment of the
exterllal forces applied to the end of the beam is
(34.9) M. = ff
R
(XT .. - yr.:) dx dy
= ",ex ff (x. +
R
y2 + X~ - y ~;) dx dg.
The integral appearing in (34.9) depends on the torsion function rp and
hence on the cross section R of the beam. Setting
(34.10) D = p
}}
rr (X2 + y2 + X ~
iJy
_ y iJrp) dx dy
(Ix '
R
we have
(34.11) M = Dex.
The formula (34.11) shows that the twisting moment M is proportional
to the angle ex of twist per unit length, 80 that the constant D provides a
measure of the rigidity of a beam subjected to torsion. For this reason
the constant D (depending on the modulus of rigidity p and on the shape
of the cross section only) is called the torsional rigidity of the beam.
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAKS 113
It follows from the foregoing that the torsion problem for a beam of any
cross section is completely solved once the function 'P(x, y) is determined.
For the torsional rigidity D is determined by 'P from (34.10), and the
moment M required to produce the angle 0: of twist per unit length can
be calculated from (34.11) .
. In carrying out the foregoing calculations, no assumptions "'ere made
regarding the location of the origin 0 or concerning the orientation of the
axes x, y. Inasmuch as the first two of the formulas (34.3) represent the
infinitesimal rotation of any cross section of the beam as a whole about
the z-axis, it may seem at first glance that a different choice of the axis of
rotation parallel to the axis of z may yield a different solution of the
problem. For instance, if the axis z' is chosen parallel to the z-axis, and
if it intersects the xy-plane at some point (XI, YI), then the displacements
Ut, VI, and Wt will be
and there is no a priori reason why the functions 'PI(X, y) and ",(x, y)
should be identical.
Calculating stresses that correspond to displacements (UI, VI, WI) yields
'P1 + a 'P1 =
2 2
V2 =
'PI -
aax2 ay2
0
.
(
a'Pl
ax + Yl) COB
(
X, v) + (a'Pl
iJy - Xl) COB (y, v)
= Y cos (x, v) - X cos (y, v)
or
d
dv ('PI + YIX - xlY) = Y COB (X, v) - X cos (y, v).
But the function 'PI + YIX - XIY is harmonic, and since it satisfies the
'P
same boundary condition as the function [see (34.6)], it folloWE! from the
uniqueness of solution of the problem of Neumann l that the two can
1 See O. D. Kellogg, Foundations of Potential Theory, Chap. XI, Sec. 12.
114 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF lIlLASTICITY
Since the function <p +i", is an analytic function of the complex variable
x + iy, it is clear that the function ",(x, y) is determined by the formula
(a",
(35.2) ",(x, y) =
1(aa",
c x
dx + "dy =
uy
lJt/I) lP(z,.)
P,(z•.• ,)
- ! l dx +
uy X
where the integral is evaluated over an arbitrary path joining some point
al")
a
dy ,
expreesion for the normal derivative :: with the aid of the tangential
= x ds
dx
+ y dy
dB
1 d
= 2 ds (x' + yO).
Hence
dl/l=!~(x2+ 2)
d82d8 y,
so that
(35.3) 1/1 = Y2(x' + y2) + const on C.
It will be recalled that the torsion function <p is determined to within
a nonessential arbitrary constant; the derivatives of <p and hence those of
1/1 [see (35.1)] are determined uniquely, and the function 1/1 is determined
by means of (35.2) to within a constant depending on the choice of
Po(xo, yo). Accordingly, we are free to assign any value to the constant
of integration in (35.3), since this choice will not affect stresses, and the
two sets of displacements that correspond to two different choices of the
arbitrary constant will differ from one another by a rigid body motion.
Thus, instead of solving a problem of Neumann, W·;J can equally well
solve a problem of Dirichlet by determining a function that is harmonic
in a given region and which assumes prescribed values on the boundary
of the region.
On account of the remarks just made, our problem consists in deter-
mining a function 1/1 that satisfies the equation
0'1/1+0'1/1 =0 . R
ox' oy' In ,
and that satisfies the boundary condition
(35.4) '" == .J1(x' + y').
it is known that the solution of this problem is unique, I and there are
1 See O. D. Kellogg, Foundations of Potential Theory, Chap. IX, See. o.
116 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Since the stress components T .. and T,. are obtained from the function
w(x, y) by differentiation, the latter is called the stress function. It is
readily checked that the stress function w satisfies Poisson's equation
(35
• •
7) "",T, ""
v '"
o'w
ox'
+ o'w
oy'
= -2 . R
In ,
and on the boundary C of the region R [cf. (35.3) and (35.5)J assumes the
value
w = const.
Consider a family of curves, in the plane of the cross section of the
beam, obtained by setting
(35.8) w(x, y) = const.
The slope ~ of the tangent line to any curve of the family defined by
(35.8) is determined from the formula
oW + oW dy = 0
oX oydx '
and, upon noting the relations (35.6), we obtain
dy T""
ax = T ..,"
Thus, at each point of the curve w(x, y) = const, the stress vector
'" = iT.. + jT""
is directed along the tangent to the curve. The curves
w(x, y) = const
'PAyltikalisck ZeitacArift, vol. 4 (1903), pp. 758-710.
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 117
are called the lines of shearing stre88. The magnitude T of the tangential
stress is
we see that in this case the maximum shearing stress occurs on the
boundary of the section. It is not difficult to prove that in the gen-
eral case the points at which maximum shearing stress occurs lie on the
boundary C of the section, so that elastic failure of material in shear is
to be expected on the lateral surface of the beam. In order to prove
the assertion, we refer to a theorem.
THEOREM: Let a function <I> of class C2 and not identically equal to a
constant satisfy the inequality V'<I> ~ 0 in the region R; then this function
attains its maximum on the boundary C of the region R.
The proof of this theorem follows at once from the well-known property
of subharmonic functions. It will be recalled that a function <I>(x, y) is
called subharmonic in the region R if at every point (Xl, YI) of the region
(1)
where the integral is evaluated over the circle 'Y of sufficiently small
radius T, with center at (Xl, YI). N ow, if it be assumed that the maximum
value M of a subharmonic function <I>(x, y) ~ const is attained, not on
the boundary C, but at some interior points of R, we arrive at a contra-
diction. For if S is a set of such interior points and Q is a frontier point
of S, we have from (1)
where 'Y is a circle with center at Q and of radius r so small that 'Y is interior
to R. But since 'Y is partly outside S, the mean value of <I> over 'Y is less
than M, that is,
1
f
rr ,. <I>(x, y) ds
-2 <M
and this contradicts (2).
Since
118 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OJ!' ELASTICITY
we have
M = -~a 11rr (x oW
ax + y OW)
oy
dx dy
,
R
so that
(35.9) D = -~ II (x :: +
R
y :;) dx dy'
PROBLEMS
1. Consider a circular shaft of length I, radius 11, and shear modulus 1', twisted by
a couple M. Show that the greatest angle of twiRt e and thr maximum shear stress
7' .. v'T!~ + T~" are given by
I. A steel shaft of circular cross section 2 in. in diameter and 5 ft long is twisted by
end couples. Find the maximum twisting moment and angle of twist if the greatest
shear stress is not to exceed 10,000 lb per sq in. Take E = 30 X 10' Ib per sq in.,
,,- 0.3.
I. The .haft of the preceding problem is not to be twisted more than 1°. What is
the corresponding maximum shear stress?
,. Derive the expression
M. = 63,000 H
n
for the torque M. on a solid cirenlar shaft transmitting H hp at a speed n rpm. Hint:
Let the radius of the shaft (or pulley) be T in., and let T = M.IT be the tension in the
belt. Calculate the work done in each minute against M.. (lhp = 33,000 ft-Ib
per min.)
6. Derive the expressions
for the twist per inch length a (radians) in a solid circular shaft of diameter din.,
transmitting H hp at n rpm against a torque of M, in.-lb.
6. How much torque can be transmitted by a solid circular shaft 3 in. in diameter if
the allowable shear stress is 10,000 lb per sq in.? What is the angle of twist per foot
of length? Use I' = 12 X 10' lb per sq in.
36. Torsion of Elliptical Cylinder. It was shown above that the solu-
tion of the torsion problem for a solid cylinder of arbitrary cross section is
completely determined if one obtains the harmonic function", that on the
boundary C of the cross section assumes the value
(36.1)
Consider the harmonic function
(36.2) '" = C2(X2 - y2) + k 2,
where C and k are constants. The function defined by (36.2) will enable
us to solve the torsion problem for some region R on the boundary of
which (36.2) reduces to ,(36.1). Hence points of the boundary C of the
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 121
region R are determined by equating (36.1) and (36.2). ThuB,
c2(x! - liS) + k' = ~(X2 + 11'),
or
(36.3)
T •• = pO! ( - ~ + x).
Hence
-2paa'y
(36.5)
a' + b"
The torsion moment M is
M = ff (XT,. - yr.~) dx dy
R
we have
1I"pcxa'b'
M = at + bT
so t.hat the torsional rigidity
'lrpa 3b'
n= Of + b'
Jt was shown in the preceding section that the maximum shearing stress
on any cross section occurs on the boundary of the section. The location
of the points on the boundary at which the greatest stress Tm .. occurs can
be determined 1 by maximizing the expression for T that has been obtained
as a function of a single variable by utilizing the equation of the boundary
C. In the case of an elliptical cylinder, the points of greatest shearing
stress can be found easily from some simple geometrical considerations.
FIG. 22
Consider an elliptical section, shown in Fig. 22, and draw from the
center of the ellipse a semidiamet,er op to an arbitrary point P(x, y) of the
boundary. Since the diameter of the ellipse conjugate to the diameter
through P is parallel to the tangent line' at P(x, y), it follows that the
conjugate semidiameter op' intersects the curve at the point P'(x', y'),
where
x' = _ ay, , bx
b 11 = u·
When the stresses at P(x, y) are written in terms of the coordinates x',
y' of the point P', we have
T -
_~
V
2IUXab _ lx"
T" T Tii. = a' + bt V
+Y I. = 2~b.J
+ b' T ,
a'
where r' is the distance OP'. Since the conjugate semidiameter is of
maximum length when the point P is at an extremity of the minor axis, it
follows that
Z",aa 2b
Tmas = a' + b'
Thus, the maximum stress occurs at the extremities of the minor axis of
the ellipse, contrary to an intuitive expectation that the maximum stress
would be at the points of maximum curvature.
It is easy to verify that the conjugate harmonic function ip, apart from
a nonessential constant, is 1
a' - b2
(36.6) ip = - a' + b2 xy.
This function determines the warping of the cross sections of the cylinder.
for the displacement along the z-axis is
given by w = aip(x, y). The contour
lines, obtained by setting ip = const,
are the hyperbolas shown in Fig. 23.
The dotted lines indicate the portions
of the section that become concave,
and the solid those that become con-
vex, when the cylinder is twisted by
a couple in the directions shown in the
FIG.2:l
figure by arrows.
The lines of shearing stress are determined by drawing the contour lines
for the surface z = 'I'(x, y). Setting 'I'(x, y) = const gives,' in this case,
a family of concentric ellipses,
x' y' -c'(a' +b 2
)
az + /j2 - 1 = a'b' '
similar to the ellipse x'la' -I- y'lb 2 = 1.
The displacement of the points of the cylinder is given at once by the
formulas (34.3). The results obtained in Sec. 33 for a beam of circular
cross section follow at once from the formulas of this section upon setting
b = a.
PROBLEMS
1. Show that, in the torsion of an elliptical cylinder, the magnitude of the streas vec-
tor r takes the following value on the houndary of the section z - canst:
1 See Eq_ (36.1).
• See Prob. 3 at the end of this sect-ion.
124 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
From this relation it follows that the m""imum shearing stress occurs at the ends of
the minor ""is of the ellipse.
2. Derive t,hp expression (36.6) from
and is thus proportional to the function appearing in the equation of the boundary 01
the section. The problem of determining the sections for which this proportionality
holds has been treated by Leibenson. 1
We see from these formulas that the ;t-cOmponeIlt of the shearinI!', stress.
vanishes along the x-axis, while the y-component becomes
-2d
t---3a~
FIG. 24 FIG. 25
The stress vanishes at the corners and at the origin O. The direction
of the lines of shearing stress is along the curves
'" - 72(X! + y2) = const
a few of which are indicated in Fig. 25 by dotted lines. It is easily
checked, with the aid of (34.9), that the torsional couple has the magnitude
M = %p.otlo,
where 10 = 3 0 a< is the polar moment of inertia of th{) triangle. The
nature of the distortion of the initially plane sections is indicated in Fig.
126 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
24, where the contour lines of the surface <p(x, y) "" (3x'y - y3)/6a = const
are shown.
It appears from this example, and from that of the preceding section,
that a circular shaft of the aame cross-sectional area as an elliptical beam
y or a triangular prism has the greatest
torsional rigidity. lOne can also prove
that, if the region is simply connected,
then, for a given moment ill and for a
given cross-sectional area, the smallest
-+\~""'~!-,-.L-:......J.:"'__ _-+_... x maximum stress will be found in a cir-
'" cular beam. This is discussed further
in Sec. 47 in connection with the tor-
sion of beams with multiply 00nnected
cross sections.
The effect of grooves or slots in the
FIG. 26 beam on the maximum shearing stress
can be discussed in an elementary way by studying an example due to
C. Weber.'
Consider a pair of harmonie functions,
X
x and
x' + y"
and introduce the polar coordi~ates defined by the equations x = r cos 6,
y = r sin O. We can construct a harmonic function if;,
PROBLEMS
1. Let Do be the torsional rigidity of a circular cylinder, D. that of an elliptical
cylinder, and D, that of a beam whose cross section is an equilatpral trumgle. Show
that for cross sections of equal areas
D. = kD o,
where
2ab
k = (i. + b' ~ 1,
T - pa (a - iisecl 8).
1 See Prob. 2 at the end of t,his section.
128 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Find the magnitude of the shearing stress at the point (see Fig. 26) where the groove
enters the shaft.
a
lex, y) = 0 onx=±2'
(3804)
b
I(x, y) = 2 onY=±:r
The function lex, y) satisfies the equation
a'! (J'!
(38.5) ax' + ay' == 0,
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 129
and we seek a solution of this equation in the form of an infinite series
..
f(x, y) = L
.. -0
CnX,.(x)y,.(y),
where each term of the series satisfies the differential equatior. (38.5), and
where X.(x) and Y.(y) are, respectively, function3 of x alone and of y
alone. Substituting X.(x)Y.(y) in (38.5), and denoting the derivatives
by primes, we 'get
X::(x)Y.(y) + X,.(x)Y::(y) = 0,
or
X::(x) _ Y::(y)
X.(x) - - y,.(y)'
and
Since our solutions must satisfy the boundary conditions (38.4), we reject
the terms involving the odd functions sin knx and sinh k.y, and choose the
product X.Y,. of the form
cos k ..x cosh k"y,
where
kyo = (2n + 1)....
a
Thus, each term of the series
.
(38.6) f(x, y) = L
.. -0
c,. cos k,.x cosh k"y
from which it follows that the coefficients e" can be formally determined
by utilizing the scheme used in expanding functions in Fourier series. If
we multiply both members of (38.7) by cos (2m + l)1rx/a and integrate
term by term with respect to x between the limits - a/2 and a/2, then
because of the orthogonal property of trigonometric functions, namely,
{O
1
0/2 if m F n,
cos k,.x cos k..x dx = ~
if m = n,
0/2 2
we get
O/2
f -0/2
2 cos k..x dx =
a k b
-2 e.. cosh 2"'·
c = 8(-1)"'. 1 ,
'" 'lI"(2m +
1) cosh (k m b/2)
(38.9)
and since
a2,f
ax. = f(x, y) - 1,
and
a2t/!
ay. = -f(x, y) + 1,
we see that, in order to evaluate stresses, we must integrate the series
(38.8) with respect to x and y. Integrating, and making use of the fact
that 1'•• = 0 on x = ±a/2 and T •• = 0 on y = ±b/2, we obtain
The solutions (38.11) are formal, but the series converge so rapidly that
there is no serious difficulty in justifying the term-by-term differentiation
to show that the equilibrium equations are satisfied. The x-component
of shear obviously vanishes when y = 0, while the y-component at the
mid-point of the longer side is equal to
8 ~ 1 k.b]
(38.12) Toy = JJ.Cia [ 1 - ;0 '"' (2n + 1); sech 2 .
\x-an
.-0 n-O
It is not difficult to prove that (38.12) gives the maximum value of the
shearing stress, by taking note of the fact that the term 2x in the brackets
of (38.11) dominates the series. Now in the most unfavorable case (for
convergence) of a square beam (b = a),
~ 1 ,... 1 ~ 2e-('n+l)(r/2)
L
n-l
(2n + 1)' sech (2n + 1) 2 < 9 L n-l
1 + e (2n+l)~
-2 L~
3r/2
< = -2 -e-- _r = 0.002.
.-1
e-('n+l) (r/2)
9 !ll - e-
Since sech (11'/2) =0 0.4, it follows that the first term in the brackets in
(38.13) gives the value of all the terms in the brackets with the accuracy
(If 72 per cent. Hence, for practical calculations, the value of Twa. can be
assumed to be given by the formula
M =
f- /2 /./2
-b/2 -./2
(XT.. - yr •• ) dx dy
calculations is
M = jU%ba ' + 16jU%a' b ~ 1 _ 641'aa' ~ tanh (kftb/2)
6 ,..' i..
", .. 0
(2n + 1)' ,..6
",-0
+
i.. (2n 1)5 '
and since
1I"b
t anh 2a
+ ~ tanh (k.b/2)
.-1
L., (2n + 1)6 '
.. 1
L
.. - I
(2n + 1)' = 0.0046,
while tanh (1I"b/2a) ~ 0.917. Thus, the first term of the series gives the
value of the sum to within ~ per cent, and one can use, for prllctical pur-
poses, the approximate formula
M == l'aba 3 _
4
64!'aa tanh 'lrb.
3 ,..6 2a
FIG. 27 FIG. 28
~, = ~ + ~ (y' - x (x - ;) (y -
2
) - ;)
Sa' ~ ( _1)n sinh k,.y
-;a 1.. (2n + 1)3 sinh (k na/2) cos knx,
and
.-0
~" = ~ + ~ (x' - y2) - (x - ~) (Y - ;)
8a' ~ ( -I)" sinh knx
- -;;:a • 1..-0 (2n + 1)' sinh (k"a/2) cos k"y .
A comparison with the expression (3S.15) for 1f; shows that the function~"
reduces to ~'2(x" +
y 2) on the sides x = a/2 and y = a/2, That~" also
satisfies the boundary conditions on these sides can be shown either from
considerations of symmetry or by direct calculation of the boundary
values and by noting the expansion
~ _ 2 _ Sa' ~ (-I)" (2n + 1)1rx,
4 x - ,..' 1.. (2n + 1)3 cos a
.. -0
1 See B. G. Galerkin, Bulletin de l'academu de> sciences de RU8Bie (1919), p. 111, and
G. Koloesoff, CompteB rendu8 hebdomadaires de> "Mnce. de l'acadtmie de> 8Ciences, Paris,
vol. 178 (1924), p. 2057,
134 MATHEMATICAL TH.EORY OF ELASTICITY
"'I
If we set y == -x in an<! "'. and add the results, we obtain 2xt. Thus,
the harmonic function
(39.1) ~+ 1:
i-I
(ak cos klJ + b. sin k~)
with
2
(39.2) a.. = -1102..- f(t) cos nt dt, b. = -110 .. f(t) sin nt dt,
71" 0
71" 0
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 135
and the IJM'ie8 converges at every point 9 = 90 to the value
7!;[f(6o+) + f(lIo- )J.
The 8ymbolsf(lIo+) andf(lIo-) stand for the right- and left-hand limits
of f( II) as II --+ 110.
The restrictions imposed UpOll the function f( II) in this theorem are
known as the Dirichlet conditions. 1 We assume that the reader is familiar
with this theorem.
If f(lI) not only satisfies the conditions of Dirichlet but is continuous
in the closed interval (0, 21r),' then one can show that the Fourier series
converges uniformly in the closed interval (0, 211-).
We also have the following theorem concerning the bounds on the
coefficients in Fourier series:
THEOREM: If the function f( 6) is periodic and is such that its pth derivative
satisfies the conditions of Dirichlet in the interval (0, 2... ), then the Fourier
coefficients for f( 9) satisfy the inequalities
M M
Ia.. I < n,,+I' and < n,,';'l'
where M is a positive number independent of n.
An important conclusion follows directly from this theorem. Let the
function f(O) have the first derivative 1'(0), which satisfies the conditions
of Dirichlet. Then the Fourier series for such a function has coefficients
of order lin', so that
la. cos nil + b. sin nil! ~ Ian cos nil! + lb. sin nil! ~ !a..! + !b.! < ~,
n
where M is a positive number independent of n. Since the series of posi-
tive constants
converges, it follows from the Weierstrass M test that the Fourier series
for a function whose first derivative satisfies the conditions of Dirichlet
is absolutely and uniformly convergent and hence can be integrated term
by term.3
Since the coefficients of the series obtained by differentiating the series
term by term are of the order na.. and nb., it is clear that, in order to
ensure the convergence of the derived series, it is sufficient to demand
1 The restrictions imposed on the function 1(9) can be relaxed, and it is sufficient to
that the second derivative f"«(J) fulfill the conditions of Dirichlet in the
interval (0, 211").
The Fourier series (39.1)- can be written in an equivalent form
.. ..
(39.3) I( (J) = c. + Lc~' + L
k-I k-l
C_.e-ikl
where
1 (2r
(39.4) c.. = 211" Jo f(t)c'n'dt, (n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...).
e' = cos u
U
+ i sin u,
and verify that the formula (39.4) gives for n > °
ao
(39.5) Co = :f
Then
. c.e""
L
i--..
=~ + L. \,~ - i ~) (cos k8 + i sin k8)
k-l
=~ + L
k-I
(a. cos klJ +b k sin k8).
Let h(8) and !t(8) be a pair of real functions, each of which can be
expanded in Fourier series in the interval (0, 2r), and form the complex
function ft(8) + if,(O). Then
..
(39.6) f1(0) + ifz(O) = L c.e
, _ _ flO
ik
',
where
= ')'0 +
.-1L [(')'. +. ')'-.) cos kIJ - (0. - L.) sin kill + ilio
where
.-1
%ao = 'Yo, a. = 'Y' + 'Y-., b. = -li. + li .....,
Y2a~ = lio, a~ = li. L.,+ bk = 'Y. - 'Y .....,
(k = 1,2,3, . .).
It follows from these formulas that the representation of a complex func-
tion f1(IJ) + i!2(fJ) in a series of the type (39.3) is unique, since the repre-
sentation of the functions !1(IJ) and f2(IJ) in series of the type (39.1) is
unique.
(40.1)
av
-= --,
au
ax ay
where it is assumed that the partial derivatives involved are continuous
functions of x and y. It is known that, if I(A) is analytic in the region R,
then not only do the first partial derivatives of u and v exist in R, but also
those of all higher orders. It follows from this observation and from
(40.1) that the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function satisfy
the equation of Laplace; that is,
V2u = 0, V'v = o.
The following theorem is basic to all considerations of the theory of
analytic functions:
CAUCHY'S INTEGRAL THEOREM: If ICA) is continuous in the closed region'
R bounded by a simple closed contour C, and il I(A) is analytic at every
interior point of R, then
fe f(A) dA = O.
ifn-F-l.
If the point a is outside the contour 0, then the truth of the formula
follows from Cauchy's Theorem, whatever be the value of n; if it is within,
then the result follows from elementary calculations. If the point a is
within the contour, then an !llementary calculat,ion gives
Jc( ~.
~ - a
=2ri.
(40.2) J.
21rtjca- a
(fW da = f(a),
interior point of the ring, then one can represent I(a) by the. Laurent series
I(a) = L- br.(a -
JI-- ..
a)lo,
where
(k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...),
and where C is an arbitrary path drawn in R that encloses C1• It is
obvious that the series of Laurent reduces to Taylor's series w}lenever the
function I(a) is analytic throughout the region bounded by the circle Ct.
If 1(3) has a pole of order m at a = a, then the Laurent serie~ about the
point a = a takes the form
1.
21n JcrI(a) da
we have merely to.add the coefficients of
1 1
-- ,
a-al
--,
a-a,
in the several expansions.
The evaluation of residues may often be simplified by observing that
if f(a) and gel) are analytie At a = a, and if i-a is a nonrepeated factor
EXTENSION, l'ORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 14i
of g(i), then the residue at a of f(5)/(/(;') is f(a)fg'(a). The residue at a
multiple pole can be found from the theorem that the residue at i = a of
fu)/(a - a)" isj<-ll(a)/(n - 1)1; it is assumed thatf(a) is analytic at a
and that n is a positive integer.
It should be noted that the function fer) in the Formula (40.3) of
Cauchy represents the values of an analytic functionf(~) on the boundary
C of the region R. Now if we consider the integral
(40.4)
where F(r) is any continuous function defined on the simple closed bound-
ary C and ~ is interior to R, then this integral defines some function of a
and it is easy to verify that 4>1(3) has the derivative 4>;(3), which is given
by the formula
, 1 ( F(r) dr
4>1 (~) = 2ri Jc (r - 3) 2'
and, in general,
(")( ) = ~ ( F(r) dr .
<PI a 21ri Jc (r - 3),,+1
Thus, the function <PI(a) is analytic for every value of a that is interior to
the region R bounded by C. If a is some point exterior to the region R,
then the integral
(40.5)
defines some function 4>2(a), and it is easy to see that 4>2(a) likewise has
derivatives of all orders and hence is analytic. Thus, the integrals (40.4)
and (40.5) of Cauchy's type define two analytic functions that in general
will be distinct. The situation here is the same even when FCr) represents
the boundary values of some analytic functionfCa). For, by (40.3), if Ais
interior to the contour, the value of the integral is precisely equal to f(3),
and if a is outside the contour, then the integral defines the function 0,
since the integrand f(t)/(r - a) is an analytic function of r throughout
R. It should be observed that, as a tends to some definite point r on the
contour from the interior of R and from the exterior, the difference
between the two limiting values is fer) - 0 = fCr).
One can raise a similar question regarding the connection of the limiting
values of the functions 4>1(a) and 4>2(a) with the density function F(r). If
we place no restrictions on the function F(!;) beyond continuity on the
contour, then the problem becomes an exceedingly difficult one. If,
however, some further restrictions on Fer) are imposed, then it is possible
to establish a definite connection of the dellllity function F(r) with
lim 4>l(i) and lim 4>2U).
l-+t l-+t
142 MATHEMATICAL THEORy'OF ELASTICITY
(40.6)
sal:Uijie8 the Holder condition on a smooth closed contour C, then the limit8
4>+(t) and 4>-(t) a8 a approache8 an arbitrary point t on C from the interior
and exterior of C, respectively, are:
1 ( dr
4>1(3) = 2,..i jo W· - 4) = 0
lor every position of the point a in the region R.l Hence if we add this
integral to an integral of Cauchy's type that defines an analytic function
>1'(3), we shall obtain another integral of Cauchy's type that defines the
same analytic function >1'(3). It follows from these remarks that no con-
clusion can be drawn concerning the equality of the density functions
F1(t} and F.(r} from the equality of the two integrals
(41.1)
r
_!_ f(8) dO" =..!. r 1"(8) du
27rij~0"-t 2rij..,u-r
for all,'al~8 of r interior to 'Y, then
f(8} == 1"(8).
If the point r i8 exterior to oy, and if the equality (41.1) is true for all values
'F 1 1, 1 h
or r(r - i) - Hr _ II - if; ence
'hi
1 r
lor<r -
dr 1
i) - 2.rii
r
lor -
dr 1
i - 'hii}O
r T - i1 - i1 - o.
dt
of i', then
f(fJ) = 'I'(fJ) + Canst.
We consider first the case when the point i' is inside 'Y. It follows from
equality (41.1) that
J..,
2ri ).,
r f(fJ) - 'I'(fJ) dcr "" J..,
,,- r
r
F(fJ) dcr "" 0,
2ri ).,,, - i'
where F(fJ) "'" f(fJ) - '1'(8), and we shall prove that F(8) "" O.
Now since Ii'I < 1, we have
I I i ' i'2
"--=-+-+-+
- i' " ,,2 ,,3
and
(41.2)
L
~
= (an - ibn)i'n,
.-0
where [see (39.4) and (39.5)]
Un - ibn 1
= -.
2,".,
J, F(8),,-·-1 d" = -1 };27 F(8)e-'''' dfJ.
2"'0
But (41.2) vanishes for all values of i'i hence a. = b. = 0 (n = 0, 1, 2,
. . . ). A reference to formula (39.4) shows that all Fourier coefficients
of the function F(8) vanish, and hence F(fJ) "" O.
Consider now the case when Ii'I > 1 i then
1 1" ,,'
"-i'= -r-P-P-
and
(41.3)
where
11
-.
21ri7
fee) du
- = -.
IT
11
2lN7
du
'P(e) -,
IT
thenf(e) = 'P(e).
An important corollary follows from this theorem.
COROLLARY: If we have four real continuou8 ,functions f" f., 'PI, 'P' and
the foUowing aimultaneous equalities for all values of l":
(42.3)
2," "u-r
f
~ F(u) + ~ P(If) du = ~ f(9)
au
2?rt "u-r
f "ITt 'YU-l '
f au
which by the Theorem of Harnack is entirely equivalent to (42.2).
The first of the integrals in the left-hand member of (42.3), by Cauchy's
In,egral Formula, is equal to F(r), while the second is equaJ2 to F(O). Let
1 We define Pm - Fm and Fil) = F(,}. It is possible to prove that, if f(9} satis-
fies Holder's condition, then the function F(!) given by (42.6) will be continuous in
the closed region Irl :::; 1. We recall that a function f(9} is said to "".tisfy Holder's
condition (or a Lipschitz condition) if, for any pair of valu,," 6' 841rl 8" in the interval
in question,
If(9") - f(e') 1 :::; Mle" - 9'la,
where M and '" are positive constants. This condition is less restrictiw than tbe
requirement of the existence of a bounded derivative.
• Since F(i) - F(O) + F'(O)t + ~ F"(O)i' + ... , and since on IiI - 1 f - 1/",
1 1 1
'(11) - '(0) + p'(O) ;; + 21 1'''(0) ;; + ... and term-by-term integration gives
the deIIired result upon noting that
1 /, a" if n > 0,
2ri 'Y ,,"(IT - t) - 0,
- 1, if 11 - O.
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 147
p(O) = ao - ibo; then (42.3) becomes
('12.4) P(I) = ~
?N,
1 f(O),. du - ao
~u-,
+ ibo.
If we set I = 0 in (42.4), we obtain
ao + t'b 0 1
= ---:;
'In
1~
f(
-
u
du
9) - - ao +' t'b 0,
and hence
(42.5) 2a o = ~
1I"t
1 'Y
f(9) du
a
=~
11"
f2T f(O) dO.
Jo
The quantity bo is left undetermined, as one would expect, since the func-
tion va, ., )
is determined to within an arbitrary real constant.
Inserting the value of ao from (42.5) in (42.4), we have
(42.6) F(I) = ~
7rZ
1 ~u-I
f(O) dO' - J:_.1
27rt ~
f(8) du
u
+ ibo
= ~lf«(J)
27rt~
+ Ir!!: + ibo'
u-Iu
0'
into the region R' by the mapping function w(r). If C is some curve
drawn in the region R and the point r is allowed to move along C, then the
corresponding point i will trace a curve C' in the i-plane and C' is called
the map of C (Fig. 29).
The relationship between the curves C and C' is interesting. Consider
a pair of points t and r + At on C, and let the arc length between them
be A8 = FQ. The corresponding points in the region R' are denoted by
FIG. 29
aand i + Ai, and the distance between them, measured along the curve
C', is As' = FQ'. Since the ratio of the lengths of arc elements has the
same limit as the ratio of the lengths of the corresponding chords,
at P and to 0' at P', respectively, and hence l arg ~ is the angle of rotation
of the element of are A8' relative to A8. It follows immediately from this
statement that, if C, and C2 are two curves in the I-plane that intersect
at an angle 'F, then the corresponding curves C~ and C~ in the rplane also
intersect at an angle 'F, since the tangents to these curves are rotated
through the Bame angle. A transformation that preserves angles is
called conlcmnal, and thus one can state the following theorem.
THEOREM: The mapping performed by an analytic lunction "'(!) is con-
Icmnal at all points 01 the I-plane where ",'(!) ;>6 o.
We shall be concerned, for the most part, with the mapping of simply
connected regions, where the mapping is one-to-one and hence ",'(!) ;>6 o.
The regions Rand R' may, however, be finite or infinite. It should be
noted that if the region R is finite and R' is infinite, then the function
"'(!) must become infinite at some point a of the region R; otherwise we
could not have a point in the region R that corresponds to the point at
infinity in the region R'. It is possible to show that at such points the
function "'(!) has a simple pole, so that its structure in the neighborhood
of the point is
"'(!) = ! ~ a +/(!),
where c is a constant and I(!) is analytic at all points of the region R.
Other types of singularities cannot be present, since the mapping is
assumed to be one-to-one.
If both regions Rand R' are infinite, and if the points at infinity
correspond, then the function "'(!) has the form
"'(!) = c! + I(!) ,
where c is a constant and I(!) is analytic in the infimte region R. We
recall that a function is said to be analytic in an infinite region R if, for
sufficiently large !, it has the structure
maps the region R' on an infinite plane with a circular hole. In general,
it will be found convenient to map finite, simply connected regions on
the unit circle 1.11 ~ 1 and infinite regions on the portion of the .I-plane
defined by the equation It I ~ 1.
In regard to the mapping of multiply connected regions, we shall make
a few general remarks. It can be shown that a doubly connected region
R' can be mapped on a circular ring but that the radii of the circles
making up the ring cannot be chosen arbitrarily. It is obvious that in
general one can map in one-to-one manner only regions of like connec-
tivity. The condition of like connectivity, however, is not sufficient for
the existence of a mapping function.
The affirmative answer to the question of the existence of a function
.I = wet) that maps conformally a given region in the .I-plane on another
given region in the t-plane helps little in the matter of the actual con-
struction of mapping functions for specified regions.' However. there
1 Mathematiscn.e Annalen, vol. 73, pp. 305-320.
• This theorem is associated with the name of Riemann, who proved the existence
of .,(l') under conditions that are less general than those enunciated above .
• II the regions R, and R, in the planes " and A" respectively, are mapped on the
unit circle in the l'-plane by functions" = w,(i) and .' = w,(,), then the region R, is
mapped on the region R. by a transformation .' = O(b), obtained by eliminating
i from .' - ",,(i) and b - .,,(i).
'A systematic account of several practical methods for constructing conformal
maps is contained in L. V. Kantorovich and V. 1. Krylov, Approximate Methods of
Higher Analyais (in Russian) (1952), pp. 374-563. See also Zeev Nehari, Conformal
Mapping (1952). A bibliography of numerical methods in conformal mapping was
compiled by W. Seidel, in Construction and Application of Conformal Maps (1952)
pp. 26~280. A method for approximate conformal mapping of polygonal regions on
a unit circle was proposed by 1. S. Hara; Dopovidi Akademii Nauk UlcraimM RSR
(1953), pp. 289-293 (in Ukrainian).
An excellent account of the underlying theory is given by G. M. Goluzin, Geometric
Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable (1952) (in Russian).
A brief cataiogue of useful conformal maps was compiled by H. Kober, Dictionary of
Coufonnal Rl'presentation .(1952).
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 151
are some explicit formulas that permit one to construct mapping func-
tions for certain classes of regions. If, for example, the region R' is that
bounded by a rectilinear polygon of n sides, then the function w(r) that
maps the interior of the polygon on the unit circle Irl ::; 1 has the form
(43.1) A= A f: (I - r,)",-I(t - 1,),,·-1 ... (r - t.),,·-I dt + B,
where t, are the points on the boundary 'Y of the unit circle that corre-
spond to the vertices of the poly!;;on in the a-plane, and the nllmhers 01(11'
are the interior angles at the vertices of the polygon. I
The formula (43.1) was derived by Schwarz and Christoffel' and is
known as the Schwarz-ChristojJel transformation.
~ 1(1) = .p -
t
Up,
which on the boundary 'Y of the unit circle III = 1 assumes the values
'" = >-2w(l)w(f).
But thU! is a special case of the problem treated in Sec. 42, amI a reference
to (42.4) shows that
~ I(r) = .!,
, n
f! w(er)w(lt) dcr - ao
.,2 er-t
+ ib o
or
(44.4) I(t) = If w(u)w(lt) dcr
21r ., er - t
+ const.
Noting that, on the boundary 'Y of the unit circle It I = 1, er = flo' and
hence It == COl == l/er, one sees that the integral (44.4) can be written as
IS ".10 + ".Do,
'The oa.lculatioDe leading to formulaa (44.7), (44.8), III1If (44.10) alii due to N. L
Muakheilillhvili. Bee, for example, hill paper "Sur Ie probl~ de tGmiou. dee c,.Jiadns
6Iaatiqu.. isotropea," AID ~ I'fNIk ~ ~ . . lMtai, _. II, vol 9
(l929), pp. 295-300,
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND J'LEXURE OF BEAMS 153
where 1. is the polar moment of inertia of the area bounded by C and
Do= -
Jer ",(xdx + ydy) = _ ( .pd!.r2 ,
Je 2
where rf = x' + y2. But on the contour C
r' = Ai = ",(.,.)'-;'(It) and '" = %(f(.,.) + 1(1t)];
hence
(44.7) D. = -~~ loy (f(.,.) + 1(1t)] d["'(fT)'-;'(It)].
Also
= - !cXY(Xdx - ydy).
But
x = A + A,
2
and we find that
But
Ie AidA = 0,
!.e I' d~ = 0
'
and
fe A"a da = fe AI d(%a') = - fe alA dA,
where we make use of integration by parts. HenCe we can write the
polar moment of inertia 10 in the form
If "'(.,.) is a rational function, then the integrands of (44.7) and (44.8) can
be easily evaluated with the aid of theorems on residues and the expression
for the torsional rigidity D Can be obtained in closed form.
We may note that the shear components T.. and T.. of the stress tensor
can likewise be exp,_J directly in terms of the functions F(A) and f(I).
154 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Tn -- IT..
