Science Reviewer 9
passageway of gas into and out of the body.
Data
Data – Facts and statistics collected together
for reference or analysis.
Types of Data
 Qualitative – Deals with the
characteristics and description that
can’t be easily measured but can be
observed subjectively. “Gender,
race, ethnicity”
 Quantitative – Deals with the
numbers and things you can measure
objectively. “Height, weight,
income”
2 Types of Qualitative Data
 Nominal – Categories (bar chart)
 Ordinal – Arbitrary numerical scale
(pie chart, bar chart)
2 Types of Quantitative Data
 Discrete – Represents units. (arrays,
pie chart, bar chart)
 Continuous – Measured into a
continuum. (line chart)
Scientific Method – Question, Research,
Hypothesis, Experiment, Data, Observation,
Conclusion
Respiratory System
Oxygen – Oxygen is an integral component
of the atmosphere; it is an essential element
to support life. It plays a vital role in
carrying out metabolic functions of cells, it
facilitates the breakdown of nutrients needed
to support growth and development, and life
in general.
Respiratory System – It functions as a
It is composed of the nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi and lungs.
Upper Respiratory Tract
 Nasal Cavity (Nose) – It is the
primary organ for smell. Main
entrance for airflow in the body. Air
is warmed, filtered, and humidified.
It also serves as the exit point for
carbon dioxide.
 Pharynx – It is known as the throat.
Air from the nasal cavity enters the
nasopharynx (junction between the
nasal cavity and pharyngeal cavity)
and travels down through the
oropharynx and the laryngopharynx
to enter the larynx. Other tissues
present in the larynx include the
tonsils. Tonsils are specific tissues
and categorized into 3 types:
pharyngeal, palatine and lingual.
The pharyngeal tonsils, referred to
as adenoid, are found in the roof of
the nasopharynx. The palatine
tonsils are located in the oropharynx
at the end portion of the soft palate.
The lingual tonsils are situated at the
base of the tongue.
 Larynx – It is known as the voice
box. It functions mainly for speech.
It is made up of 8 hyaline cartilages
and a spoon-shaped elastic cartilage
called the epiglottis. The thyroid
cartilage, which projects toward the
front of the throat and is referred to
as the Adam’s apple, is the biggest
of the hyaline cartilages. The
epiglottis in the larynx serves as a
protective barrier for the lungs
because it prevents food from
reaching the lower respiratory tract.
Upon swallowing, it moves in a
fashion that forms a covering for the
glottis (opening of the larynx and
 trachea) so that the food will enter distributed to all cells of the body, where
the esophagus instead of the air food molecules are broken down to produce
passage. energy.

Lower Respiratory Tract  Pulmonary Ventilation – The

process by which air moves in and
 Trachea – Known as the windpipe, out of the lungs. It is also known as
adjoins the esophagus, enabling it to breathing.
extend anteriorly when we swallow.  External Respiration – The process
It plays an important role in by which carbon dioxide from the
normalizing the function of the cells is expelled from the lungs as
epiglottis and in permitting food the blood in the lungs pick up a fresh
passage to the esophagus. The load of oxygen. The exchange of
trachea consists of ciliated mucosa, oxygen and carbon dioxide takes
which transports mucus place between the air and blood
contaminated with foreign particles within the lungs.
away from the lungs toward the  Internal Respiration – The
throat. exchange of gases that occurs
 Bronchi – It serves as the main between the blood and blood cells.
passageway of air into the lungs. The
left and right bronchi are formed by
the division of the trachea. The left
bronchus is narrower, longer¸ and
less straight than the right. Upon
entering the main bronchi, the air is
already moist, warm and devoid of
almost all particles. The bronchioles,
which are the tiny branches of the
main bronchi, lead to tiny air sacs
known as the alveoli, where gas
exchange occurs. Each air sac is
surrounded by a network of
capillaries.
 Lungs – The main organs for the
respiratory system and are located in
the thoracic or chest cavity. The left
lung consists of two lobes (upper
and lower) while the right lung
consists of three lobes (upper,
middle, lower). They are referred to
as respiratory zones and include the
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar
sacs and the alveoli.
Physiology of Respiration – The breathing
mechanism allows the transported oxygen
into the bloodstream so that the gas can be
Circulatory System
maintain body temperature and control pH.
Heart – A highly muscular organ, the size
of a fist, that is located in the center of the
thoracic cavity, with its apex tilted slightly
to the left. The pumping action of the heart
and the network of channels are responsible
for carrying and distributing nutrients, gases,
hormones, antibodies, and many other
important substances that the body needs to
function and survive.
