Dedication

To Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Ali

Who motivated us to
Pursue this goal oriented
Research.

i
 Acknowledgment
We would like to express our gratitude to all those who gave us the possibility to
complete this report. We want to thank all honorable faculty members and lab staff of
National Centre for Physics who gave their valuable time and help us to conduct this
meaningful research.

Especially, we would like to give our special thanks to Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Ali who
assist us in every part of our research and motivated us to carry on this meaningful and
practical problem solving research. Very Special thanks to Principal Engineer, Ishtiaq
Hussain who provided us the best facilities to complete a project that is related to
research and development.

ii
 ABSTRACT
Stable nanoparticle dispersions, i.e., nano-fluids have recently found relevance in

applications requiring quick and effective heat transfer. In contrast to conventional heat

transfer fluids (for solar thermal applications) like water, ethylene glycol, and molten

salts, nano-fluids are not transparent to solar radiant energy; instead, they absorb and

scatter significantly the solar irradiance passing through them .The aforementioned

characteristics have led the researchers to analyze these fluids (nano-fluids) for their

suitability as the working fluid in solar thermal applications. Dispersing trace amounts

of nanoparticles into common base-fluids has a significant impact on the optical as well

as thermo physical properties of the base-fluid. This characteristic is being utilized by

this research to effectively capture and transport solar radiation. Enhancement of the

solar irradiance absorption capacity leads to a higher heat transfer rate resulting in more

efficient heat transfer. The present study investigates theoretically as well as

experimentally, the feasibility of using Nano-fluids in Solar Parabolic Collector with

concentric receiver tube. Solar Parabolic Collector with concentric receiver tube using

Nano-fluids is a new and distinct approach to enhance affecting parameters in

Concentrating Solar Power Plants and to increase the thermal and optical efficiency of

Parabolic Collectors. This model of Parabolic Collector, facilitates heat transfer within

concentric receiver tube. In order to evaluate it theoretically, mathematical model was

solved and results were compared with conventional parabolic collectors. It was

observed that using Nano-fluids; Parabolic Collector with concentric receiver tube, got

increase in efficiency up to 10 %. The experimental results endorsed the theoretical

results and superheated steam was generated under normal operating conditions.

iii
 Table of Content

Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1

Application ................................................................................................................. 2

Types of Solar Thermal collectors ............................................................................. 2

1.1.1 Parabolic Trough Systems ....................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Parabolic dish concentrate ....................................................................... 3
1.1.3 Power Towers Systems ............................................................................ 4

Physical Description ................................................................................................... 5

1.1.4 Overall system Description ...................................................................... 5

2 Steam System ........................................................................................................ 7

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 7
2.1.1 Alone Solar Rankine System ................................................................... 7
2.1.2 Hybrid System ......................................................................................... 8
2.1.3 Integrated Solar Combined System (ISCC) ............................................. 9

Rankine System ........................................................................................................ 10

2.1.4 Introduction ............................................................................................ 10
2.1.5 Working fluid ......................................................................................... 11
2.1.6 Basic Flow Diagram for vapor System .................................................. 11
2.1.7 Thermal processes .................................................................................. 12
2.1.8 System Design Consideration ................................................................ 13
2.1.9 Pump work ............................................................................................. 16
2.1.10 Heat Supplied to the System (HE) ......................................................... 16
2.1.11 Thermal Efficiency ................................................................................ 17
2.1.12 Mass Flow Rate for 15 KW Output ....................................................... 17
2.1.13 Turbine specification ............................................................................. 17
2.1.14 Pump Specification ................................................................................ 17
2.1.15 Heat Required at Turbine System Heat Exchanger ............................... 17

iv
3 Primary System................................................................................................... 18

Introduction .............................................................................................................. 18

Heat Transfer Fluids ................................................................................................. 19

3.1.1 SE LECTION CRITERIA ..................................................................... 19
3.1.2 FLUID MAINTENANCE ..................................................................... 20

Nano-Heat Transfer Oil ............................................................................................ 21