, = /let
(orp. orp
iJx - , oy - y -
.)
tX
orp + l.-0'"
= /let [-iJx - .(
l X - . )]
lY ..
aX
But.
and we get
(44.9)
Since F(3) = F[w(.I») = f(.I), we have
L
~
5 = w(.I) = an.ln,
.-0
then it is not difficult to give a formal solution of the torsion problem in
terms of the coefficients a.. We have
(44.11) w(u)w 0) i i =
m=O
amu m
n=O
anu-'
e e
Lb.u· + Lb.u-·,
=
n-O n-l
where
.
(44.12) b. = Lan+,.a,.
,-0
Upon inserting the expression (44.11) in (44.15), it is seen tha,
or
.
(44.13) f(.I) = rp + it/! = i
.-0Lb.l"",
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 155
where Cauchy's Integral Formula and Eq. (41.2) have been used. The
expression (44.13) for the complex stress function '(J + i", was derived by
R. M. Morris! by a different method and was used to obtain formal solu-
tions of the problem of torsion for those cases in which the complex con-
stants an are known.
A formal expression involving the constants an can be given for the tor-
sional rigidity D = !l(Io + Do) [see (44.6»). Equation (44.8) for the
moment of inertia 10 can be written as
wG) dw(er) = i
,, _ _ GO
cner n dl),
where
1:
~
c, = (n + r)a,+rdr,
r- 0
(44.14) ~
C_n = 1:
r-O
rdn+..a" (n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ).
l
(I)
10 = 31 /:7 (1:
".-0
bmo- m + 1: bmo---m) (1:
".-1 n-O
C.O-' +
n-l
c_.cr-n) dl).
Since 0- = eiB , we see that the integral of every term involving 0-" (n ~ 0)
vanishes and we are left with
Matllemati.che Annalen, vol. 116 (1939), pp. 374-400; vol. 117 (1939), pp. 31-38.
156 IlATHBMA.TICAL THEORY OJ' ELASTICITY
(44.15) D= ~ [boCo +
.-1I (c.Ii. + c._,.b. - 2OO.Ii.. ) 1
lu!, an illustration of the application of the foregoing procedure, we con-
sider a beam whose crOl!8 section is the cardioid
r = 2c(1 + cos a)
(r' = Xl + y2, tan a = y/x). ~t is readily verified that in this case a
suitable mapping function is
a= c(l - I)',
so that the only nonvanishing coefficients a.. are
ao = c, aJ = -2c,
The nonvanishing constants b" and Cft are easily found to be
bo = 6c 2
, b, = -4c', b. = c',
c_, = -2c', Co = 6c', c, = -6c', c, = 2c'.
The complex stress function is (see also Sec. 58)
.
(44.I6) f{t) = 'P + i+ = i I b..s-
.-0
= ic'{6 - 41 + to),
while
(44.17)
It should be noted that the method outlined above is readily applicable
whenever the mapping function w{t) for the region R is a polynomial or
whenever the mapping can be approximated with sufficient accuracy by
a polynomial. If the mapping function is known 88 a power series in I,
then a formal solution can be given in terms of the coefficients a.. of the
mapping function. If the mapping function is known in a closed form,
then it may be easier to proceed directly from Eq. (44.5) rather than
expand w{t) in a power series and then deal with the resulting infinite
series (44.12) to (44.15). The reader will verify that formula (44.4) can
be used in this case to obtain the result (44.16) with no calcu1&tion&l effort.
The problem of the cardioid is of some interest inasmuch 88 it indicates
an approximate behavior of a checked beam.
PROBLEM
Obtain the IIOlutioa fIf the tOIIIioD problem for a cardioid by utiWlioc formula (<<''l,
aad thus 'ftIrify (4U'l.
J!lXTENStON, TOB8ION, AND lI'LEXURE OJ' BEAMS 151
45. Applications of Conformal Mapping. This section contains several
illustrations of the application of the foregoing theory to the solution of
the torsion problem.
Firat we corurider a cylinder whose croaa section R is bounded by the
inverse of an ellipse with respect to ita center. When the ellipse
x' y'
(ii+l)i=1
is inverted with respect to ita center, the point (x, y) is carried to the
point (x', y'), which is such that
r'(r')' == (x' + y2)[(X')2 + (y'}'] = 1.
The resulting curve C (Fig. 30) is given in terms of the parameter u by
the equations
x
.-+
x y
• = -c1 cosh k cos u,
Y 2 = -1 Sl'nh k sm
-'----+ . u,
x y c
or
(45.1) x + iy = C Bec (u + ik)
with C = 1/v'ti2="b', tanh k = b/a.
Equation (45.1) can evidently be written
as
(45.2) A= C sec (w + ik), v = 0, FIG. 30
0, if n == 0, 2, 4, . . • ,
a" == { 2c( -1)(a-l)!le-"", if n = 1, 3, 5, . . .•
The infinite series entering into (44.13) and (44.15) were then summed
and the torsion function and twisting moment obtained in closed form.
However, since ",(t) is a rational function of r, it is simpler to proceed
directlyl from (44.5), (44.7), and (44.8).
When w(r) from (45.3) is inserted in (44.5), it is seen that
(45.4)
where R, and R. are the residues of the integrand at". = iek and". = -ie',
respectively. We have
Rl = [(". + iek)(".2 ~ e
-ie>
.<)(". - r)L. . = 4(r - ; ; sinh 2k'
R, = -
d [ -,-;;--;---';;;:",-;-'-:;--;r.;
u'(u' - ell) ]
du (u'.+ e21)'(u + ie--l)2 ........
-each' 2k(2 + cosh 4k) _ R
16 - "
and therefore
10 = 'll"c'(2 + cosh 4k) cach' 2k.
.
Similarly from (44.7) we get
f
Do = -~4c' esch 2k ,(u' + e2k)8(u'
u(l - u·)·
+ e- 2k )B du
= 8'11"c' csch 2k(R~ + R.),
in which R~ and R. are the residues at u = ie-' and u = -ie-to We
find that
1 d2 [ u(l - ( 4 )' ]
Ri = :2 du2 (u' + e2k )3(u + ie k)' •..;._.
-7S cscha 2k = R.,
and hence
Do = -2'11"c' csch' 2k.
The twisting moment is given by
M = p.a(Io + Do)
= p.Cl'II"c 4 (2 csch' 2k + eseh 4
2k}.
The curve resulting from inversion of the ellipse with respect to its
focus is called an elliptic limaCon. The torsion problem for a cylinder
with elliptic-limaQon cross section was treated by Stevenson and Holl
and Rock,l and the corresponding problem for a hyperbolic limRQon by
Lin, Whitehead, and Yang.' Methods of solution used by these investi-
gators differ somewhat from those presented here.
As an example of the type of calculations required when the mapping
function is not rational, consider the map of the unit circle obtained with
the aid of
(45.5) a= w(t) "" a v'fTI, where a > O.
We shall deal with that branch of the multiple-valued function v'fTI
that gives + 1 for t = O.
1 A. C. Stevenson, Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 2, vol. 45 (1939),
p.l26.
D. L. Holl and D. H. Rock, Zeit&ckrift fur llngewandte Mathematik und Mechanik,
vol. 19 (1939), p. 141.
• T. C. Lin and L. G. Whitehead, University of W""kington, Engineering E:tperifMnt
8tatiIm SerieB, 'Bulletin 118 (1951), pp. 108-111.
T. C. Lin and H. T, Yang, University of Washington, Engineering Experimmt Station
Series, Bulleti" U8 (1951), pp. 112-119.
160 MATHEMATICAL TBlIlOBY OJ!' ELASTICITY
FIG. 31
Hence
(4;).6) fm 1
= --
2,.."
1, at yl-F~ ~~-+-~
------ du =
u-s
a2
2...
-.
f'Y..._;;u-s
1 +IT
-~-
du
-_.
Since the sign of the square root must be chosen positive, we can write
~ "" e"".
If we cut the negative axis as shown in Fig. 32, then the integrand of
(45.6) \\;11 he a single-valued funct.ion in the simply connected region
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXUlUIl OF BBAKS 161
FIG. 32
indicated in the figure and the only singularity of the integrand is the
pole at fT = I. Hence
where
g(fT, I) == _ /:
l+fT '
vu (fT -I)
R is the residue of g(fT, I) at fT = I, and 8 is a small circle about the origin.
But the residue R at fT = I is obviously
R = 1 + I.
Thus,
o
1 /, g(fT, I)
--;
2n l'
dtT = - 1
2--;
n
[fO
-1·
g(fT, I) dtr + 1-1
0
g(u, I) dfT
+ 1 g(fT, I) dtT] + R
__ ! t 1 - t _!i:!_ + 1 + I,
- 1r Jo Vi t + .I 0
where we have dropped the integral over the small circle 6, since it
vanishes when the radius of fj tends to zero, and where the integrals
over the portion of the real axis between 0 and -1 are combined hy
making an obvious change of variable and by noting the difference in
sign of the function y.: on the upper and lower banks of the cut. Inte-
grating and dropping the nonessential additive constant, we have finally
fer) = ~ 1 +J 10 1 + 0,
i
1r VI g 1 - i0
where
log - - ._- = 21. VI ( 1 - -r
1 +i0
l-~Vr 3
+ r'
-5 - .. }
162 llA'l'HlIlMAIl'ICAL THEORY OJ' ELASTICl'l'Y
The function f(t) solves the torsion problem for a beal1l whose cross sec-
tion is one loop of the lemniscate. The calculation of stresses presents
no serious difficulty and is left as an exercise to the reader.
As a third example of this general method of attack upon problems of
torsion, consider the case of a cylinder whose cross section is bounded by
two circular arcs.'
Consider a region R of the complex A-plane bounded by two circular
arcs C, and Ct making an angle a "¢ 0 at their points of intersection
a = h and a = a. (Fig. 33a). It is obvious that the transformation
i~~
y
ex C.
h
:t&
Ia) (b) (e)
FIG. 33
and
_ (3 + 1)2 - i(3 - 1)2
1 - (3 + 1)2 + i(3 - 1)2
The solution of the torsion problem for the region described in (1) above
is given .llext.
From
23
;- = A2 + l'
F()
a
= _!_ [ . 2 + 2(~2 + 1)
2.... 1I'2a A
+ (a' -a" 1)21 1 -
og 1 + a~ + co nst] .
This result agrees with that obtained by Greenhill by an entirely ditIerent
method.'
The torsion problem for a lens-shaped prism whose cross section is
formed by the arcs of two circles of different radii was solved in bipolar
coordinates with the aid of Fourier integrals by Uflyand.·
The examples discussed in this section illustrate the remark.a.ble ease
with which the torsion problem can be solved when the mapping function
",(r) has a simple form. The method of solution illustra.ted above can
also be used to solve the torsion problem for bea.ms of polygonal cross
section when the mapping function obtained with the aid of the Schwarz-
Christoffel formullL (43.1) is not too unwieldy.'
Even when the mapping function is known, it may prove advantageous
to use some other method, as was done in Sec. 38 in the study of torsion
of rectangular beams, where series of orthogonal functions were employed.
The series method of solving the torsion problem for polygonal beams
with cross sections made up of rectangular components was used effec-
tively by Arutyunyan and Aleksandryan and Gulkanyan' to obtain an
exact solution of the torsion problem for a beam of finite L, T, ILnd channel
sections. The same method was used by Abramyan to solve the torsion
I A. G. Greenhill, "Fluid Motion in a Rotating Quadrantal Cylinder," M_ger of
Mathematics, vol. 8 (1879), p. 89; "On the Motion of a FrictionleBB Liquid in a Rotat-
ing Sector," Mes8enger of Mathematic8, vol. 10 (1881), p. 83.
See also A. E. H. Love, A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, p. 319.
'Y... S. Ufiyand, Dokl.ady Akademii Nattie SSSR, vol..68 (1949), pp. 17-20.
• For the uses of the Sehwarz-Christoffel formula in the tormon problem see:
E. Trefftz, "Uber die Torsion prismatischer Stabe von pelygonalen Querschnitt,"
Mathematische Annalen, vol. 82 (1921), pp. 97-112.
I. S. Sokolnikoff, "On a Solution of Laplace's Equation with an Application to the
Torsion Problem for a Polygon with Reentrant Angles," Transacti<ms of the American
Mathematical Society, vol. 33 (1931), pp. 719-732.
B. R. Seth, "On the General Solution of a Class of Physical Problems," Phi1(}BOp/l.iroI.
Magazine (7), vol. 20 (1935), pp. 632--640.
P. F. Kufarev, "Tormon and Bending of Members of Polygonal Sections," Pri/d.
Mat. Mekh., Akademiva Nauk SSBR, New Ser., voL 1 (1937), pp. 43-16.
• N. Kh. Arutyunyan, Prikl. Mat. Mekh., Akadmniya Nauk 88SR, vol. 13 (1949),
pp. 107-112; E. A. AI..ksandryan and N. O. Gulkanyan, .1kadmniva Nauk A......-.
SSR, lzf!tstiya, Phys. Mat. Nauki, vol. 6 (1953), pp. 37 ..51.
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND ,FLEXURE 011' BEAMS 165
problem for a beam with finite cruciform crOSB section. 1 A variant of
this method was employed by Abramyan and Arntyunyan to solve the
torsion problem for a beam with special trapezoidal crOSB section.!
Conformal mapping has been used to provide solutions of the torsion
and flexure problems for circular beams with one or two slits extending
from the ends of a diameter." A solution of the torsion problem for a
reCtangular beam containing cracks was given by Gulkanyan" The
stress concentration in h;isted prismatic rods whose crOSB sections have
reentrant angles was recently considered by Pivovarov. 5
Problem
Analyze the behavior of the sht>.aring stresses in the first illustration of See. 45 when
k approachp", zero. The cross section in this case differs little from the figure consist-
ing of the pair of tangent circles. Hint: Write the transformation (45.3) in the form
X!
.,(,1 = !' + a" " >0, a> 1,
anddeduee
in J ..!
f(r) = (a' - 1)(,' + a')
Use formula (44.10) to obtain T.. and T • ., and let a .... I.
46. Membrane and Other Analogies. It is clear from the discussion
given in Sees. 38 and 45 that a rigorous solution of the torsion problem
for beams whose cross sections are in the shape of the letters I, U, L, T,
ete., is likely to prove extremely vexing. While there are some rigorous
solutions of the torsion problem for beams of polygonal cross section,I the
resultant formulas are too involved to be of immediate value to a practical
designing engineer, who requires some simple, reasonably accurate
formulas. To meet this need, a variety of approximate formulas have
been developed for the torsion constants of sections whose components
1 B. 1.. Abramyan, PriJd. Mat. Mekh., Akademiya Nauk SSSR, vol. 13 (1949), pp.
551-556.
• B. 1.. Abramyan and N. Kh. Arutyunyan, PriJd. Mat. Mekh., Akademiya Nauk
SSSR, vol. 15 (1951), pp. 97-102.
• W. M. Shepherd, Proceedings of the Royal Society (London) (A), vol. 138 (1932),
pp. 607-634; vol. 154 (1936), pp. 500-509.
A. C. Stevenson, Philosophirol Transaetions of the Royal Society (London) (A), vol.
237 (1938), pp. 161-229.
L. A. Wigglesworth, Proceedings of the London M a!kematirol Soeiety (2), vol. 4i
(1940), pp. 20-37.
, N. O. GulkAnyan, Akademiya Nauk A.Tmyan. SSR, lzvestiya, Phy•. Mnt. Nauki,
vol. 5 (1952), pp. 67-96. See also O. M. Sapondzyan, Prikt. Mat. Mekh., Akademiya
Nauk SSSR, vol. 13 (1949), pp. 501-512 (in RWlSian); and W. Nowacki, AreA. Meek.
SIoa., vol. 5 (1953); pp. 21~ (in Polish).
• A. M. Pivovarov, Prikl. Mat. Mdda., Akademiya Nauk SSSR, vol. 17 (1953). pp.
253-260.
• See references in See. 45.
166 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
_
6
r
Q 6 T
~tC"'""' ~
I""--'--+-!_~
_
: :
membrane, such as a soap film, be
stretched under a uniform tension T
_ _._.~_-=--"""_: per unit length over an opening made
in a rigid plate. The opening in the
: plate is assumed to have the same
: shape as the cross section of the beam
I subjected to torsion, and the mem-
brane is supposed to be fixed at the
r edge of the opening. If p is the pres-
~--+::d:-------+_ sure per unit area of the membrane,
and if the membrane is in equilibrium,
then the force p dx dy, acting on an
y element of area dx dy (Fig. 34), must
FlG. 34 be balanced by the resultant of the
vertical components of the tensile
stresses acting on the boundary of the element of area. Now the result-
ant of the vertical components of the tensile forces acting on the edges dy is
== (T dy
fJ2 z
:;t + fx ( T dy ~) p ax - (T dy :;t
= T fJx,dxdy,
(46.2) z = lTV'
the equation becomes
(46.3)
it becomes clear that the volume between the plane of the opening z = 0
and the surface of the membrane is proportional to the torsional rigidity
D of the section. Since the contour lines of the membrane can be mapped
out, and the slope at each point and the volume under the membrane can
be determined, one can secure the desired information concerning the lines
of shearing stress and the torsional rigidity of the beam from experimental
measurements.
A consideration of the equation of the unloaded membrane,
02Z 02Z
iJ~2 + oy' = 0,
which is so supported at the edges that
(46.5) z = _!,.2(x' + yO) on the boundary,
shows tha.t one can also determine experimentally the function ",(x, y)
[see (35.3)] from a. study of an unloaded soap film stretched so that the
168 lI..-\THElfATlCAL THEORY OF ELA8TlClT¥
heights of the membrane over the contour of the section have the values
given by (46.5).
The membrane analogy has been used in an interesting way by Timo-
menko to discuss an approximate behavior of a beam of narrow, rec-
tangular crOBB section and in analyzing the stress concentration near
fillets in channel sections and I beams. It is interesting to note that the
maximum shearing stress in a narrow beam of thickness c is twice as
great as in a circular shaft of diameter c and subjected to the same twist.
The details of the calculations and furt.her discussion will be found in
Timoshenko and Goodier's Theory of Elasticity, Sees. 93 and 94.
The technique of measuring the ordinates of the membrane has been
discussed by Thiel,l who used stereoscopic photography, while Reichen-
bieher! has decsribed an optical device for the automatic plotting of the
contour lines of the membrane. The soap film has been replaced by a
paraffin surface by Kopf and Weber,' and by the interface between two
immiscible liquids by Piccard and Baas' and by Sunatani, Matuyama,
and Hatamura.· L. Foppl' and Deutler7 have discussed the form of the
membrane analogy in which the film is under zero resultant pressure and
its boundary has variable height.
The boundary-value problems of torsion can also be interpreted in
terms of various hydrodynamical analogies. These are discussed briefly
in Timoshenko and Goodier's Theory of Elasticity, Sec. 100, where several
references are given. To these may be added a paper by Den Hartog
and McGivern 8 in which experimental technique is described.
The analogy between the torsion of a cylinder and the potential of a
plane electric field affords another way of obt.aining experimental 801u-
I A. Thiel, "Pbotogrammetrisches Verfahren zur vf'rstlchsmii.ssigen I.osung von
(47.1) in R,
1 H. <::ran .., "Experimentelle LOsung von Torsion ..... uigaben," Ingenieur Arcbiv,
on C,' (i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n),
P,(XG.IIO) X
dx ,,'I' dy ,
uy
P
(lJift lJift)
(47.4) tp(x, y) =
l (x, v)
P.(z •• vo)
Po(:tO,'II0)
[M(x, y) dx + N(x, y) dy]
(47.7) (i ~ 1, 2, . . . ,n).
(47.9)
V'w = -2 in R,
{ w= k, on Ci, (i = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,n)
and the definition of w yields,
where we make use of Green's Theorem, and the subscript C on the line
integral means that the integration is to be performed in appropriate
directions over all the contours C. (i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n). Now if we
chOO8e the value of it over the contour Co to be zero (that is, ko = 0)
and note the boundary conditions in (47.9), we have
fl JI
A
D = 2p. it dx dy + 2p.k,A••
It will be recalled that the curves it(x, y) = const determine the lines of
shearing stress (sec Sec. 35), and it follows from the boundary conditions in
(47.9) that one can obtain a solution for the torsion problem of a hollow
shaft from the solution of the torsion problem of a solid shaft by delet-
ing the portion of material contained within the curve it(x, y) = const.
Thus, in the discussion of the problem of torsion for an elliptic cylinder
in Sec. 36, it was shown that the lines of shearing stress are similar ellipses,
concentric with the ellipse
x2 y!
iii + Ii' = 1,
representing the cross section of the cylinder. Accordingly, if we delete
EXTENSION, TORaIO:!,;, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 173
t.he portion of materi.a.l contained within the elliptical cylindel'
(47.13) as + 11'b' =
x'
(1 - k)·. (0 < k < 1).
then the stress function " for an elliptical beam of semi-axes a and b will
have a constant value over the curve (47.13) and the sa.me function"
will thus solve the torsion problem for a hollow beam bounded by similar
elliptic.al cylinders.
The lines of shearing stress for a beam of circular cross section are
circles concentric with the outer boundary. and it follows at once that
the formulas contained in Sec. 33 are applicable to hollow cirCll.lar shafts.
In particular, the torsional rigidity D is
(47.14) D = p:r
2 (a' - a4)
o.
where ao is. the radius of the inner circle and a is
that of the outer one.
Some important approximate formulas that are
applicable to thin tubes follow readily. While it
is not the purpose of this volume to deal with
approximate engineering formulas, we make a
Fw.36
brief reference to their development. Let II thin
tubular section of thickness t be bounded by an exterior contour Co and
an interior contour C 1 (Fig. 36).
If the tube is thin. we can assume that w varies linearly along the
thickness. Then
qw dx dy == ~kl U dx dy = Hk1A.
if we take" = 0 on Co. W = kl on C 1 and represent· the cross-sectional
area of the tube by A. The shearing stress T. at any point in the cross
section is,
Thus, approximately,
T. = ~l.
To determine kl' we use (47.10), which yields
11 {
le. ~t = 2A"
174 MA THEMA TICAL THEORY OF ELASTlQlTY
80 that
PROBLEMS
1. Find the conjugate torsion functions '1', y" the stress fUlwtion '1', and the COD-
etant k entering into (47.9) for a hollow circular shaft. Derive the expression (47.14)
for the torsional rigidity of the shaft from both (34.10) and (47.12).
solves the torsion problem for a tube whose cross section is bounded by confocal
ellipees E - E. and E = El. This result was deduced by A. G. G"""nhill, Quarterly
Jmunal of M~, Oxford Series, vol. 16 (1879), pp. 227-256.
S. Compute the torsional rigidity of a hollow shaft whose cross section is bounded
by two similar ellipses.
'- Use Green's formula to show that
if '" is the torsion function of Sec. 34. Hence show that formula (34.10) can be
written as
D - p ff
R
(x' + 1/') dJ: dy - po 11 ("'! + ..;1
R
do; dy.
V Ii. Use results in the preceding problem and the fact that the Dirichlet integral
("'! + "'!) dJ: dy vanishes if, and only if, 'P is a constant, to prove that D = 1'['
where gi' are the metric coefficients that can be calculated' from (48.1).
Let Po and P be two neighboring points in an unstrained medium, and
let these points take the positions P~ and P' after deformation. We shall
confine our discussion to infinitesimal deformations' and shall represent
the displacements in the directions normal to the coordinate surfaces
ai, a2, a, by UI, u" U3, respectively. The curvilinear coordinates of the
points Po and P are a; and ai + dai, respectively. The coordinates of the
points P~ and P' will be denoted by a; + ~. and a, + ~. + da, + d~i'
Then it follows from (48.2) that
Now the length of the element of arc ds joining the points Po and P is
given by
3
(48.3) ds' = Lg,,(al, a., a.) dli!,
i-I
while the length of the same element in the deformed state is given by
3
(48.4) (ds')' = I q,,(al + ~t, a. + ~., a. + ~.)(da, + d~,)2.
i-I
But
1 See Prob. 1 at the end of this aeetion. All summations in the main parts of this
section will be indicat.ed by a summation sign.
t See See. 7.
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 179.
Hence (48.4) can be written as
3 3
(48.5) (da')' = 2: 2: G.,. da; da;,
i-I j - l
where
3
\' 011") O~, O~i
(48.6) G'j = 6ij ( II;; L oak ~k + IIi< oa. + IIi; oa.'
+ k-l 1 1
and where we neglect the terms involving the products of ~; and ~~i. The
Uaj
symbol 6,;, as usual, denotes the Kronecker delta. The expression for
Gi; has been symmetrized by replacing G;; by Y2(G ij + Gji ).
It is clear from (48.2) and (48.5) that the elongations of linear elements
and shears are characterized by the coefficients llii and G,j. Thus, con-
sider a linear element ds, directed along one of the coordinate lines a,.
From (48.2), its length is
(48.7)
(48.8)
(hi =
..-2 -~;
then
COB 9,; = sin ~ ;. <Xi;.
The shear components of the strain tensor are defined by the relation
~ = 2e.;. Substituting in (48.8), we geP
~=.!.__0t_ ;..!.~
2~ 2~'
(48.9) e"j = --
2 v'ii:ih,
(Of + gn oa,o~.)
1 - g.i ___!
oaf
_!
= - 1- - [ g 0 ( - 14 ) +U·· 0 ( - 14 ) ] if i ¢ j.
2 ~ .. oaf y'u:.
"oa; v'Y;; ,
The components'Tij of the stress tensor in curvilinear coordinates are
defined in precisely the same way as they were in the cartesian system.
Thus, the component of stress normal to the element of area perpendicular
to the coordinate line a, is denoted by 'T.., and the component of shear
associated with the coordinate lines <Xi and aj is written as 'T,;.
In this notation, 2 Hooke's law for a homogeneous isotropic medium
assumes the form
EfT E
(48.10)
'T.. = >." + 21'e,. Or'Tii = (1 + fT)(l _ 2fT) " + 1 + IT eo,
E
'Ti; = 2peij or 'T'j = 1 + fT~' if i ¢ j,
where the invariant" "'" ell + e.. + en. Solving the system (48.10) fOJ
1 Note that
+ terms involving produeta of & and ita derivativM, terms that were neP>eted pre
vioualy.
• Cf. Sees. 22 "nd 2:1.
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 181
the components of strain yields
(48.11)
git.,.'i.k + Fi = 0, in 'T
Tij.,i == Ti , on l:.
c. Navier'. Equations
(). + p)"., + pVlu, + F, = 0, in T,
where VI'll; = giJ:u,./I:.
d, Compatilnlity Equation.
We write out the expressions for the strain components (48.7) and
(48.9) and the equations of equilibrium (48,12) for three important special
cases of curvilinear coordinates.
a. Plane Polar Coordinate8. In this case, the index i assumes the
values 1, 2, and according to the usual notation
....
I
I
I
TOg I
I
FIG. 37
Noting the formulas (48.7) and (48.9), we see that the strain components
in this case are
OUr
err = TT'
1 aUg
(48.13) egg = --
r 0(J
+-r'r
U
er , =
1 (OUr
2r 7i8 - Ug
au,) '
+ r 7ir
while the equations of equilibrium (48.12) become
FIG. 38
to the xy-plane (Fig. 37). Substituting the values of the metric coeffi-
cients in (48.7), (48.9), and (48.12) gives the expressions for the strain
components
iiu.
eM" = Tr'
1 iiu" u.
ell =r iilJ + r'
iiu.
e.. = Tz'
(48.15)
184 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
(48.16)
e.... =
1 iiu..
r sin (J iia
+ U.
r + Uo -r-'
cot (J
(48.17)
e,.. = !. (_~_ iiu, _ ~ + iiU..),
2 rsm(Jiia r iir
e., = !2 (!r iiu.ii(J _ ~r + iiUiir B) ,
PROBLEMS
1. Show that the metric coefficients g<; can be calculated by observing that
3
(dx.)' =
L
i,j-l
dXI; aXI;
,...--,...--
va,Uaj
da, da j •
It follows that
3
(dx.)' = L
k,i.i-l
or
3
ds" = L
i.i .... 1
gij da. daj,
where
2. Calculate the metric coefficients g,; for plane polar coordinates a, !5i r, a, .. 6
from the relations
and
3
'\' ax.~.
g'j - "" &X, aaj
i-I
mation, the sides have lengths ~ do" -va;; do, and include an angie 8.., while
the length of the hypotenuse is do~ VOu + 0 .. d,,~ - 20" do, do,. Use the law of
cosines to show that
cos 811 .. _!!_l!!__,
va;;a;.
49. Torsion of Shafts of Va.rying Circular Cross Section. In discussing
the torsion by terminal couples of a circular shaft of varying diameter,
it is convenient to make use of the cylindrical coordinates r, 8, z intro-
duced in the preceding section. We shall direct the axis of the shaft
along the z-axis, and, in order to avoid using subscripts, we shall denote
the displacements u, and Ue, in the radial and tangential directions, by
u and v, respectively. The displacement u, in the direction of the axis
of the shaft will be called w.
It will be recalled that, in the case of a uniform circular shaft twisted
by terminal couples, the displacement of points in any cross section is in
the tangential direction I and that the displacement in the direction of
the axis of the shaft vanishes. We shall attempt to solve the torsion
problem for a shaft of varying diameter by assuming that, in this case,
we also have
U = w = 0,
and then prove that the solution based on this assumption fulfills all con-
ditions of the -problem and hence is the desired one.
On account of the circular symmetry, the tangential displacement v
cannot depend on the angle 8 and thus will he a function of the varia-
bles rand z.
Since the displacements u and w vanish, the formulas (48.15) (with
U, 5ii U, Us e V, 'Il, e w) give
(49.3) of = r 8 !_ (~),
or OZ r
so that
and iJ (v) 1 of
- aT- ;: =;:a oz .
Differentiating the first of these equations with respect to r, the second
with respect to z, and adding gives the equation on the function F(r, z)
in the form
o2F 3 of o2F
(49.4) or" - T ar + oz' = o.
The stress components will now be expressed in terms of the function
F(r, z). It follows from formulas (49.3) that
!_ of = r
r2 ar ~ (~)
az r
= ?!:,
az
_ !_ aF = r!_ (~) = ?!: _ ~,
r2 az ar r ar r
and comparison of these expressions with the last two of the formulas
(49.2) shows that the nonvanishing components of stress are given in
terms of the function F by the formulas
J.l of J.l iJF
(49.5) T60 = ;:a ar' T,6 = -;:a OZ .
Since the lateral surface of the shaft is free from external loads, it fol-
lows that the resultant shearing stress must be directed along the tangent
to the boundary of the aXIal section. Accordingly, the component of the
resultant stress in the direction" normal to this boundary must vanish,
and we have the boundary condition l
Tu. cos (z, v) + T" cos (r, v) = o.
dr dz .
But cos (z, v) = - dB' cos (r, v) = dB' where ds IS the element of arc
along the boundary of the axial section (Fig. 39), and we have
dr dz
-Th ds + Tr&dB = 0 on the boundary.
or
dF
ds = 0 on the boundary.
Thus, the condition that the lateral surface be free from extemalloads
demands that the function F(r, z) assume a constant value on the bound-
ary of the axial section, determined by (J = const.
r
FIG. 39
The twisting moment on any cross section whose radius is a is easily
computed. ThUll,
(2- (a (a (a aF
(49.6) M = Jo Jo Tear' dr d(J = 2... Jo rOre. dr = 2...~ Jo ar dr
= 2rp[F(a, z) - F(O, z)].
The solution of Eq. (49.4) is quite simple for the case of a conical shaft,
shown in Fig. 40. It is easily checked that the function
which become identical with the stress system (33.2) in a circular beam
twisted by the end couples, if we set' 4A = a.
A set of partiCUlar integrals of Eq. (49.4) can be obtained by assuming
solutions in the form e-hR(r), where k > 0 and R(T) is a function of r
alone, and it follows from (49.4) that the function R(r) must satisfy the
equation
1 H. Poritsky, American Mathematical &r:iety Proceedings of Third SympoBium in
(50.2)
where the prime denotes the derivative with respect to the argument k.r.
But'
(50.3)
where .f,Ch-r) stands for the Bessel function of order I, which is known to
slltisfy the equation
(50A) d2
( dr'
1d + k,
+ Tar -,21) J,(kr) = O.
Substituting (50.3) in (50.2) and setting z = 0 gives the expression for the
distribution of stresses To. over the end z = 0 of the cylinder,
(50.-6)
..
= 211"1' [ / 4crr'
0
dr + l
.. -1
A.k. 10· r J 1(k"r) dr l
2
J1(kr) = - - 2 -
k dr'
1(d + -1r -drd - -r'1) J1(kr) ,
2
so that
895-978.
J. L. Synge, Quarterly of Applied Mathematics, vol. 2 (1945), pp. 307-317.
I A solution by energy methods of such a torsion problem for a beam of elliptical
section was found by A. Foppl (1920) and is given in A. and L. Foppl, Drang and
Zwang, vol. 2, Sec. 77. The beam of rectangular section was considered by S. Timo-
shenko, Proceedings of Ihe London M atkematical Sociely, vol. 20 (1922), p. 389 and by
J. Nowinski, Arch. Mech. SIo8., vol. 5 (1953), pp. 47-66 (in Polish). B. P. Netrebko,
V eatnik, Moscow University, No. 12 (1954), pp. 15-26 (in Russian), used energy meth-
ods to investigate the torsion of a rectangular parallelepiped by arbitrarily specified
distributions of shearing stresses on the bases. Energy methods are also used by
N. V. Zvolinskij in "Angenaherte Losung der Torsionsaufgabe ffir einen elastischen
zylindrischen Stab mit einem nicht verwolbten Querschnitt," Bulletin de l'academie
des sciences de I' U RSS, elMse des sciences mathhnatiques et ...zturelle8, No.8 (1939),
pp. 91-100 (in Russian',. The problem of flexure of such a beam has been treated by
R. Sonntag in "tlber Biegung bei verhinderter Querschnittskrummung," Ingenieur
.1rchiv, vol. 4 (1944), pp. 415-420.
The effect of local stresses corresponding to different modes of applying torsional
couples to a circular cylinder has been discussed by Wolf and by Deimel IK. Wolf,
Sitztlung8berichte der A,kademie der Wi8sen8c/w.ften in Wien, vol. 125 (1916), p. 1149;
R. F. Deimel, "The Torsion of a Circular Cylinder," Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences afthe United StaIRs of America, vol. 21 (1935), pp. 637-642\.
• W. Voigt, I,ehrbuch der Kristallphysik, p. 648. In Chap. VII, Sece. 315-324, of
this work Voigt discusses the torsion problem for cylinders with the most general kind
of anisotropy. See also S. G. Lekhnitsky, Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body
(1950), pp. 141-172 (in Russian) .
• B. Saint-Venaut, Memoirea presemes par divers IOIIants a l'acadbnie des ~,
Scienr.etl mathlmtatiques el phy.iqltU, vol. 14 (1856).
194 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELAt;TICITY
(51.6)
T" = a(A ax
OI(J 0'1'
+ B iii; + Bx - Ay ,
)
I
I
T y, = a ( B -,;-
vX
0'1' + C!l
vy
+ ex -
0'1',
By) .
Hin('e T" = Tyy = T" = Tzy = 0 and Tn and T., are independent of z,
the first two of thp equilibrium equations (15.:l) arp identif'ally satisfi('ri
and the third one gives the equation
0 2 '1' (J2rp (J'I(J
(51. 7) A !12 ~. + C ,..
+ 2B vI = O.
vX vy vir
Thus, in this case, the torsion function 'I' no longer satisfies Laplace's
equation.
Let the boundary C of the cross section have the equationf(x, y) = 0;
then the components cos (x, v) and cos (y, v) of the normal v to the
boundary C are proportional to :~ and :~I respectively, and we can write
the boundary condition
T .. cos (x, p) + Tv' cos (y. p) = 0 on ('
196 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
in the form
(51.8) ( A~+BiJ",)af
ax iJy iJx
+ (BiJ'"
iJx
+ C aay",) Of
By
= (Ay - Bx) af
ax
+ (By _ Cx) af
iJy
onC.
..·=~x
B
(51.9) A ' ., = y - :Ax.
A simple calculation slwws that Eq. (51.7) becomes
(51.10)
onC',
then
(51.13)
and (51.12) becomes
?",' aF + acp' aF = aF _ ~iJF on C/,
il~ il~ il., il., '1 a~ a"
or
(51.14) onC',
M = ff
R
(r,.x - rz.Y) dx dy
and since
M=aD,
where D is the torsional rigidity, we see that the torsional rigidity of a
nonisotropic cylinder can be deduced from the torsional rigidity of the
isotropic cylinder obtained from the nonisotropic one by a homogeneous
deformation (51.9).
We conclude this formulation of the torsion problem for a ncmisotropic
prism by remarking that the transformation (51.9) changes the boundary
of an ellipse
x' y'
(i2+p=1
into another ellipse, and since the solution of the torsion problem for an
isotropic cylinder is known, we can write down at once the solution of the
corresponding problem for a nonisotropic elliptical cylinder.
The transformation (51.9), in general, carries a rectangle into a paral-
lelogram, and hence the solution of the torsion problem for a nonisotropic
rectangular beam is not covered by the discussion contained in Sec. 38,
unless the x'-axis coincides with the x-axis. If these axes coincide, then
B = 0, and the rectangle will be transformed into another rectangle of
different length. The solution corresponding to this case is written out
in Love's Treatise, on page 325.
I
-
I
:
i.-l-z ... --
I
W
FlO. 42
1 See See. 32. 'S ole that the roordinate axes there were taken to be the principal
!>xes of the rro"s 8<'dioll, while the ('hoicp of axes here is not restri~ted
EXTKNSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 199
is statically equivalent to a couple of moment M.. Equations (52.2)
and (52.3) suggest that we try to satisfy the conditions of the present
problem by assuming .
(52.4) T" = _- E(l - z)(K"x + K.y),
where the ('onstant,g K" K. art' to he determined from the ('ondition~
(52 . .5) ff
1/
T" dx dy = lV" Jf T," dx
1/
rl!1 = Jr.,
,
Substituting from (.52.i) and (.524\ in the equations of f'quilihrium
(29.1), we get
aT.. = 0 Or•• =0
(52.6)
I az ' az '
~;. + a;;. + E(K.x + K.y)
It follows from the first two of Eqs. (.52.6) that the shear p,omponents
= O.
or" and T,. have the same value in all cross sections of the beam, while the
third equation can be rearranged to read
fx (~~) + :y (- ~~) = 0,
it is evident that there exists a function F(x, y) such that
_a - 2
aF 1 EK 2
(52.7) !T,. -- -
T.. -
y
aF
"x,
- '12 EK.y2 .