The heart has four chambers: right atrium,
right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle. It
also has four valves that help maintain
proper flow and direction of the blood
through the heart. The tricuspid and
bicuspid valves, called atrioventricular
(AV) valves, are named based on the number
of flaps or cuspids they have.
 Tricuspid Valve – It is located
between the right atrium and right
ventricle.
 Bicuspid Valve – It is located
between the left atrium and left
ventricle.
 Pulmonary Valve – It lies between
the right ventricle and pulmonary
artery, which take blood into the
lungs. When the right ventricle
contracts, the pulmonary valve
opens, allowing blood to flow toward
the lungs. Referred to as semilunar
valve because of its shape.
 Aortic Valve – It lies between the
left ventricle and aorta. It opens
when the ventricle contracts,
allowing blood to move from the
heart and to the rest of the body.
Referred to as semilunar valve
because of its shape.
Blood – It is a fluid that transports oxygen
and nourishment to the body cells and aids
in the excretion of carbon dioxide and waste
products from the body. It also helps
 Red Blood Cells (RBC) – It is also
known as the erythrocytes and it
carries oxygen to the body cells. As
they do, they collect carbon dioxide
and transport it back to the lungs,
where carbon dioxide is expelled
from the body through exhalation.
One drop of blood contains around 5
million RBC and has an average life
span of 120 days. RBC is red
because it contains hemoglobin, an
iron-rich protein. It makes the RBC
an excellent vehicle for transporting
oxygen and carbon dioxide. New
RBC is produced in the bone
marrow.
 White Blood Cells (WBC) – It is
also known as the leukocytes and it
battles infection by attacking and
destroying germs or foreign particles
that enter the body. There is 7000
WBC per cubic milliliter of blood. A
WBC count that is higher or lower
than the normal range may indicate a
weak immune system.
1. Neutrophils – The most
abundant of the WBC. It
combats bacterial and fungal
infection.
2. Lymphocytes – It includes
natural killers such as B Cells
and T Cells. B Cells produce
antibodies to fight foreign
proteins while the T Cells aid
in the immune response.
3. Monocytes – It develops a
macrophage, which can
move out of the blood vessels
into the site of infection.
4. Eosinophil – It defends the
body against parasitic
infections.
 5. Basophils – It functions
during allergic and antigen
reactions.
 Platelets – It is also known as
thrombocytes and it assists the blood
clotting process called coagulation,
and prevents the excessive bleeding
when a blood vessel is severed or
ruptured. The platelets also interact
with other blood proteins to form a
fibrin mesh. This mesh collects more
platelets and blood cells to form a
blood clot that will temporarily plug
the break. The normal count of
platelets is 150,000 to 450,000 per
milliliter of blood.
 Plasma – It is the pale yellow fluid Genetics
where blood cells are suspended. It
makes up about 55% of the total Heredity – The passing on of traits from
blood volume. It consists mainly of parents to offspring.
water and contains dissolved
constituents, including proteins Genetics – The science that deals with the
(albumin, fibrinogen, and globulins) study of heredity.
glucose, clotting factors, electrolytes,
Traits – These are observable
and hormones. It also contains
wastes because it is a main medium characteristics determined by genes.
for elimination of waste products Genes – It is a segment of a DNA. It is a
from the body cells. It plays an length of DNA that codes for a particular
important role in osmosis, thereby protein. It stores the information needed to
promoting the balance of electrolytes make the necessary proteins that will code
in the body. for specific traits.
Human Circulatory Paths – The DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) – It is a
circulatory system has two different circuits: double helix molecule composed of thin
pulmonary circulation and systematic strands arranged like a twisted ladder found
circulation that occur simultaneously. inside a chromosome. The sides of the
ladder are made up of sugar and phosphate
 Pulmonary Circulation – It is the
molecules, while the steps of the ladder are
process by which the circulatory
made up of nitrogen base pairs. Nitrogen
system carries deoxygenated blood
base pairs are composed of adenine; thymine
to the lungs and brings back oxygen-
or vice versa and cytosine; guanine or vice
rich blood to the heart.
versa.
 Systematic Circulation – It is the
movement of oxygenated blood from Chromosomes – Contains the genetic
the heart to the different parts of the material: DNA, RNA. All cells of the body,
body. except the sperm and egg cell, contain a
complete set of 23 chromosomes. The first
22 pairs are body chromosomes or
autosomes, and the 23rd pair make up the
sex chromosomes.
Chromatid – The chromosomal material in
its de-condensed, threadlike state.
Mitosis – It takes place in the body cells
(somatic cells, autosomes).
Meiosis – It takes place in the sex organs.
male – testes, female – ovary.