3.1.3 (carporation, August,2008 )Applications ............................................... 21
3.1.3.1 Enclosed circulated heat transfer systems .......................................... 21
3.1.4 Performance Features and Benefits ....................................................... 21
3.1.5 System efficiency ................................................................................... 21
3.1.6 Wear protection ...................................................................................... 22
3.1.7 Health and Safety ................................................................................... 22
3.1.8 Typical Physical Characteristics ............................................................ 22

Calculation of Mass Flow Rate 𝒎 ........................................................................... 23

3.1.9 Mathematica Program ............................................................................ 27

4 Designing and Fabrication of Parabolic Trough ................................................. 29

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 29

Parabola Calculator version 2.0............................................................................ 33

About This Program ............................................................................................. 33

5 Result and Discussion ............................................................................................. 42

6 Future Work ............................................................................................................ 44

7 References ................................................................................................................ 45

v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Economical Comparison ............................................................................. 1
Figure 1-2: Solar power plant ........................................................................................ 3
Figure 1-3: Parabolic Dish Concentrator ....................................................................... 4
Figure 1-4: Power Tower System .................................................................................. 4
Figure 1-5: Solar Thermal Power Plant ......................................................................... 6
Figure 2-1: Solar Rankine System ................................................................................. 8
Figure 2-2: Hybrid Solar Thermal Power Plant ............................................................. 8
Figure 2-3: Integrated Solar Thermal System ................................................................ 9
Figure 2-4: Steam System ............................................................................................ 10
Figure 2-5: Rankine System......................................................................................... 11
Figure 2-6: Rankine System T-s diagram .................................................................... 12
Figure 2-7: Secondary System T-s Diagram ................................................................ 13
Figure 3-1: Primary System North-South Orientation ................................................. 18
Figure 3-2: Mass Flow Rate Primary System .............................................................. 27

vi
List of Tables
Table 3-1: Oil Application Limit ................................................................................. 21
Table 3-2: Physical Properties ..................................................................................... 22
Table 3-3: Operating Condition ................................................................................... 23

vii
Introduction
Solar energy is a type of renewable energy resources. Renewable energy resources are
can never be ended as they are sustainable which includes sunlight, wind, rain, tides,
waves and geothermal energy. From these resources sunlight is the most reliable
resource of energy. When there is talk about solar energy than there are number of
question arises why it is so needed in Pakistan. Following are the main reasons:

Solar energy is the most cleanly of all the conventional energy resources and it
has no impact on the environment, which is most considerable problem in the
big cities.
Solar energy will not run out, as the other resources will diminish.
It has lot of space to be work on so by building its equipment factory and power
plants more jobs can be created.
Pakistan is not rich with oil and natural gas and import of oil and gas cost lot of
money, so Pakistan should shift large part of its energy to renewable resources
so country can save energy and diminish dependence on oil rich countries.
A study a have proven that solar energy is has the most potential over all the
other energy resources which give graphical representation as shown in the
Figure 0-1. (Aringoff & Teske, september, 2005)

Figure 0-1: Economical Comparison

.1
Application
Though the importance of solar energy is increasing all over the world but especially
in those countries which has higher irradiance, luckily Pakistan lies in belts those are
rich in solar energy resources. There is no. of way to utilize solar energy as:

 In the process industry to produce low temperature steam.

 In the different commercial and domestic buildings for heating.
 Production of electricity. (Aringoff & Teske, september, 2005)

By using the solar energy produce electricity by using first by using solar cells those
who converts electric energy directly into electricity. Second method is by converting
the water into steam than by using the steam turbine to convert into electricity.

Types of Solar Thermal collectors

When consider solar thermal systems than there exist large no. of shapes of solar
thermal collectors, those are used to heat oil or water. Commonly used collector’s
shapes are given as follow:

Parabolic Trough Systems

Power Towers Systems
Parabolic Dish Systems

1.1.1 Parabolic Trough Systems

The amount of power generated by a concentrating solar power plant depends on the
amount of direct sunlight. Like concentrating photovoltaic concentrators, these
technologies use only direct-beam sunlight, rather than diffuse solar radiation. From the
entire configurations, parabolic troughs focus light on a line where the other two focus
on a point.