I ax
The conditions to be satisfied by the function F(x, y) can be deter-
mined from the Beltrami-Michell compatibility equations (24.15), which
reduce in this case to
V
• + 1EK.
T.. + <1 -
_ 0
, V,.••
._
+ 1EK.
+ <1 =
0
.
Substituting from (52'.7) in these equations, we see that the latter will be
fulfilled if
- ~
ax
- "ay + "",K.y' - !2
EK.x'
'
(52.11)
ag 1
'T~1I = - ay + jJ.ax + "",KvX' - '2 EK"y'.
The constant of integration -2"a in (52.8) can easily be interpreted
physicallyn Each element of area of a cross section is rotated in its own
plane through an angle [see (7.5)]
Substituting the values of the shear stresses from (52.11), one gets
aw
i)z = Cl + u(KvX - K.,y).
The mean value of the local twist over the section (or, equally well, the
value of the local twist at the centroid of the section) is Just the constant
a. Thus, we see that the terms in (52.11) that involve a represent a
twist of the beam, and, indeed, the terms - jJ.ay and jJ.ClX in these expres-
sions also appear in the solution of the torsion problem (see Sec. 34). In
the latter problem, one has
(pure torsion).
We are thus led to introduce the torsion function <p(x, y) into the flexure
problem by writing
(52.12) g(x,1/) = -II4<P(X,1/) - j.I[Kz'!'l(X, 1/)'+ KlfPt(x, 1/)],
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 201
where ",(x, 1/), "'l(X, 1/), and ",:(x, 1/) are hannonic functions. We can now
write
(52.13)
'1'•• - pa a-
( i l ' l 'Y)
x
+ I'K. [ a
il'l', -
x
x' - ,,(x' - y') ] + ,.K. -2,
a'l'
ax
{ T.. ~ pa (~+
oy
x) + I'K. [a'oyl" - y' _ ,,(yO _ x' l ] + I'K'ay
0'1',.
The boundary conditions on the functions <p, and <Po may be derived
from the relation
(52.14) T •• cos (x, v) + '1',. cos (y, v) = 0,
which expresses the vanishing of external force on the lateral surface of
the cylinder, and, from the boundary condition on the torsion function <p
[see (34.6)1,
d<p
(52.15) dv = y cos (x, v) - x cos (y, v).
The flexure problem has thus been reduced to the task of finding three
on C.
functions, hannonic within the region R of the cross section, whose normal
derivatives are prescribed on the boundary C; that is, we have been led
to the problem of Neumann. In order to see that the condition of the
existence of a solution of this problem is fulfilled, we observe that
= 2(1 + <1) 11
R
x dx dy = 0,
(i = 1, 2),
w. = V r •• dxdy,
U
R R
+ p.K. ~:2 dx dy
+ p.K.[ - (1 + 0')1, + 0'1.],
whers
I. "" V y'dxdy, 1. = V x'dxdy.
EXTl!lNSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF lIEAMS 203
Now if" is any harmonic function, then l
With the aid of this identity and t.he houndar.,· ('onditions (52. I!;) lind
(.";2.16), Eq. (52.18) becomes
E = 21l(1 + tT),
the last equation can be written as
(52.19) W. = E(K.I. + K.I •• ),
where
I.. = JJ xy dx dy
R
f/:
R
dXdy = JJ[fx(x~n +~(X~)]dXdY
R
=
c
- dy = Jdofl
J( -x -ilofl dx + x ilofI)
iJy
ilx
X-d.
dv . C
g
R
which are precisely the bending moments produced in the section z = const
hy the forces W. and W •.
The stress distribution over any cross section is easily seen to be
statically equivalent to the load (W., W., 0);
f!r •• dxdy=W.,
R
If r,. dx dy = W., ff r .. dxdy
R R
= o.
The first two equations are satisfied by virtue of our choice of the con-
stants K. and K., while the third follows from our assumption that the
z-axis passes through centroids of cross sections. The constant a in
formulas (52.13), for shear stresses, is determined by the condition that
the twisting moment M. be such that
In (52.22), (xo, Yo) are the coordinates of the load point relative to any set
of axes intersecting at the centroid of the section.
We see that the solution of the general Saint-Venant flexure problem
is reduced to the determination of harmonic functions 'P, 'P" and 'P2 that
satisfy the boundary conditions (52.15) and (52.16). The boundary
conditions (52.16) are somewhat unwieldy, and we shall show in Sec. 53
how the formulation of the problem can be simplified by introducing the
idea of center of flexure.'
63. Center of Flexure. The formulas (52.13) for shear stresses suggest
a resolution of the general flexure problem into the following simpler
problems:
I The treatment of the flexure problem given here is influenced by L. S. Leibenson,
which must hold for an arbitrary choice of W. and W.. The load point
(x, ti, 1), corresponding to a = 0 is called the center of flexure and is
denoted by (x." y."l).
2. A torsion problem with the twist a due to a couple of moment
W.(xo - XcI) - W.(yo - y</),
and with shear stresses determined by (52.13), with K. and K. set equal
to zero.
We can thus think of the load W at the point (xo, Yo, l) as being replaced
by an equal load at the center of flexure and by a couple producing the
twist a. The solution of the general flexure problem is then got by super-
posing the solutions of these two simpler problems. The decomposition
of the general flexure problem into problems 1 and 2 amounts to resolving
the twisting moment
M. = xoW. - yoW.,
determined by (52.22), into two parts:
(53.1) ff (xr,. -
R
yr,.) dx dy = xc/W. - yc/W.,
(53.5)
'PI = (1 + 0')"'11 - rr",u,
{
"'. = (1 + 0')"'21 + 0''''21.
Equations (52.16) now become
(I + ..) ~' - .. d;;. _(1 + ..)xl cos (x, .) - ""I cos (x, .),
(53.6)
{ (1 +.,.) d;;, +.,. a.r;' - (1 + .,.)fI' cos (fI, .) - a l cos (fI, p).
1 There is some confusion in the literature concerning the relation of the flexural
center to the cenUr 01 twiat, the latter being defined as the point at rest in every Cl'088
aection of the beam fixed at one end and twisted at the other by a oouple. The center
of flexure is sometimes vaguely defined as the point in the end section of a cantilever
beam such that the load applied at that point produces "tomionless bending," There
are different definitions of toreionless bending [E. Treffu, ZeitBckri/t 11l.r ~
MatMm4tiJ: und Meckanilc, vol. 15 (1935), pp. 226-225; J. N. Goodier, JuumqJ, oj tile
A_utiml &isntJe, vol. 11 (1944), pp. 272-280), and the confusion in the identifica-
tion of the two oenters generally stems from the .failure to define toreionlese hendina
and to specify the mode of fixing the beam. It is poIIBl"ble to define the center of
flexure (aleo oaIled the cenUr oj 41h<1ar) and the center of twist 80 that both oenten
coincide. See A. Weinstein, ~ oj Applied M~, voL I; (1947), pp.
97-llII. The _ten of flexure for JeVeI'IIl beams with polygonlll _ .IOOtiona have
been ealeuIated by N. Kh. Arutiunyan and N. O. Gulkanyan, PriIcl. Mat. Me1:1.;
A~ N_ 88880 voL 18 (1954), pp. 597-&8.
EXTENSION, TOBSIO:!!" AND FLEXUBE 31' BEAMS 207
We are at liberty to prescribe arbitrary boundary conditions on the indi-
vidual functions <Pi;, subject only to the restriction that the relations
(53.6) be sa.tisfied on C. Boundary conditions that are simple in form
and independent of the elastic constants of the material will be realized
if it is required that the functions '1'.; satisfy conditions
or
(53.8) "'12 = ~yl + const, "'21 = ~X' + const on C.
The solution of the simple flexure problem in which the applied load
(W., W.,O) acts at the center of flexure (with a = 0) is thus given by the
stresses
'Tn = -Tzw = 1'fIII = 0,
T .. = -E(l - z)(K.x + K.y),
T .. = ~K. [ (1 + u) e:;1 - x.) - (at;, - y.) ]
u
where
EK I.W. _ I..,W.
•- I.I. _ I:_ ,
208 MATHEKATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
and where the harmonic functions 11'11, 11'22, -/tu, -/t21 satisfy the boundary
conditions
K. = W. = W. , K. = 0,
E1. 21'(1 + q)1.
while Eqs. (52.13) become
_ I'a (a'l')
" •• - ax - y + 2(1 W.
+ q)1. [a'ax
l" - (1 + q)x I+ qy,
2]
0'1')
Tar = y.a ( ay + X + 2(1 W.
+ q)1. 0'1"
ay·
The flexure function 'I"(x, y) is not of the same form as the classical
Saint-Venant flexure function <I>(x, y) used by most writers; the two func-
tions (together with their harmonic conjugates 1/1, and if) are related, in
fact, by the e"pression
'P, + i"', = - (<I> + iif) + %,(1 + ~q)(x + iy)',
or
'I', = -<I> + 73(1 + ~"')(X3 - 3xy2),
(54.1) {
"', = -if + 73(1 + ~q)(3x'y - yl).
In terms of the harmonic function <I>(x, y), the stresses can be written as
{ ..,.~ = T'Q = TIN = 0,
,," = - !f• (l - z)x,
(54.2)
,"" = /laC:: - y) - 2(1 ::)1. [:: + 4qxt + (1 - ~q) ya}
Till = pIX (!; + x) - 2(1 !"fT)I" [ : + (2 + q)xy l
From (54.1) and from the boundary condition (52.16) on the function 11'1,
it follows that the harmonic function <I> must satisfy the condition
EXTENSION, TOUlON, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 209
- 2(1 ~ ,,)1. II
R
[(1 + ")"''11 - ",,'] d", dll.
Since we have set W. = 0, the x-coordinate of the flexural center cannot
be determined from (53.1); that is, the mean twist over every section will
vanish, provided the load W. is applied at any point along the line y = y.,.
66. The Displacement in a Bent Beam. In this section, expressions
for the displacement components u, v, w will be given in terms of the
torsion function 'P and the flexure functions 'PI, 'PI. Some conclusions
about the state of deformation can then be drawn from these expressions
without explicitly determining the functions 'P, 'PI, 'PI. The procedure is
to substitute the expressions for the stresses found in Sec. 52 in formulas
(29.2) and to carry out the integrations in a manner analogous to that used
in Sees. 31 and 32. Since the calculation presents no points of interest,
we shall merely list the final results and it is a simple matter to verify
that the formulas for the components of displacement lead to the expres-
sions for the stresses found in the preceding section.
In the case of the general flexure problem, discussed in See. 52, the
expressions for the components of displacement are:
210 llA'l'BEMATlCAL THEORY 0'" lIILAWrIClTY
(55.4) y=-x=
K. I.WlI - I ..W. x
K. I.W. - I ..W•.
The greatest deflection of the central line of the beam occurs at the loaded
end z == 1, where '
1 KJ' 1 I.W. - loW. fa
U .. 3 - 3 E(l.l. - I:.) .-.
1K 1 I.,W. - loW.
11
II =- 3 ..... i E(I.I. - 1:'> II .
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 211
If the axes are principal axes of a cross section, then
while, for bending by a load W. along a principal axis, the end deflec-
tion is
1£ = ! W' ll
3 E1v
The plane of the load (the plane containing the z-axis and the line in the
direction of the load) does not, in general, coincide with the plane of
bending, since the equation of the former is
Wv
y = W. x.
The neutral plane is defined as that plane whose filaments are not altered
in length; that is, it is characterized by the equation en = O. Since
(lw
en = (lz = - K.(l - z)x - K.(l - z)y,
(55.5)
K.
y = - Kv x.
The planes defined by (55.4) and (55.5) are orthogonal, and hence the
neutral plane is perpendicular to the plane of bending.
In the case of bending by a load (W., 0, 0) along a principal axis (Sec.
54), the xz-plane contains the deformed central line, while the :!Iz-plane is
the neutral plane.
Consider now the curvature of the deformed central line of the beam.
Taking coordinates r = y' X/2 + y'2 and z in the plane of bending, we
have from (55.3)
r = y'K; + K; (-%z· + Y2lz2).
If the displacements and their derivatives are smail, one can write
it .. :; . . viE: + K: (I - Z/).
That the curvature is proportional to the bending moments M., Mil ill
easily seen by referring to Sec. 52, where it was found that
212 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OP ELASTICITY
and hence
M _ w.
• - R v'K~ + K:
For the case of bending by a load W. along a principal axis (Sec. 54),
t.hese tela.tiotla Uee.om.e
M. = 0, M. = EI•.
R
Thus, the Bernoulli-Euler law is also valid in the case of bending of
beams by transverse end l09ds.
The changes in the cross section of the beam are determined from a
study of the terms in u, v, and w that are independent of the twist (l,
and one can carry out an aDalysis similar to that given in Sec. 32. The
neutral plane is deformed into a saddle-shaped surface, of which the cen-
tral line is one of the principal lines of curvature. The cross sections
z = c of the beam do not temain plane even when the term (llp(x, y),
which is due to the twisting of the beam by the load, disappears. This
can be seen by examining tbe equation
(55.6) z' = c + w = c + dlp(X, y)
+ K.[Ip,(x, y) - (Ie - ~C2)X - 713(2 + cr)x' + ~crxy2)
+ K.[Ip.(x, y) - (lc - ~C2)y - 713(2 + cr)y3 + ~crx2y).
For the special case consideted in Sec. 54, this takes the form
or
'If = -(% + 72O')a l sin (J + ;!,ia l sin 311, on r = a.
Since the function 'If is harmonic in the interior of the circle r = a, the
appropriate particular solutions of the equation V2'1f = 0 in polar coordi-
nates are of the form r" sin nil. Hence we must have
'If = - (% + Y2O')a2r sin (} + :!-ir' sin 311,
while the conjugate flexure function is
4> = - (% + 720')a 2r cos (} + :!-ir' cos 311.
Reealling that x = r cos (J, y = r sin II, we get
(56.1) 4>(x, y) = - (% + 72O')a'x + Y.t(x· - 3xy·).
From the symmetry of the cross section, it is seen that the center of
flexure coincides with the centroid of the end section, and as the load
point has also been taken at the centroid, it follows that in this example
a = O. The stress components are found from (54.2) to be
_ (3 + 2u)W ( 2 _ • _ 1 - 20' .)
r•• - 2ra'(1 + 0') a x 3 + 2u Y ,
(1 + 2u)W
(56.2) 1'•• = - ra'(l + 0') xy,
4W
rp = - ra' (I - z);t.
214 IlATHEMATIC,AL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
%
FIG. 43
imd it is evident that T.% takes its maximum value at the center of the
circle, where
3+20- W
(Tn) .... = 2(1 + <1) ra'
rhe shearing stress at the ends of this diameter is
1+2<1W
(Tn).-±<> =- - --.
1 + <1 ra'
The distribution of the lines of shearing stress can be determined with
the aid of Eq. (55.9) or directly from the defining relation
dy T ..
iiX = T.;
The differential equation of the lines of shearing stress is easily found to be
"
Flo. 44
An analysis similar to that used in the preceding section can be applied
to determine the flexure function for a beam whose cross section is given
by the equation (see also Sec. 60),
x' y'
(56.4) f(x, y) "'" iii + l)i - 1= o.
2Hi MATHEMA.'1'fCAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
We assume, as above, that the load acts in the direction of the x-axis and
is applied at the centroid of the end section.
Now the direction cosines cos (x, v) a.nd cos (y, v) of the normal to the
boundary of the ellipse are proportiona.l to
Hence
:~ and :t, respectively.
(565)
. a4'b x+ a4'
ax
2
ay a y=
2
-[!uX
2
2
+(I-!u)y2]b
2
2X-(2+u)a 2xy ' onC.
so that T,. « T... On the otller hand, if a « b, then the load acts along
the shorter axis, and
a« b.
next two sectiollll will illustrate the use of analytic functions in solving
the flexure problems.
Let ilIe equation of the boundary of the cross section of the beam be
(x' - a2)(y2 - b' ) = 0,
and let the terminalloa.d be directed along the positive x-axis and applied
at the origin.
A reference to the boundary conditions (54.3) shows that, on the sides
x = ± a, we must have
a4> =
ax
_.! ua'
2
_ (1 _.!2
u) yS
'
-b < y < b,
while, on the sides y = ± b, we must satisfy the condition
a4>
ay = +(2 + u)bx, -a < x < a.
In order to simplify the boundary conditions, we define a harmonic func-
tion !(x, y) by the relation
!(x, y) = 4>(x, y) - 7il(2 + u)(x' - 3xy');
then the boundary conditions to be satisfied by the function f(x, y) are
a!
ax = -(1 + u)a + cry',
2
on x = ±a,
a! = 0 ,
ay on y = ±b.
It follows from the discussion in Sec. 38 that one can build up the
desired solution by forming an infinite series of particular solutions
.
'\' . n1lx nry
!(x, y) = Ax + L.. An smh b cos T'
ft-l
yS = -b' + -
4b' 2:- -
(-1)" nry
- cos-, -b ~ y ~ b.
3 " . ' ft-l n 2 b
The condition on the boundary x = ± a now takes the form
..
"\'
A + ...L..1 ~A
b "c
osh~ n1r'g
b cos b
i
== -(1 + u)a 2 +u [ -b + -4bt 2:" -_
3,..2 nS
nry],
(-1)" cos-
b
•• !
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 219
and equating the coefficients o.f cos (nry/b) leads to. the result
• sinh n...z
f( z y) -
,
[-(1 + ..)a' +!3 ub'] z + 4crb'
11"'
'\' (-1)-
~ n'
b cos!!!1lb •
ftra
n-l coshT
The flexure functio.n <I>(x, y) can now be fo.und from the relatio.n
4>(x, y) = f(x, y) + ~(2 + (f)(x·
_,3 xy2).
We shall dispense with the calculatiQn Qf shear stresses. An elabQrate
discussio.n o.f the bending pro.blem fo.r a rectangular beam is given by
TimoshenkQ,' who., ho.wever, appro.aches the pro.blem in an entirely dif-
ferent way, by using an analo.gy between a certain stress functio.n and
the deflectio.n o.f a stretched membrane under no.nunifo.rm pressure. We
shall discuss this analo.gy in Sec. 60.
58. Conformal Mapping and the General Problem of Flexure; the
Cardioid Section. The examples co.nsidered in the preceding sections
give illustrations of the specialized pro.blem of flexure by a lo.ad (W., 0, 0)
directed along a principal axis (which was also one o.f the two. axes o.f
symmetry) o.f the cro.ss sectio.n o.f the beam. The analysis was also. sim-
plified by taking the centro.id o.f the sectio.n as the Po.int o.f applicatio.n
Qf the lQad. We cQnsider nQW, as an illustratiQn Qf the general prQblem Qf
flexure, the prQblem Qf bending Qf a beam whQse crQSS sectiQn is bQunded
by a cardiQid and thus has Qnly Qne axis Qf symmetry. The lQad (W.,
W.,O) will be co.nsidered to. act at so.me Po.int (xo, Yo, 1) Qf the end sectiQn,
and the Qrigin Qf cQo.rdinates will be taken in the fixed end at the centrQid
of the cardiQid. UpQn this pro.blem we shall bring to. bear the PQwerful
weapQn o.f analytic functio.n theQry, which was used earlier in the case Qf
to.rsio.n o.f a beam. 2
In Sec. 53, it was seen that the general prQblem o.f flexure by a lo.ad
(W., W., 0) acting at any po.int (xo, Yo, l) can be reso.lved into. (1) a
simpler flexure pro.blem with IX, the mean lo.cal twist, set equal to. zero.,
and with the lQad applied at the center Qf flexure (xc" Ye/, l), and (2)
a to.rsiQn pro.blem with a twist IX due to. a co.uple o.f mQment W.(xo - xc,)
- W.(Yo - Yell. The pro.blem o.f to.rsio.n o.f a cylinder was reduced in
Sec. 35 to the bo.undary-value pro.blem o.f finding the analytic functiQn
,,(x, y) + il{t(x, y) with
I{t = 72(X' + y2) o.n the bo.undary C.
1 S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, Sec. 109.
I For 8Olutiob8 of this problem by other methods, see W. M. Shepherd, Procuding.
of tile Royal Society (Ltmdon), (A), vol. 154 (1936), p. 500; A. C. Stevenson, "Flexure
with Shear and Associated Torsion in Prisms of Uni-a.xial and Asymmetric Cross-
aeetiob8," PhiloM>phicai. Tramactiotut oflk Royal Soci«y (London) (A), vol. 237 (1939),
W. 161-229; R. M. Morris, "Some General Solutions of St. Venant's Flexure and
Torsion Problem I," Proceeding. 01 tile London Mathematical. Soddy, aer. 2, voL 46
(l940), pp. 81-98.
220 MATHElIL\TICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
.pll =/ x2 ~: dB = / x' dy on C.
Similarly, we have
"'.2 = - / y' dx on C.
maps the interior of the eardioid on the unit circle 151 .:::; 1, with () = t.
The inverse transformation is
1 See S. Gosh, Bulletin ()f the Calcutta Mathematical Society, vol. 39 (1947), pp. 1-14.
w(O')w -; (1) =
c·
90" 1,(0'),
where
ll(O') = -6 - 60' + 490" - 6u a - &4.
The complex torsion function is found from (44.5) to be given by
[ef. (44.16)]
l
R, "" .!!:_ ll(O') ]
dtrO'-r ...O! !'
= ~ + ~,
I,(t) 6 6
R. = - -= - - - - + 49 - 6" - 6'"
!' 1" r " ,
and
'P + i1{l = 9ie' (49 - 6! - 6!')
= u;
9
[
. , 37 _ lSi ~
e
( )" cotl ' + 6 ~ceit]'
or
<p = lHi
2r e cos '2
t - :32 rc SIll
. t,
Io = _!:_ 2c' f
j,(0') d
4i 27 y 0" 0',
where
1.(0') = 18 - 360' - 1770'· + 4950" - 2200" - 12&' + 360'" + 120'7,
and hence
71'c"
10 = 27 Ra,
where
1 d'
Ra = 31 dtr 8 [12(0')].-0 = 495
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND fi.EXURE OF BEAMS 223
is the residue of the integrand at u = O. Thus,
551rc·
(58.4) 10 = -3-
is the polar moment of inertia of the cross section. I
Similarly, Eq. (44.7) yields
Do = _! i4c·
4 9
r!3(U)
J'Y u·
du
,
with
Then
2".c· 2".c' 1 d' 4".c'
Do = 9 R, = 9 4i du' [f3(U)]._0 = - 3 '
The torsional rigidity D is
D = ,..(10 + Do) = 17,..".c'.
The shearing stresses may be fonnd either from Eq. (44.10) or from the
relation
a'l' a'l'
T zz: = JJa. iJy , "'.iJl = - J.la iJx '
cos t = ~ (J +~}
and Eq. (58.1), we get
with
f.(u) = -27 + 162<1 - 21611 2
- 54fT' - 441u' + 828u' + 49611 8
+ 82Bu7 - 441u s - 54u' - 21&10 + 162,,-11 - 27u 12•
1 Thia result could have been obtained more simply by calculus. The detailed
calculations included here are intended to illustrate the step-by-step Pl'Oiledures and to
provide a review of the residue method of evaluat.ing simple integrals. The reader
versed in such matters is advised to omit the rest of this section.
224 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF l!:LASTICITY
and
Rs = he!).
IS
Then
ic·
I"u + i.p21 = 324 (248 + 828r - 4411' - 54r 3 - 216r 4 + 162r6 - 27r6).
I
Similarly, the function l{t12 can be determined by noting that (58.1) and
- 21r'c sin 2t - 3r' sin 3t).
the relations
ie 3
1/' = 80-' (1 - & + 12rr' - 2rr' - 27rr4 + 3&5 - 3&7 + 27rr 8 + 2rr'
- 12rrlO + &11 _ rrn)
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 225
The conditwn on the function "'12 is
"'12 = !3 ic8 li(a)
3
as
on 'Y.
'1'12
.
+ 11/;" =
ie' r li(fT)
:H;;: ./, ';'i(fT _:--f5 dfT = -
c3
12 (R, + R.),
where
R7 = ~1 5do
;). dfT
r 1.(fT)
----- ]
.fT - ! 0_0
, fls =Mp.
!
Hence
c3
'P12 + i"'J2 = 12 (36! - 271' - 2,i' + 12,i4 - 6r· + r 6),
from which it follows that
"'' -i2 ( 6re' sin t - 6r%c~' cos ~ - 3r'r sin 2t - r' sin 3t),
(58.6) { 12
"'" =
1 (
14c' + 6re' cos t + 6r~'c% sin '2 -
3t )
3r'c cos 2t - r' cos 3t .
with
f x'dy = "'11 II~ ic" 1.(fT)
= -72 -fTS
-,
and hence
'PII + i1/tll = ;; (284! - 139r" + 6!' - 24!4 + 18r6 - 3!8),
and
(58.7) 'PII = 3~ (142C' + 13OTc' cos t + 30r"c% sin ~ + 21r'c cos 2t
+ 3r' cos 3t)
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
The la.st (rexure function 'tftu is found in a. similar way. The boundary
values are calculated by observing that
y2 = 4c 2 (1 - J.I)'(I - J.I'), J.I = cos t,
dx = 2c(1 - 2J.1) dJ.l,
and
J Y' dx = 4;1 (6J.1 - 12J.11 + 8J.11 + aJ.l' - 6J.16 + 2J.1').
But flo = ~(IT + 1/1T) , and hence
-
J y 2 dx = 1{Iu I'Y
l
= - -c h(lT)
--,
24 IT'
where
MIT) = 1 - 6tT + I2IF' + 2IF1 - 57rr' + 132rr· - 13&6 + 132IT' - 57rr s
+ 2rr9 + 12rrlo - &11 + rru.
The Schwarz formula (42.4) yields
11'2.
.
+ t1{lu = -
c·
241r
j 'Y
herr)
rr6(1T -.I) dtT = - 12 (Rll
ic'
+R 12 ),
with
Rll - d---' q
,fT
5'
_ 1 d [herr) )
~-,_
6
-)I1_O
,
or
and
(58.8) '1'22 =
1 ( 48r~cJi cos 2t
12 + 24rc' at
.SIR t - IOr~'c% cos 2
Before the stresses can be found, the constants K. and Kg must first
be evaluated. From (52.21) we get, since I •• = 0,
K. = : ; ;
Now
I. = g y' dx dy .,. - % Je yl dx,
and from (58.1) we have
y = 2c sin t(I - cos t), dx = -2c sin t(I - 2 cos t) dt.
Integration of y' dx from t "" 0 to t = 2... yields
I = 21-lI'c'.
• 2
EXTENSION, TO_ION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 227
The moment of inertia I. is found with the aid of Eq. (58.4) to be
55rc' 2Irc' 47rc·
I. - 10 - I. = -3- - -2- = -6-·
ff 8:;
11
x dx dy = Ie -X'I'2 dx
II
11
xy'dxdy = -u [x y3 dX = rc',
ffB
x 8 dxdy = ~ !eX<dY = -~c',
and finally, from Eqs. (53.4),
2(3 + 40")
Xci = - 63(1 + u) C, Y</ = o.
228 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OJ' ELASTICITY
cI> = - 1
(~+ IT) [(r; + r:)r + r~~] cos II + ~ r'cos311 + const,
~= - (i + ~ IT) [(r1 + rnr - r;;3] sin II + ~ r'sin311 + const.
The expressions for the stresses can be easily calculated with the aid of
Eqs. (54.2).
If ri is set equal to zero, we get the flexure function for the solid circular
beam discussed in Sec. 56.
PROBLEM
Calculate the stresses in a circular pipe of thickness I, fixed at one end and subjected
to bending by an end load W, and show that the following approximate f()rmulas are
valid:
230 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OJ' EW,STICI'l'Y
-W(l - .):10
"'.. - -rr_:'
(T .. )...,. _1!.,
rrtl.
W
(T..) .... '" 2r1'tI.'
In the course of the solution of the general flexure problem in Sec. 53,
it was found convenient to phrase it not as a boundary-value problem
for the determination of the function F(x, y) but rather in terms of the
torsion function '/) and the flexure functions '/)1, '/)2 or '/)u, '/)12, '/)21, l"22.
In this section, the flexure problem will be stated in terms of a new stress
function T(x, y), which will be seen to be of value in certain problems.
We introduce the stress function T(x, y) by defining
(60.1) T(x, y) "" F(x, y) - f R(x) dx - f S(y) dy.
The functions R(x) and S(y) may be so chosen as to yield either a simple
boundary condition or a simple differential equation for T(x, y). The
stresses can be written in terms of T(x, y), with the aid of (52.7), as
aT 1
To. = ay + 8(y) - '2 EKeX 2,
(60.2)
aT 1
T .. = - ax - R(x) - 2 EK.y·,
while (52.8) yields the following differential equation for T(x, y):
(60.3) V2T(x, y) == -2puK~ - d~x) + 2puKsY _ d~~) - 2,..a.
(60.4) aT dy
aydB
+ aT dz
aXd8
$!I Ij£ =
dB
[i2 EKeX2 _ B(Y)] dy
ds
(60.8) 8(1/) = W~ X2 on 0,
21.
except that 8(y) may take any boundary value along a portion of the
contour where ~! is zero. The stresses are .given by
_ aT
r•• - ay
+ 8()
y -
W.
21. x ,
2
(60.9)
aT
r .. = - ax·
The position of the center of flexure can be found in terms of the func-
tion T(x, y) by applying the definition given in Eq. (53.1) and using
Eqs. (60.2). We have
= 2 ff T(x, y) dxdy
where Green's Theorem was used in the last step. A reference to ~he
boundary conditions (60.4) shows that this can be written as
a'
x2 = bi (b 2 - y2),
one can, evidently, choose
S(y) = 21:
Wa' 2
bi (b - y2).
From Eq. (60.7) it is seen that the function T(x, y) is subject to the
conditions
"21'(
v
Wz ( 1 +
x, y ) -_ T. u u + abi2) y I• nR,
x' y2
T(x, y) = G I>n Q2 + b2 - 1 = G.
T(x, y) =
a 2[(1
2(1
+ u)a 2 + ub 2J W.
+ u)(3a' + b2) T. y
(x.Q2 + b2 -
y2 )
1 .
The stresses 1'"., 1'". can now be found from Eqs. (60.9). This method of
solution should be compared with that applied in Sec. 56 to the oame
problem.
The stress function T(x, y) will now be used to solve a special ease' of
the flexure problem for a beam whose cross section is an equilateral
triangle (Fig. 46).
The boundary of the triangular section can be written as
(y - a) x ( + 2a+Y)(
y'3 V'3 Y
2a+ ) = 0, x -
1 The flexure function for a beam with an arbitrary triangular cross section is not
known. Some special triangUlar cross sections have been considered by B. R. Seth,
Prt)Cfledings of the London Mathematical Society, ser. 2, vol. 41 (1936), pp. 323-331.
234 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
where the origin has been taken at the centroid of the section. Along the
side y == a we have 2 == 0, and hence no condition is imposed on the
boundary values of the function B(y) ruonlt this side, whereas we require
that
B(y) = W. x, = W. (2a + y)~ on x = ± 2a + y.
21. 21. 3 va
Therefore we tako.
B(y) == ::;: (2a + y)2,
and from (60.7) it follows that
W. [2(<1 - .J1)
2
V T(x, y) = T. 3(<1 + 1) y - 32a] ,
where we have set a = 0 and are, accordingly, solving the problem of pure
flexure by a load applied at the center of flexure.
%
FIG. 46
The differential equation and boundary conditions on T(x, y) can be
readily satisfied when Poisson's ratio takes a particular value, namely,
<1 == .J1, which corresponds to incompressible materials. In this case, we
have '
V 2 T(x, y) = - ~ ~. a in R,
We try
T(x, y) = 0 on t!.: aU (2a + y)!.
T(x, y) 0= k[x 2 - U(2a + y)2J(y - a)
and find that the stress function is given by
I. = 3.y3 a'
2
ddM
8
= [J1.(1 + rr)K.x' - J1.rrKrl/'
.
+ J1.OiV] dt!!l8
- [J1.(1 + rr)K.y' - J1.rrK.x 2 - J1.OiX) :: on C.
The stPesseS 1',.,1',. can be written from Eqs. (60.2) and (60.13) as
aM
T •• = Ty + Jl.K.[cry' - (1 + cr)x'] - I'ay,
T •• =
aM
By + 21. w.(1 + cr •
cr y - x
.)
- I'ay,
aM
1',. = - ax + I'ax,
while M(x, y) is subject to the condition
One can interpret the determination of the harmonic function M(x, y),
subject to the condition (60.15) or (60.16) on C, in terms of a membrane
analogy, as was done in connection with the torsion problem in Sec. 46.
Thus, the solution of the flexure problem by means of the membrane func-
tion M(x, y) is mathematically identical with the determination of the
deflection of an unloaded elastic membrane stretched across a closed space
curve whose projection on the xv-plane is the contour C and whose
variable height above the plane is given by the boundary values of
M(x, y) [(60.15) or (60.16»). This analogy, for the case in which the
boundary values are given by Eq. (60.16), has been used by Griffith and
Taylor,l among others, to obtain experimental solutions of the flexure
problem for beams whose cross sections are such that the problem does
not yield readily to mathematical treatment. N emenyi2 has derived both
M(x, y) and another flexure function Fl(x, y) as special cases of a more
1 A. A. Griffith and G. 1. Taylor, National AdvUory Committee on Aeronautic.
:( X
FIG. 47
section. If we define the conjugate membrane function L(x, y) so -that
L + iM is analytic in R, then we can write
L + iM = I'a(rp + i1{l) + I'K.('PI + i1{l,) + I'K.(rp2 + i1/t.).
Equations (53.5) now furnish the following relation between the complex
membrane function L + iM, on the one hand, and the torsion function
'P + i1{l and the canonical flexure functions CPll + i1{ll1, . • . ,on the other
hand:
L + iM = I'a(rp + i1{l) + I'K.{(1 + O')(cpll + i1{lll) - O'(rp12 + i1{lI2)]
+ "K.[(1 + 0') (CP.2 + i1{l22) + O'(CPn + i1{l21)J.
61. Flexure of Semicircular Beams. As a further illustration of the
usefulness of the function T(x, y), introduced in Sec. 50, we outline a
solution of the flexure problem for the semicircular beam, shown in Fig.
47. If the load (Wz, 0, 0) is applied at an arbitrary point Oo(xo, Yo, l) of
the end section and the origin of coordinates 0 is chosen at the centmid
of the fixed end, the function T(x, y) satisfies Eq. (60.7) in the semicircle
and vanishes on its boundary. To obtain a more convenient form for
the equation of the boundary, we introduce new coordinates x', y' defined
238 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EL.~STICITY
by
(61.1)
where tl = 4a/31T is the distance of the centroid 0 from the point 0' on
the diameter of the semicircle of radius a.
Making this change of variables in Eq. (60.7), we get
(612)
. V2T(")
x ,y = 1 + T.
(fW. (y' -
11 y-) + T.
WE y I
- 2 1'0<,
where we take S(y) in accordance with (60.8), and note th~t along the
circular part of the boundary x" = a2 - V"~, and along the diameter
dy'jd8 = O. The corresponding boundary conditions are:
T=O on y' = 0,
(61.3) { T=O on y' = va 2 - X
/2
•
and, on setting y' = r cos (J and x' = r sin (J, we easily find that
(61.5) B= - !4 (W.
I. 1 +
_(f_
(f
tl + 21'0<)
and I. = 1Ta 4 /8.
Thus the general solution of (61.2) can be written as
e
T(r, ±~) = 0,
(61.7)
T{a,8) = 0,
Al = - 16a B - a 2 A
37r '
(61.9)
a- 2' H I6a 2( -1)-B
A'''+l = ".(2m + 1)(2m + 1)2 - 4)'
m= 1,2, ....
Accordingly, the solution of our problem is given by the unif()rmly and
absolutely convergent series
(61.10) T(r, 8) = A r 3 cos 9 + Br (1 + cos 29)
2
L
~
+ A.n+lr' n+ 1
cos (2n + 1)8.
n=O
The center of flexure obviously lies on the y-axis, and, by using (60.11),
it ('an be shown that'
y:,= 15(18:1T)1([3+1T(~~-1)l
Leibenson' used a similar method to obtain an approximate solution
of the flexure problem for a semicircular tube of small thicknefls.
The flexure problem for a cylindrical beam whose cross section is a
segment of the circle was solved in bipolar coordinates with the aid of
Fourier integrals by Uflyand. 3
62. Multiply Connected Domains. Deformation of NonhoDiogeneous
Beams with Free Sides. Other Developments. Although the mathe-
matical formulation of the flexure problem for beams with multiply
connected cross sections is quite straightforward, an explicit determina-
1 In obtaining this result we have noted that
e
\' I 1 a".s
1.. (2m + 1)2(2m - 1)2(2111 .~ ai - 8 - 128'
m-a
• L. S. Leibenaon, A Course in the Theory of Elasticity (1947), pp. ~8-305 (in
Russian).
• Ya. 8. Ullyand, Doklady Akademiya Nod SSSR, vol. 69 (1949), PI'. 751-754,
See also an interesting monograph by this author entitled Bipolar Coordinates in the
Theory of Elasticity (1950) (in Russian), which contains a solution of the flexure
probkm for a cylinder with the lens-shaped CI'OI18 seetiOl. rormed by two circular axes.
A special case of this, when the section is a segment of the cirek, is treated 011 pp. 50-59.
240 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTIOl'I'Y
FIG. 48
the cross section bounded by the exterior contour Co and several interior
contours Ck (k = 1, 2, . . . , m), shown in Fig. 48. The regions R.
(k = 1, 2, . . . , m), enclosed by the C., are filled with materials whose
1 The general flexure problem for a hollow beam bounded by two eccentric circles
was solved by A. C. Stevenson, Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, vol. 50
(1949), pp. 536-549, and R. Capildeo, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society, vol. 49, Part II (1953), pp. 308-318. Capildeo also discUBBeB the flexure
problem for °a beam with Cl"Ol!8 section bounded by two confoea.l1ima90ns.