 Gametogenesis – Formation of
gametes. Male – Spermatogenesis,
Female – Oogenesis.
Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
Variation – The combination of sex cells
during fertilization results in variation in the
offspring.
Chiasmata – The point where chromosomes
cross.
Mutation – Variation caused by the
permanent change in DNA sequence. These
changes may be brought about by exposure
to UV or nuclear radiation and chemicals.
Alleles – Genes that have two or more
variations.
Genotype – The actual set of genes carried
by an organism.
Phenotype – The expression or
manifestation of an organism’s genotype.
Homozygous – The alleles for a trait are the
same.
Heterozygous – The two inherited alleles
for a particular trait are different.
Dominant Allele – It expresses itself and
masks the effect of the other allele of the
same trait.
Recessive Trait – The one that is masked by
the presence of the dominant allele and will
only manifest if the organism is
homozygous for the recessive allele.
Punnett Square
B b
B – Brown eyes
b Bb bb
b – blue eyes
Phenotype: 2
(brown and blue)
b Bb bb
Genotype: 3 (BB,
Bb, bb)
50 % blue, 50% brown
Gene Mutation – The uniqueness is a
physical manifestation of changes at the
biochemical level.
 Somatic Mutation – Occurs in any
body cell except the reproductive
cells. It is not passed on to the
offspring and will cease to exist
when the parent organism dies.
 Germline/Germinal Mutation –
Occurs in reproductive cells and is
transmitted to the offspring. Also
known as Hereditary Mutation.
The following are factors that affect
mutations:
1. Exposure to high-energy radiation
2. Chemicals as mutagens (agents of
mutation)
3. Induced mutations
Mendel’s 3 Principles of Inheritance
 Principle of Dominance and
Recessiveness – When pure parents
with opposite traits are mated, the
first generated shows only one trait
(dominant), while the other trait
(recessive) is hidden.
 Principle of Segregation – Gene
pairs or alleles of a trait separate, and
only one is inherited by the
offspring.
 Principle of Independent
Assortment – Traits are inherited
independently of each other.
Non-Mendelian Inheritance
 Incomplete Dominance – This
occurs when one allele is unable to
express its full phenotype in a
heterozygous individual. This results
in an individual with a phenotype
that is an intermediate of the two
alleles.
 Co-dominance – It is a form of
dominance wherein two alleles are
equally strong and are both visible in
the hybrid genotype.
 Multiple Alleles – This involves
more than two alleles. Multiple
alleles exist when there are many
variations.
Epistasis – This occurs when the action of
one gene is modified by one or several other
genes, which are sometimes called modifier
genes.
 Masking Epistasis – It occurs when
a gene at one locus masks the
expression of a gene at the second
locus; hence, the phenotype of the
gene at the second locus is not
expressed.
 Modifying Epistasis – It occurs
when a gene at one locus modifies or
changes the expression of the
phenotype of a gene at the second
locus.
Epistatic – The gene that does the masking
or modifying.
Hypostatic – The gene that is being masked
or modified.
Sex-Linked Traits – These are autosomal
traits that are influenced by sex. An example
of this is the baldness pattern. The baldness
gene is only found on the X chromosome
and since males only have one x
chromosome, they have a higher chance of
being bald. Baldness is influenced by
hormones such as testosterone and
dihydrotestosterone.
Sex-Limited Traits – These are autosomal
traits limited to one sex. An example of this
is the bright plumage of certain male birds.
This trait does not appear in female birds.
Diversity
Diversity – this refers to the variety of life-
forms that thrive on Earth.
Biodiversity – This describes the
differences and relationships within the
various ecosystems, including all living
things and their non-living environment. It
also refers to the number of different species
living within a particular region.
Biodiversity is explored in 3 levels:
 Ecosystem Diversity refers to a
community of plants, animals, and
other living things in a particular
physical and chemical environment.
 Species Diversity is the number of
species living in an area. Species is a
group of similar organisms that are
able to breed and produce viable
offspring under natural conditions.
 Genetic Diversity is the variation in
genes that exists within species.
Importance of Biodiversity – A healthy
biodiversity makes a healthy ecosystem, that
is, there is a great variety of crops and
greater species diversity. Biodiversity boosts
ecosystem productivity; each species, no
matter how small, has an important role to
play. A healthy biodiversity also provides a
number of natural services and benefits to
humans and all organisms.
 Basic Needs and Economic
Benefits – The world’s population
depends on the environment for
food. According to WWF, about 100
million metric tons of aquatic life
including fish, mollusks, and
crustaceans are taken from the wild
every year. About 50% of the
medicine today are derived from
natural products.