Use of parabolic trough is increasing over the other systems because it is low
temperature application up to 400°C. In solar parabolic trough system usually there are
two loops, primary loop and secondary loop. In primary loop sunlight is concentrated
on glass pipe enclosing a metal pipe which usually contains oil and fluid is passed
through no. of parabolic trough connected in series unless final required temperature is
achieved. Than fluid in the primary loop exchange heat in heat exchanger with

.2
pressurized water and converts it into saturated steam which is expanded in the turbine
to produce electricity by alternator as shown in the Figure 0-2. Storage system is not
being used as there is power needed only in the day time to by using storage system it
will become more expensive.

Figure 0-2: Solar power plant

1.1.2 Parabolic dish concentrate

Parabolic dish concentrate energy on a point, which is directly focused on a solar

engine, mounted on collector and converts solar energy into electric power. External

combustion engine are used in electricity production as Sterling engine. Difficulty

involved with the parabolic dish is the two axis tracking system as shown in the

Figure 0-3. (Ell--Wakkiill, 1984)

.3
 Figure 0-3: Parabolic Dish Concentrator

1.1.3 Power Towers Systems

Towers systems uses no. of sun tracking mirrors to concentrate light on the receiver
that is usually a heat exchanger. They are use in the production 30 to 400M𝑊𝑒
power plants production. Molten salt is used as pumping and storage fluid and
energy is utilized to produce electricity whenever needed. All the components and
their arrangement are shown in the Figure 0-4.

Figure 0-4: Power Tower System

.4
Physical Description
Parabolic trough solar thermal power plant is mainly consisting of three main Systems
.those are:

1. Solar System
2. Primary System
3. Secondary System
4. Tracking system

Parabolic trough consists of collector and receiver and frame. Their purpose is to collect
the heat from the sun and to provide to the primary system. Parabolic trough mainly
consists of sheet called reflector, acrylic pipe which collect most of the heat from the
reflector called receiver. Frame is mainly consisting of supports and shaft for the
tracking system.

1.1.4 Overall system Description

Primary System mainly consist of parabolic troughs connected in series, piping and
heat exchanger which is common to the secondary system and a pump whose primary
purpose is to provide the frictional had loss in the primary system.

Secondary System consists of a pump, heat exchanger, turbine and condenser. Pump
installed in the primary system would be used to pressurize the water to 5MPa and after
that water would pass through vertical heat exchanger and will exchange heat with the
fluid in the primary system and would convert it into steam and there would be zero
pressure loss. Steam will pass through steam turbine and steam will expand in the
turbine and Ac generator is connected to turbine shaft and produce electric power.
Steam after expanding into the turbine will pass through condenser and convert into
saturated water and at low pressure and enter into pump and System continues.

One axis tracking system is installed to maximize the efficiency of the power plant.
Sensor will measure intensity of light and would forward signal to the actuator that will
turn the trough accordingly. Dc motor is installed into the system to rotate trough.

Our pattern of work was that first calculate mass flow rate into the secondary system
and the total number of parabolic troughs needed to produce required power. Than
calculate total amount of solar power available in the form of direct radiations at

.5
different mirror angles of parabolic troughs. Than accordingly calculate mass flow rate
in the primary system so that temperature of the oil should not increase more than its
boiling point. Than design of the helical coil heat exchanger is included and selection
of the total head loss in the primary system and pump selection was made for both the
primary and secondary system including the minor losses.

In this project it has been calculated total head loss into the primary and secondary
system. The overall circuit diagram is shown in the Figure 0-5.

Figure 0-5: Solar Thermal Power Plant

.6
2 Steam System

Introduction
Today most of the electricity is produced by using the steam power plants. Steam power
plants, those are working includes nuclear, coal, biomass and solar power plants.
Though there are other technologies are also available such as hydro power, gas power,
bio gas power plants and solar cells but the 80% of the energy is produced by using
steam power plants with water as main working fluid. When consider steam system the
simplest of form is the Rankine cycle, because it is the best one when working with
steam power plants. Carnot cycle is most efficient one when working under same
temperature conditions. (Wylen, 2008)

When consider steams Systems, there are no. of option available. Few are being
discussed here:

Alone Solar Rankine System

Hybrid System
Integrated Solar Combined System

2.1.1 Alone Solar Rankine System

Feed water pump
Heat Exchanger or boiler
Steam turbine
Condenser

Feed water pump increases the pressure of the water liquid and overcome all the flow
losses into the system. Pressurized water is supply to the heat exchanger where heat is
exchanged among the primary and secondary loop and increases the temperature to
higher value at constant pressure and change the phase of the water from liquid to steam.
Fluid is expanded into the turbine which decreases both the temperature and pressure
and thermal energy is converted into mechanical work and alternator is connected at
the shaft of the turbine to convert mechanical energy into electrical. This low
temperature and low pressure liquid water is cool down to the pump inlet condition into
the condenser at constant pressure and Systems complete (Ell--Wakkiill, 1984),
arrangement is shown in the Figure 2-1.

7
 Figure 2-1: Solar Rankine System

2.1.2 Hybrid System

Concentrated solar thermal power plants can operate at their full rated power for 10 to
12 hours a day though this number can be increased by using thermal storage but that
would increase plant cost significantly. Most off the working power plant have the
attachment of fossil fuel power producing capability that is used as supplement to solar
power output during the low irradiations hours. This facility can be installed in two
ways either by directly heating the fluid onto the loop or by installing a separate boiler
as shown in the Figure 2-2.

Power plants in California have been connected to the grid for years, and use up to 25%
natural gas in order to cover sunless periods.

Figure 2-2: Hybrid Solar Thermal Power Plant

8
2.1.3 Integrated Solar Combined System (ISCC)
The ISCC is a very fascinating design. It integrates a CST plant with a combined System
gas turbine.

2.1.3.1 Combined System

The gas turbine in a combined System operates at an input temperature range from
900°C - 1,400°C while the output ranges from 450°C to 650°C. This high output
temperature makes the combination with a Rankine System as the second System very
appealing. To achieve this, the heat from the gas turbine is fed into the waste heat
recover system, which produces high-pressure steam (420°C - 580°C) for the steam
System.

2.1.3.2 Integration of concentrated solar thermal system (CST)

To increase the power output from the second System, solar heat is used either to
produce high-pressure steam fed into the waste heat recovery system or to produce
additional low-pressure steam for the Rankine turbine.

The ISCC design is particularly promising, as many combined-System plants will be

built regardless, though their efficiency can be greatly increased by the use of solar
thermal heat. Flow diagram of the combined System is shown in the Figure 2-3 .

Figure 2-3: Integrated Solar Thermal System

9
Rankine System

2.1.4 Introduction
When considered alone solar Rankine system that includes only solar power source.
Rankine System is the idealized System for the steam power plant. It usually uses water
as the working fluid. It has been discussed and calculated following parameters in this
chapter. They are shown in the Figure 2-4. (Ell--Wakkiill, 1984)

Working fluid
Basic flow diagram
Thermal processes
System Design Consideration
Design Calculations of Steam System
Pumping Work
Heat Supplied to the System (Boiler)
Heat rejected from the System (Condenser)
Turbine Work
Thermal Efficiency
Net Work
Mass Flow Rate for 15 KW Output

Figure 2-4: Steam System

10
2.1.5 Working fluid
To improve the efficiency of the power plant there are large no. of fluids are under
discussion and experimental phase. Few are being used in the working power plants
such as organic fluid mixtures are being used in heat recovery power plants.

Water is considered as working fluid because:

Low cost
Availability
High value of heat of vaporization

Boiling point of water is 100℃ under atmospheric conditions but when we increase its
pressure boiling point of the water increases and amount of the absorbed by the water
increases. This quality makes the use of water in power plants more flexible.

2.1.6 Basic Flow Diagram for vapor System

When consider ideal Rankine vapor System than flowing components are involved.

 Feed water pump

 Heat exchanger
 Turbine
 Condenser

Following Figure 2-5 indicates the different components and sequence of their
operation.