• N. I. Muskhelishvili, "Sur Ie probleme de torsion des poutres tllastiques compost!es,
C_pta rmm hebdomadaires de. seances de /' acadhnie des 8ciencos, Paria, vol. 194
(1932), p. 1435; "On the Problem of Torsion and Flexure of Elastic Beams Composed
of Different Materia.ls," Iz_tiya Akademiya Nauk SSSR (1932), pp. 907-945 (in
Russian). See &Iso Chaps. 22-25 in MuskheIishvili's monograph Some &sic Problems
of the Mathematiea.i Theory of Elasticity (1953), 'pp. 56HI55.
I. N. Vekua and A. K. Rukhadze, "Torsion Problem for a Circular Cylinder Rein-
forced by a Longitudinal Circular Rod," I_stiya Akademiya Nauk 8SSR (1933),
pp. 1291-1308; "On the Problem of Bending of Elastic Beams Composed of Different
Materials," &obaIIcheniya Akademii Nauk Gnmnskol SSR. vol. 1 (1940), pp. 107-114.
See &Iso A. I. Usdalev ... Bending of an Anisotropic Two-layered Cylinder by a Trans-
_ Foree," [nsheMrnyi Sbarnik. vol. 15 (19113), pp' 35-42. and I. V. Suharevskil,
"On ths Problem of Torsion of a Composite Multiconneeted Bar," l~
B60mik. vol. l ' (111M). pp. 101-124. These papel'8 ate in it'11lIIIian.
EXTENSION, TOBBION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 241
elastic properties differ from those of the surrounding medium in the
region R o•
lf the components of such a beam are glued or welded so that in the
course of deformation there is no separation of material along the con-
u,
tours Ck, the displacements and the internal stresses Ti
= 'r1;P; will be
continuous across the contours C.. Accordingly, the boundary conditions
on the C. can be formulated as follows:
441-444, 765-i67.
A. I. Lourie, Prikl. Mat. Mekh., Akademiya Nauk SSSR, New Series, vol. :.I (1938),
pp.55-68.
A. 1. Lourie and G. Dzhanelidze, Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, New Series, vol. 24
(1939), pp. 24-27, 227-228; vol. 25 (1939), pp. 577-579; vol. 27 (1940), pp. 436-439.
A. Gorgidze and A. Rukhadze, Soobshcheniya Akademii Nauk Gruzinskol SSR,
vol. 5 (1944), pp. 253-21.'2.
A. K. Rukhadze, Soob8hcheniya Akademii Nauk Gruzinskol SSR, vol. 5 (1944),
pp. 483-492; Prikl. Mat. Mekh., Akademiya Nauk SSSR, vol. 11 (1947), pp. 533-542.
This paper contains an explicit solution of the flexure problem for an elliptical rod
with a small initial twist.
All these paIWrs are in Russian.
'D. Y. Panov, "Concerning the Torsion of Nearly Prismatic Rods," Prikl. Mal.
Meleh., Aleademiya Nauk SSSR, New Series, vol. 2 (1938), pp. 159-180; Dolelady
Aleademii Naule SSSR, New Series, vol. 20 (1938), pp. 251-253.
A K. Rukhadze, "The Problem of Bending Nearly Prismatic Beams," Soobshchenilla
Akademii Nault Gnmmleoi SSR, vol. 1 (1940), pp. 577-582; Prikl. Mal. Mek".,
Aleademiya Nauk SSSR, vol. 6 (1942), pp. 123-138.
Ail these are in Russian.
• P. Riz, Dokladll Akademii Naule SSSR, New Series, vol. 24 (1939), pp. 110-113,
229-232 (in Russian) .
.A. K. Rukhadze, Boobsheh."iyu Akademii Nauk GruzifIBkoi SSE, vol. 2 (1941), pp•
.3&-42 (in Russian).
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 243
c. Btnmdary conditiona'
7'11"1 + 7'U"2 = T 1(x" X2),
7'21"1 + 7'.'''' = T.(x" Xii),
7'11'" + 7'''''' = T 3(x" X.), on the lateral surface.
This problem was first considered by Almansi and Michell,' who demon-
strated in effect that it is possible to reduce it to the determination of
two stress functions, one of which is harmonic and the other biharmonic.
Some broad clasBes of boundary-value problems in the biharmonic equa-
tion are discussed in Chap. 5, but, as an introouction to them, we con-
sider in the following section the problem of torsion of a long cylinder
by tractions suitably distributed over its surface.
64. Torsion of a Cylinder by Forces on the Lateral Surface. Let a
cylinder with an arbitrary cross section R be twisted by tractions T
applied to the lateral surface. We suppose that the cylinder is of length
1 and that one of its ends is fixed in the plane XJ = 0, while the end
x, = 1 is free. The surface tractions T, assumed independent of the
xrCoordinate, are directed parallel to the x,x.-plane and proouce a twist-
ing moment in the cross section Xa = const. We take the magnitude of
this moment to be Ml, so that M is the torque per unit length of the
, If the system of stresses T, is not self-<lquilibrating, it is necessary to apply a suit-
able distribution of forces on one of the ends of the cylinder in order to maintain the
cylinder 88 a whole in equilibrium. This can be done by supposing that the end
$0 ... 0 is fixed and the other end is free.
t E. AIma.nsi, Nota II, Alti della Accademia naziOMle lUi Lin~ Rmciieomi, Rome,
aer. 5, voL 10 (1901).
ei_ J. H. MicheD, Qwrterlll Journal of M~, vol. 32 (1901). Almansi also con-
the _ when the external stresses T. are polynomials in z.. A summary of
these eontn'butions is contained in Love's Treatise (1921), Sees. 239-241. The eorre-
IIJIOndiDc problem for compound beams when PoiBm'll ratios are identical thtoughout
the .en. section, but Young's moduli are diff_t for each component of the beam,
WM treated by O. M. Hatiasi:tvili, SoobBheAeniva Akademii Nault ~ 88R.
vOl. 13 (1902), pJ). 335--341; vol. 14 (1953), pp. 197-204 (in RU8I!ian).
EXTENSION, TORSION, AND FLEXURE OF BEAMS 245
cylinder. Thus,
T. - 0, Ie T(xI, x.) d8 - 0,
II
R
1'13 du = H
'J
1'., du = II
R
1"3 du = 0,
(64.2) II
R
(XIT32 - X2T 31) du = MI,
II
R
XIT,. du = II
R
X.T'3 du = O.
The conditions in the first line in (64.2) demand that the resultant force
vanish on the end x, = 0, the second line states that the twisting moment
in the section X3 = 0 is MI, and the last line requires that there be no
bending by couples.
The conditions on the lateral surface of the cylinder, clearly, are
One can argue on the basis of Saint-Venant's principle that the solu-
tions of the original and relaxed problems can differ significantly only
near the end $, .. l of the cylinder.!
The fact that the forces assigned on the lateral surface produce torsion
of the cylinder suggests that the expressions for the Tlj in the relaxed
problem have, in part, an appearance similar to the stresses in Saint-
Venant's torsion problem. Taking cognizance of the linear variation of
the twisting moment along the length of the beam, it is reasonable to
consider [cf. Eqs. (34.4)] the shearing stresses in the form
(64.6)
rW = pa(l - X3)(cp .• XI), +
{ TlV = pa(/ - X3)("".1 - xo).
If we now make use of the equilibrium and Beltrami's equations and
take
TW = -2pOl(p,
Til> = T~V. = ,.,.0:<;,
Ti\' = %pa(xi - xi),
we find that cp satisfies Laplace's equation, and the stress system Tl}' is
an admissible system. Inserting from (64.6) in the third of the boundary
conditions (64.3) yields
d""
dv = XOVI - XIV., on C,
1'12
a
=
V,l! + ~ (xl - xV,
T}3
(64.9) -;; = /J(l - X')('P,l - x.),
1'23
-;; = /J(l - x')('P,. + x,),
1'83
a
= -2/J'P - uV'U + A + BXl + Cx •.
If we now insert from (64.9) in the first two boundary conditions (64.3)
'1' reIa t'lons
an d rec all t he f amllar P, =
dx,
ds' P2 = - dx, . fin d
da' we easlly
1
= To/a - /J'PP2 - :2 /J(xl - xnp" on C,
(64.10)
1
= Ttla - /J'PP, - :2 /J(xl - X~)V2' on C.
Thus, if the torsion function 'P is known for the region R, the values of
the derivatives U. G of V can be calculated on the contour C. The prob-
lem of determining the biharmonic function U from prescribed values of
the partial derivatives of U on the contour C is known as the fundamental
boundary-value problem in the biharmonic equation. We shall see in the
next chapter that there are effective methods for solving it.
It remains to show that the constants a, A, B, and C can be chosen in
such a way that the end conditions (64.2), (64.4), and (64.5) are fulfilled.
The fact that 1'13 = 1'2. = 0 on x. = l is obvious from (64.9). The veri-
fication that the resultant forces ffT13 dtr and ffT" dtr vanish over the
end x. = 0 is, in every detail, identical with that given in Sec. 34. The
condition g (x IT., - X2T_U) dtr = Ml yields at once the result that
M
a = D'
1 See Eqa. (69.4) and (69.5). The constant -a was introduced here for conven-
ience. It can clee.rly be absorbed in U(.,., .,.).
248 MATHEM.~TICAI, THEORY OF ELASTICITY
It follows from (66.1) and from the definitions (7.5) of the strain and
rotp,tion tensors that the non vanishing components of these tensors are
given by the formulas,
e..p = ~(u...~ + Up ...),
(66.2) { w..p = ~(u...p - u, ...),
• Some writeM define t])e .we « plane atrain by requiring that v, - conat and VI
and 'lit 1M! the ~« '!;tand "'••
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTATIC PROBLEMS 251
we get
(66.3) TafJ = AIH«~ + P,(ua.~ + u~.«),
(66.4) Tn = Ar'J, TI3 = T •• = 0,
\
= a(Tl1 + T••),
since a = A/[2(" + p,») by (23.3).
It is clear that the deformation and stresses of a body in t;he state of
plane strain are completely determined by the five functiontl Ta~(Xl, x.)
and Ua(Xl, x.). We consider next the physical circumstances giving rise
to the state of plane strain.
From ectuilibrium ectuations
[15.3)
we conclude that the components F I and F 2 of the body fotOO must be
independent of x, inasmuch as the Tij do not depend on x.. Also, Fa "" 0,
since Ta". = -Fa and Tn is not a function of x.. Assuming that these
conditions are fulfilled by the body force Fi , we have, for the determina-
t.ion of the five quantities Ta~, U a , a pair of equilibrium equations
(66.6)
and three equations (66.3), The substitution from (66.3) in (66.6) yields
the appropriate Navier equations:
(66.7)
where
82 8"
V' ""_
<lxfax~
+-.
Since the deformation of a body in the state of plane strain is iJldependent
of the zrCOOrmnate, we need consider only the def~tion of any section
of the body by a plane norrruU to the xraxis. Equation (66.7) then must
be satisfied in some two-dimensional felion .R of the cross seetion of the
body formed by the piane x; = const. If the displacements # ...of points
on the boundary C '0{ Jl are speeified, we have a two-dimensional analog
252 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
(66.8)
where
Now if the components T.(x" X2) of external stresses are specified along
the contour C in the form
(66.9)
where the v. are components of the exterior unit normal vector to C, the
formulation of the first boundary-value problem is complete. We seek
a solution of the system of Eqs. (66.6) and (66.8) in the region R, subject
to the conditions (66.9) on the boundary. Again, the uniqueness of solu-
tion of this system, for finite domains, follows from the considerations of
Sec. 27.
The physical situation corresponding to this problem is the following:
Consider a cylinder with plane ends and with generators parallel to the
x,-axis (Fig. 49). If the lateral surface of such a cylinder is subjected
to the action of surface tractions with components T.(x" X2), which do
not vary along the axis of the cylinder, and the component T, = 0, the
situation corresponds to the mathematical problem just considered, pro-
vided the tractions T .(x" X2) maintain the cylinder in equilibrium. If
the body forces F. are present,' we must further suppose that the com-
ponents F. are independent of the x..-coordinate and that F, "" O.
The state of stress in the cylinder, in this case, is determined by the
I Only such domains have been considered in Sec. 27. To ensure uniqueness in an
infinite domain, it Ia necessary to impose certain restrictions on the behavior of dis-
placements (or stresses) at infinity. These arise from the requirement that the
integrals in the transformation theorems used in Sec. 'J:l have a meaning. Sec See. 74.
• We omit calculations which are entirely similar to thOse performed in Sec. 24 for
.the. three-dimensional case. Since u. - U and the u.. are independent of z., the set
of six Saint-Venant's compatibility equations (10.10) reduces to one nontrivial equa-
tion '110ft + est.ll - 2e tt•l1.
• Of co_, the external forces T. al)d F. must be assigned in such a way that the
resultant force and the resultant mom!!'!" acting on the eyljnder as II whole VIIBiIh.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTATlC PROBLEMS 253
solution of th!! syst!!m of Eqs. (66.7) to (66.9). From Eq. (66.5)
follows that the ends of the cylinder are subjected to the action of the
l'
longitudinal force with the resultant
If
R
T •• dx. dx~
The distribution of stress Taa "" U(TU + Tn) over the ends of the cylinder
may also produce a bending couple whose moment lies in the planes of
the ends. Indeed, the longitudinal stresses Tn are necessary to maintain
the cylinder in the state of plane deformation; without their presence
the displacement u. will not, in general, vanish. If, however, in the
given physical problem the ends of the cylinder are free, the desired solu-
tion can be got by superposing, on the Ilolution of the plane problem just.
FIG. 49
considered, the solution of an auxiliary problem. This auxiliary prob-
lem concerns the deformation of a cylinder with free lateral surface by
the end loads equal and opposite to those given by equation (66.5). If
the cylinder is long, the auxiliary problem is in the category of simple
Saint-Veuant's problems' fully considered in Chap. 4. After superpos-
ing the solution of an auxiliary problem on the solution of the plane-
deformation problem, the resulting deformation will not, in general, be
plane.
67. Plane Stress. Generalized Plane Stress. A body is in the stare
of plane 8tres8 parallel to the x.x.-plane when the st.ress components T.,
TU, Ta. vanish.
If we wrire the stress-strain relations (22.3) in the form
(67.1) T'j = MO,j + ",(u..j + Uj ••), iJ = 11,•••
foroea and the problem of pure bending. These, as we 8&W in Sec•. 30 and 32, are
quite elementary problems.
254 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OP ELAS'l'tCITY
Substituting this ill (67.1) jields the following expressions for the IlOJl~
vanishing components 'Tall:
'TIl = >..
2>""
+ 2" (11,1.1 + 11,2,,) + 2,,11,1,1,
(67.3)
'T'2 = >.. 2>""
+ 2" (11,1" + 11,.,,) + 2"11,,,2,
TU = ,,(11,1,2 + 11,.,1).
If these expressions are inserted in the equilibrium equations
(67.4) 'T:aII,P + F. = 0,
one obtains a pair of differential equations for the 11,., namely,
2>"p. ) 0"1 2_
(67.5) ( >.. + 2" +" ox. + "V u. - 1 -Fa,
FIG. 50
upon integration with respect tGXI between the limits -It and +1&, yield
(67.9) 1
2ii fA~Io (T.. l.1 + 1'... 1 + 1'01.1 + F ..) dxa = u.
Since
from which the average displacements 11.. can be determined when the
values of the 11.. are specified on the contour.
The system of equations involving the average stresses 1'..~ can be got
by deducing the corresponding Beltrami-Michell compatibility equations.
It turns out to bel
(67.14)
where 9 1 = 1'11 + Ttt.
This equation, together with the equilibrium equations (67.10), suffices
to determine the mean stresses 1'«# when the boundary conditions on the
edge are given in the form,
For integrating these equations with respect to X3 between the limits -It
I Compare with Eq. (66.8).
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTATIC PROBLEMS 257
and +h and dividing by 2h yields,
(67.15) nnC,
where '/'",(8) dB are the components of applied force acting OJ{ the element
of.arc dB of the contour C.
The two-dimensional boundary-value problem consisting I)f the lIystem
of Eqs. (67.10), (67.14), and (67.15) is known as the problem in generalized
plane stress. 1
68. Plane Elastostatic Problems. The discussion of the plane-defor-
mation problem in Sec. 66, and of the generalized plane-strell!s problem in
Sec. 67, shows that their mathematical formulations are idtlntical. The
relevant differential equations and %2
boundary conditions in Sec. 67 differ
from those in Sec. 66 only in the
appearance of the barred symbols:
iz"" T",~, X, '/'a, etc. Henceforth we
shall refer to problems of these two
"
types as plane elastostatic problems.
In the formulation of these plane
problems no restrictions on the con-
nectivity of the region R was intro-
duced. If the region R is multiply
connected and finite, we shall sup-
pose that its boundary C consists of FIG. 51
m + 1 simple closed contours Co, such that the exterior cont<lUf Cm +1 con-
tains within it m contours C; (Fig. 51). We shall BUPP()8e that the
contours C" with the possible exception of a finite number 4f points, are
smooth. This means that a smooth contour C. can be represented
parametrically by equations of the form Xa = X,,(8), where the functions
X,,(8) have continuous derivatives that do not vanish for th() same value
of the are parameter 8. We shan agree that the positive direction of
description of the contours is such that the region R remain.s on the left
in the course of tracing the contour Co. The positive direlltion for the
tangent vector t along C; is that of the positive direction of description
of C; and the positive unit normal y at any point of the contOln is directed
outward relative to the region R.
In the boundary conditions,
on C,
(68.1)
on C,
I This terminology was introduced by A. E. H. Love, but such 8ta~ of stress were
first investigated by Filon in the study of bending of a beam with rect~lar cross sec-
tion. See L. N. G. Filon, Philo8ophical Transactions of the Royal SociUII (London) (A),
vol. 201 (1903), pp. 63-155.
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
2X + IJ. !( + X22) u~
(01 "" -
T,.~ 4(X + 2p,) pul
2
X,
• -
2(X +
P, 2
2/,) pw XaX~,
(68.3)
I
. U~I = - 8(X
pul2
+ 2/,) (xi + X~)Xa.
Clearly, the boundary conditions (68.1), upon setting
Ta~ = T~DJ + T~1J,
u« = U~D) + U~l),
will yield new boundary conditions, associated with the homogeneous
equations. They wia be in the form:
•
o
FIG. 52
(69.7)
v, = cos (x" v) = cos (X2, s) = :2,
V2 = cos (Xt, v) =- COS (Xl, 8) = _ :"
. so that (69.6) can be written in the form
I d
~ (U. 2) = T,(s),
(69.8)
I - ds (U. I ) = T.(s).
(69.9)
U.1(s) = ~ I.: T.(s) ds == /,(s) + CI,
.
( U .(8) = J... T,(s) ds == "(s) + Ct.
It is clear from (69.9) that the derivatives of U along C are not deter-
mined uniquely. Moreover, if the region is multiply connected, the
TWO-DIMlilNSIONAL ELASTOSTATIC PROB)"lIlMS 261
integration has to be performed over each contour C. forming the bound-
ary of R and the resulting functions /,.(B) need not be single-v&lued. Some
degree of arbitrariness in the choice of U and its derivatIves is to be
expected, however, inasmuch as the stresses rail are determined by the
second derivatives of U.
We see that the boundary-value problem characterized by the system
of Eqs. (69.1), (69.2), (69.3) is intimately related to the boundary-value
problem of the type:
(69.10)
V'U = 0 in R,
{ U.", = 1",(8) on C,
wherein the 1",(8) are certain known functions. The problem (69.10) was
the subject of numerous investigations that have led to developments of
cardinal importance in the theory of differential and integr&l equations,
in the calculus of variations, and in several other branches of analysis. 1
It is known as the fundamental biharmonic boundary-value problem.
This problem can be phrased in a somewhat different form, by observing
that the knowledge of the U. a (8) on C permits one to compute the value
of U(8) and of its normal derivative ~~ on C.
Indeed
and since
dU = U. a dx a = la dx""
U(s) = f f", ~a ds "" f(8) + const.
Conversely, if U and ~~ are known on C, we can compute the U,.. (s).
Accordingly, the problem (69.10) can be written in an equivalent form,
V'U = 0 in R,
(69.11) U = f(8) + const }
dU on C,
dv = g(s)
21' V'V.
V'U =->'+21'
.Is independent of the path joining an arbitrary point M ,(x!., x:), with the point M (X"
z.), II»' PI is harmonie. 'It follows that P.(Xl, x,) is determined to within an arbitrary
constant C and, hence, F(z) .. P. + iP to within a pure imaginary constant Ci. If
the region R is simply connected, P,(x., " x.), and hence F(z), is single-valued. In a
multiplY connected region, F(z) is, in general, multipll'-valued, and we can confine our
attention to some single-valued branch of F(z). The same considerations apply' to
.,('1") ... ~~ JF(z) liz.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELAST08TATIC PROBLEMS 263
harmonic function p.. The function fO(Z), defined by
(70.2) fO(Z) "" )4fF(z) dz
= PI + ip.,
is surely analytic, and therefore
'( ) op.
fOZ=- - = -1 (P • + t'P)
+ l.op. •.
ox. ox. 4
U . = aU at + au ~
.• a. ilx, iI' ax,
where 6 - Z, + iz. and if = z, - iz•.
• These useful formulas were deduced finlt by G. V. Kolossoft in references given in
Sec. 65. The derivation sketched above is due to N, I. Muskhelishvili. See, for
example, See. 32 of his hook Some Basic Problems «f the Mathematical Theory of
FJasHcity (1953).
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELAST08TATIC PROBLEIIS 265
in Sec. 70, we obta.i.n
2(X + 2,,)
2"''''-1 = - U. ll + X +" Pl.l,
2(X + 2,,)
2"u.,! = - U. 22 + X +" P.,10
The integration of these equations yields,
2(X + 2,,)
- U. 1+ X +" PI + f(x,) ,
(71.6)
2(X + 2,,)
-U. 2 + X +" Pi + g(Xl),
where f(x.) and g(Xl) are, as yet, arbitrary functions. The third of Eqs.
(71.5) serves to determine! and g. Since P,.' = -Pt." we easily find that
f'(x,) + g'(x,) = 0,
and hence
!(x,) = ax, + fl,
g(x,) = -ax, + 'Y,
where a, p, and'Y are constants. The forms of! and g indicate that they
represent a rigid displacement and can thus be disregarded in the ana.lysis
of deformation.
If we set! = g = 0 in (71.6), recall that <p = p, + iP2, and make use
of (71.2), we easily deduce the compact formula
(71. 7)
where
(71.8)
0-being the Poisson ratio.
The formula (71.8) for" is that corresponding to the state of pla.ne
strain. In the generalized plane-stress problems, X must be replaced
by ;; = (2X,,)/(X + 2,,), and if the corresponding value of " in (71.7) is
denoted by X, we find
_ X + 3" 5X + 6" 3 - 0-
X +" = 3X + 211- = 1 +
= ;; 0-'
",'(z) - L'"
k-I
A. log (z - Ir.) + fez),
where f~) is single-valued and analytic in R. The integration then yield!
m ..
(a) ,,(z) - L
t-I
A,z log (z - zo) +
k-I
L B. log (z - '.) + ".(z),
268 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
f I(z) dz - i
k-l
B. log (z - z.) + 9'.(z),
where ".(z) is an&1ytic and single-valued in R. It is clear from (a) that 9'''(z) is a sin-
gle-valued function, and since the left-hand members of {71.4) are single-valued, it
follows that >f'(z) is &180 single-valued. Therefore
L
".
where >f.(z) is analytic and single-valued in R. If we further suppose that the dis-
placements u" are single-valued functions in R, then the increment acquired by
21'(ft, + iu.) in describing the contour C. is zero. Using this condition in (71.7),
with 9' and >f in the forms (a) and (b), we find
(72.7) .
!/t(z) = 2".(1 ~ x) L
k-l
(Xlk) - iX~k) log (z - z.) + ..yo(z),
where (Xik\ X~·) is the resultant vector of external forces applied to the
z.
contour C. and is an arbitrary point in the simply connected region R.
bounded by C.. The functions 'Po(z) and !/to(z) are single-valued analytic
functions in R.
If R is an infinite region, bounded by several simple closed contours'
C. (k = 1, 2, . . . , m), and if the stress components T'j are bounded in
the neighborhood of the point at infinity, then' it is not difficult to prove
that for sufficiently large Izl,
, The region R in this case can be thought to be obtained from the region R of
Fig. 51, by making the contour Cm +, expand to infinity. It corresponds to an infinite
plate with m holes bounded by the C ..
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTATIC PROBLEMS 269
Xl + iX, .
'P(Z = - 211"(1 + ,,) log z + (B + 1.C)Z + rpo(z),
(72.8) I) K(XI - iX t ) .
t/t(z ) = 211"(1 + x) log z + (B' + zC')z + t/to(z),
provided the origin of coordinates is taken outside R, that is, within one
of the contours Ck. The Xl and X. are the components of the resultant
vector of all external forces acting on the boundary C l + ... + Cm, so
that
m
Xl + iX. = L
k-l
(X\k) + iX~'»;
I"c(z) and fc(z) are single-valued analytic functions in R including the
point at infinity.! The constants B, B', C' are related to the state of
stress at infinity as follows:
(72.9) 2B - B' = TU( <Xl), 2B + B' = T'2( <Xl), TU( <Xl) = C',
where Ta~( <Xl) represents the limiting value of Ta~(X) as the point x recedes
to infinity. The constant C has no effect on the state of stress and is
related to the rigid rotation", "" lim H(U2.1 - u, .•) at infinity by the
1-1--
formula
2"
C = 1 + K""
In the analysis of stress C can always be set equal to zero.
It is worth noting that the requirement for the Tap to be bounded a"
infinity does not imply that the displacements U a remain bounded. If
the displacements are to be bounded at infinity, then' TaP( <Xl) = 0,
Xl + iX. = 0, and C = 0. .
If R is an infinite region bounded by a single contour C, the representa-
tion (72.8) is valid throughout the region.
73. First and Second Boundary-value Problems in Plane Elasticity.
We are now in a position to show that the fundamental boundary-value
problems in plane elasticity can be reduced to the determination of rp(z)
and t/t(z) from prescribed values of certain combinations of these functions
on the boundary of the region.
1 This means that, for Bufficiently large Izl, ".(z) and >/I.(z) can be represented in the
L-~.
forms
..
".(.) -,,-0" ~,
L., .'
>/I.(z) =
.. -0
We begin with the first boundary-value problem in which the T«6 must
be such that
T«6J1~ = T .(8),
1 The first boundary-value problem, as was shown in Sec. 69, is equivalent to the
(74.3) as p~ «J,
For, in this case, the integrand Taua is at least of the order lip', and hence
the integral tends to zero as p becomes infinite.
76. The Role of Conformal Representation in Plane Problems of
Elasticity. We have indicated in the preceding chapter how effectively
conformal mapping can be used in solving the Dirichlet problem for
simply connected domains. Techniques, similar to those used in calcu-
lating the complex torsion and flexure functions, can be applied to the
boundary-value problems in plane elasticity. We suppose that the given
region R (finite or infinite) is simply connected and map it conformally
on the unit circle Irl :$ 1 by the analytic function
(75.1) III = w(r).
If the correspondence of points specified by (75.1) is one-to-one, then,
as noted in Sec. 43, w'(!") does not vanish at any point of the region. To
ensure the nonvanishing of w'(r) throughout the closed region Irl :$ 1, it
suffices to assume that the boundary C of R has continuously changing
curvature. t We shall suppose that such is the case. Then, if the region
R is finite and the origin III == 0 is taken in the interior, we can represent
(75.1) in the power series
.
(75.2) Z ... ",(l") =
.. -1
l s",
k .. lsI :$ 1,
where F(") and G(") are uniquely determined by (75.1) on the boundary
'Yof the unit circle from known values, I, + i/2 + const and 21'(U' + ig2),
specified' in the contour C of R.
The structure of the left-hand members in (75.7) and (75.8) suggests
that we impose on Fl(.r), F:<r), and .pdi) the requirement of continuity
in the closed region Jil ~ 1. Moreover, if the domain is bounded, I"I(r)
1 Occasionally it proves oonvenient to map an infinite region R on'the region 1.1 <:: 1
and make the point at infinity in the z-plane correspond to the point • - .. . The
appropriate mapping function is obtained then from (75.3) by repla.cing • by llr.
• We 8UppnBe that the value of the integration conatant in (73.2) is fixed in some
definite way, aay, by setting it equal to zero. This can be done by utilizing the avail-
able freedom in the choice of fez). The transform of !t(8) + il.(8), which we denoted
by F("}, is then a known function 1.(6) + il.(") of the angular variable" in the
.-plane. The functional forme of 1M) + if.(") will, in general, differ from /t(.)
+ i/.(s), but the values of these functions at the corresponding pointe on ')' and (J are
the_.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTATIC PROBLEMS 275
and ",(!) are analytic in the region Irl < 1. In the first boundary-value
problem for such domains, we are free to assign arbitrary values to ,,(0)
and to 11[,,'(O)J. Hence ' the values of "1(0) and s["i(O)/w'(O)J can be
specified arbitrarily.
In the second boundary-value problem we can assign the value to
either ,,(z) or ,,(z) at some point of R, and in the sequel we shall choose
to assign an arbitrary vah"" to ",(r) at some point r = ro of the trans-
formed region.
If R. is a bounded region, ",(r) and ",(!) have the representations
., .,
iCI(r)
/'
= I
71-0
aftr", 'her) = I
n-O
b..t", ItI ~ 1.
----:0::+-1- - - , . l : l
FIG. 54
It is not difficult to express e-i« in terms of the mapping function z ... (aI(l).
For, if df represents a displacement of .I == peif along the radius, the
eorresponding displacement dz in the z-plane will be along the line
iJ == const. Hence
(75.9)
. f;rm
e-> == p1",'(.1)1"
Thus, the components u., U. of the displacement vector in the z-plane
are related to the cartesian components U a by the formula
(75.10) Up
. == f;rm(
+ tu" pIw' (n I Ul +.)
tu •.
If we let Th == 1'.., 1';. = Til, 1';. == Tp~ in the formulas in the footnote
on page 271 and recall formulas (71.4), we get the useful expressions,l
and write the complex Fourier series for the known function
(76.4)
The insertion from (76.2), (76.3), and (76.4) in (76.1) yields the equation
110 00 00 GO IlO
(76.5) a l
1:=1
a.uk + l
k=-110
coer" l
k-l
kU.u-H1 +
k=O
l b.a-· =
k=~oo
l C.cr",
(76.6) aUk + l
",-1
mUmCm+k_1 = Ck, (k = 1,2, . . . ),
e
(76.7) 6. + l
",-1
ma..c.,_;-1 = C_;, (k = 0, 1, 2, ... ).
If the system of Eqs. (76.6) can be solved for the ak, the b. are deter-
mined at once from formula (76.7). In the first boundary-value problem
the system (76.6) cannot be expected to yield a unique solution if the
imaginary part of at is left unspecified, since the function ¥'t(r) is not
determined uniquely unless the value of g[¥,~(O)/c.l(O)J "" g[at/",'(O)J is
assigned. No such supplementary condition is needed for the second
boundary-value problem, inasmuch as the condition !"1(0) = 0 com-
pletely determines both lI'l(t) and ¥tIm
278 :MATHEMArlCAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
k-O
ckuk + 2:
k-1
k
C_kU- •
and since the function in the brackets is single valued, the bracketed term vanishes.
The integrs.l can be written as <ll fe [/,(8) + if,(8)] az = O. Under the transformatioll
z - ..,(f), /1(8) + if.(s) goes over into H(,,) !lEI f,(r'J) + if.(r'J), and since dz - ",'(,) d"
It follows from these formulas that, if ICkl < M/k', then the series
(76.2) define the analytic functions "",(I), ",,~(r), and ",,(I) in the region
1rl < 1, which satisfy the boundary condition (76.1). The Fourier
coefficients Ck will surely be of this order if the second derivatives of
H(rr) are of bounded variation. To ensure this, it would suffice to sup-
pose that, in the first boundary-value problem, the functions T«(s) have
first derivatives of bounded variation and, in the second problem, the
second derivatives of the displacements Ya(S) are of bounded variation.
If the domain R is infinite, the mapping function has the form (75.3),
and it follows from (72.8) that "",(r) = ",,[w(n] and ",,(r) = "'[w(l)] have
the representations,
"", ()
r = X,
2,..(1
++iX.x) log r + (B + ~'C) fc + ",,°(1),
(76.11)
",,(r) = - x~:(1-+i~2) log r + (B' + iC') f + ",O(l),
where ""O(r) and ",O(r) are analytic and single-valued for'lrl < 1.
The constants B, B', and C' are related to the stress distribution at
infinity. They are,
B = T11(OO) + T22(oo), B' _ T2.( uO) -
--~-2--'
T11 ( 00 )
C' = T12( 00 ).
4
As noted in Sec. 72, the constant C can be set equal to zero. To obtain
the boundary conditions for ""O(r) and "'O(l) in the first boundary-value
problem, we substitute from (76.11) in (76.1) and find
of the resultant foree acting on C vanish. In this case we have for the
determination of <pO (i') and fO{S) the boundary condition similar to (76.1).
If the resultant external force does not vanish, F(u) acquires an increment
i(X I +iX 2) as the point u traverses the circle Ii'I = 1 once in the counter-
clockwise direction. I But as u traverses the circle, log u acquires an
increment 211'i and thus the contribution from the second term in the
riilht-hand member of (76.13) annuls the contribution from the first
tern. It follows that FO(u) is single-valued in this case also. Thus, in
either circumstance, we have a problem of the same type as for the finite
domain.
The treatment of the second boundary-value problem for an infinite
domain v!hen the values of Xl, X 2, B" C" B', and C' are specified in
advance obviously leads to the boundary condition
PROBLEM
Show that whenever the function "(il, mapping an infinite simply connected domain
on a unit circle 1,1 - 1, has the form
n
.,(il - f + L -r..r,
i-I
then
..
and hence the system of equations for the coefficients a. in q>°(rl - L aor., from
k-l
(16.12), is:
a, + <l,c, + 2atC. + ... + (n - 2)a._tC._. = A~,
a. + a,c, + 24tC. + ... + (n - 3)4._ae._. = A~,
(16.15)
a_I + 41Cft._1
a. - A:' k ~ n - 1,
..
the A: being the Fourier coefficients in the representation, FO(,,) = l
k--.
A:"•.
and, upon setting B t .. -Ct and « ... -It in (76.9). find that
",at - 41 = B l ,
(77.7) ",a, == B" k> 1,
{
5. == - R... - (k + 2)4HI, k ~ O.
= -PRe".
Thus,
and hence all A., in the expansion (77.2), with the exception of
Al = -PR,
vanish.
The substitution of A., = -PR and Ak = 0, k ~ I, in (77.4) and
(77.5) then gives
,her) = 0,
so that
pz
<p(z) = - 2' !/I(z) = O.
UI = -UQ cos 8,
and we find
2",(g1 + ig,) ... -2I'UetT.
Hence the coefficients B t in (77.7) are:
B. == 0, k"" 1.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTATIC l'ROBLEMS 283
Thus,
all = 0, Ie;;if: 1,
and, hence,
'h(1") = O.
Using
I'(z) = 2J,1u o Z
"'(21) = 0
- x-I R'
in (77.6), we easily find that
TUO
ur=-l[' U, = O.
IO,P)
FIG. 55
In our case,
F(II) "" /1 + if, = 0,
=P,
°a<8<21<-a,
~ 8
< a,
~ 0, 2,.. - IX <8~ 211".
Hence,
A. = -
1 t2... F(O)e-ok'dO = -P f.2~-a e- ikl dB
21< 0 211' "
P k = 0,
= -;: (11" - a),
Pi(1k
=21Tk e a-e-u)
", k ,c O.
where
L L
~ ~
Since for Ixl .<::: 1, x·jk = - log (1 - x) and x' "'" 1/(1 - x),
k-l .-0
the formulas for V'1(!) and .,h(!) can be written in closed forJIlS:
pa e - I: oa i
V'l(t) = -; + Pi ( e" - e- • )
2,.. log e-ia _ I: - --2--- i: ,
where we dropped the nonessential constants that do not affect the stress
distribution.
The computation of stresses and displacements presents no serious
difficulties. 1
1 These are recorded in N. I. Muskhelishvili's Some Basic Problems of the Mathe-
matical Theory of Elasticity (l953J. pp. 327-328, where the functions '('(z) and I/t(.)
are obtained in a different way. See also TimOllhenko And Goodier, 1'beory of Elas-
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTATIC PROBLEMS 285
d. Rotating Disk. 1 If a circular disk rotates with constant angular
velocity (ol about the axis through its center, we consider the stresses in
the form
where the r~'li are given by (68.3), and the r~~ satisfy the homogeneous
equilibrium equations
r'jJ.~ = o.
If no forces are applied to the boundary of the disk, T a "" 0 and the
boundary condition in (68.4) for r~~ gives
T~lJ"8 = Ta - T~OJlI{J
=0 - (r~Ol cos e + r~oJ sin e) Ta
(l)
•
Thus,
T, + iT, = -[rIT cos e + rIO.' sin e + i(rW cos e + r~"i sin 8)].
Substituting for r~J from (68.3) and noting that, on the boundary of the
circle of radius R,
XI =. R cos 8, X, = R sin 8,
we find,
T1 + t'T" -- 2>'
4(>. + 2,,) pw 'R'"
+ 3" e' .
Hence
fI + tf 2 = .
tI j'
T t'T , + d8 = 2>'
4(X +
+ 2,,)
3" pw"R'"
e' .
It is clear from this that the problem of determining the stress distribu-
tion r~'J is identical with the uniform-pressure problem considered in (a)
2>'
a b ove, wh ele we must set P = - 4(>. + 3"
+ 2,,) pw "R"•
ticity (1951), pp. 107-111, where this problem is solved by indirect means. This
problem was originally treated by H. Hertz, Zeitschrift fur Mathematik und Physik,
vol. 28 (1883), and later by J. H. Michell, Proceedings of the London Mathematical
Society, vol. 32 (1900), pp. 35-61, vol. 34 (1902), pp. 134 142, who solved severa)
similar problems by ingenious devices. A unified and systematic trep.tment of this
category of problems was first given by G. V. Kolosoff and N. I. Muskhelishvili in
Itvestiya Petrograd Electrotechnical Institute, vol. 12 (1915), pp. 39-55 (in Russian).