 Cultural, Spiritual, and Aesthetic
Benefits – Nature has inspired artists
for thousands of years. Some find
cultural or spiritual meanings,
whereas others simply find
enjoyment in nature.
 Health Benefits – Biodiversity can
improve a person’s well-being. A
rich biodiversity provides a healthy
environment and a better
environment, reducing health
problems associated with pollution.
 Education/Information – Scientists
use the natural environment to gather
data and conduct researches that
benefit the society.
 Regulating and Supporting
Ecosystem Services – Ecosystem
services are natural processes that
provide benefits such as climate
control, pollution attenuation, air and
water purification, flood control,
nutrient cycling, and soil formation.
 Flood Control and Prevention of
Soil Erosion – Vegetation on the
banks of rivers and lakes prevent soil
erosion caused by waves and surface
water flow. Mangrove forests
likewise provide a barrier along the
coastline from the crashing waves,
thereby preventing erosion.
 Agriculture, Crop Pollination, and
Soil Fertility – Biodiversity also
benefits agriculture. It improves
production and can serve as a source
of natural insecticides.
Extinction – It is a state wherein the entire
population of a species no longer exists.
Mass Extinctions on Earth – The abnormal
large losses of life within a specific period
are referred to as mass extinctions.
Scientists have identified 5 massive
extinctions dating back to prehistoric times.
  Ordovician-Silurian Extinction –
This occurred approximately 439
million years ago due to the
dropping and rising of sea levels
caused by the formation and melting
of glaciers. This has been regarded
as the 3rd largest extinction on earth.
25% of marine families and 60% of
marine genera were lost.
 Late Devonian Extinction – This
happened about 359 to 375 Ma and
wiped out approximately 79 to 80%
of all species on Earth. The exact
cause of this extinction is still
unknown.
 Permian-Triassic Extinction –
About 251 Ma, 96% of all species
became extinct. This is the worst
mass extinction on Earth, wiping out
53% of marine families, 84% of
marine genera, and around 70% of
land species.
 Triassic-Jurassic/End Triassic
Extinction – This took place around
199 to 214 Ma, and is thought to
have been the result of massive lava
flood coming from the central
Atlantic magmatic province, leading
to the breakup of Pangaea and the
opening of the Atlantic Ocean.
 Cretacious-Tertiary Extinction –
This is also called Cretacious-
Paleogene. This occurred about 65
Ma, when the dinosaurs were the
dominant species on Earth. This may
have been triggered by an asteroid
impact that created the Chicxulub
crater, found in Yucatan Peninsula in
Mexico. This led to the extinction of
16% of marine families, 47% of
marine genera, and 18% of land
vertebrate families.
The Sixth Mass Extinction – From the time
humans came into existence up to the
present day, hundreds and thousands of
species are either dying or are in danger of
extinction due to anthropological or human-
made causes. As of 2015, the IUCN reports
that there are 79,837 assessed species, of
which 23,250 species are threatened with
extinction.
Natural Causes of Extinction – These
extinction events are due to gradual changes,
resulting in extinctions that occur in slow
rates.
 Climate Change – The alternate
heating and cooling of Earth proved
to be difficult to many prehistoric
organisms. Many species were not
able to adapt to the rapid changes in
climate and temperatures and to
severe climatic conditions.
 Changes in Sea Levels or Currents
– The rising and lowering of the sea
level has a major impact on marine
life. The increase level of freshwater
due to the melting ice caps and the
displacement of water due to the
shifting of the ocean floor are some
of the changes that can happen.
 Asteroids/Cosmic Radiation –
Asteroids and comets that enter the
atmosphere can cause massive
destruction upon impact, which can
wipe out entire populations of
species. Excessive cosmic radiation
that comes
Anthropogenic Causes of Extinction –
These are directly or indirectly caused by
humans.
 Habitat Destruction – The
destruction of habitats is considered
the major cause of species extinction.
This is happening both on land and
in water and has already resulted in
almost 80% extinction.
 Invasive Species – These are
organisms that are not naturally from
 one particular environment or
habitat. They are brought by humans
into an ecosystem usually to solve a
problem.
 Pollution – This is the introduction
of harmful chemicals and
compounds (pollutants) to the
environment —water, land, and air.
Global warming, which is a result of
air pollution is also a major
contributor to the disruption of
ecosystems.
 Disease and Parasitism –
Sometimes, humans unconsciously
introduce diseases and parasites to
the ecosystem by transporting plants
and animals from one place to
another.
 Overexploitation – Humans have
relied on Earth’s natural resources
for survival since prehistoric times.
Overfishing and overgrazing are the
most common forms of
overexploitation.

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