Figure 2-5: Rankine System

11
First fluid at ambient conditions is compressed by the feed water pump than it is heated
in the heat exchanger by the heat from the primary system and afterwards expanded in
the turbine. Where its temperature and pressure decreases and then brought to the
ambient conditions by cooling down into the condenser to the ambient inlet condition
of the pump. Work done by the system is negative as in the case of pump. Heat rejected
in the condenser is considered negative. Work done by the system and heat added into
the system in heat exchanger is taken positive. (Shapiro, 2011)

2.1.7 Thermal processes

The System consists of four processes as shown in T-s diagram in Figure 2-6.

1 to 2: Isentropic compression (Pump) during the isentropic compression process,

external work is done on the working fluid by means of pumping operation.

2 to 3: Isobaric heat supply (Steam Generator) during this process, the heat from the
high temperature source is added to the working fluid to convert it into
superheated steam.

3 to 4: Isentropic expansion (Steam turbine) an isentropic process, in which the entropy

of working fluid remains constant.

4 to 5: Isobaric heat rejection (Condenser) An isobaric process, in which the pressure

of working fluid remains constant.

Figure 2-6: Rankine System T-s diagram

12
2.1.8 System Design Consideration
Steam System operates at P1 = 1 bar. The System calculations are done as follow. Steam
table is required for steam properties at different points. Water enters the turbine at 5
bars. Following Figure 2-7 indicates pressure at the different point of the system.

Figure 2-7: Secondary System T-s Diagram

At state 3:

Start our problem analysis from point 3 in the diagram. At point three have following
known value.

𝑃3 = 5 𝑏𝑎𝑟

Fluid is in totally vapor form so:

𝑥3 = 1.0

From the steam table, find following properties at state 3

𝑠𝑓3 = 1.8606 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾 𝑠𝑓𝑔3 = 4.9600 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾

𝑠𝑔3 = 6.8206 𝐾𝑗⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾 ℎ𝑔3 = 2748.11 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

13
 ℎ𝑓𝑔3 = 2107.92 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔 ℎ𝑓3 = 640.185 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

As the value of the

𝑥3 = 1.0

So:

𝑠3 = 𝑠𝑔 = 6.8206 𝐾𝑗⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾

Enthalpy at the state 3 would be

ℎ3 = ℎ𝑔 = 2748.11 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

As the expansion in the turbine is isentropic so

𝑠4 = 𝑠3 = 6.8206 𝐾𝑗⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾

State 4

As the point 4 lies in the saturation region and the known properties at point 4 are

𝐾𝐽
𝑠4 = 6.8206 ⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾

Pressure is same at state 1 and state 3.

𝑃1 = 𝑃4 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟

Properties at state 1 and state 4

𝑠𝑓4 = 1.3026 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾 𝑠𝑓𝑔4 = 6.0562 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾

𝑠𝑔4 = 7.3588 𝐾𝑗⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾 ℎ𝑔4 = 2674.95 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

ℎ𝑓𝑔4 = 2257.51 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔 ℎ𝑓4 = 417.436 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

It is need to calculate the quality of the steam in order to find out the enthalpy at state
3.

𝑠4 = 𝑠𝑓4 + 𝑥4 𝑠𝑓𝑔4 (2.1)

6.8206 = 1.3026 + 𝑥4 × 6.0562

14
 𝑥4 = 0.91113

As the value of the quality is known now it is easy to find out the value of enthalpy at
state 3.

ℎ4 = ℎ𝑓4 + 𝑥4 ℎ𝑓𝑔4 (2.2)

By putting the values of in the above equation

ℎ4 = 417.436 + 0.91113 × 2257.51

ℎ4 = 2474.32 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

State 1

As it is known that pressure is the same at state 1 and state 2 and the fluid is in the liquid
state so known properties are:

𝑃1 = 𝑃4 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟

𝑥4 = 0

From the steam table:

𝑠𝑓1 = 1.3026 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾 𝑠𝑓𝑔1 = 6.0562 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾

𝑠𝑔1 = 7.3588 𝐾𝑗⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾 ℎ𝑔1 = 2674.95 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

ℎ𝑓𝑔1 = 2257.51 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔 ℎ𝑓1 = 417.436 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

𝑠1 = 𝑠𝑓1 = 1.3026 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾

ℎ1 = ℎ𝑓1 = 417.436 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

Total volume of the liquid can be find out at this state

Specific 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 = 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑓1 = 0.00104315 𝑚3 ⁄𝐾𝑔

State 2

Now enthalpy can find out at the state 2 at the exit of the pump.