1 For different solutions of this problem see Love's Treatise, Sec. 102, and Timo-
shenko and Goodier's Theory of Elasticity, Sees. 30 and 119. The problem of the
disk rotating about an axis normal to the disk at an arbitrary point of the disk was
solved by Ya. K. I1'yn, Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, vol. 67 (1949), pp. 803--806
(in Russian). A solution of the problem of rotating disk with att!).ched concentrated
m _ is outlined in Sec. 80 of Muskhelishvili's Some Ba.sic Problems of the Mathe-
matic!).l Theory of Elp-sticity (1953).
MATHEMATlCAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
(78.2)
\O,(!) = ;:.\{; : ) log r + (B + iC) + 1I'°(r), If
,p,(r) = - ",SX, - iX.) log r + (B' + iC')!!_ + ",O(r).
211'(1 + x) .I
We recall that X, + iX. is the resultant force acting on the circular
boundary and the constantl! B, B', C, C' are related to the stresses and
rotation at infinity by formulas (72.9).
We shall assume that C "" 0 and take
B "" ~4hl( 00) + TO.( 00 )],
(78.3) B' = ~2[T22( 00) - TU( 00 )],
{ c' = Ta( 00).
For the determination of the analytic functions 11'0(.1) and ",oCI) we thus
have the boundary condition
1
(78.4) 11'0(0') - -11'0'(0')
0"
+ "'0(0') = FO(O') ,
where
78. 5)
( F O() 0'- Xl +
0'= F() 211' iX, IogO'---;-
BR
and F(u) '"" f,(O) + i}2(O), determined by the specified stress distribution
on the circular boundary.
Setting
.yom =
.
Lbk5\
A-O
in (78.4) a.nd writing in the right-hand member the Fourier series repre-
sentation for the single-valued function,
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTATIC PROBLEMS 287
we obtain
l l l l
.. .. aD ..
Xl - iX. 2
+ 2... (1 + x) U- •
The comparison of like powers of u then yields:
b-2 -- A -2 _ Xl +
211'
iX.!
2
+ X, -
211'(1
iX.
+ x)'
-k
b =
A (
-k -
)-
k - 2 ak_2 -
XI +
211'
iX 12
ii' k ~ 3.
(78.8) T2=~'
2'11'R
acting on the boundary of the circle JzJ = R. The resultant force pro-
duced by the stress distribution T, + iT, is, clearly, X, + iX 2. If we
assume that the stresses at infinity vanish, FO(u) defined by (78.5)
becomes,
(78.9) F O(".) = F(U ) _ X, +
2'11'
iX, I _!_ Xl - iX,.
og U + u' 2'11'(1 + x)
But
J1 + ~n
;~ 'J'(T 'T)d 8 = + .X1 +iX 2 ..
= t I l . -l 21r v,
80 that
F()
". =
i(Xl
211'
+
iX,) r'J
!!5
X, + iX, Iog "..
211'
Inserting this in (78.~j ..-e see that the right-hand member in (78.6)
reduces to the single term
X, - iX 2 -2
F O(" ) -_ 211-(1 + x) 0' •
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTATIC PROBLEMS 289
We thus conclude that
a~ = 0, k > 0,
b
Xl + iX. k F- 2,
• = 211"(1 + x)'
and hence
""O(r) = 0, ",O(r) = X,
211"(1
++iX.x) s' .
Inserting these in (78.2), and recalling (78.1), we get
X, + iX. R
'" (z) = 211"(1 + x) log ""i'
(78.10)
.1'(2) = -x(X , - iX.) 10 ~ + X, + iX. R'.
.. 2... (1 + x) g z 211"(1 + x) z'
(78.12)
x - I X I cos (J + X. sin (J
"r" = X +1 211'1' '
x - I X I sin (J - X, cos (J
orr' = X + 1 211'1'
inasmuch as Xl + iX 2 = O. Hence,
and
Mil
<pCz) == 0, "{I(z) = 2r Z·
Making use of (77.6), we easily find,
'T". = 'TIS = 0, -M,
- 2,""2
where M = -2rTR2.
d. Uniaxial and Biaxial Tension. Pure Shear. We consider next the
effect of the stress concentration in the neighborhood of the hole Izl = R,
located in a plane subjected to the action of constant loads at a great
distance from the hole.
Let us suppose first that the plane is stretched by the tensile forces
acting in the x,-<iirection. We take .
'Tl2( 00) = 'Tu( 00) = o.
Since the hole is free of stress, XI + iX. = 0 and F(u) = O. The con-
stants B, B', C' in (78.7) are determined by (78.3), and we find,
B = !1.P1, C' = O.
~quations (78.7) then yield,
at = 0, Ie> 1,
bo = 0, Itt = _ P~R, b: = 0,
b. = 0, k> 3.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTATIC PROBLEMS 291
Thus
<p,(i") =
(1 )
2P,R 2r +! '
",,(!) = - -2-P,R (1f + r - r").
Hence
<p(Z) = ~' (~ + ~}
",(z) = - ~' [z + R'G - ~82)J
Using formulas (77.6), we find:
T
1'1'
~ [( 1 - -R') - ( 1 - 4R2
=P2 r2 - r2 -r cos 29 'J
+ 3R')
4 . '
(79.1)
(79.2) R > 0, o~ m ~ 1,
so that the coefficients en, in the expansion (76.4), vanish for all n ;:: O.
It follows then from (76.6) that
k;:: 1.
so that
(79.5) 'l'0(S) =
.=1
l .'l.r',
where
(79.6)
or
(79.7) 'I'
r
°(I) -- 2n' 1 PO(u)
~ ueu _ r) dO'.
This is the desired integral formula for <p0(r).
Instead of the series representation of the function ",O(r), based on the
calculation of the coefficients bk , one can also deduce a useful integral
representation as f~llows: We rewrite (79.3) in the conjugate form,
But,l
1 r ",o(u) -
2ri i.,u _ t du = ~O(O) = 0,
and we have,
(79.9)
we see that the first integral in the right-hand member of (79.9) can be
evaluated by Cauchy's Integral Formula to yield,
I!O that
it (TI + iT.) ds = - r P dz = -Pe,
1 - mrs
which solve the problem.
b. Stretched Plate Weakened by an Elliptical Hole. If the boundary of
the opening is free of stress and the plate is deformed at infinity by the
application of a uniform tensile stress of intensity P, making an angle a
with the xl-axis, the formulas in Sec. 19b demand that
TU( 00) = P cos' a, T22( 00) = P sin' a, T12( 00) = P sin a cos a.
Thus the constants B, B', C'in (76.13) are determined by
The substitution of this in (79.7) and (79.10) yields, after simple cal-
culations,
«>O(t) = PRt (2e 2ia - m),
4
.!.O(I-) _
'Y , -
PRt
2(mt2 _ 1) m
[2 _ 1 - e""'(r' + m)].
Thus
",(I) = p:r (2e 2ia - m +.p}
~(t) = _ PR [e-2ia! + e2iar _ (1 + m2)(e 2ia
- r_],
m) __
2 r m m 1 - mrs
from which the displacement and stresses can be computed without
difficulty. 1
PROBLEMS
1. Compute the displacements and stresses in the problem treated in the illustration
of Sec. 79a, for the case when m - o.
I. Solve the problem of deformation of an infinite plate with an elliptical hole. when
a constant tangential force acts on the boundary of the hole.
1 The solution of this problem was first obtained by C. E. Inglis, Transactions of 1M
l'Mtitute of Naoal Artihitec18. London, vol. 55 (1913). pp. 219-230. The solution given
here is due to N. I. Muskhelishvili, [Zll68tiya (Btdletin) Akademii Nauk SSSR (1919).
pp. 663-686. It is also contained ill See. 82&. pp. 337-339, of Muskhelishvili'. book,
Some Basic Problems of the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity (1953).
MATHEMATICAL THl!IORY OJ' JllLASTICITY
FIG. 56
We consider
(80.1) z = ",(I) = R (I + T). R > 0, m ~ 0,
(80.2)
(80.3) R>O
maps the entire z-plane, slit along the real axis between Xl =- -2ft and
Xl = 2R, onto the region III 2 1. As the point I = e'l) traverses the
circle once, the corresponding point z traverses the slit twice, so that the
points tT = e'/I, and tT = e-ill , correspond to one and the same point Po
on the slit. The ring bounded by the circles P = Po > 1 and P = 1 then
corresponds to the interior of the ellipse Co, cut along the real axis between
the points (-2R, 0) and (2R, 0).
If either the displacements or the stresses are specified on the bound-
ary Co of the uncut ellipse, the functions ~,(I) and ",(t) are determined by
the condition of the form
w(t) -:rr.:\ -;:-r.:'\
(80.4) "''1'1(1) + wl(t) ~1\1) + >/11\1) = H(I),
Since 'l'1(t) and 'h(t) are analytic in the ring 1 < It I < po, they ca.n be
represented in Laurent's series as
. .
(80.5) 'l'1(t) = L
k-- 110
akr, >/1,(1) = L M·.
k-- 10
LakZ",
~
and, recalling (81.1), we can write the boundary conditions (81.2) in the
form
.. . ...
(81.4) L
-. akR!uk + R.." L GkkR:-'u-(k-ll + L6.R:U-ll '" LA~")uk,
-.. -..-.
where u == eO'.
The system of equatiollS for the unknown coefficients <It a.nd b. is then
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELAST08TATIC PROBLEMS 299
got by comparing the coefficients of like powers of fT in (81.4). The solu-
tion of this system presents no difficulties, and the resulting series (81.1)
can be easily shown to correspond to the desired solution if the deriva-
tive of F,,(fJ) is of bounded variation.'
We limit ourselves to the study of the case in which the boundaries of
the ring are subjected to constant pressures. 2
Let the pressures acting on contours Ca. be P". Then, on taking
account of the convention for the positive direction of the normal to Ca.,
we have,
TiO) = -Po cos fJ, T~2) = -Po sin fJ,
T~') = P, cos II, T~') =< P, sin fJ.
Thus,
where the integration constant in F.(II) has been set equal to zero.
Substituting in the right-hand member of (81.4) from (81.5), we get,
on equating the coefficients of like powers of fT, the following systems:
ao + 2Ria. + 50 = 0,
a,R. + R.a, + fi_,Ri' = -P,R.,
akR~ + (2 - k)a2-kR~-k + 5_kR-;:k = 0, for k ;c 0, 1.
(81.6)
ao + 2R1a. + bo = c"
a,R, + R,a, + b_,Rt ' = -P,R"
akRt + (2 - k)a._kRr-k + 5_kRt k = 0, for k ;c 0, 1.
lor C..
'The constant c, turns out to be "ero in this problem.
300 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Thus
(81.7)
and we see that the radial stress Trr is compressive, while the hoop stress
Te8 is tensile. It is interesting to note that (r88)", .. > P, regardless of
how thick the ring is.
The procedure indicated above, when applied to the problem of the
ring deformed by two oppositely directed concentrated forces on the
exterior boundary, yields very slowly converging series (81.1) when the
ring is narrow. The concentrated forces acting on the boundary C2 give
rise to the singularities in <p(z) and 1/I(z) , and it is advisable to modify the
problem by making use of the solution of the corresponding problem for
the solid disk found in Sec. 77c.
If the radius of the solid disk is R 2 , the concentrated forces produce in
it certain known shearing and normal stresses along the circle Izl = R,.
On subtracting the known solution of the problem of the solid disk of
radius R 2 , under the action of the same concentrated forces, from the
desired solution of the ring problem, one is led to consider the following
auxiliary problem: Find the state of stress in a ring whose exterior bound-
ary jzl = R2 is free of stress and whose interior boundary Izl = R, is sub-
jected to continuously distributed shearing and normal stresses equal
and QPposite to the stresses present in the solid disk along the circle
Izl = R I • The superposition of the solution of this auxiliary problem
on the known solution of the problem for the solid disk yields the desired
solution.'
1 This familiar device has been used by S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier [Theory of
Elasticity (l!l51), pp. 116-123] and K. Wieghardt [Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der
Wi••emchafte:t in Wien, vol. 124 (1915), p. 11191 to solve the problem in Fourier series.
However, the series converge slowly when R,jR, is near unity. An application of the
alternating method, discussed in Sec. 88, enabled M. Z. Narodetzkv [Izveatiya Aka-
demii Na"k i:;SSR, Technical Series, No.1 (1948), pp. 7-18] to deduce a solution
that converg"" more rtlpidly. The stress distribution in a circular ring under the
action of twc "aual and oppositely directed concentrated forces applied at the neare&t
TWO-DIMEN8IONAL ELA8T08TATlu PROBLEMS 301
The function
r---1,
z=wW =ar a> 1.
-1
maps the region between two eccentric circles onto a circular ring. The
reader may find it instructive to formulate the first boundary-value prob-
lem for the region bounded by two eccentric circles with the R,id of this
mapping function and deduce from the boundary conditions the appro-
priate systems of equations for the coefficients ak and bk in the expan-
sions for <PI(r) and ",,(r). The solution of the resulting systems presents
difficulties, and it is simpler to treat the equilibrium problems for eccen-
tric rings in bipolar coordinates. I
The function
R > 0, m > 0,
as we saw in Sec. 80, maps the region bounded by two confocal ellipses
onto a circular ring of radii P = pa, ex = 1, 2. If the external stresses
acting on the elliptical boundaries are such that the resultant force and
moment acting on each boundary vanish, the functions <p(z) and ",(z) will
be single-valued and analytic in the elliptical ring. Consequently their
points of the boundaries of the ring has been studied by D. V. Weinberg lPrikl. Mat.
Mekh., Akademiya Nauk SSSR, vol. 13 (1949), pp. 151-158J. By increasing the radii
of the circles, Weinberg deduces the known solution for an infinite strip subjected to
the action of two oppositely directed concentrated forces. See also L. N. G. Filon's
paper, entitled "The Stresses in a Circular Ring," Institution of Civil Engineers, Lon-
don, Selected Engineering Papers, 12 (1924).
1 See G. B. Jeffery, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Soeiety (London) (A),
vol. 221 (1921), pp. 265-293, and Ya. S. Uflyand, Bipolar Coordinates in the Theory
of Elasticity (1950), pp. 193-210 (in Russian). The equilibrium problems for a semi-
infinite plane with a circular hole are also in this category. Bipolar coordinate. have
been used by Ya. S. Podstrigach, D"VOvidi Akademii Nauk Ukrain'sko'i RSR (1953),
pp. 456--460, to study the stress cc,Ltcentration in an infinite elastic plste weakened
by two unequal circular holes, when the boundary of each hole is subjected to uniform
pressures. The case of uniformly stretched plate weakened by two unequal circul8J>
holes is also considered in this paper.
As an illustration of the "alternating method," the equilibrium of an eccentric ring
is discussed in See. 88.
The state of stress in a heavy semi-infinite sheet with one circular hole was investi-
gated by R D. Mindlin, "Stress Distribution around a Tunnel," Proceedings of the
American Soeiety of Civil Engineers, vol. 65 (1939), pp. 619....642.
Stress distribution in a heavy semi-infinite sheet with two circulsr holes was studied
in detail by D. I. Sherman, Prikl. Mat. Mekh., A1w.demiya Nauk SSSR, vol. 15 (1951),
pp. 297-316, 751-761.
An investigation of the stress concentration in a heavy semi-infinite sheet, near
arch-shaped and trape~oidal openings stiffened by absolutely rigid rings, was made by
I. S. Ham, DoptMdi Akademii Nauk Ukrmn'.koi RSR (1953), pp. 299-303.
302 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
transfofms <Pl(t) and ,h(f), fOf PI ~ IfI ~ PI, have the representations,
.
(81.9) <Pl(.i) = ~..air,
a = 1,2,
where 0'" = p"e'6 and the c" are constants. The functionsf,,(O',,) are com-
pletely determined from the assigned stresses on the boundaries C" of
the elliptical ring. If these functions are expa.nded in Fourier series and
the series (81.9) are inserted in (81.10), it is possible to write down the
system of equations for the determination of the Gk and bk • Although
this procedure is quite straightforward in principle, the calculations are
quite involved and we shall not pursue them here.'
PROBLEMS
where t - R. - R., and that for thln rings (or long pipes)
( ) UlU =. P.R.
T69 -,-'
(T{l)
1
+ iTCl) c,
•
_ _
pw,
til' 2>.
4(>.
+ 3,.
+ "
2,.) e • on the boundary C 1.
Henoe conclude tb&t the solution of the equilibrium problem of rotating shaft with
free lateral surface is deducible from the results of Sec. 81. Show tb&t the maximum
hoop stress is on the inner boundary.
8. Deduce the system of equations (81.6) by multiplying the boundary conditions
(82.2)
with
1 We omit the subscript 1 and the superscript 0 on", and f in the formulas (76.11),
(76.12), (76.14) and in sll expressions of this snd the following three sections.
I See Sec. 40.
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
If we mUltiply this by 21. du ,.' integrate over ,/, and note that
nO'-,
r
~ 1"(0') dO' = 1"(0) = 0
2nj yO'-f '
we get an explicit formula,
(82.4)
where
(83.2)
k = ",,1(0).
w'(O)
We observe that when the domain is infinite, Ie = 0, since for such
domains w'(O) = 00. If the domain is finite, Eq. (83.1) can be reduced
to the same form as for the infinite domain by setting
k
(83.3) ",,(r) = - ;; w{l) + ""o(!"),
where ""o(!") is the new unknown function. On substituting (83.3) in (83.1)
we readily find that
(83.4) a""o(t) + J_ r w(u) -
2," J~ ""(0')(0' - l")
we!") ",,~(u) dO' + 1f(0) = A(r).
(83.5) a '(t)
<Po
+~
211"1 J~
riat [w(u) - wet)] <p~(u) dO'
0' - t w'(u)
= A'(t).
Since
lim w(u) - ~(t) = w'(t),
...... t 0'-
the kernel
K(u, t) 55 _1_ ! [w(u) - wet)]
w'(u) at cr - t
IS continuous for all 0' and t in the closed circle 'Y (except for 0' = 0, t = 0
in the case of the infinite domain) so long as the contour C is such that
"," (r) is continuous in ItI ~ 1.
Thus (83.5) is of the standard type.l
1 By separating (83.5) into real and imaginary parts, this equation can be reduced
to a pair of standard :real equations, but such reduction is not neceM&rY for our
\)IJl1)OIIe8
306 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OJ' ELASTICITY
The existence of '" continUOll8 solution of (83.5) follows from the fact
that the related homogeneous eqUIIJtion [in which A'(t) ... 0] can bve no
solution other tbn the trivial solution 1P~(t) ... O. For the homogeneous
integral equation corresponds to the physical situation in which either
the displacements or the stresses vanish on the boundary 0, and the
assumption tbt a nonvanishing solution exists in such cases violates the
uniqueness theorem.
Let us suppose that by some means we have obtained a solution 'P~(t)
of (83.5). Inserting it in the integral of (83.4), we obtain 1P0(r) and fix
it so that "0(0) = 0 [see (82.3)]. We then construct lP(r), defined by
(83.3), and choose k in accord with (83.2).
From (83.3),
,,'(0) = - ~IX ",'(0) + IP~(O),
and hence
and, therefore,
(83.6) k + ~ = ,,~(O).
IX ",/(0)
K(rr, t) =
.-1L a.(t)b.(IT) ,
and hence Eq. (83.5) ia solvable in the closed form. This remarkable
result, first established by Muskhelishvili, can also be deduced in the
manner of Sec. 84, where two special forms of rational mapping func-
tions are considered.
PROBLEM
Show that, if the domain is infinite and the mapping function has the form (83.7),
the function ",°'(1) satisfies the equation
where
K(" I) = _1_~ [wo(O') -wo(I)].
, w'(u)iJl. 0'-1
(84.2)
... + 'Y.s n
.. + n1ns- + n 1
+ 'YnS n- 1
... + n1n
reduces to "'(IT)/"i2(rr) for S = rr.
1 D. I. Sherman, Trudy Sei8m%gicai 111.8titute, Academy of 8cienee. of the USSR,
Nos. 82 and 83 (193S).
• N. I. Muskhelish.,rili, Some Basic Problems of ,.he Mathematical TheOry of Elas-
ticity (1953), See. 85.
'See. 42.
308 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OJ' ELABTICI'l'Y
Moreover, since ",'(I:) F- 0 for ItI S 1, ';"(I/t) 'F 0 for ItI ~ 1, and
thus (84.2) represents an analytic function for all Il"l ? 1, except for
t = QO, where it has a pole of order n. It follows, then, that for Il"l ~ 1,
",(t) ~ k
(84.3) ';"(l/r) = cnr n + ... + clr + '"' C-kr •
k-O
The fact that this expansion has a finite number of positive integral
powers of r will enable us to evaluate the integral in (82.3) in finite terms.
Since
",et) = all" + a.r' + Il"l :$ 1,
(84.4) 'P' G)= Ih + 2;. nan.
+ . + rn - I + . Il"l ~ 1,
and the product of the series (84.3) and (84.4) gives
(84.5) ~:AI t
';"(l/rl" (!) -- K >-n
n,
+ K n-I,>-n-l + ...
L K~l
~
+ Klr + Ko + ...,
m-~
where
K" == (heft.,
K n- I = + 2a.c.,
iitCn_1
(84.6)
== litc. + 2a.c. + ... + (n - l)an_lCn,
= alcl + 2d.c. + . . . + nanc•.
f
~ "'(0-) ",'(0-) du =
2," ~ ",/(U) U -::- r
i
.. -0
K ..r-,
since
..
1
2ri.,
f . L K_,..r-
-1
u-r d
U=.
0
(84.7) a<p(r) + ~
'/:'0
K..r" +~ = _!_ f
2ri .,IT -
B(IT) d#
r. '
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTA'DlC PROBLEMS 309
&8 yet containing the unknown constants K... These, however, can be
easily determined. Since
_1_ = .!
u - t u
+ i + . . . + u·+
US
J:._ + -... 1 ,
(84.8)
1
2ri
J, H(u) ~
u _ ,. du = L. C~t",
., • k-O
where
•1
C~ "" 2ri
r
J., H(u)u_"-l du, k = 0, 1, . . . •
The substitution of the power series (84.8) in (84.7) and the comparison
of coefficients of like powers of t then give,
f(O) + Ko = Co,
(84.9) aa.. + K .. = Cm , m= 1,2, . . . ,n,
{
;,: £la", = e"., m> n.
The first of these equations determines the value of f(O) + Ko. If
the values of the K .. from (84.6) are inserted in the n ~quations in the
second line, one obtains the system
(84.10)
{
~~' ~. ~'C~ -: ••••••• :- ~~n~". ~ ~~'
aa. + ale. = Cn ,
identical with the system (76.9) deduced previously. The solution of
this system for the ai, . . . , an completely determines the values of
K I , • • • , Kn in (84.7). The value of f(O) + K o, as already noted, is
determined by the first equation in (84.9). Thus, ",,(t) is fully deter-
mined by formula (84.7). To obtain "'(t), we make use of (82.4).
Now, referring to (84.5), we can write
ItI ::;; 1,
and hence
If the domain is infinite and the mapping tunction has the form
(84.12) wet) == i
~ + k-O 'Ykrt,
we first reduce the problem to the calculation of \"o(t) satisfying (83.4).
From the structure of w(!) we conclude that
I c-nr",
~
~ _ n
,..n-2+ -i- cil +
&'(l/n - C -2>
.-0
and for Irl == 1 we find
c
where
K~O_:2 = alC n_2,
(84.13)
K~.'.3 = alCn _3 + 2a"cn-2,
KiO) = aiel + 2a,c. + . . . + (n - 2)a n-"cn_2,
m-O
K::)r
m
+~ = Zri J~ IT _ i dlT,
K(O) + "'(0) == _!_. ( Fo(lT) dlT '" _!_ (lW Fo(lT) d"
o 2riJ~ IT 211'Jo
and the values of the remaining K~) are determined from (84.13) upon
solving for the a.. the system of n - 2 equations
"al + aici + 2a,c. + .. , + (n - 2)an_,cn-' = AY,
(84.15) "a, + ale. + 2a"ca + ... + (n - 3)a._scn-. =- A\,
with
k = 1, . . . ,n - 2.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTOSTATlC PROBLEMS 311
The ideas leading to the calculation of <p(t) [or <po(t)], in principle, are
identical tE> those of Sec. 76, but generally formulas given in this section
enable one to compute <p(t) and Ht) with less effort.
Similar results can be obtained by considering w(t) in the form of the
quotient of two polynomials.
85. llinstrative Examples. For comparison purposes we apply the
formulas of Sec. 84 to problems which have already been solved by the
series method in Secs. 77 to 79.
When the region is a circle of radius R, the mapping function is
z = w(l') = Rl',
and the expansion (84.3) reduces to
w(l)
w'(lIll = I.
Thus all Ck, with the exception of CI = 1, vanish, and it follows from
(84.6) that
K .. = 0, m = 2, . . . ,n.
Accordingly, formula (84.7) gives
(85.3)
inasmuch as c, = I, Ck = 0, k > 1.
In the first boundary-value problem a = I, and the imaginary part of
a, can be set .,qual to zero. Equation (85.4) then yields
a, + a, '= 2a, = C,
K, = Qi = _!__
2 41ri
1 >
H(u)
,,'
.L
au.
312 lIlATHEMA TICAL THEORY 01' ELASTICITY
The substitution in (85.1) then yields .p(r), for the first boundary-
value problem, in the form
(85.7) 'P0m r
+ ,L ~ ,.,UI(tT~ dfT + "'0(0) ~ ...~.
mn }~(J) (fT) IT - • _..
rFO(fT~ duo
}ytT - •
If we insert
"'(IT) 1 + ma-'
",'(tT) = tT(m - fT')
(85.8)
'P
0(1) + _!_. r1 ma-~ 'Pi)I(tT) dq
+
2ri}ytT(m - tT')fT - r
+ "'0(0) = _!_.J,
FO(IT) duo
211'1 ytT - r
Since,
lui ;::: 1,
The calculation of
(85.10) .;O(t) = _!_,
2ri
1 FO(u) du
"yU - t
+ r(r' + m) 'l'0'(t)
1 - mr t
was carried out in detail in Sec. 79.
For m = 0 these formulas yield the solution of the first boundary-
value problem for the region exterior to the circle III = 1.
The reader may find it instructive to solve these problems by deter-
mining the function 'I'~(t) from the integral equation (83.5) and by fol-
lowing the argument of Sec. 83.
For either of the mapping functions considered in this section the
integral in (83.5) vanishes, so that
'I'~(t) = .! A'(t).
'"
The substitution in (83.4) then yields at once
"'1'0(1) = A(t) + p,
where p is a constant. This constant and the constant k in (83.3) can be
easily determined by making use of (83.6) and recalling that '1'(0) = o.
86. Further Developments. Multiply Connected Domains. The
methods of solution of plane problems considered thus far depend vitally
on the knowledge of the mapping function. Since only simply connected
domains can be mapped conformally on a circle in a one-to-one manner,
the considerations of Secs. 82 and 83 do not apply to multiply connected
domains. However, there is a simple connection between the mapping
function W(I) and Green's function for the domain.!
Thus the integral equation (83.5) can always be written in the form
whose kernel is expressed in terms of Green's function. Since Green's
function can be constructed for multiply connected domains, this at once
suggests a generalization of the integral equation. One such generaliza-
tion has been made by Mikhlin, who reduced the basic problems of plane
elasticity in multiply connected domains to the solution of certain Fred-
holm integral equations whose kernels depend on Green's functions.'
Although Mikhlin's equations serve admirably to establish the existence
of solutions in multiply connected domains, they possess the disadvan-
1 H Olle writes th& mapping function in the fonn r - /(z) and makes the point z - '.
of tbe region R correspond to the center of the circle Irl - 1, tben Green's functioa
G(p, P,) - (1/2.0) log (l/ll(z)l), with tbe pole P. at the point I ..
• A connected account of this work is contained in a monograph by S. G. Mikhlin.
I!Iltitled Integral Equations (1949) (in Russian).
314 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
(86.3) '(z) =
'"
~
2n}os-z
r W'(S) ds.
II .ve now let z in (86.2) and (86.3) approach an arbitrary point t of C.
we get from Plemelj's formulas (40.7),
<p
'(t) = w'(t)
2
+ _!_ r w'(s) d
2ri } 0 s _ t 8.
aw(t) + -2'
a
rto
w(s)d1 (8-t)
log --_ + 11=(8-t) ds =
8-t no s-t
-2' w (s) -_- _ f(t).
(86.5) aw(t) af
+ 2-'
n 0
w(s)d (8-t)
log -_-_ -
8-t
2-'11
n 0
W(sjd 8 -t
-_-_
8-t
= f(t).
If we set
8 - t = re"
we get the equation
(86.6) aw(t) r
+!r }o [aWes) - WTs)e 2"] dO = f(t).
ap(t) +!r Jor [p(s)(a - cos 20) - q(s) sin 20) dO = f,(t),
(86.7)
ag(t) r [P(s) sin 20 -
-! }o
'If
g(s)(a + cos 29)] dO = /2(e),
Where II +
ifI .,. I·
The simultaneous integral equations (86.7) are of the Fredholm type.
and by a familiar device they can be reduced to a single real Fredholm's
equation.
816 MATHEMATICAL THEORY 011' ELASTICITY
1 For example, if we take n points s., St, • • • , 8. on the boundary C and apply
some formula of mechanical quadrature. to the integrals in (86.7), we get a system of
2n algebraic equations in 2n unknowns,
.
"p, +~ 1
;-1
[PI(a - cos 28'1) - ql sin 28'1] AlI<I - I.(t,) + •• (t,),
n
aq, - ~ 2
;-1
[Pi sin 28;; - ql(Clt + cos 28'1)] A8'1 - I.(t,) + ..(1,),
where the '" are the errors made in the process of replacing integrals by finite terms.
The solution of this system would enable us to compute pet) and get) approximately.
• The functions <I'(z) and ,,(z) can be regarded a8 single-valued in all cases, since
the multiple-valued terms in (72.7) can be incorporated in I(t).
I An account of this is contained in the first two of Sherman's Doklady papers, cited
on p. 314. These papers are reproduced practically without clu1nge in Muskhelish-
vili'. hook Some Basic Problems of the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity (1953),
pp.412-420.
An illustration of the use of F.q. (86.5) in the solution of the first boundary-value
problem for the interior of the region bounded by an ellipse is contained in D. I.
Sherman's paper in Doklady Alcademii Nauk 88SR, voL 31 (1941), pp. 301HJ10, and
in S. O. Mikhlin, Integra! Equations (1949), pp. 292-294. For applications of the
Sherman method to doubJy and triply connected domains Bee D. I. Sherman, "On
the Stresses in a Heavy Balf-plane Weakened by Two Circular Openings," Pri/r;l. Mat.
Mekk., Akademiya Nauk SSSR, vol. 15 (1951), pp. 297-316, 751-762; "On the State
of Stress in Some Shrink-fitted Members," r-.tiya Akademii Nauk 888R, 'fechniea.l
Series (1948), pp. 1371-1388. See a.lso M. F. Gur'ev, "Distnbution of Stresses in a
Stretched Isotropio Rectangular Plate Weakened by a Circular Hole," Dopavi.di
Akademii Na ..k Ukrdin'lIkdi MIt (1953), pp. 133-139.
TWO-D1M:ENSIONAL ELASTOSTATIC PROBLEMS 317
fn this ease, as shown in Sec. 77a, f(t) = -Pt, so that we seek the
solution of
(86.8) wet) +!.r Jc
( [WeB) - W(s)e""j dcp = -Pt.
FlO. 57
and 80 on.
The use of this procedure in constructing the approximate solutions of
special elastostatic problems in doubly connected domains is presented
in detail in Sec. 88.
The proof of convergence of the Schwarz algorithm in the solution of
the second elastostatio boundary value problems for a doubly connected
domain R12 (Fig. 59) for the case when the contours C 1 and C 2 bounding
this domain are sufficiently far apart has been supplied by Mikhlin.l
In essence Mikhlin's proof is based on Neumann's modification' of the
Schwarz procedure for solving the Dirichlet problem in Laplace's equation
for the domain Rl + R,.
A more general proof of the Schwarz algorithm for the second boundary
value problem of elasticity in three dimensions was sketched out by
Soboleff.· This proof reduces the consideration of convergence of
sequences of approximate solutions for the sum Rl + R, of the over-
lapping domains Rl and R" and for their product domain R 12 , to a study
1.£.10., = Pi,
(87.5)
... Ct' = G·... .
1.£.\
We shall see in Sec. 107 that the solution of the boundary value problem
(87.3), (87.4) is equivalent to obtaining the vector 1.£; which minimizes
the energy integral
(87.6) U(u.) = r
)Rl+RJ
[(A + ",)(uu)2 + -2'" (1.£;.; + 1.£;,;)] dT,
on the set of all continuously differentiable vectors u. taking on the
boundary Ci' + C:; the values (87.4). If one is concerned with the
problem (87.3), (87.5), the integral (87.6) is minimized on the set of u;'s
satisfying on the boundary of H12 the conditions (87.5). Soboleff con-
structs suitable minimizing )Sequences luI»}, k = 0,1,2, . . . for these
problems (in a manner suggested at top of page 319) and shows that they
converge in the mean to the desired ditsplacements u;. The difficult
question of the rapidity of convergence of approximating sequences has
1 See See. 107.
322 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
not yet been investigated. It is known, however, that if L(u) Vlu, &:
.,.(z) =
.L cp(.)(z), t[t(z)
.
L t[t(,,)(z),
{88.2)
,,-0 .-0
where the functions '1'('.), >/;".) are single-valued and analytic in the finite
region Izl < Rand <f('.+1) , 1/1(2.+1) are single-valued and analytic in the
region Iz - al > r, including the point at infinity.
FIG. 60
The functions .,.(O)(z), I/I(O)(z) will be determined in the region Izl < R,
so that
w(O)(t) + t<p(O)I(t) + >/;(O)(t) = -pt on Co.
These functions, clearly, will not satisfy the conditions (88.1) on the
boundary C I • We next obtain the solution '1'(1), >/;(1) in the region Iz - al
> r, corresponding to the zero stresses at infinity, such that
(cp(l)(t) + tcp(l)'(t) + I/I(I)(t) = -l~[",'<·)(t), 1/1(0) (t)l on C"
where I
(88.3) L(<p, .y) "" ",(z) + z?(zi + ~_
Then the functions ",(0) + cpCI), .y(0) + >/;(1) will be such that L(",(O) + '1'(1),
+ .p(l») vanishes on C but it does not reduce to -pt on Co-
!/teo)
"
In general, ",(.) (z), +(")(z) will be determined from the boundary
conditions,
I It is not difficult to show from the uniqueness theorem that, if L[",(I),.,(I)J - const
(88.4)
IL[,,(2..)(t), t/r(2 ..)(t)]
on C1> n '"' 0, 1, 2, . . .
... -L[,,(2..-1)(t), .y(t-"(t}]
on Co, n == 1,2, . . . .
The general solutions of the exterior and interior boundarY-value prob-
lems for the circular region are known. Thus, if
On the other hand, the functions <p(z} and !/t(z), analytic in the regior.
Iz - al ~ r and satisfying the condition
!pet) + t!pl(t) + "f(l) = F ,et)
and, therefore, the functions <P(1)(z), "'(1)(z) are determined in the region
It - al > r, from the boundary conditions,
tp(l)(t) + ~ + ",U)(t) '"' -L(,,(O), ",(O)} Ie.
'"' pea + t).
1 TheIle follow from Eq. (85.S) and (85.6) upon setting, - Rr.
I TheIle follow from (85.9) and (85.10) upon setting m - 0 and , .. ,./. where
• - . -0.
~ Ia verifyinc these ca1cuIationl, note that I - B' It.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELAST08TATIC PBOBLlD¥S
= - r=a
pr'
- pa.
Making use of the formulas (88.5) with Fo(t) given by the right-hand
member of the expression just found, we obtain,
1 See, for example, Ya. S. Uflyand, Bipolar Coordinates in the Theory of Elasticity
(1950), pp. 204-210 (in RWl8ian).
• See Sec. 77c·
326 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OP ELASTICITY
We again seek a solution in the form (88.2), where '1'(2.) , >/I<k) are analytic
for 1:1 < R and '1'( ..... 1), 1/1(2..+1) are analytic for Izl > r. AI> our first
approximation '1'(0) (z), I/I(O)(z) we take the known solution, dedy.ced in Sec.
77, for the solid circle of radius R, under the action of concentrated
forces. It is,
(90.3) {
p.V~ + (X + p,)".i = 0, (i = 1,2, 3),
" = 14.• ,
integration since body forces can always be eliminated in the manner explained in
Sec. 68.
• If the region T is finite, the system of equations
curl u = f(xl, X" x.),
div u = g(x" x., x.),
is known to have a solution whenever 11 is of class (J1 in T. H .. is infinite, we further
require that the specified functions f and g vanish at infinity as l/r>. Sec, for exam-
pit', M. Mason and W. Weaver, The Electromagnetic Field (1932), pp. 352-365. See
also A. E. H. Love, A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Sec. 16.
330 ¥ATBlIlIIATICAL TBlIIOllY OJ' ELASTICITY
or
1 1
(90.4) 'Ui .. >. + j.I >t,. + ; curl; A.
(OO.5~ ".....
.. = A+j.I
_1_ V'>t "" " ,
A particular integral of this equation is ~ : : ;j.I x,.4>" and hence' the ~en
eral solution can be written in 'the form
(90.8)
of ~
(x + I)F - r or = L.. r"Y. + c,
.. -0
and one can, clearly, take
F = x
~ x + 11 _
+c 1 + ..L.. nr
"
Y...
-0
l
e
F e ~
+ L..1<+n+2
1 r (+1)Y
.
=x+l n-O
" ft·
Since 1< > 0, this solution is valid and hence a representation of the form
(90.12) may prove possible in an infinite simply connected domain.
The possibility of representing every solution of Navier's equations in
the form (90.10), wherein one of the functions 'Pi is set equal to zero,
say 'Pa = 0, hinges on the construction of the harmonic function ¥la from
the specified values of its derivatives. It is clear from (90.13) that the
harmonic functions ¥II, ¥l2, and ¥lo will be uniquely determined once the
harmonic function ¥Is is obtained from the equation
(90.20) ¥la,a = 'Pa·
If the region is a sphere, the function 'Pa can be represented in the series of
spherical harmonics as
e
'Pa = l
.. -0
rny..
"" ~
,,-0
m[A..P..{cos 8) + I
.-1
(A:;, cos mrp + B: sin m'P)!'::'(cos 8)].
I The scalar product :r;;F.; of the vector r with the gradient vF of F is clea.rly equal
to r '!!..
8fo
YATHEMA.'l'ICAL TBE-QBY OF lIlLASTlClTY
It is easy to check' that the solution of (90.20) can be taken. in the form
-. '" i
.. -0
,.-+1 [n ~ 1 P,*1(COS·9)
I
+ .. -1 (11. + + 1 cos mtp + n +~ + 1 sin mtp) P'"n+l(COS 9)
-!: 1
It was argued' that the harmonic solution of (90.20) in an infinite simply
connected region can be obtSlined only when certain terms in the repre-
sentation of tpl in the seri6$ of spherical harmonics do not appear in the
expansion.
The formulas for the COInponents of the stress tensor associated with
the representation (90.10) can be easily written down with the aid of
the stress-strain relations. 3
Another interesting form of solution,
(90.21)
where the F. are biliarmonic functions, was obtained by Galerkin.« This
solution is closely related to the Neuber-Papkovich solution (90.10).
Indeed, if we set
Ji'j,f = "!Jr,
(90.21) becomes
which is precisely the formula (90.6). This connection was first noted
apparently by Mindlin. 5 We shall see that in a finite simply connected
domain every biharmonic fUnction can be expressed in terIlU! of two har-
monic functions. It follows from this, and from the representation
(90.10), that at least two Qf the six harmonic functions entering in the
Galerkin solution are not independent.
1 In verifying it is advisable to use the integral representation of 8Illid harmonics
such as is recorded in Sec. 18.31 of Whittaker and Watson's Modern imalysis.
• M. G. S10b0dyanski, Prikl. Mat. Mekh., AkademiJlO NaUk :888B, \rot 18 (19M),
pp.54--78.
• Such formulas have been ,..,corded by several authors: G. S. SW.piro, Compla
ren.dua (Doklady) de l'academi. des scienC68 de l'UB88, vol. 55 (1947), pp. 693--695;
W. Freiberger, AU8tra/ian JouT'fWol of Scientific &search (A), vol. 2 (11149), pp. 483-
492; G. Yu. DzhanelidJe, Doklady Akademii Nauk 888B, New Series, vol. 88 (1953),
pp. 423-425; M. Brdi~.ka, CzechQslmJak Journal of Phyllia, vol.. 3 (1953), pp. 36-52-
• B. G; GaIerkin, Compta rt1id... Mbtiomadaire8 du .knee. de l'~ des BCienceB,
Paris, vol. 190 (1930), p. 1047; Compla randua (Dokladll) de l'~ des BCienceB
de rUR88, aer. A, vol. 14 (1931), p. 353, vol. 10 (1931), p. 281; PriIt(. Mat. Mekh.,
Akademiya Naulc 888B, vol. 6 (1942), p. 487.
• R. D. Mindlin, B-ullmn of 1M Ameri.:an MatMmtIIical 8oeietv, "ol. 42 (1936),
pp. 373-376.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROIlLEMS 335
The function 'fI, as is clear from (90.5), is biharmonic, and calculations
leading to (90.8) show that every biharmonic function is expressible in
terms of four harmonic functions. One can thus represent every bihar-
monic function F in the form
(90.22) F = 4>0 + X;if>i, (i = 1, 2, 3),
where the 4>'s are harmonic. 1 Any two of the functions <Pi can be aut
equal to zero without loss of generality, so that every biharmonic func-
tion (in a finite simply connected domain) is expre~sible in terms of two
harmonic functions in one of the forms:
F = <Po + XI4>, F = <Po + x.4>, F = <Po + X84>.
It would suffice to consider F in the form
(90.23)
Let F be an arbitrary biharmonic function. The functions 4>0 and <P can
then be constructed as follows: On forming the Laplacian of (90.23), we
get
(90.24)
and since V'F is known, we can construct the harmonic function <P satis-
fying this equation. Having determined <P, we insert it in (90.23) and
get
4>0 = F - XI4>,
where the <Pi; = 'l'fi are of class C'. On setting <P12 = '1'23 = '1'31 = 0, we
obtain solutions proposed by Maxwell, and on taking <P1I = <Pn '" <P13 = 0,
I This is identical in form with the Goursat representation of the plane biharm'onic
we get solutions due to Morera. 1 The functions <Ai are further restricted
by Beltrami's compatibility equations. These restrictions have been for-
mulated implicitly (in tensor form) by Schaefer,' who aJBo indicates
a connection of relations (90.26) with the formulas for stresses deduced
from the Neuber-Papkovich solution (90.10).
91. Concentrated Forces. The general solution of the nonhomogene-
ous Navier's equations,
(91.1) p.'V'u, + (l\ + p.)"" = -F, in 1',
B l\ +
31l
"" l\+p.'
and r = [(Xl - h)2 + (X2 - ~2)' + (xa - ~3)21~ is the distance from the
field point (Xl, XI, Xa) to the variable point (~1, ~., ~3) in T. The functions
F;(~) are the components of the body force F, expressed in terms of the
variables of integration E,.
The fact that (91.2) is indeed an integral of (91.1) can be verified by
direct substitution.'
A solution of Eqs. (91.1), appropriate to the deformation of an elastic
body by the concentrated force F2 applied at some point ~;, can be easily
deduced from (91.2). We suppose that the body forcesF. are distributed
over some subregion 1'1 of T, including the point ~;, and vanish over the
rest of the region. The resultant of the body forces acting on 1'1 is
F1 = !." F, dT.
1J. Maxwell, TrlJMactitm8 of 1M Royal Society of Hdinburch, vol. 26 (1870), p. 27,
or Collecied Papers, vol. 2, pp. 161-207; O. Morera, AUi della reale accademia dei
Lincei, Rome, ser. 5, vol. 1 (1892), pp. 137-141, 233-234.
I H. Schaefer, Z~fUr angewandte Mathem4tik und MecIu1.nik, vol. 33 (1953),
pp. 356-362. See also a paper by R. V. Southwell in Timoahenko Anniversary
Volume, pp. 211-216 and a paper by W. Ornstein, "Stress Functions of Maxwell and
Morera," Qu4rterlll qf Applied MathsmaUc8, vol. 12 (1954), p. 198.
• Sir WilIia.m Thomson, Cq.~ . - Dublin M~ Journal (1848), or
Mathematical and Physical Pa.pera, vol. 1, p. 97. See also A. E. H. LoVb, A Treatise
on the Mathe_tical Theory of Elaaticity (1927), pp. 183-185.
• For the field points in the region r, the integral is improper, and care must be used
in· dilYerentiating under the integral sign. Bee analogoua ca1culatiou in M. Maaon
and W. Weaver. The ~ JlWd, pp. 93-116.
THREE-DDIENSIONAL PROBLEMII
If we now let F. incJ:.ea.se in such a way that this integr&l. has a finite
limit 11 as 1'1"'" 0, we arrive at the notion of the concentrated force 11
acting at the point ~i'
The displacements ",(x) produced at the point Xi ;C E. by the force F~
APplied a.t ~., as follows from (91.2), are
(91.4)
where
(91.5)
we find,
(91.6)
338 MATHEMATICAL THI!lORY OF ELASTICITY
The tractions T;, produced by these stresses over the sphere S of radius
r "" a, are determined from
(91.7) T = _ 6pCx a x 3,
a a'
and, on iptegrating over the 8urfaf'e of the sphere r = a, we find,
(91.8)
xl ++ x: ) - 2( X~]
(91.10)
T.2 = 2pD [ r'( r X3 r r + X3 )2'
X1
= -2pD~,
I
'Ta3
r8 T13 '" -2pD"ii' 'Til =
-2 D X1 X.(X, + 2r).
712 =
p r'(r + x.)'
As in the preceding example we calculate the tractions T. over the sphere
S of radius a a.nd find
1
(91.11) T .. =0 -2pD r 2(r ~ X3
)' T. = -2pD;:o' r == a.
x"x. DXa
(92.2) Ua = C -r , + r (+
r x, )' (a = 1, 2),
(92.3) U, = C (xX+l'r
+ 31' ! + ~) + !:?,
r' r
The distribution of tractions over the surface of the hemisphere, corre-
sponding to the displacements (92.2) and (92.3), can be got by adding the
tractions in (91.7) and (91.11). From computations leading to formu4ul
(91.8) and (91.12), it is obvious that the resultant force on the surface of
the hemisphere acts in the x,-direction and has the magnitude'
Since this represents the action on the hemisphere from the side of the
medium, we equate R to - P and get the equation
(92.4) P = 4rjlC(X
X jl ++
21') + 4rI' D ,
involving two unknown COIl8tants C and D. Another equation involv-
ing these constants is got by imposing the conditions (92.1),
1 Several problems in this category have been worked out by J. Boussineeq, Appli-
catioIlll dee potentieJs A l'etude de l'6quilibre et du mouvement dee 80lidee 6laatiquee
(1885).
~ This is one-half the BUm of the valuee given by (91.S) and (IH.12), wherein the
integration was performed over the entire sphere,
340 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EL.4.STlCITY
I
'U .. = 41r" p)
(92.6)
'Us = ~~ + P(>. + 21') !.
41r1' r' 41rp(>. + II) r
It is worth noting ' that at a great distance from the origin the displace-
ments vanish as 1/r, and hence the stresses vanish as l/r2. In this con-
nection it should also be observed that the concept of the concentrated
load is a mathematical abstraction resulting from specific assumptions
concerning the behavior of continuous distributiOlis of loads when a defi-
nite limiting process is followed. It is not surprising, therefore, that dif-
ferent limiting processes might yield singular solutions different from
(92.6). A decision about the practical validity of any given singqlar
solution should rest on physical rather than mathematical grounds. The
definition of the concentrated load in the instance of curved surfaces
obviously involves an even greater degree of arbitrariness. Because of
the usefulness of the solution in the,form (92.6) it is natural to use it as
a criterion for an acceptable definition of the concentrated load acting
on a curved surface. s
The solutions (92.6) can be generalized, in an obvious way, to yield
the displacements produced in an infinite region Xa ~ 0 by suitably
restricted continuous distributions of normal loads.
1 See remarks in See. 74 regarding the behavior of displacements and streMea in the
two-dimensional ease and their bearing on the uniqueness of solution.
• See in this connection:
E. Sternberg and F. Rosenthal, "The Elaatic Sphere under Concentrated Loade,"
Juumal t1/ Applied Mechanics, vol. 19, No.4 (1952), pp. 413-421.
E. Sternberg and R. A. Eubanks, "On the Singularity at a Concentrated Load
Applied to a Curved Surface," A Technical Report to ONR, Department of Mechaniea,
mina JDstitute of Technology (1953).
A. Huber, "The Elaatic Sphere under Concentrated Torques," QuarlerJw of A~
lIt111wtNJtica, vol. 13 (1965), P.iI. IllH02.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS 341
If we let p(~, 'II) be the distributed normal load acting at the point
eE, 'II) of the xtxrplane, the resultant force P on an element of area du is
P = peE, 'II) duo Inserting this in (92.6) and integrating over the XlXr
plane, we get,
I 'U
a
_
-
x,xa (7 p(~, 'II)rl d~ dTJ _
4...", ))
Xa
4".(X
(7 pet, 'II)+dt dfl,
+ "'»)) r(r x.)
-~ -~
(92.7)
i[ r
Since the displacements 14J are biharmonic functions, they can be rep-
resented in the form
(93.2) UJ ... 'Pi + XI"'.i,
where the 'Pj and " are harmonic functions. These functions, as noted
in Sec. 90, are not independent since the 14 satisfy Navier's equations.
Indeed, on substituting (93.2) in (93.1) we easily find that
[(). + 31')"'•• + (). + p.)'PJo.k].i = o.
Hence, on disregarding the nonessential constant, we get
).+1'
(93.3) >/t•• = - ). + 31' 'Pl.l.
The functions 'Pi and", must be chosen so that, on the boundary x, = 0,
the displacements 14j assume specified values/i(xl, x.) and vanish at infin-
ity in a suitable manner. Setting XI = 0 in (93.2), we see that the har-
monic functions 'Pi are required to satisfy the boundary conditions,
(93.4)
The determination of the 'Pi has thus been reduced to the familiar prob-
lem in potential theory, and there are several methods available for con-
structing these functions. Perhaps the simplest of these is a method
based on the Fourier integral representation of harmonic functions.
If we suppose that
..
(93.5) 'Pi(Xl, X2, XI) = II
-.
gi( 01, fJ)e 7 • m (<<Zl+''''') dOl dfj,
Al = pia'I - paa"2 ,
(3X +
2J.1)(ai - af)
A - afa~(pi - P.)
2 - 4,.(ai - ail '
and hence (94.5) and (94.6) become:
Plaf - paa~
i
afai PI - p.
T.= -----,
a~ - af r' ai - af
(94.7)
T, = PIal - p,.ai +
a~ai PI - p'.
ai - af 2r 8 ai - af
If the external pressure p. = 0, (94.7) yield,
T =
r
plat
a~-a~
(1 - r~)3<-0'
T = Plat a~) > O.
(1 + 2r'
, ai - at
Thus, the maximum tension (T,)""", is at the inner surface of the shell.
We have,
(T ) = ~ 2al + ai
fJmax 2 a~-af'
and if the shell is of small thickness t = a - b, we get an approximate
formula
( T)
,,_ .....
- Tt' pia.
The maximum extension ell obviously will occur on the inner surface of
the shell, so that the yielding will begin on the inner surface.
Most of the results recorded above have been deduced I by Lame.
•• Spherical Harmonics. The considerations of Sec. 90 indicate the
great usefulness of harmonic functions in elasticity. in solving the prot>--
leIDS of equilibrium of an elastic sphere, one special class of harmonic
functions, known .as spherical harmonics, is particularly useful. The
essential facts about these functions are summarized in this section.
We first determine a class of particular solutions of Laplace's equation
(95.1) .... = 0, (i = 1,2,3),
10. J..am4, Lepa BUr Ia th60rie de l'6lMticit6 (1852).
MATllElIfATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
(95.2) <l>n = L
p+q+r-n
ap",xfxlx ',
where the sum is extended over all positive integral values p, q, r such
that p + q + r = n.
It is obvious that the polynomial of degree 0, satisfying (95.1), is
<1>0 = ao, where ao is a constant. The polynomial
<1>, = G;Xi, (i = 1, 2, 3),
clearly satisfies (95.1) for an arbitrary choice of the constants as. In this
case we have three linearly independent solutions of (95.1), namely,
X" X2, x.. The linear combination of these solutions is the most general
solution of Laplace's equation in the form of the homogeneous polyno-
mial of degree 1.
If we take the homogeneous polynomial of degree 2, namely,
(95.3) <1>. = G;;X,xj, (i, j = 1, 2, 3),
and substitute it in (95.1), we obtain one relation
all + a .. + a33 = 0
connecting six distinct constants in (95.3). Hence there are five linearly
independent homogeneous polynomials of degree 2 that satisfy (95.1) .
. These polynomials can be determined explicitly by setting
an = - (all + au)
in (95.3). We thus get,
<1>. = au(xf - xi) + aS2(x~ - xi) + a,,x,x. + a.,x,x. + a31X,x,.
Hence the desired polynomials are
xf - xl, xl - x:,
and every solution of (95.1) in the form of the homogeneous polynomial
of degree 2 is a linear combination of these five linearly independent
solutions.
By taking a homogeneous polynomial,
(95.4)
of degree 3, substituting it in (95.1), and equating in the resulting expres-
sion the coefficients of the x. to zero, we obtain three relations among
ten tI.;ii in (95.4). Accordingly there are seven linearly independent homo-
geneous polynomials of degree 3 that satisfy Laplaoe's equation.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLlilMS ;'47
It is not difficult to prove' that, in general, there are 211. + 1 linearly
independent homogeneous polynomials of degree 11. satisfying (95.1). The
polynomials are called the integral ha1'1llQnic8 of degree n. It is worth
remarking that the corresponding polynomials in the two-dimensional
case can be got by separating into real and imaginary parts (x, + iX2)ft.
If we consider an integral harmonic ~. of degree 11., its derivatives ~.,.,
dearly, satisfy Laplace's equation, and since the ~ft,i are homogeneous
polynomials of degree n - 1, they are integral harmonics of degree n - 1.
From integral harmonics ~. one can deduce an important class of solu-
tions of Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates known as spherical
harmonic8.
We introduce the transformation
Xl = r sin 8 cos <p,
(95.5) X, = r sin 8 sin <p,
{ x. = r cos 8,
and, on SUbstituting from (95,5) in the integral harmonic ~.(Xl, x., x.),
we get
(95.6)
where Y.(9, <p) is a polynomial in sin 9, cos 9, sin <p, and cos <po ,The
function Y.(8, <p) is termed surface, or zonal, harmonic and rn Y.(8, '() is
the solid spherical harmonic. Inasmuch as the number of linearly inde-
pendent integral harmonics of degree 11. is 211. + 1, the number of linearly
independent surface harmonics Y.(8, '() is also 2n + 1.
We deduce next an explicit representation of the surface harmonic
Y.(8, <p), by investigating the solutions of Laplace's equation in spheri-
cal coordinates in the form
(95.7) ~ = fer) Y(8, '().
d
i1i- [r2f'(r)] 1 0 (. OY) 1 o'Y
SinS aD sm 8 iii + SEi'8 8ift'
f(r) Y ,
The functions Y n (lI, 1") can be viewed as being defined on the surface of
the unit sphere. They possess a number of remarkable properties, which
we state without proofs.'
The set of functions {Y.. (II, 1") I is orthogonal on the surface l: of thE>
unit sphere, so that
if i ~ j.
Moreover, this set is complete in the sense that every function f(lI, I{J),
specified on the unit sphere l:, whose square is integrable over l:, can be
represented in the series of spherical harmonics which converges in the
1 See, E. W. Hobeon, Theory of Spberical and ElliJlllKlidal HArmonics (1931).
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EUSTICITY
mean to f(6, rp). If f(6, rp) is of class C' on :2:, the series converges to
f(fJ, rp) uniformly. In fact, we have the following representation:
L {(I,~ft)P.(cos
e
+ i
.. -1
(a!.:') cos mrp + b!.:') sin mrp)P~")(cos fJ)},
where
(1,(.)
..
= (2n +
l)(n - m)!
2r&..(n+m)! Jll(f«(J ,~)P(")(cos
ft
II) cos m,~ dtr
f
,T T ,
be,,) = (2n +
l)(n - m)'. f(1I ,~)P(oo) (cos II) sin m,n dtr
.. 2r8.. (n + m)! II ,T • T ,
with 0.. = 2 if m = 0, Om = 1 if m > 0, and ]X.!') (cos II) "'" Pft(cos II).
This representation permits us to solve the problem of Dirichlet for
the sphere of radius a in the series of solid harmonics. We first repre-
sent th~ function f(8, ",), s~ified on the surface of the sphere in the
series
.
f(fJ, "') = L
.. -0
Y ft (lI, "'),
This gives the formal solution for the region r < a. The solution of the
corresponding exterior problem is
.. -0
Y .. (8, "') ~..+1,
()
r> a.
u; = L ("'In, + c(n)r'<p~~li)'
,,-0
L (",lnl + c("+·)r2<pk~t.2l).
~
(96.4) U; =
,,=0
If we go over into spherical coordinates with the aid of (95.5) and set
r = a, each term in the series (96.4) becomes a surface harmonic of
degree n.
Now if the displacements u; = f,(6, "'), specified on the surface of the
sphere r = a, are represented in the series of surface harmonics as
c
(96.6)
must converge for r = a to the same function/.(e, "") as the series (96.6).
Making use of the theorem on uniqueness of representation in the
series of solid harmonics, we can write
for r = a,
and deduce
(96.8)
(!)"]
[ A "I") a , i ·l
= ""I"') + c C"+2)a ",,j,"H)
2
,Ain,
(96.9)
Thus <PI::' is completely determined since the AI") are known functions.
The substitution from (96.9) in (96.8) determines the <PIn) in the form,
(96.10)
Hence the solution (96.4) can be written entirely in terms of the AI")
determined in (96.5). It is
(97.1)
(97.2)
In deriving this theorem it is assumed that the functions u" u~ and their
derivatives are continuous throughout the region r.
If we now consider a solution of Navier's equations in the form
(97.5) ",9=-,
a,.-'
• ax.
which has a singularity at the origin,' and denote the corresponding
tractions by Tf, we can apply formula (97.4) with = uf and T, = ~ u:
to a region bounded externally by }; and internally by a sphere S of
small radius R centered at the origin. We thus get
(97.6)
But.
Is T;u? au = Is r;;vjuf au
[ X· or- 1
= Js (Ma + 2/JlJ;j) ~
i; ox, du
= Is + X:l au
(Maii 2/Jeii)
(97.9)
! We used such singular solutions in See. 91. The displseements (97.5) correspond
to a center of uniform com\lression at the origin.
MATHEMATICAL TBJIORY OJ'- ELASTICITY
This formula. ena.bles one to compute the dila.tation a.t a.ny point (which
we have chosen. to be the origin) whenever both the displa.cement u. and
tra.ction Ti are known over 1:. If only the u. are known, we can elimi-
nate the T. by 801vi~ the following auxilia.ry problem: Find a solution
u: of Navier'lJ equation8 in the region T such that u: = u2 on 2:.
For if such u~ are known, then, by the theorem (97.4),
(97.10)
where both the Tf and T; can be computed since the corresponding dis-
placements uf and u~ are known.
We note that the determination of the u; is equivalent to finding a set
of functions
0 ar-l
- , -OXI
-, arl)
< , aXa
lim
R-0
f T.-u? dO'
8
= 0,
(97.11)
'The integral equati0D8 for " and .. have recently been derived by
Arzhanykh. 1
88. EDstence of Solutions. We saw in the preceding chapter that the
existence of solutions of the fundamental two-ditnensionall,roblems fol-
lows directly from the existence of soluti0D8 of certain well··knOWJ.I. int&-
gml equations. 'The demonstration of existence of solutions of the three-
dimensional problems can also be made to depend on the exjlJl;ence of the
solution of integral equations of the Fredholm type or, altefIllltively, on
the construction of Betti's auxiliary functions. We shall not pursue this
subject here and shall merely remark tltat the matter of existence of
solutions has been satisfactorily resolved for domains of grej\t generality
by Fredholm, Lauricella, Kom, Weyl, Lichtenstein, and Sh~man.!
The caliber of mathematicians who have concerned tltexnaelves with
the problem is indicative of its complexity.
An extension of the uniqueness theorems in the linear tltoory of elas-
ticity to problems involving concentrated loads is provided. in a report
by E. Sternberg and R. A. Eubank.'
99. Thermoelastic Problems. We have assumed in preceJing chapters
that the elastic bodies undergoing deformations were maints.ined at oon-
stant temperatures. Thermal changes in a body are -accompanied by
shifts in the relative positions of particles composing the f>ody. Such
shifts, in general, cannot proceed freely, and tlte body beeoxne& stressed.
lJ'\\d~1: {ree i;.t>.~t'&.\Il ~~<\'\\ c;,i ~~~\.~ \\<¥li~ %. 'f<\t'M'lM\~1;. to.. tM.
shape of a rectangular parallelepiped with edges It parallel t4J coordinate
axes deforms into a similar parallelepiped with edges l;. For small tem-
perature changes T(Xl, Xs, x.) the relationship between l'J &jld l; has the
1 Prikl. Mat. MeJcA., Akademiva Nauk 8S8R, vol. 15 (1951), pp. 381-391.
(99.4)
where
fJ ... (aX + 2p)a,
or, in the static case,
(99.6) ,..V'1t; + (X + "')"" = - (F, - pT.,I.
The system of differential equations (99,6) must be solved subject to
the specified displacements u; or tractions T, on the surface of the body.
The tractions T, can be expressed, of course, in terms of the displacement
derivatives on substituting from (99,5) in
(99.7)
The temperature function T is assumed to be known, and ordinarily it is
determined from the solution of the Fourier heat equation.
It is clear from Eqs. (99.6), (99,7), and (99.5) that the effect of the
temperature change T is equivalent to replacing the body forces F, in
Navier'sequations by F, - {JT., and to substituting T, + pTvdor the sur-
face tractions T, in the boundary conditions. The additional term, {JTv"
is equivalent to a hydrostatic pressure. Thus, formally, the elasto-
static problem with assigned body forces and the thermoelastic problem
are identical. As we have noted already, by introducing suitable partic-
ular integrals the problem involving body forces can always be reduced to
the solution of the homogeneous Navier's equations It is not difficult to
write down a particular integral for (99.6) when the body forces F, have
potentials, I For let us assume a solution of (99.6) in the form
(99,8)
and
V'u; = rp,;a.
On substituting in (99.6), we get
j.lrp.;kk + (X + p)rp.kki = -ft'i + {JT."
and if there exists a potential <I> such that Fi = -<1>,;, we can write,
(A + 2p)rp,Ui = (<I> + PT),;•.
The integration of these equations with respect to X; yields
1
'I'.u := X + 2,.. (<I> + (3T) + const.
L We recall thai this is "lways the case with the gravitstionalsnd centrifugal forces.
THREE-'&IMENSIONAL PROBLEl\IS 361
Bintle we are concerned only with the determination of particular
integrals, it suffices to Beek an integral of the Poisson equation
1
'P.,", = >. + 21' (\1> + fJT).
Such an integral can be taken in the form of the gravitational potential
(99.9) If'
(x) = _ _!_
41r J.
r p(x' ) d1'(X ' )
r(x, x')
due to a distribution of matter of density
1
p =h + 21' (\1> + fJT).
In the solution (99.9), rex, x') is the distance from the point (x) with
coordinates x, to the point (x') with coordinates x:, and the integration is
performed with respect to the primed variables. Once If' is determined
from (99.9), the desired particular integral is given by the formulas
(99.8). We note that, when the body forces vanish, the function p in
(99.9) is simply
_ fJ
p - h + 21' T.
Borchardt' has made use of integrals of the form (99.9) in the general
discussion of the thermoelastic problems and in solving certain special
problems for spheres and circular plates subjected to asymmetric tem-
perature distributions. A method of integration of the thermoelastic
equations, with the aid of integrals similar to those of Betti and Somig-
liana, was outlined by Rosenblatt. 2 Goodier, Mindlin, Cheng, 'and
Mykelstad used integrals of the type (99.9) to study the effect of special
temperature distributions in the infinite and semi-infinite elastic solids.'
Instead of dealing with Eqs. (99.6) we can start with Cauchy's equa-
tions,
1'.;.; + Fi = 0,
where the 1'ij satisfy appropriate compatibility conditions. The latter
can be written down at once from (24.14) by replacing the Fi in (24.14)
by the "effective body force components," Fi - /3T. i• Another way of
where primes denote the derivatives with respect to r. The general solu-
tion of this equation has the form'
The lower limit rl in the particular integral (100.4) can be chosen ill any
convenient, but definite, manner.
On noting (100.1), we get
stresses in plates and rods are discussed in Chap. 14 of Timoshenko and Goodier',
Theory of Elasticity (1951).
• This problem and the corresponding problem for the circular cylinder were first
IIOI.ved by Duhamel in the mllmoir cited in See. 99. An independent solution was
alIo given by F. Neumann in 1841. There are numerous papers on these problems
rediscovering the DuhlUllel-Neumann solution; some of these contain e1aborate
eaJeulations.
• Cf. (114.3).
THREJl-DlMENSlONAL PBOBLJilMS 363
and, on making use of this formula in (99.5), we find
Hence,
- - (a
J.' -Toal o
'PO=-1 - - 1 ) r dr 2
r3 at a2 - al r
= Toal _! [a,(r' - aD, _ r' - af].
a, - a1 r' 2 3
On performing elementary calculations, we find,
T. =
aETo a,a,
1---'--'
- qa, - a,
[+1
as - -r (al + a,a, +
Ih af) + alai]
-a-
,. '
T, "" aET. ~ [a l + a, - ..!. (a) + alGs + a.') _ alai].
l-qal-af 2r 2"
1 We omit details ot simple calculations quite identical with thOlre PIlrlormed in
See. 94.
364 MATHl!)MATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Since T. > 0 for To > 0, the hoop stress is a monotone increasing func-
tion, 80 that the largest value of T, is on the outer surface of the shell.
The extreme value of T. occurs when 1 r' = 3aiai/(ai + ala. + a:).
101. Two-dimensional Thermoelastic Problems. The state of stress
induced in a long cylindrical body by the distribution of temperature,
which does not vary along the length of the cylinder, can be determined
by solving the familiar problem in plane elasticity. For if we take the
xraxis along the length of the cylinder and assume that the temperature
T(X1, x.) is independent of the x.-coordinate, then the stress components
T,.; will not depend on x,. These stress components can be balanced by
the application of suitable longitudinal forces and bending couples applied
to the ends of the cylinder, so that its cross sections remain plane. If,
now, the solution of the plane-deformation problem is superimposed on
the solution of the simple problems of tension and pure bending, the
result will represent a valid solution of the original problem not too near
the ends of the cylinder.
We thus need consider only the plane-deformation problem wherein
Ua = 0, (a = 1,2).
Since
e'j = Yz (14,j + Uj,') , (i, j = 1, 2, 3),
e13 = en = ea. = 0, and we see from (99.5) that'
7'13 = 7'23 = 0,
(101.1)
{
7'.~ = Xu",o.~ + Il(U.,~ + u#,.) - kT0a#,
1'33 = Xu", - kT.
From the second of these equations we find that
7'•• + 2kT
U"r = 2(A + Il) ,
so that
X kll
(101.2) T .. = 2(X + Il) 7'0. - X + Il T.
Thus, the longitUdinal stress component 1'33 is completely determined by
To. = 1'11 + 7'22 and T,
For the determinatiolJ of the 7'.~ we have the equilibrium equations,
(101.3) 7' a#,~ = 0,
which are identically satisfied if we take
(101.4) 7'11 = W. n , 7"2 = - W,n, Tt! = W,n,
(101.12) U,l + iU" = i/.'.. (T, + iT,) lis + V,l + iV,s + coIlllt
"" 11(8) + il,(s) + const on C.
This is precisely the boundary-value problem we have considered in
detail in Chap. 5.
When the flow of heat is steady,
V'T = 0,
and it follows from (101.5) that W is biharmonic. In this ease we can
take V ... 0, and we conclude from the foregoing that the state 01 stress
induced in a cylinder by the steady heat flow i8 identical with that present in
the same cylinder at constant temperature (that is, with T = 0) under the same
sur/ace loading. Reference here is made only to the stress components
'T'-IJ (a, 13 = 1, 2). The stress 'T'33 necessary to maintain the state of plane
deformation is given by the formula (101.2). The straiIlll and, of course,
the displacements do depend on T(Xl, x.), and they can be computed
from (101.1) once the 'T'a~ are determined.
As a corollary to the italicized statement just above, we can state that,
when the cross section of the cylinder is simply connected and the cylinder
is free of external loads, the steady heat flow produces no stresses r-IJ.
These remarkable results, pertaining to the steady heat flow in cylinders,
were established by Muskhelishvili,l who was also respoIlllible for an
interesting physical interpretation of the discontinuous, or multiple-
valued, displacements that arise in the study of the thermoelastic problems
in multiply connected domaiIlll.
A comprehensive treatment of the two-dimensional thermoelastic
problems, based on methods developed in Chap. 5, is contained in a
dissertation "Thermal Stresses in Long Cylindrical Bodies," University
of Wisconsin (1939), by Gatewood.' As an illustration Gatewood con-
siders the deformation of a composite circular cylinder with a concentric
circular core when the temperature T(r) is a function of the radius r. He
also solves the problem for a composite circular cylinder with an eccentric
circular core when the temperature T is cOIllltant. It is easy to show that,
1 N. I. Muskhelishvili, Bulletin oj 1M Electrotechnical Imtitule, Petrograd, vol. 13
(1916), pp. 23--37; Atti tW.l4 occademia nazionale tki Lincti, Rendictmti, ClaM. di
8cieMe ji3iche, matemaliehe • natural.., Rom.. aero 5, vol. 31 (1922), pp. 548-551. A
detailed discussion is also _tained in Muskheliahvili'. monograph Some Ba.aie
Problema of the Mathematiea.l Theory of EJaatieity (1963), pp. 157-165.
• See also B. E. Gatewood, p~ M~, aer. 7, vol. 32 (1941), pp 282
301.
THREE-lHMENSIONAL PROBLEMS 367
when the cylinder is of radius a and the temperature T(r) is a function
of the radius alone, then 1
T.... == .;
a 10f" rT(r) dr - ~r 10[' T(r) dr,
roe
a
= ~ 10fa rT(r) dr + -;.
r 10
t rT(r) dr,
rre = O.
same for each particle. Thus, the general motion of the system of n
degrees of freedom can be represented by a linear combination of n simple
harmonic motions with n distinct frequencies. These frequencies are
determined by solving the secular equation which is completely deter-
mined by the quadratic forms representing kinetic and potential energies
of the system.'
When the system is continuous, the corresponding secular equation has
infinitely many real roots and hence infinitely many characteristic June-
ti(}1l.8 representing normal modes of vibration. These characteristic
functions are solutions of the differential equations of motion with
appropriate boundary conditions. Thus, in dealing with small free
vibrations of an elastic solid, the characteristic functions, satisfy the
equations
(102.1) in r,
and the homogeneous boundary conditions
(102.2) Ti/Pj = 0 on 2:, for all t,
that correspond to the absence of external surface forces. Since normal
oscillations are simple harmonic, it is natural to Beek particular solutions
of this system in the form
(102.3) Ui(X, t) = U:(Xl, X" x.) cos (wt + E).
On inserting this in (102.1), we find that the functions u: satisfy the
equations
(102.4)
with ~' = uti' The solution of Eqs. (102.4) satisfying the boundary
conditions (102.2) is known to exist only for a denumerable set Wk (k = 1,
2, . . . ) of values of 101, all of which are real. Thus, the characteristic
functions are
(102.5) ulk)(x, t) = u: Ck ) cos (Wkt + e), (k = 1,2, . . .),
where the u:(t, are the appropriate solutions of (102.4). One then con-
cludes that every oscillation of the body can be represented in the series
.
1);; = L Akul
k-I
t
),
where the Ak are suitable constants, whenever the ulk ) are orthogonal
with respect to the region under consideration. 2
1 See, for example, E. T. Whittaker, Analytiea.I Dynamics, Chap. 7, or H. Goldetein,
Quaieal Mecha1!ics, Chap. 10.
• The mode of 8Olution described here is precisely that UIIed in aoIviq the probllml
of lIQl&Il traoaYer8e 'Vibrations of an elastic string by the Fourier method. The A. are
determined from condition. ebaracterisinc the initial diaturbance.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS 369
It is tolerably clear that the determination of charaeteristic functions,
even for such simple regions as spheres and cylinders, is accompanied by
very laborious computations.
As a simple example we consider the determination of these functions
for the problem of oscillation of a sphere, every particle of which executes
a vibration in the radial direction. We take
(102.6) u, = zd(r) cos (wt + .)
where r' = X;Z;. Then
(102.7) u: = zd(r).
On substitution from (102.7) in (102.4), we find that the function fer) is
required to satisfy the equation,
values of the six lowest roote of thi8 transcendental equation for ~ = p"
which corresponds to IT = ~, are recorded' in Sec. 196, p. 285, of Love's
Treatise.
It ill clear from this simple example that the determiuation of character-
istic functions in the more general case ill extremely difficult.'
103. Wave Propagation in Infinite Regions. If a region ill so large
that the effects of the boundaries can be dillregarded, it ill possible to
represent the disturbance as a sum of two waves propagated with veloci-
ties that depend only on the density and elastic constante of the medium.
Indeed, the displacement vector u can be represented as a sum of two
vectors, one of which is solenoidal and the other irrotational. This leads
to a consideration of two special types of disturbance for one of which
div u = 0 and for the other curl u = O.
N ow if div u = 0, u;" = " = 0 and the general equations
(103.1) ,.~'u; + (X + ,.)"., = pu.,
reduce to
(103.2)
These are familiar wave equations of the form
02U;
(103.3) Tt2 = ctv2u"
where the velocity c of propagated waves ill
(103.4) c= ~
This is the case of an equivoluminal wave propagation, since div u = 0 for
waves moving with this velocity.
On the other hand, when the motion is irrotational, curl u = 0 and the
vector identity
curl curl u = V div u - V'u,
enables one to write (103.1) in the form
(103.5) (X + 2,.)V2u, = ,nl;.
vol. 13 (1882), but the problem of radial VIOlations of the solid sphere was first dia-
cuued by PoiaIIon in 1828. A lIOlution of the correaponding problem for the hollow
sphere is given in Sec. 198 of Love's T.reat.iae.
• The reader mq lind it iDatmctive to - u a JIIIODfI&I'aPh by H. .KoWr:7. sv-
Waves in Solids (19$3), which _taiaa a IIWDIBIII3' of _ t eontriblltieD11 flo
problema of longitudiDal, s..u.oimJal. and 8enraI 'fibration of eylindera.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS 371
We thWl IlOO that the disturbance in an infinite medium can be described
with the aid of two special types of waves; one of these travels with the
equWoluminal velocity Cl = Vii/P, and the other with the irrotational
lIelociJ;g c, = V(~ + 2p)!p. Clearly, c, > Ct.
When the initial disturbance is symmetric about the origin, the dis-
placement is a function of rand t only and Eq. (103.3) can be written as
a!(ru) as
---;)iI = C' ars (rIu).
On recalling the D'Alembert solution of the wave equation, we have
1
11 = j:i F(r - ct) + J.i1 G(r + ct),
where F and G are arbitrary functions. This represents two trains of
spherical waves, one diverging from the source r = 0 with the velocity C
and the other moving toward the source with ihe same velocity. At a
great distance from the source, spherical waves become nearly plane.
This suggests that in an infinite medium plane waves can travel with one
or the other of the velocities found above. A direct verification of this is
simple. When the waves are plane,
(103.7) tIi = Fi(X;,,; - ct),
where the Fi are arbitrary functions and the Vi are the direction cosines
of the normal to the plane of the wave. If we insert (103.7) in (103.1)
and eliminate the Fi from the resulting equations, we get the equation
for c in the form
(pc' - p)(pe' - ~ - 2p) = 0,
which shows that plane waves travel with the equivoluminal and irrota-
tional velocities.
PROBLEMS
II'"
/It' - C:VS... Ct '"'
.Ji+ 2,.
"V~--.
p
and
Cl-= ~.
p
8. Referring to Prob. 1, show that when the gradient and curl are exprellll!d in
cylindrical coordinates (r, '. #), then. in axially symmetric problems,
u, - 0,
Md
(i'", I a", a'", 1 a'",
~+--+-
t
iJr r iJr at' =--,
cl at'
at,y lay, I at,y lat,y
-+-
arJ
- --of+-
r or rt az
= --.
c~ ott l
of - G(r}.'<.H".)
(104.9) C. = 1!..
8
(104.10)
at - S2 + k2 = 0,
{ b2 - 8
2
+ h' = 0,
where
(104.11) k' = PP',
I'
c. = 0.9553 ~.
In either case, C3 is slightly less than the velocity of the equivoluminal
wave.
Having determined C" one can compute a and b with the aid of Eqs.
(104.10) in terms of s and write out the corresponding expressions for the
ua • The rate of attenuation with depth depends on a and b, and it is
easy to see that the waves of higher frequency are attenuated more
rapidly than those of low frequency. Since Ca is independent of wave-
length, there is no dispersion.
Waves roughly similar in appearance to Rayleigh's waves are often
recorded by seismographs. However, seismographic records of distant
earthquakes indicate a dispersion, which is to be expected since the earth
is not a homogeneous medium.
If we consider forced vibrations of the semi-infinite solid by normal
forces P cos (Bl:l - pt) distributed along the xa-axis, we must replace the
boundary conditions (104.13) by
'Tn = }..u...., + 2!'u2,2 = P cos (SXl - pt),
'T12 = !'(U1,2 + U2.l) = o.
Equations corresponding to (104.14) in this case are
2,.asA + [2~! + }..(b2 - s2)]B = P,
(a! + s2)A + 2sbB = O.
These can be solved for A and B. The corresponding expressions for u..,
with x. = 0, give the displacements on the free surface of the solid under
the action of forces P cos (Bl: - pt) distributed along the xa-axis. These
can be generalized l in a familiar way with the aid of Fourier integrals to
provide formulas for the displacements on the free surface due to the
forced vibrations of a more general sort. The analysis of resulting for-
mulas shows that the steady-atate disturbance of tpe free surface con-
sists of three waves one of which moves with velocity Cl, the other with
velocity C., and the third with the Rayleigh velocity Ca.
A similar analysis has been carried out by Lamb for the semi-infinite
1 H. Lamb, PhiloaophictJl T~ of the Royal 8ociet1l (London) (A), vol. 203
01 the Royal8oci.t1l (I..ondon) (A), vol. 93 (1917), p. 114.
(1904); Proceedings
See also S. Timoshenko, Philo8ophical MGglWine, vol. 43 (1922), p. 125, and J. H.
1_, ProeNdingB of the Royal8oci.ty (I..ondon) (A), vol. 102 (1923), p. 554.
376 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
where F(x, y, yf) is a known real function F of the real arguments x, y and
yf "'" dy/dx. The value of the integral (106.1) depends on the choice of
y =0 y(x), hence the notation [(y). We shall use the term functioru'Jl to
describe functions defined by integrals whose arguments themselves are
functions.
To Illake the symbol I(II) meaningful, it is clearly necessary to impose
some restrictions on the choice of the argument y(x) and on the pre-
377
378 MA.'l'HEHATIClAL -TRIiORT 011' JllLASTIClTY
.. , ( dF)
(106.8) "" F. - ~ ,,(x) dx =- O.
/.
Thus the integral (106.8) vanishes for every flex) of class C' satisfying the
condition (106.4), and we conclude thatl
(106.9) F - dF" = 0
v dx '
(106.11) :x (w') - qy - f .. 0,
1 The proof of this lemma, due to Lagrange, is contained in many books. See, for
example, R. Courant and D. Hilbert, Methoden der Mathematischen Physik, vol. 1,
cr 1. S. Sokolnikoff, Te1l8Or Analysis, pp. 154-155.
MATBEMATICAL TBEORY OJ' ELASTICITY
whose solution satisfying the end conditions 1/(Xo) = 1/0, 1/(Xl) = 1/1 actu-
ally minimizes the integral
on the set lu(x, 1/) I of functions of class C', where each u(x, '/I) in the set
takes on the boundary C of the region R specified continuous values
U = <p(8). We suppose that F, viewed as a function of X, '/I, u, Uz , ~ is
of class C' in the appropriate domain of definition of these arguments.
Let us suppose that a certain function u(x, '/I) in the admissible set
actually minimizes (106.15) and that every function 11(x, '/I) in this set
is included in the formula
u(x, 1/) = u(x, '/I) + t7J(x, '/I),
where E is a small parameter. Since u = <p(s) on the boundary of R,
7J(x, 1/) = 0 on C. We form the integral l(u + E7J) and observe that
&I = II
It
(F.. - a:;. - a:;.) '1 d.x dy
+ II [tx
It
(FUzfl) + ;Y (F...fI)] dx dy
and apply Green's Theorem to the second integral. We get
(106.17) H = g
"R
(Fu - a:;, - a:;.) fI dx dy
+ I
c
fI(Fu.dy - Fu.dx).
(106.20)
We can easily show that the solution of this equation, satisfying the
boundary condition (106.22), makes the functional (106.21) an absolute
minimum on the set of all functions of class C2 taking on C the values
11'(8). Indeed, let l1(x, y) be any function in such set, and we define
,,(x, 11) by writing
u(x, y) = u(x, y) + 'I(x, y),
where u(x, y) is the solution of (106.23) and 'I(x, y) = 0 on C.
But
AI "" I(u) - I(u)
= U[Cu. + '1.)2 + (uv + 'Iy)' + 2f(u + 'I») dx dy
-g [(U.)2 + (Uy)' + 2fu) dx dy
= 2 U (u.'1z + 1t.'Iv + f'1) dx dy + g [('I.)' + ('1.)2) dx dy.
so that
AI = -2 ff 'I(V'u - f) dx dy + U [('I.)' + ('I.)'] dx dy,
tion ';T ofthe surface ,;, and we shall suppose that over the remaining
part ,;.. the displacements are known. Denote the displacements of the
equilibrium state by Ut, and consider a class of arbitrary displacements
u; + 6u;, consistent with constraints imposed on the body. This means
that, over the portion 2:.. of 2: where the displacements are assigned, the
functions 6u; vanish, but, over the part 2:T, the 6U; are arbitrary save for
the condition that they belong to class C' and are of the order of magni-
tude of displacements admissible in linear elasticity. We shall term such
arbitrary displacements 6u; the virtual displacements. The virtual work
au performed by the external forces F, and T; in a virtual displacement
6u; is defined by the equation
(107.1)
and we recall from Sec. 26 that the strain energy U is given by the
formula
[26.8] U == I. W d...,
where'
[26.16] w = :2>. {J2 + p.e'je;j'
The strain energy U is equal to the work done by the external forces on
the body in the process of bringing the body from the natural state to
the equilibrium state characterized by the displacements u;.
Since the volume ... is fixed and the T; and F, do not vary when the
arbitrary variations 6u; of the displacements are considered, (107.1) call
be written in the form
1 The considerations of this and following sections need not be restricted to isotropic
and, therefore,
where
(107.10)
I
Q"" J. P dT ~ O.
But if the body is in equilibrium,
T'M = -F, in T,
'Tij'IJi = T, on ~,
and, therefore,
The contribution from the surface integral in this inequality is zero, since
on the part ~T of ~, where the T, are assigned, Ti;Vj = To and over the
remaining part, ~.., the au. vanish. This is so because of our hypothesis
concerning the character of admissible functions U; + ou;. Consequently,
(107.13)
M!l.THEMATlCAL 'l'KilORY 01' ELASTICITY
(107.15) at P.
('(llIstruct a sphere S with center at P and with radius a so small that
(107.15) holds throughout this sphere. Choose next the DU, as follows:
PROBLEM
Consider the ease in which there are no body forees and the displacements u; are
preeeribed _ r the entire surface 2:. Show from Eq. (107.11) that the increment AU
in attain energy is positive in this ease And that the equilibrium displacements yield.
1\ minimum value for thp strain enel1O' U.
VARIATIONAL METHODS 387
108. Theorem of Minimum Complementary Energy. We proceed to
establish another important minimum theorem which depends on the
notion of va.ried states of streBB.
Let a body T be in equilibrium under the action of body forces F. and
surface forces Ti assigned over a part 2:T of the surface 2:. On the
remaining part 2:.. of 2: the displacements u.; are assumed to be known.
In special cases the Ti (or u.;) may be prescribed over the entire surface.
H the Tij are the stress components of the equilibrium state, then
Ti;.; + Fi = 0 in T,
(108.1) 'TijVj = Ti on 2:T,
{
Ui =f, on 2:".
We introduce a set of functions T:j of class C2 in T, which we shall also
write as
(108.2)
with the following properties:
l. in the interior of r, the T:j satisfy the equations
(108.3)
2. on the part 2:T of 2:
(108.4)
3. on the part 2: .. of 2:, \he r:j Il.re arbitrary.
It follows from these equations that the variations M-ij satisfy the
conditions,
(orij),j = 0 in r,
(108.5) (M-ij) Vi = 0 on 2:T,
{
or,; are arbitrary on 2:".
It should be observed that the To; are associated with the equilibrium
state of the body and hence they satisfy the Beltrami-Michell compati-
bility equations, but we do not assume that the M-i; satisfy any such
conditions.
We consider now the strain-energy density W in the form- (26.17),
[26.17J
tl.U = f.tl.WdT,
produced by replacing the Ti; in (26.17) by T:j = Tij + M-ij. We have
W + tl.W =
1+ (Til + a-rv){Tii + M-ij)
2E IT
- 2E (9
IT
+ 09)1,
where 89 "" "'ii.
388 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
(108.6)
{
r;;,; + Fo = 0 in r,
TijJlj = T, on 2:.
This theorem is usually associated with the name of CastigliarlO.
The converse of the Theorem of Minimum Complementaty Energy
can be proved in a manner analogous to that used in the proof of the
converse of the Theorem of Minimum Potential Energy. E!ince such
proof presents no elements of novelty, we dispense with details and
merely sketch the procedure.
We suppose that by some means we have obtained a tensor To; satisfy-
ing the equilibrium equations and assigned boundary conditions on ,l;.
We further suppose that this tensor is such that AV· ;::: O. We use AU
in the form i
AU = 1. e
~ q To; - i e8 i;) 81'0; d1' +
The variations aT;; in this formula satisfy the equations (81';;)" = 0,
1. W(81';;) dr,
and hence they can be expressed as denvatives of the stress fU1lCtions Pij.
Calculations, analogous to those in Sec. 107, lead to the fortnQla
J. B;;Fo;dr + Q ;::: 0,
I Bee (108.6).
390 MATHEMATICAL 'ftlIlORT OJ' ELASTICITY
where Q is essentially positive and the Bij are expressions formed from
the derivatives of the T,;. Next a special choice of the F,; is made which
violates this inequality if one supposes that Bij F- 0 at some point of T.
The conclusion is that
'See also V. D. Kliuahnikov, PriI:l. Mat. MMh., AJcademilf4 Noule 8IJlJR, vol. 18
(1954), pp. 250-252.
t See, for example, E. Reiasner, JOV1'II4l oj M~ lind PApke, vol. 27 (IlKS),
pp.159-1GO.
VABL\TlONAL METHODS 391
where the Divergence Theorem has been used. Carrying out the indi-
cated differentiation leads to
and we see that the integral, and hence the original expression, is sym-
metric with respect to the primed and unprimed states. That is, we can
write
(109.2)
or
MATHEMATICAL THEORY 01' ELASTICITY
(109.3)
with
that is,
11: Tiui do- + /. F;'Uj d., = /;:; Tju; do- + IT Fiu; d."
The value of the Reciprocal Theorem lies in the fact that, for every
choice of values for the variables of the primed state T I, F I, ui, one
obtains a theorem relating the applied forces T i , F" and displacements
U; in an elastic body. This is exemplified in the problems at the end of
this section and in the theorems we now proceed to derive as special cases
of the Reciprocal Theorem.
We write out now an important specialization of the Reciprocal
Theol'flD, to the case of a body deformed by concentrated forces. For the
1 It sJ;tould be noted that the Reciprocal Theorem depends only on the linearity of
the equations of equilibrium and hence on the principle of superposition. We assume
thAt the forees Pi, T, do not depend on the displa.eements ..; and that the displace-
ments u, do not affect the forees P:, T;.
VARIATIONAL METHODS 393
sake of concreteness, we shall speak of a beam bent by point loads.
Assume that the body forces vanish, and write the Reciprocal Theorem
in the form
/: T,u; dtr = /: T;u. ck
Consider two equilibrium states of a beam, one with load p(x) and deflec-
tion y(x), and another with load p'(x) and corresponding deflection
y'(x). By the Reciprocal Theorem, we have
Similarly, for the load p' in (109.4), we take the force Po; the associated
displacements y' at the points Xl, X. are
or
that is,
(109.5)
F~ ., F.,
T. on }; - 2:',
n = { T. + AT, on };',
and get1
= J. F.u: dT + f
't %:
T,u: dtr + f:Z:' (AT.)ui dtr.
Equation (109.6) can thus be written as
PllOBLEMS
1. Consider a beam loaded by concentrated forces P r at Zr and P. at z" and let 1(1
be the deflection at XI' Calculate the additional dellections d'llj and the change dU
in the strain energy "corresponding to a change dP I in the force PI. Show that
o'U
au == BP! aPt'
and hence that
lI. Show that the inlluence coofficients for a cantilever beam are
and (see See. 110) verify that the strain energy stored in the beam is
Z' 3EI
U= 6EI P ' = 21,6',
s. In the Reciprocal Theorem, take F; == 0, T~i = a,;. Show that T; = T';i"i =- Jli)
I 1-20-' , 1-20-
9' :=; .,.;, = 3, e'/" -E-- a'h and Uj = ~ Xi. Insert these expressions in
(109.2), and derive the following expression for the change in volume AVo in an elastic
body under the action of surface forces T, and body forces F,:
40. Fill in the details of the following direct calculation of the change in volume AV.
of an elastic body T under the action of surface forces T, and body forces F,:
396 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
.. Show that the average value of a strain component eu, say, througbout an elaRie
body subjected to surface forces T, and body forces F" can be found fron>. the Recipro-
ca.! Theorem in the form (109.3) by putting T:, - 1, other Tij - O. Derive the
formula.
II
~_()
(<TXT•• + "I/T•• ) d:t dy + II (-..",... -
.-1
"YT•• + /T,,) d:t dy
- -E If wd:tdy + E If w d:t d1l
.DO .-l
which is valid for the stress system in any beam free of body forces and loaded at the
ends. Verify the Reciprocal Theorem by taking the longitudinal displacement wand
the stresses T'j to be those of the problem of bending by end couples.
8. Define the strain deviations by e;i
eij - ,Ma,j + e;l;
thu.t is,
~-~+~, ~-~t~ ~~~+~
e::IJJI = e. lI , ell' = e"., e'::IJ == e•• ,
where U" '" U(e .. + e•• + e,,) is the mean extension.
Show that the cubical dilatation
and hence that the strain-deviation ten.or represents a change in shape without a
change in volume.
Show that the principal strains eI and the principal strain deviations e; are con-
nected by the relations
Hint: The principal strain deviations are the roots of the determinant&! equation
1.;1 - .'B'II - O.
•• Define the "tress deviation by "':1
"'I a= J,~e8'i + r:f J
or
--~+~ ~-~t~ -;~+~
T;II)W ==. 'T" IP Ttf_ == Til.' T'/kZ == T.*,
where %,0 '" H(T•• + T •• + "...) is the mean normal stres.. Show that the lItre8II-
deviation and strain-deviation tensors are related by
nlld that
VAIiUATlONAL METHODS 397
Show that the principal a~ deviations T; and the principal nre- T, are connected
by the relations
1"; .. 1'l - !oie, T~lI - 1'111 - ~e.
10. Verify the identity
". ... (e •• + e•• + e..)'
= 3(e!. + e:. + e:.) - (e .. - e•• )' - (e •• - e..)' - (e" - •••)',
and show that the strain-energy density can be written in the form
W= W,+W,
where
W, = 7lk".,
W. = HI'[(e•• - e•• )' + (e•• - en)' + (e •• - e•• )' + 6(.;. + e;. + e:O)]
- HI'(e:. - .~.)' + (.~. - e;.)' + (':. - ';.)' + 6(.:'. + e.: + e::)],
and where .;; is the strain-deviation tensor. Show that W, depends only on the change
of volume, while W. is that part of the strain-energy density arising from a change of
shape. We call W, the strain-energy density of dilatation and W, the stram-energy
density of distortion.
11. From e = 3kD and r:;
= 21";; (see Prob. 9), show that the strain-energy density
W can be written as the sum of the strain-energy density of dilatation W, and the
strain-energy density of distortion W" where
W, - __!_ e'
lSk '
W. = 1~1' [(T.. - Tn)' + (T.. - r ..)'+ (T.. - T..)' + 6(T!. + T~. + T:')]
... 1;/0' [(,.:z - T~,,)l + (T~. - ,.:.)1 + (T~. - 1":2:)2 + 6(T:~ + T~~ + T:!)].
The strain-energy density of distortion has been used as a criterion for failure of the
material. See S. Timoshenko, Strength of Materials, vol. 2 (or Theory of Elasticity,
p. 1(9), and A. and L. Foppl, Drang und Zwang, vol. 1, See. 6.
lS. Consider a beam stretched by a longitudinal stress p uniformly distributed over
the end sections. Show that the strain-energy density of dilatation W, and that of
distortion W. are given by
p'
W, - lSk'
W. _ J!.!. _ 2(1+ ..) W,.
61' 1 - 2..
Show that in tbe torsion of a cylindrical shaft we have
W,-o, W! --
r' 1(
2; .. 2; T.., + , ) 1". . . .
l3. Show that the strain ~!lergy stored in a beam of length I (parallel to the %-&Xis)
hent by end couples M. can be written as
W. M'J
J. Wdr - It
l
U - T 0
--cia:
281. - - -.
281.
UO. lllustrative Eumples. As an illustration of the use of the mini-
mum principles in deriving the equilibrium and compatibility equations,
we consider several specific problems.
HATBJ!lJI(ATlCAL THBOltT 0'6' lIILA.8TlClTY
V = U - J~J(x)y!lx,
where the strain energy U is equal to the product of the tensile force T by
the total stretch e of the string. But
and since we are dealing with the linear theory, (y')'« 1, and we can
write
e = ~E (y')2!lx.
Consequently,
U = -
2
Tll 0
(y')'!lx
'
and, finally,
V = fa [~T(y')2 - J(x)y] !lx.
This functional has the form (106.12), and we see from (106.11) that the
appropriate Euler's equation is
Ty" + f(x) = O.
This is the familiar equation for the transverse .deflection of the string
under the loadf(x).
b. Dejlectibn of the Central Line of a Beam. Let the axis of a beam of
constant crass section coincide with the x-axis, and suppose that the beam
is bent by a transverse load p = J(x) estimated per unit length of the
beam. As is customary in the technical theory of beams, we suppose
that the shearing stresses are negligible in comparison with the tensile
stress
My
1"·-1
The strain 6". is then given by
T_ My
e""-E=Er
VAlUATIONAL lUCTBOJl6 399
and thus, from (26.12). the strain-energy density is,
1 M'y'
W == 2 'rue.. = 2EIs'
The strain energy per unit length of the beam is found by integrating
over the cross 8et'tion of the beam, and we get
JR W da = %EI(y")2.
The total strain energy U is got by integrating this expression over the
length of the beam, and we find
U = f~ %EI(y")2 dx.
We suppose that the ends of the beam are clamped, hinged, or free so
that the supporting forces do no work and hence contribute nothing to
potential energy V. If we neglect the weight of the beam, the only
external load is p = I(x) and (107.5) then yields
V = J; %EI(y")' dx - J: f(x)y dx
= f; [%EI(y")l - f(x)yJ dx.
This functional has the form (106.13), and the Euler equation, therefore,
is
d'
dx' (Ely") - f(x) = o.
I StrietIy ~ing we Are calculating th4! ine_ in strain energy OYer the coosta.nt
~ U.produced by thestretehing forces T. Since U. is coosta.nt and we a.re'eon-
cemed with the variation of the total energy, we can disregard U..
400 MATHJIlKATlCAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
v:
where dII "" V u: + + 1 is the element of area of the mentbJ&lle in the
deformed state. H the displacement u and ita first derivati"(es are small,
we can write
e == ~ If (u; + U:) rkdy,
It
and hence
u = U + u:)
~ (u! rk dy.
Therefore
V = g[~ + (u! u;) -lex, y)u] rk dy.
(108.10] V* = u- J Z.
Till; d0-
'
the surface integral must be evaluated only over the ends of the cylinder,
since the external forces are known over its law.ral surface, We recall
that
u= 1. W d,.,
w= ~1"'JlIJ ... (Tue.. + T,..e.,,).
Using the stress-strain relations
we find
VAlUATIONAL lOlTIIODS 401
and hence
u= i,.l (T:c + T:.) dT.
To compute the surface integral in (108.10), we make use of (110.1) and
get, for the end z = 0,
fa T."U; dtr = 0,
(110.3) in R,
(110.5)
av
T .. =-p,C<ax·
av dy
( ay + av dx) = 0
JU% lis oX dB '
or
dv =0
lis .
Thus, v has a constant value on C.
On substituting from (110.5) in (110.2), we get
But
80 that
where the admissible functions u(x, y) belong to class C' and satisfy on
the boundary C m R the conditions
u = g(8),
(111.2)
I du
dll == 1(11).
VARIATIONAL METHODS
61 = al(u
a.
+ Efj) I.-0.
and find
(111.3) 01 = 2 ff (V·uV", -
B
1'1) dx dy.
The first two integrals in the right-hand member of this identity are in
the form to which the Divergence Theorem is applicable, and we get,
01 = 0 (r = 1, 2, . . . ,k).
oa, '
If the solutions of this system minimizing ley) are ai, then the minimizing
fun"tion ii(x) is
ii(x) = '('(x, ai, a., . . . , ak).
It is reasonable to expect that ii(x) will be a fair approximation to the
minimizing function y*(x) when the number of parameters in (112.3) is
made sufficiently large.
We proceed next to construct a sequence lii,.(x) I of functions ?i..(z)
such that lim I(y .. ) = m. Consider a sequence of families of functions
of the type (112.3), namely
YI(X) = '('1(X, a,),
Y2(X) = !P.(x, a" a.),
(112.4) 1
1~..(x; ~. ;,,(x: ~1: ~2" .. ,a.),
MATHEMATICAL TH1!lORY 0)1' ELASTICITY
where the family 1/.... ".(x, aI, as, . . . ,a.)' includes in it ali functions
in the families with subscripts less than k. The parameters (I; in each 1/-
can be determined so as to minimize the integral 1(1;). We denote them
by a. and the minimizing functions by
(112.5) g.(x) = ",,,(x, ai, as, •.. , a..), (n = 1,2, . . .).
Since each family Vk(X) includes the families Y._1(X) for special values of
parameters (1;, the successive minima I(,U.) are nonincreasing and we can
write
I{ih) ~ I(ys) ~ ....
Since the infinite sequence II (Y ..) J is bounded below by m, it is con-
vergent, but it need not converge to the minimum I(y*) = m; In
order to ensure the convergence of the sequence I I (Yn) I to 1(1;*), one
must impose Bome restrictions on the choice of functions '(>; in the set
(112.4). These restrictions pertain to a special character of approxima-
tion of every admissible function y(x) by functions of the set (112.4).
DEJl'INITlON: Let Vex), of class O' in (xo, x,) 8atisfy the end conditions
1/(xo) == 1/0, y(x.) = y.. If, for every E > 0, there exist8 in the family
(112.4) a function y:(x) = y .. (x, at, a~, . . . ,a:) such that Iv! - 111 < E
and Iv:' - 11'1 < Efor all x in (xo, x.), then the set of junctiofi.s (112.4) i88aid
to be relatively complete.
We prove next that when the Bet (112.4) is relatively complete the
sequence 19,,1, defined by (112.5), is such that lim I(Y .. ) = I(y*) = m.
Indeed, when the set (112.4) is relatively complete, there exists a func-
tion 1/:(x, a~, a~, . . . , a::) that approximates arbitrarily closely both
the exact solution y·(x) of the problem I(y) = min and the derivative of
1/* (x). That is,
(112.6) Iy: - y*1 < E, Iy:' - y*'1 < E.
But F(x, y, y') is a continuous function of its arguments, and therefore
IF(x, y:;, y:') - F(x, y .. , y*')1 <E
for Xo :S x :S x•.
Consequently·
I(y:) - I(y·) =
%'
[F(x, y:, y:') - F(x, y., 1/.')] ax < f',
[
."
and therefore,
(112.7) I(y:) < I(y·) + E'.
But y! is a function of the set (112.4), and since I(jJ.) is a minimwn of
1(y) on the family Y., we have
VARIATIONAL :METHODS 407
Combining the inequaJities (112.7) and (112.8), we get
I(y*) ::; I(jj.) ::; ley!) < l(y") + E',
but e' can be made as small as we wish, and hence
lim I(ii.) = I(y*) = m.
nomials f a~(l
k-l
- x). The fact that these polynomials are relatively
PROBLEMS
I The derivatives 1/:(3:), however, may not converge to 1/·'(z). See for example, L.
V. Kantorov.ich and V. I. Krylov, Approximate Methods of Higher Analysis, 4th ed.
(1952), pp. 28&-285.
• See, for example, E. C. Titchmarsh, Theory of Functiona, 2d ed. (1939), p. 414.
In the problema considered above I/'(z) is continuous in (0, 1); h _ it can be approxi-
Compute the potential energy V corresponding to this choice of deflection, and deter-
mine c by minimizing V. Show that the maximum deflection found from the formula
80 obtained is 1/(1) - 0.12603pl'/EI and the maximum bending moment
y. -
i-I
i cd,ex),
where the functions /lex) I!&tisfy all the boundary conditions. Show tht.t, if the ends
of the beam are clamped, hinged, or free, then the minimizing condition can be written
iDthef_
a~ .. to [(HI'll::)" - pl!, dz - O.
,. In the problem of & ealitilever bent by an end 1* P, tab for the .-umed do&c-
"OQrftthe~
HIy(lII) - _. + ..,
VARlATIONAL METHODS 409
which satisfies the geometrical boundary conditions
yeo) = y'(O) = o.
Determine the constants a, b from the Principle of Minimum Potential Energy.
(113.6) u = 0, QU
QP
= ° on C,
(113.7) fJ (VIu.V'tpJ -
B
ftpj) ax dy
= q!
iI i-I
(a;V2""V'tpj - f'Pi) ax dy = 0, (j = 1, 2, .•• , n).
and from the assumed rEtlative completeness of our set of coordinate func-
tions it is easy to show that 1('Ii.) ...... l(u·), where u· minimizes (113.4).
Moreover, it turns out l that in this problem the hypothesis of relative
completeness suffices to establish convergence of !1i..} to This 11·.
may seem odd because the corresponding hypothesis does not suffice
to establish the convergence of {u.1 to u· for the simpler functional
UM + u;) ax dy, associated with the problem of Dirichlet. However,
associated with the Poisson equation \7'u = f(x, !f), OIle considers the
functional
PROBLEM
Show that the system of equations iJlij(u,> - 0 (j = I, 2, . . . , n), for the deter-
a;
n
mination of coefficients in the minitnizinlli funl'lion IZ. I Q.,,,,,(:.r, y) fo. the problem
=
.-1
I(u) = ff (u~ +
X
u! + 2/u) dx ely = min, u = U un L',
ia
~ijrpl + au.~ +1 .)dzd _0,
JJ(f \'8%ilz iJy all tf', 1/ (j - 1, 2, . . . • n).
R "
the functional leu). In Sec. 112, for example, we chose the smallness of
numbers En = max IYn(x) - y(x)1 and max I y~(x) - y'(X) I for all x in
(Xo, Xl) as our criterion of. goodness of approximation. This criterion is
unduly severe, since in practice it is impossible to measure physical
quantitiea at a single point. Thus, in measuring strains or displacements
in an elastic body, the strain gages and similar devices do not record the
desired values at a point, but rather over some region about the point.
This suggests adopting as a criterion for the goodness of approximation
of YK(X ) to Vex) not the value En but some function of this quantity. For
example, one can take, as a measure of the magnitude of the error, the
integral of the square of the deviation from exact values. This is given by
(114.1) o. =
1,." Iy.(x) - y(x) I' ax,
and when 0....... 0 as n -+ 00, Yn(X ) is said to converge to VeX) in the mean.
This is a weaker type of convergence than the uniform convergence,
based on the criterion lim En = O.
Practically all recent investigations of convergence of various direct
methods in variational calculus and numerical analysis are based on some
such criterion as (114.1). The most effective tool in such investigations
proved to be the theory of operators in Hilbert spaces.'
The difficult problem of estimating errors in successive approximations
by the Ritz method was treated quite fully by Krylov' in connection
with those variational problems whose Euler's equations are linear and
ordinary. The corresponding problem, relating to multiple integrals, is
vastly more involved. Some important results were obtained by
L. V. Kantorovich and are recorded in his Uspekhi paper. No recital of
references on approximate methods in applied mathematics can fail to
include a superb monograph by L. V. Kantorovich and V. 1. Krylov,
1 See, for example, papers by K. Friedrichs in M aU!.ematuche Annalen, vol. 1O'J
(115.2) u.(x, y) =
"
L
ai'l'i(x, y),
i- 1
where the 'l'i are suitable coordinate functions and the ai are constants.
In regard to the 'l'i we shall suppose that they satisfy the same boundary
conditions as the exact solution u(x, y) and that t he set l'I'i} is complete
in the sense .that every piecewise continuous function f(x, y) can be
j - l
CJ'I'i in such a way that
(115.3)
l
ft
properties, and considers the nth partial sum u. '= 0...", then the
i-I
orthogonality condition
(115.6) g (1
L a;'Pi) 'Pi ax dy = 0, (i = 1, 2, . . . ,n),
tiona of our problem, in the series ~(x, 1/) - l ",<p;, and suppose that L(u..) -+ L(u)
(j = 1,2, . . . ,n).
But
-11R
V·U.IP; dx dy.
But this is precisely in the form (115.5), since the Euler equation asso-
ciated with this problem is L(u) == V'u - I = O.
In a similar way it follows that the system of Ritz's equations
connected with the functional (113.4), can be cast in the Galerkin form'
V (V·u. - J)IP; dx dy = 0, (j = 1, 2, . . . ,n).
- r v~.
II({ V·uV.., th d7l" ij(f vV'u dz d71 + Jc( V'u!!!!.d8
Ib Jc 8 •
• Ya. I. Perelman, Priid. Mot. MekA.• Akademiua Nalik 888R. vol. 5 (1941),
pp. 345-358.
416 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OJ' ELASTICITY
PR.OBLEMS
1. Recast the system of equations in Prob. 1, Sec. 112, in the GaJerkin form.
t. Solve Prob. 2, Sec. 112, by the Galerkin method.
116. Applications to Torsion of Beams and Deformation of Plates.
We saw in Sec. 110 that the determination of Prandtl's stress function ir
from the system
V'ir = -2 in R,
(116.1) { ir = 0 on C,
is related to the problem of minimizing the complementary energy V*,
or, what is the same thing, to minimizing the functional
(116.2) I(ir) = ff [(Vir)' - 4ir] dx dy.
R
J'0 fA
-0 -A (V2irl + 2)'P' dx dy = 0,
f~o f_AA [2(y' - BS)a, + 2(x' - A ')a, + 2](x' - A ')(y2 - B2) dx dy
= O.
We find on integration that
12%5 A aBaCA 2 + B2)a, - '3%A 3B' = 0,
so that
5 1
(116.5) al = 4A' + B'
t We discarded the odd powers of x and 1/ because 'I'(x, 1/) is obviously an even
~
VARIATIONAL METHODS 417
Approximate values of the torsional rigidity D and maximum shear
stress'T can now be computed with the aid of (116.4). We recall that
which is a known expression for the Prandtl function in the double series.
This series, however, converges rather slowly. 1
We saw that the Ritz method provides an upper bound to the exact
minimum l(ti*) = m. A lower bound for the functional (116.2) was
obtained by Friedrichs,! who proposed a device of setting up an auxiliary
variational problem J(w) = max such that max J(w) = min l(ti). The
determination of upper and lower bounds in the solution of the Dirichlet
and Neumann problems (for simply and multiply connected domains)
was made, among others, by Diaz, Greenberg, and Weinstein.'
As another illustration of the application of the Ritz-Galerkin method,
we consider the problem of defortnation of an elastic plate by a parabolic
distribution of tensile forces over its opposite sides.'
1 Tables of numerical values of D, and ...., obtained by using the approximations it.
y--b
FIG. 61
to the law -r= = 8(1 - y'/b') (Fig. 61). The state of stress in the plate
is determined by the Airy function U(x, y), which satisfies the equation
(116.7) V'U = o.
In the notation of Sec. 69,
(116.9)
._-------------_._---
physical problems. A number of interesting problems are included in S. G. Mikhlin'.
Direct Methods of Mathematical Physics (1950). Among these are problems on
transverse deflection of clamped plates and membranes, torsion of a circular cylinder
with a longitudinal squa.re ca.vity, radial vibrations of circular cylinders, vibration
and stability of plates, critical frequencies of oscillators, and other characteristic value
problems. Mikhlin refers to a book by L. S. Leibenson, Variational Methods of Solu-
tion of Problems in the Theory of Elasticity (1943), which appears to contain a fund
of solutions of concrete problems in elll&ticity.
420 MATHEMAl'ICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
I
v~ = 1)3
116.10)
u,.,,:: u,w::
0
u,z. - U,." - 0
on Ixl = a,
on iyi = b.
In order to fit the problem (116.10) in the pattern of Sec. 113 {Eqs,
(113,5), (113.6)J, we co,nsider the system
( 28
V·u = l'
(116,11)
U = U,% = 0 on Ixl = a,
U = U,. = 0 on Iyl = b,
and observe that, because of the naturo of the region, the function 11,
where the 1". satisfy the same boundary conditions as those imposed on
u(x, y). We then determined the coefficients a. so as to minimize l(u n ).
If we now suppose that the a. in (117.2) are no longer constants, but are
unknown functions of x, such that the product a.(x)I"'(x, y) satisfies t.he
same boundary conditions as u, we are led to minimize
n
l(u.) = I [
.-1l a.(.'t)I"'(x, y) ].
Since the 1". (x, y) are known functions, we can perform integration
with respect to y and obtain a functional
(117.3) l(u.) =
f. "'
>,
Ct[a.(x), aL(x), xl dx.
Kantorovich proposed to determine the a.(x) so that they minimize
(117.3). From discussion of the integral (106.1) it is clear that the a.(x)
can be determined by solving the second-order ordinary differ~ntial equa-
tion of the form (106.10). Moreover, if the functional (117.1) is quad-
ratic, the Euler equation (106.10), associated with (117.3), will be linear.'
To fix the ideas let us consider the familiar problem
(117.4) leu) = !feu! + u; + 2fu) ax dy = min,
R
(117.9) 1I.(X),/,.(x, y) = 0 on C.
The substitution of (117.8) in (117.4) then yields
(117.10) for k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
But
= if[!(iJa:·l"lllk)+~(iJ;;'''I''l:lIk)1dxdY- i f ~.lI.dxdy
. -LI9'l:lIk ( - ~';" dx + ~~ dY)] - [f ".ViV•U " dx ag.
VAlUATIONAL ltETRODS
I
I
I
I
I
---r--------r---________ ~I~--.~
I~-b
I
I
I
r
FIG. 62
f
b [.V"h(Z)
G
".(x) tk II-,I
()
Z
(V'un - !)rp.(x, y) dy = 0,
-
equations directly. but we wished to emphasise the role played by the varistions
424 1o[A.TSEJUTICAL TSBORY OJ!' lIlL.UlTIClTY
Cl = cosh (kAIB)'
Thus,
(117.15) 'Y
1
= ( • -
y
B') [cosh (kxIB) _
cosh (kAIB)
1] .
It is interesting to compare this first approximation with ~he approxi-
mation
I116.41 'Yl = al(y' - B2)(X' - A'), al = %(A 2 + B~)
got by the Ritz method in Sec, 116. In formu1a (116.4) the term
al(x' - A') replaces the expression in the brackets of (117J5), and it is
essentially the first term in the power series expansion of the function
in those brackets.
If we use (117.15) to compute an approximate value Dl with the aid of
(;{S.lO), we find
f (2k
'Yn = '-' a.(x) cos -2~
1)1JT +
.1:=1
VARIATIONAL METHODS
and obtain the exact solution of the type (3S.15) by a.llowing n to increase
indefinitely. In this case computations simplify considerably because
of the orthogonality of cosines.
The method of Kantorovich has successfully been applied to numerous
problems in elasticity, including some three-dimensional problllms. 1
118. The Trefftz 'Method. We have noted in Sec. 113 that an applica-
tion of the Ritz method to the problem 1(1.1) = min, where 1(1.1) is a quad-
ratic functional, yields a minimizing sequence {I (1.1,,) I, which approaches
the minimum 1(1.1*) from a.bove. Should we succeed in constructing a
sequence I I(v,,) J approaching 1(1.1*) from below, then
(l1S.1)
and we may get a good estimate of the minimum 1(1.1*), if the bounds iLl
(l1S.1) are sufficiently close.
In 1925 Trefftz2 suggested a mode of constructing a minimizing
sequence of lower bounds I(v.) (without proving convergence) for the
Dirichlet integral
(llS.3)
V'u = 0 in R,
{ 1.1 = 'I'(s) on C.
f c
dv
(1.1* - v) - ds
dv
= 0..
(118.7) r
}e Cu· - dv
v) (bd8 = o.
We can thus write (118.5) 80S
where the a; are constants. The value of '1 "" u* - u. on the boundary
of R is
n
L. f
i-I e
a;[rp(s) - u..] idv·v ds = 0,
(118.11)
Jc
( [rp(s) - i a.v,] ~:
i-I
ds = 0, (j = 1, 2, . . . ,n).
where l
_ ( dv; ( dv·
(118.13) a,; = Je Vi dv ds, fl, 55 Je '1'(8) d: ds.
TIle system (118.12) has a unique solution whenever 1a.;1 0;& O. Sup-
pose the contrary, and assume that 1a.;I = O. Then the homogeneous
system
(118.14) 1"
i-I
ai,-aj =- 0, (i = 1, 2, . . . ,n),
V"'s .. 0.
428 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
where a.. "" const, if we reject the trivial case. Recalling the definition
of OIiJ == OIj. in (118.13), and inserting it in (118.14), we get
or
1L"
(1j=1
d;v;
dv;
d. ds == 0,
(118.15) r - dUn d
JeUnTv 8
0
== .
l Un dd~n ds = ff
R
(VUn)' dx dy.
oJ = 0 ,
oa; (.J = 1, 2, . . . ,n).
We write out these equations explicitly. On differentiating (118.16) with
respect to 4.;, we get
a
Ol(u - un)
au.; = 2
((
Jl
V(u - u.) . au; V(u - Un) dx dy
= 211
II
(u - u.)V'Vj dx dy - 2 fa (u - u.) ~; ds
= - 2 L (u - Un) ~~j ds,
where we used Green's Theorem and the fact that the Vi are harmonic
functions. Thus, for a minimum
1(a (u dv·
- u.) d: ds = 0, (j = 1, 2, . . . , n),
(119.2)
'Y'y, = 0 in R,
{ y, = }.i(x2 + y2) on C.
section.
The application of the same form of Green's Theorem also yields
But if· minimizes (116.2), and, on setting '1< = '1<. in (116.2), We conclude
that
D "" -I'I{i'*).
Consequently, the relation (119.4) yields the formula
D = p. min [10 - J(",)],
which shows that the sequence
Dn "" p.[Io - J("'A)]
tends to D from above when J(",) is minimized by the Trefft~ method.
We proceed to compute Dn by taking
Accordingly we take
"', = al + a,(x· - 6x'y' + y<).
The constants al and as are determined by formulas (118.11), and we thus
get
j.,. 1,2.
432 MATHEMA'fl<!AL THEORY OJ' ELASTICITY
Since v. = 1, we have in fact only one equation ' and we can obtain
another equation by requiring, for example, that the mean error vanish
on Ixl = A, Iyl = A. This gives
(120.2) u == 0, iJu =0 on C,
ill'
as was shown in Sec. 111, is equivalent to the variational prbblem
[f wf dx dy = ff wV'v dx dy
= U vV'w dx dy + Ie (w ~~ - v~~) ds
= ff
R
vV'w dx dy,
(120.8) VA '"" V - i
i_]
a;'Pi,
where
(120.9) a; = ff V'P' dx dy
R
l(u*) ~ - [f v; dx dy.
But,
-g v! dx dy = - g I r (v -
ft
a;'P' dx dy
- ffIt
V
S
dx dy + ff (2V
R
i
i-I
a;'P') dx all
[f (.t1a.'P'Y dx dy = 1ar,
so that
(120.10)
(120.11)
VARIATIONAL METHODS 485
&nO.
(121.1)
the a; in this method are thus got by equating to zero dEl00.. This lead!;
00 the system
(12L4) ff .~:~
R
= 0, (i = 1, 2, ..• , n).
To ensure that this system have a solution and the resulting sequence
(unl converge to the solution u(x, y) of L(u) = 0, one must impose some
. restrictions on the operator L and on the choice of coordinate functions
'Pi.Such matters have been studied by Krylov ' and his followers. In
constructing the approximate solutions for linear equations, Krylov
selects a complete set of coordinate functions, with suitable differenti-
ability properties, such that each 'Pi satisfies assigned boundary condi-
tions. Recently, Mikhlin2 developed a least-squares method in which
the coordinate functions 'Pi satisfy the equation L(u) = O. The coeffi-
cients a; in (121.1) are then so selected that they minimize the integral
of the square of the error _.(x, y) in the boundary conditions. This
approach, suggestive of the procedure in the TrefItz method, often leads
to more rapidly convergent sequences {u~ I than in the usual least-
squares method.
As an illustration of procedures followed in the standard least-squares
method, we sketch the determination of torsional rigidity of a square
beam. As our first approximation, we consider the function
(121.5) '11, = alex' - .'1. ')(y' - .'12 )
while the membrane deflection z(x, y) is found from the relations (46.1)
V'z =- ; in R,
z= 0 on C.
with <Pi'" 0 on C.
The approximate stress function 't'.. will not, in general, satisfy the
438 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OIl' EL.\STIClTY
differential equation (46.3), and V·i'.. will equal not -2 but sorne func-
tion l P.(x, y).
The function P.. (x. y) can be interpreted, in terms of the membrane
analogy, as the nonuniform pressure necessary to constrain the membrane
to take the form defined by the function v,,(x, y).
If the collocation method were applied to this problem, one would
demand that the "approximate loading function" P.. (x, y) equal the
"true load" of -2 at n points of the region R. Instead of such local
conditions, one may impose a different set of conditions. The region R
may be divided into n regions R., over each of which it is required that the
total approximate load equal the total true load. That is, the n coeffi-
cients a; are to be determined from the n conditions
or
(121. 7) U V'v n dx dy = -2' (area of region R.).
ff
It'i
V'w.dxdy = -2 ff
Ril
dxdy = _ ~2
yield the equations
440A 2al - 186A4a• - 17 A Baa = 240,
320A 'al + 564A (a. + 19A "a; = 240,
200 A sal + 594A 'a, + 235A sa. = 240,
; Da = 2 ff
B
it. dx dy = 0.1413a'
and is 0.5 per cent greater than the exact value, 0.140&'. The maximum
shearing stress is given approximately by
1
- (r....). - 0.6716,
p.a
a vahle ~t is 0.6 per cent less than the exact result, 0.6700.
440 MATHEMATICAL THEOBY OF ELASTIVITY
The method of this section was introduced by Biezeno and Koch, l who
have applied it to problems of thin plates and elastically supported
beams. Biezeno 2 has observed that this procedure may be applied to the
general problem of elastic equilibrium.
It is clear that various techniques of obtaining approximate solutions
presented above are but special cases of the general procedure of mini-
mizing the error function by making it orthogonal with respect to some
function M('Pi), that is, by imposing the conditions
(12l.8) II L(u.)M('Pi)
R
dx dy = 0, (i = 1, 2, . . . ,n).
M('Pi) = {~ in R i ,
elsewhere in R.
·As noted in Sec. 116, when the M('Pi) are such that an arbitrary function
1)(x, y), satisfying the required boundary conditions, can be represented
in the series of M('Pi) , with suitable properties, then the condition (12l.8)
may imply that L(u,,) -> L(u) = 0 and one can then justify calling
uA(x, y) an "approximate solution."
122. The Function Space Methods. The theory of diverse methods
of approximate solution of problems in mathematical physics was pre-
sented from a unified point of view by Kantorovich 3 in a paper which
shows clearly the growing importance of the Banach and Hilbert space
theories in the solution of concrete problems. Not only are the results
obtained from a general point of view more complete and incisive, but
they also lead to more effective methods of approximate solution and to
sharper estimates of errors than the special techniques.
The analytical concepts of functional analysis were cast in a geometric
I C. B. Biezeno and J. J. Koch, "Over een nieuwe Methode ter Berekening van
:"lakke Platen met Toepassing op Enkele voor de Techniek beIangrijke belastingsge-
vanen," De lngenwur, vol. 38 (1923), pp. 25--36.
C. B. Biezeno, "Graphical and Numerical Methods for Solving Stress Problems,"
Procuding6 of tM Firat lrdernaiional Congr_ of Applied Mechanica, Delft (1924),
pp.3--17.
C. B. Biezeno and R. Grammel, Technizche Dynamik, Chap. III, Sec. 9.
• C. B. Bie6eno, "Over een Vereenvoudiging en over een Uitbreidina van de Metilode
VIID ruts," CItri8tiaan HU1/gen8 International MlJtIiemotiBch Tijd8cAriJt.. voL 3 (1923),
pp. 69-75.
• L. V. Kantorovich, "Functional Analysis and Applied Mathemat.ica," U~
M~ Nauk, vol. 3, No.6 (1948), pp. 89-185. An Englishtranel&tio1tof
tbitI important pe.per was ~ for the National Bureau of Standatda, Rcpon
J509 (1952).
VARIATIONAL METHODS 441
form by Prager and Synge! and effectively used by them to construct
bounds for exact solutions of elastostatic problems. These authors deal
with a real linear function space F, each point of which is a function To;
representing the state of stress in an elastic body T. The set of functions
Tij can be thought to define a point P in F or, alternatively, a position
vector T from the origin 0 (T,; = 0) to P. The vectors T are required to
satisfy the familiar laws of addition, multiplication by scalars, and scalar
multiplication of ordinary vector algebra. The square of length of T
is defined by the formula
(122.1) T .T = [f Tijei; dT,
and so on.
For small values of hand k the partial derivatives are nearly equal to
the difference quotients appearing in the right-hand members of formulas
(123.1). If one replaces derivatives in the given differential equation by
difference quotients, there results a difference equation which is a good
approximation to the given equation when hand k are small.
Thus, to Laplace's equation
(123.2)
C'
Fw.63
V2", = 0 inR,
(124.1) {
'" = g(s) on C,
We lay down a square net over the region R, assign known values to the
net points on the boundary, and approximate (guessed) values at interior
points. The differential equation of the system (124.1).is replaced by a
difference equation, which we proceed
to derive. y
In the neighborhood of any interior
point of R (taken, for the moment, as
the origin of coordinates), we can write
(124.2) ",(x, y) = "'0 + aloX + aOlY
+ a2oX' + a02Y' + auxy + . . .
Similany,
1/12 + 1/1. == 2"'0 + 2(l02h2 + 2ao.h' +
Since the value of the Laplacian at the origin is
(V"'f)o = 2a.o + 2a02,
one can ""rite
Expressed in words, the value of ",(x, y) at any point is the mean of its values
at the four immediate neighboring points. This difference equation is
equivalent to a set of linear equations for the values of '" at interior poin~
in terms of the prescribed boundary values. The number of variables is
usually so large, however, that direct solution is out of the question.
Instead, we may resort to an iterative procedure.
The simplest (but most laborious) way of solving the Laplace difference
equation is to guess at the proper values for the interior points of the net-
work; this guess is then corrected by traversing the net, replacing each
interior value by the mean of its four immediate neighbors. Repeated
traverses of the net will give interior values that converge to the values
of the solution function I/I(x, y). The convergence, however, is so slow
as to require almost unlimited manpower in order to secure sufij.ciently
accurate results. Fortunately, va.rious procedures are a.va.ila.ble .for
impr()ving the rapidity 0{ convergence.
Instead of expressing the v'alue of '" as the mean of the four immediat.e
VARIATIONAL KETHODS «7
neighbors [Eq. (124.4»), the four diagonal neighbors llla) be used' (Fig.
65). We have from {124.2)
'ltl + 'It. + 'lt7 + 'It• ... #0 x
+ 4(a,0 + a02)h + terms in h',
2
'It,
or, neglecting terms in hi compared with
unity,
(124.5) FIG. 65
If both the immediate and the diagonal neighbors are used, then the
formula
(124.6) ZOtPo = 4("" + "'2 + "', + "'.) + ("'. + "'. + "', + "',)
gives the value of "'0
for any seventh-order harmonic polynomial.l
The slowness of convergence of the original process [Eq. (124.4)] is
explained by the fact that, on anyone traverse, an interior value is made
to depend only on its immediate neighbors, and the effect of the pre-
scribed boundary values moves iilland very slowly as successive traverses
are made. The boundary values may be made effective at a greater
distance by the following procedure, which uses 9 interior points and "'ii
16 boundary points M i , Do, Co (Fig. 66). The value at the center is first
found from'
(124.7) "'00 = M6[D, + D, + D. + D. + D. + D. + D, + De
+ 2(M, + M. + M. + M.)].
The corner values, such as "'", are obtained from the diagonal neighbors,
so that
This same procedure may be applied, of course, to find the value of '" on
any block of 9 points in terms of the surrounding values Mi, Di, Ci,
whether the latter lie on the boundary of the region R or not.
The method of finite differences will now be applied to the torsion
problem for a beam of square cross section with side length 2A. The
conjugate torsion function !/t(x,
y) is defiMd by
V"'_ = 0 inR,
'" = 7i(x' + y') onC.
l
I We introduce the variables X = x/A,
Y = y/A and put
to ~I
(124.8) Q = 10' (1,!/t - I}
"'ex. jlO
Then the function Q is subject ,,0 the
t1 1
.-
Ds
conditions
in R,
onX = ±1,
onY=±l.
A coarse net is now laid down over the square section (Fig. 67). Equa-
tion (124.7) gives .1)(0, 0) = 1250, while !1(.%,.%) = 2812 is derived from
its diagonal neighbors by (124.5) and U(7i, 0) = 1718 from its immediate
10,000 2500 o 2500 10,000
2500 10,000
Fm.67
10,000
2812 2500
2250
2214
1250 1718
1708 1572 0
1750 1634
FIG. 68
exact solution of the problem in Sec. 38. From (38.) 0) and (124.8), it
follows that
-1 -I ndX dY.
Th find the approximate value of the shear stress at this point, we pass II.
450 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EL_\STICITY
parabola through the points 1l(1, 0), 1'" 0, 0(1 - h, 0) ... 01, and 0(1 -
2h,0) .., 01, where It. is the mesh of the -net in the X, Y coo.mnatea_ The
slope of the parabola at (1, 0) is given by
(124.9) 1 A 2 -
2,ua T ..... = 4" [10-'
2h (!l, - 40 1) ]
•
which is 8.1 per cent below the exact value 0.675A. The numerical
values of !l can be obtained by Simpson's rule to give
and
/1/1
-I -I
0 dX dY = 80,246,
9
1
-. D = 0.1391,
pa
For
and, in general,
Then
{lW + 1(2) + 6 1') + . . . + 61n)
= f! + .(1 )+ (.(2) - .(I» + (.1.) _ .(.» + ... + (.(n) _ .(0- 1»
= n + .(.) = n(ft).
10,000
Q 0
2214 -36
2241 '1:l
2253 12 2500
2258 5
(2263)
Q 0 [2263.61
1750 42 1634 62
1776 26 1660 26
1788 12 1672 12 0
1794 6 1678 6
118(0) (1684)
[1799.8J (1663.81
FIG. 69
In Fig. G9, these values of n are shown in the left-hand columns, while
in the columns 011 the right are entered the differences 8(1), <1 (2) , 61' ) , 81f)
obtained by applying (124.6) to the differences ill the order (),2 , ),2) .
();2, 0), (0,0) . Two advantages of working with the difference function
6 rather than with the original function n are immediately seen. Both
the zero boundary values and the smaller number of significant figures
in the differences 6 make for easier computation. A third and more
powerful advantage is that use of the difference function 8 makes possible
the estimation of the effect of infinitely many traverses of the network.
That is. inspection of the successive differences 6 (2), 6 (3) , 6 1') suggests that
452 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
these and succeeding values may form a geometric progression of ratio Yil.
We hazard a guess that this is indeed the case and sum each infinite series
of differences, getting, in this case,
0(5) + 0(6) + 0(7) + . . . = 20(5) = 0(4).
l
e
The sum of the differences 5<') is then added to 1]<0 at each net point to
2
obtain an estimate of 1]<") (see the fifth entry in each column on the left
in Fig. 69). The assumption that the successive differences 8<n) form a
geometric progression can now be tested by using (124.6) to improve the
values of I] just obtained (see the last entry in the left-hand columns of
Fig. 69).
Shortley, Weller, and Fried, in an investigation of the convergence of
the method of finite differences,' have shown that this extrapolation to the
limiting net value by summing the infinite geometric series of differences
is possible in general.
The final net values in Fig. 69 satisfy the difference equation (to within
one unit) but not the differential equation. This is shown by comparison
with the exact ordinates given above, and the disagreement arises from
the fact that, in setting up the difference equation, terms of higher order
in the net mesh were neglected [see (124.3)J. We proceed, therefore, to
decrease the mesh of the net to one-half its original size.
In the process of interpolation leading to the values of n at the new
net points, the difference equations (124.4) and (124.5) are used to ensure
that the interpolated values satisfy, at least approximately, the differen-
tial equation 'V"I] = O. The mean of the diagonal neighbors [Eq.
(124.5)J furnishes the values of 1](%, %), 1](%, ~~), and fl(~~, ~~). The
immediate neighbors are used [Eq. (124.4)J to get I](~~, 0), 0(%, 0),
OC).-2, ~~), and OC%, ),2). The resulting values are shown in Fig.
70. Without any further improvement, these values give 0, = 1226,
0, = 1683 [see Eq. (124.9)J, and
1
-2- Tonu = 0.601A,
IJ.CX
which is 2 per cent below the exact value 0.675A. The integral of fl is
found by Simpson's rule to be approximately 9292, and the approximate
torsional rigidity is found to be D/(lJ.a 4) = 0.1414, a value 0.6 per cent
above the exact result of 0.1406.
Instead of traversing the lattice points in a fixed order and extrapo-
lating to the limiting net value, as above, one can correct the lattice values
in any way at all. Indeed, all that is required is that one arrive at values
n for which the difference equation is satisfied-or, alternatively, for
1 G. H. Shortley, R. Weller, and B. Fried. "Numerica.l Solution of Laplace's and
Poisson's Eqnatiolls," Ohio Slate Fnit'er.•ity Studies, Engineerinll: Ser. (1940), p. 18.
YAIUATIOK AL METHODS 453
which the diffprcnces 8 are zero. In this way, the experience and physical
intuition of the computer can be used to good advantage.
Another variation in the finite-difference method consists in replacing
the lattice with square mesh , used above, by a lattice formed of regular
polygons.'
The torsion problem of a beam of square cross section, considered
ahove, is a particularly simple one in that the square cross sect.ion
10,000
4316 5625
F,n.70
imposes no special complirations at the houndary. When the houndary
iR curved, the derivati\·es are replaced by finite-difference expressions
involving unequal intervals'
While the finite-difference method has heen illustrated hy its applica-
tion to the problem of Dirichlet,
v'n = 0 in R,
Q given on C,
it can obviously be extended to a wide variety of problems in engineering
and mathematical physics. We mention as examples' the plasticity
problem of torsion of a shaft strained beyond the elastic limit and the
problem of a two-dimensional magnetic field containing a triangular
prism of iron.
I See, for example, D. G. Christopherson and R. V. Southwell, "Relaxation Method.
--r-'--~-----------------
:"1 ~U2 :"3
I
+ ..
FIG. 71
First guess of u, . . 4 .0 I
!
8 .0 12 . 0 14.0 15 .0
i All, Residuals
- --
3 -0.5
-I.U -0 . 5 0.0 0 .5 0 .0
1 +0 . 5
0 .0 -1.0 0 .0 0 .5 0.0
2 +0 . 5
-0 . 5 0.0 -0 . 5 0 .5 0.0
4 -0 . 3
-05 0 .0 -0 . 2 -0 . 1 0.3
1 +0 . 3
U. J -0 . 3 -0 . 2 -0 . J 0.3
2 +02
- U. J U. J -U . 4 -0 . 1 o.a
a +U . 2
-0 . 1 -0 . 1 0 .0 -0 .3 0 .3
5 -0 .3
-0 . 1 -0 . 1 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
. ~' .
~nelit sOlution
456 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
1 Ludwig Seidel, "Ueber ein Verfahren, die Gleichungen, auf welche die Methode
der kleinsten Quadrate flihrt, sowie line"re Gleichungen liberhaupt, durch successive
Anniiherung aufzulosen," .4.bhandlungen mathematisch. physi8chen Klass., Bayrisrhe
Akademie der Wi.,.en8chaften (Mllnchen) , vol. 11 (1874), pp. 81-108.
'R. V. Southwell, Relaxation Methods in Engineering Science (1940) and &Iax-
ation Methods in Theoretical Physics (1946).
458 MATHEMATICAL TH)!;ORY OF ELASTICITY
O!X
and no simple recursive scheme works here. A practical answer is
relaxation, which works numerically
about like Table 1, although with slower
l
convergence. The same tricks apply as
xxx before.
Oxx : An essential feature of systems of
______ x_xJ _______ _ equations like (125.2) is that most of the
coefficients of the u, are zero. It is this
:xxx 0
X
feature of such systems which makes
relaxation a possible pencil -and~paper
, x
method of solving them.
-
,, '0
,
x x
The matrix A of coefficients aij of the
system (125. 1) or of the system of all 21
Fu;. 7:! equations like (J25.2) has two properties
which will prove very important in our
further di s("ussion . First,
(125.3) .4 is symmetric and positive definite.
The second property, (125.4), concerns the geometry of the connecting
strings in Figs. 71 and 72. Note t.hat the weights in the figures have
been drawn in two colors: black and white. Note that each string con-
nects weights of opposite color. Hence, in the eq uations the SUbscripts i
of the unknowns u, can be divided into two groups B, W (by color), so
that
(125.4) {l;j = 0,
for i in B, j in B (i ~ j) a.nd for i in IV, j in TV (i ~ j).
Another way of expressing (125.4) comes from reordering the unknowns
u, and the corresponding equations so that the "blacks" entirely precede
the "whites." Then the matrix takes the schematic form of Fig. 73,
where the cif(~les denote zeros, the small crosses denote nonzero number~,
and the large crosses denote sub matrices of zero and nonzero elements.
Al1Y system of linear equations satisfying (125.4) is said by Young' to
have property (A).
We note in passing that the first boull<jary-~·alllc problem for allY
second-order self-adjoint partial differential equation lacking a t.e rm ill
(Pujax iJy leads to a symmetric linear system with property (A), when
difference equations are suitably introduced. If the partial differential
equation is elliptic, then (125.3) holds.
Before we discuss methods suitable for electronic computers, it will be
convenient to introduce .a nother method for solving a linear system.
1 David Young, "Iterative Methods for Solving Partial Difference Equations of
(f25.5) L
j=1
a,j1(j +bi = ri = 0 (i = I, . . . ,n).
For the moment we do not assume that the matrix ~atisfies (125.3) or
(125.4), but it is essential that, no aii = O. Iterative methods for solving
(125.5) have been popular since Gauss' time, if not longer. One pro('ess,
called the Seidel or Gauss-Seidel method, is the following: One solves t.h('
first equation (l25.5) for Ul, using the ('urrent values of U" • • • , 11 ••
Then the second equation is solved for 1l., using the latest known \'alues
of UI, U3, U., . • • ,1tn. And so on. All the equations (125.5) are solved
in cyclic order for U" • • • ,un, always with the latest values of the other
unknowns. In other words, supp0se 'ult , , • • . , u~' are known. One
gets u\k+ I " • • • , u~+l) by suecessively solving these n equations:
i n
(125.6) L
J",,-1
a,ju)'+!l + L
j='+1
aijut' + b, = 0, (i = I, 2, . . . ,n).
One hopes that the l;lk, will converge as k ...... <Xl to the Ui which solve the
system (125.5).
, The reader will note that the Seidel process is closely related to the
relaxation process described earlier in this spction. The difference is the
order in which Eqs. (125.5) are solved. In the relaxation mpthod we do
the equations in an order determined by the size of the ri' III the Seidel
process the order is fixed and eyeli(·.
Let us analyze the behavior of the Seidel process. In our applieations
the following theorem, apparently first completely proved by Schmeidler'
in 1949, is essential:
THEOREM: 1f the matrix A is symmetric and positit'e definite, then in the
Seidel process the U)k' co/werge as k ...... ac to limits 1Ii (i = I, . . . , TI),
solving the system (125 ..5).
What happens when A is not positive definite? Or, in any ease, how
does the vector u(" approach u? If the cOIl\'ergenee is slow, how ean it.
be speeded up? The answers to these three qUCtitiOIlR ('all be obtaillf~d
through some use of matrix theory, as follows:
Let the matrix of coefficients A in (125.5), a:s~umed non~ingular, uc
written as the sum of three matrices: A = D + E + F. Here D has the
ma.in dia.gonal of A but is zero elsewhere; E has the below-diagonal
elements of A but is zero elsewhere; and F has the above-diagonal ele-
, Werner Schmeidler, Vortriige tiber Determinanten und Matrizen mit Anwendun-
gen in Physik llnd Terhnik, .'\kademie-Verlag, Berlin (1949). Professor A. Ostrowski
has traced incomplet.· proofs back to p, Pizzetti, .. ltti della rrale arradentia de; Un"i,
Re1tdiconti (4), vol. 32 (1887), pp. 231}·2:~fi, 288·293.
460 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
have the I:!allle /I real or ('omplex foots PI, . . . ,p". If alllp,1 < 1, thf·n
in the Seidel process utkJ -. U. If any 11-';1 2 1, the Seidel process
diverges. In principle this settles the question of convergence.
For most matrices A, to each of the roots I-'i of (125.12) there corre-
sponds a unique vector y(i) su~h that H y(i) = I-'iy(i). That is, the trans-
formation H leaves the vector yli) unchanged in direction but stretches it
(11',1 > 1) or shrinks it (11-',1 < 1) to the fraction I'i of its previous length.
All these vectors y(i) form an oblique coordinate system, in terms of
which we can resolve the initial error vector e(O):
.. -1
VARIATIONAL METHODS 461
Assume lI'd > 11',1 ;:: . . . 2: 11'.1· After repeated multiplications by
H, the resulting vector H ke(O) is approximately moved into the direction
corresponding to the root 1', of largest absolute value. Hence we find that
(125.13)
and we know how fast eCk ) -+ O. If II''' < 1, ultimately each step reduces
the length of eCk) to the fraction 11',1 of itself.
If 1 <.
1',1 1, elk) -> 0 along one direction , that of y(l ) . Hence U(k ) --t U
along the direction of y(l). Cases where more than one 1 1',1 dominate
are more complicated but can be treated with similar tools.
Knowing the geometric character of the convergence, it is not difficult
to design acceleration processes to speed up the convergence of U(k ) to U.
As an example of the Seidel process and its convergence, we use it to
solve the system (125.1) with the same start as in Table 1. We have the
following iteration:
U\k+ll = Yz(1 + u~k») ,
U~k+ll = Yz (1 + U\'H) + u~'»),
U~k+l) = Yz (1 + U~k+lJ + ulk»),
ulk+ ll = Yz(1 + u~'+)) + u~k»),
U~k+l) = 1 + u'f+o
Several rounds of this are shown in Table 2. The residuals are not
shown, and one line of the table amounts to a full cycle of the above
algorithm.
..,\
w~:.t
errors
u
TABLE 2. SEIDEL SOLUTION OF
5 9 12
EQs. (125.1 )
14 15
I
.-~- - --
4 8 12 14 15
uCo)
0 .50
u (O 4.50 8.75 II .88 13.94 14 .94
0 .24 i
I u(S) 4.88 888 11 .88 13 . 91 14.91
0.75
l u(1) 4 .94 8 . 91 11 .91 13 .91 14.91
0 . 96
I u ( 4) 4.955 8 .932 11. 921 13.916 14.916
0 . 92
U ( 6) 4 . 966 8 . 944 11.930 13 .923 14 .923
0.909
u(1} 4 .9 72 8.951 1I .937 13930 14 .930
0 .906
u('J ) 4.9755 8 .9562 11 .9431 13 .93G6 14 .9366
462 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
In the first column of Table 2 is given the ratio of the worst error of the
u, in the preceding and following rows of the table. By (125.13) this
ratio converges to 141. fA solution of either of Eqs. (125.12) gives
}Jo, = 0.9045, }Jo. = 0.3455, }Jo , = }Jo4 = O.J The approach of u(k) to u is
one-sided and very regular. It will take about 22 eycles to gain one
decimal point in accuracy. Making educated guesses at u in such
problems is easy in desk work , if one knows (125.13) and its analog when
1}Jo,i = 1}Jo,1·
The present availability of electronic digital computing machines
makes it possible to solve much larger problems than have been previ-
ously feasible. Such machines carry out arithmetic operations at all
effective speed on the order of 10' times faster than a human being with
a desk calculator. Something like 10' numbers of desk calculator pre-
cision can be held in a fast-access "memory" and made available as
rapidly as the arithmetic organ can operate. Something like 10' more
numbers can be held in an intermediate storage and transferred to the
high-speed memory in a few milliseconds. Moreover, current develop-
ments will probably have made the figures given here obsolete before this
book is published.
Because of the speed and capacity of such computers, many persons
want to solve their problems on them. It is pertinent to ask : What
methods will prove most feasible for the computers? While definitive
answers must await investigations as yet not made, certain indications
are now possible.
A first observation is that for large problemR of the type of (125.1) or
(125.2), iterative methods are relatively attractive, for much the same
reasons as for pencil-and-paper calculation. But the relaxlltion method
as outlined in connection with (125.1) has one considerable disadvantage.
The scanning of all the residuals r, in a search for max, hi is compara-
tively time-consuming. In fact, while computing r, it would take almost,
no extra till\e to solve the ith equation for u,. But if one solves the ith
equation for u, (i = J I • • . ,n), one is actually carrying out the Seidel
process, which is accordingly preferred in machine calculation to con-
ventional relaxation.
A second observation is that solving a large system (125.5) by the
Seidel-method is likely to be slow. To speed UD the solution, acceleration
methods are needed, as indicated above. But acceleratiflns involve new
routines, new coding, and the mundane but important problems of storing
or reading in new codes. It is important with machines to reduce coding
and operating to the utmost in simplicity.
It is the remarkable discovery of Youngl that for certain problems a
1 David Young, " I terativ p Methods for Solving Partial Difference Equations of
For matrices satisfying (125.3) and (125.4) and for a certain ordering of
the equations, it can be shown that the maximum of the /<T,/ is least when
wechoosefJ = 2(1 + ~,)-I,wherei'listhelargestrootof(125.12).
Hence this fJ defines the optimal a.mount to overrelax. Moreover, for
this {j a.ll 1<1,1 are equal.
Ratio
of
worst
u 5 9 12 14 15
errOrs
u(O) 4 8 12 14 15
0.34
U(l) 4. 76 9.34 12. 26 14.20 15.::H
0.51
U l2 } 5.39 9.32 12 .26 14 .33 15.34
0 .54
u(l) 5. 039 9 .060 12 . 161 14.209 15.140
0.76
u( ' ) 5. 025 9. 110 12. 159 14.119 15.1 08
0. 74
U< l ) 5 .071 9 . 118 12. 097 14. 093 15.085
0.52
U( I) 5. 053 9 . 052 12 . 059 14 . 061 15.048
0 .59
u('J) 5. 012 9 .027 12. 036 14.032 15.024
0. 67
uea) 5 .014 9 . 024 12 . 024 14.020 15.018
0 .58
1.1,(') 5. 011 9 . 014 12 . 013 14 . 013 15 . 010
0 .56
u (lO) 5 . 0049 9 . 0063 12 . 0079 14 . 0068 15 .0051
then the dominant eigenvalue is 0', = 0.85802. For this 0'" it requires
about 90 iterations, accomplished in only 13 min, to reduce the error from
I to 10-'.
Some practice with SWAC convinces people it is not difficult to esti-
mate {J well enough in a few minutes. Actual running time to reduce the
error by a factor of 10-' is on the order of 20 to 30 min, including the time
necessary to determine {3 approximately. Similar experience is reported
by Young and Lerch.'
On SW AC the progress of the calculation can be monitored by observ-
I
n
4 JAN i374·
53~~·~
. NO..........
Ace we r T PI-=
CL. ,.,0......................... ._
NAME INDEX
Pl.a.ne elastostatic problems, conformal Plane strain (see Plane elastostatic prOb-
representation in, 273-276 lems; Strain, plane)
displacements, at infinity, 269 Plane stress (Bee Plane elastostatic prob-
in terms of harmonic functions, lems; Stress, plane)
264-265 Plates, bending of, 2
arbitrariness of the functions, deflection of, 4
266-269 faces of, 254
doubly connected domain, 297-302 middle planes of, 254
concentric circular ring, 298-300 in tension, 419-420
concentrated loads, 300, 325-326 vibration of, 2, 411
uniform pressure, 299-300 (See alBo pll(ne elastostatic problems)
eccentric circular ring, 301, 322-325 Plemelj formulas, 142
elliptical ring, 301-302 Poisson integral, 147
finite simply connected domains, 276- Poisson ratio, 68
284, 296-297, 303-309 Potential energy, 384
circular region, 280-284, 311-312 theorem of minimum, 382-386
concentrated loads, 283-284 converse, 385-386
rotating disk, 285-286 examples, 398-400
uniform pressure, 282, 316-317 Prandtl stress function, 116-119, 171-
uniform radial displacement, 282- 174, 401-402
283 Principal axes, 67
elliptical region, 296-297 Principle, of Saint-Venant, 89-90
of superposition, 9, 78
infinite simply connected domains,
Proportional limit, 56
279-280, 286-287, 292-294, 306,
31{}-313
bounded by circle, 286-287, 313 Quadric, strain, 14-16, 23-24
in shear, 292 stress, 45-49
in tension, 29{}-292 Quadnc surface of. deformation, 15
Ilniform internal pressure, 287-288
bounded by ellipse, 292-294
in tension, 295 Rafalson method, 432-435
uniform internal pressure, 294- Rariconstant theory, 3, 6{}-61
295 Rayleigh method, 404
concentrated force in plane, 288-289 Reciprocal theorem, 39{}-393
concentrated moment in plane, 289- Relatively complete sets, 406
290 Relaxation methods (see Numerical
multiply connected domains, 297-302, methods)
313-314, 316, 318-326 Residuals, 455
Navier's equations for, 251, 254, 256 Residues, 140
particular integrals for body forces, Rigid body, 5
258-259 Rigidity, modulus of, 68-69
solution of, by integral equations, torsional, 112, I18-119, 126, 132-153
304-307, 313 Ritz method, one-dimensional case, 404-
by integrodifferential equations, 407
303-304, 307-313 two-dimensional case, 409-411
Rotation, components of, 10, 11, 21, 23
by method of undetermined coeffi- at infinity, 269
cients, 276-280
by Schwarz's alternating method,
318-326 Saint-Venant compatibility equations,
by Sherman's method, 314-317 25-29
stresses, at infinity, 269 Saint-Venant's principle, 89-90
in terms of harmonic functions, Schwarz formula, 147
263-265 Schwarz's alternating method, 318-326
arbitrariness of functions, 266 Schwarz-Christoffel transformation, 151
structure of functions, 267-269 Seidel process, 459-462
thermoelastic problems, 364-367 &mi-inverse method, 93
Plane polar coordinates, 181-182 Shear modulus, 68-69
SUBJECT INDEX 473
Shearing strain, 23 Stress, principal directions of, 47, 67
Shearing stress, 38 principal planes of, 47
lines of, 116-117 quadric of Cauchy, 45-49
maximum, 51 examples, 53-55
Sherman's method, 314-317 tsnsor, 36-38, 180
Simply connected region, 26 symmetry of, 42
Solid harmonics, 347-348 transformation of, 42-43
Solution, existence of, 4, 88--89, 272, 358 ultimate, 57
uniqueness of, 25-26, 86-88, 272-273 vector, 36-37
Sphere, hollow, 343-345, 353, 362-364 yield-point, 57
solid, 350-353 Stress function, of Airy, 259-261
vibration of, 369-370 for flexure problem, 230-235
SphericaJ coordinates, 184 of Prandtl, 116-119, 171-174,401-402
Spherical harmonics, 345-350 Stress-strain relations (8ee Hooke's law)
Stability of columns, 2 Subharmonic functions, 117
Strain, analysis of, 5-34 Superposition, principle of, 9, 78
components of, 11, 21 Surface harmonics, 347-350
in curvilinear coordinates, 181 Surface waves, 372-375
cylindrical, 179-180
orthogonal, 179-180
plane polar, 182 -thermoelastic problems, 358--367
spherical, 184 Three-dimensional problems, 328--376
Eulerian, 30-31 Betti's method, 354-357
geometrical interpretation of, 12-14 Boussinesq, 341-343
Lagrangian, 31 contact, 353
transformation of, 15-16 existence of solution, 88--89, 358
examples of, 23-24 half space, 339-343
invariants, 18--20 Boussinesq, 341-343
notation for, 22, 25 normal load, concentrated, 339-340
plane, 24--25, 250-253 distributed, 340-341
boundary-value problems, 251-252 wave propagation in, 372-376
equilibrium equations, 251 solutions, of equilibrium equations,
Navier equations, 251 335-336
(See also Plane el.."tostatic problems) of Navier's equations, 329-339
principal, 16-18 Betti's method, 354--357
principal directions of, 18, 67 for concentrated forces, 336-338
quadric of Cauchy, 14--16 dilatationless, 338--339
examples, 23-24 Galerkin, 334-335
shearing, 23 Papkovich-Neuber, 331
Strain energy, 83-86 in terms of harmonic fUnctions,
and compatibility equations, 390 329-335
minimum, 386, 389 sphere, hollow, 343-345, 353, 362--364
Strain energy-density function, 60, 83-86 solid, 350-353
Stress, actual, 56 vibration of, 369-370
analysis of, 35-55 thermoelastic, 358--364
characterized by Cauchy, 1 uniqueness of solution, 25-26, 86-88,
components of, normal, 38 358
shearing, 38 vibration, 367-376
tangential, 38 of sphere, 369-370
examples of, 53-55 wave propagation, 370-376
Invariants, 44 equivoluminal, 370
maximum shear, 61 in infinite regions, 370-371
nominal,56 irrotational, 371
normal, 53 in semi-infinite half space, 376-377
notations for, 37-39 surface waves, 372--375
plane,54-55,~53-254 Torsion, of anisotropic beams, 193-197
generalized, 254-257 of cardioid beam, 156
(See also Plane elastostatic problems) of circular shaft, 107-109
principal, 47 with groove, 126-127, 169
4.76 MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Variation, 378
Variational methods, collocation, 437-440 Zonal harmonics, 347-350
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