15
 ℎ2 = 𝑊𝑃 + ℎ1 (2.3)

2.1.9 Pump work

Pump work can be find out

𝑊𝑃 = 𝑣𝑓1 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )

𝑊𝑃 = 0.00104315 × (0.5 − 0.1) × 106

𝑊𝑃 = 417.26 𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

𝑊𝑃 = 0.41726 𝐾 𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

So the final equation for the enthalpy is as:

ℎ2 = 𝑊𝑃 + ℎ1 (2.4)

Now the enthalpy at the state 2 is as:

ℎ2 = 0.41726 + 417.436

ℎ2 = 417.8532 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

2.1.10 Heat Supplied to the System (HE)

It is the difference of the enthalpies at the pump outlet to the heat exchanger outlet as it
is shown in the Figure 2-7.

𝑞𝐻 = ℎ3 − ℎ2

𝑞𝐻 = 2748.11 − 417.8532

𝑞𝐻 = 2330.025 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

Turbine Work

Work output of the System (steam Turbine) is given by

𝑊𝑇 = ℎ3 − ℎ4

16
 𝑊𝑇 = 2748.11 − 2474.32

𝑊𝑇 = 273.79 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔

2.1.11 Thermal Efficiency

Thermal efficiency is given as

𝑊𝑇
𝜂𝑡ℎ = (2.5)
𝑞𝐻

273.79
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ( ) × 100
2330.025

𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟓%

2.1.12 Mass Flow Rate for 15 KW Output

15
𝑚̇ = = 0.054
(273.79 − 0.41726)

𝑲𝒈⁄
𝒎̇ = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 𝒔

2.1.13 Turbine specification

𝑊𝑇 = (ℎ3 − ℎ4 )𝑚̇

𝑊𝑇 = 273.79 × .06

𝑊𝑇 = 16.4274𝐾𝑊

2.1.14 Pump Specification

𝑊𝑃 = (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )𝑚̇ (2.6)

𝑊𝑃 = 0.41726 × .06

𝑊𝑃 = 0.025035 𝐾𝑊

2.1.15 Heat Required at Turbine System Heat Exchanger

𝑞𝐻 = (ℎ𝑔3 − ℎ2 )𝑚̇ (2.7)

𝑞𝐻 = 2330.025 × .06

𝑞𝐻 = 139.8 𝐾𝑊 = 140 𝐾𝑊

17
3 Primary System

Introduction
Primary System consists of parabolic solar trough, pump, and heat exchanger. Parabolic
trough is the source of energy in this System. Functioning of the pump is to provide
energy for the head loss so that require energy can be achieved. Heat exchanger is
installed to transfer heat from the oil to the water so that steam can be produced. Copper
piping is used in the primary circuit in order to achieve better heat transfer rate.

Flow diagram of the primary circuit indicates all the part and their orientation are given
as follow in Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1: Primary System North-South Orientation

Now our next step is the selection of the suitable fluid for the primary system. For that
it has been discussed different properties and factors that will make selection of the
fluid more and more reasonable.

18
Heat Transfer Fluids
Efficient use if the energy is the prime concern in the industry. A large no. of industries
is working for the development of efficient heat transfer fluid. Heat transfer fluid
suppliers have developed a variety of organic and water-based fluids to meet the
operating needs of diverse applications. Among the former petroleum and synthetic
fluids derived from mineral oils were commonly used heat transfer fluids.. There are
large no. properties those are considered in the selection of the heat transfer fluids.

3.1.1 SE LECTION CRITERIA

There are large numbers of factors those are involved in selection of heat transfer fluids.
People and industries have different views about the selection of the heat transfer fluid
mainly depends upon the system under work. Here discuss the point view of differ
scientist about the selection.

Dr. Satish Mohapatra strongly believes that the key fluid property that must be
ascertained in the selection process is its temperature range. He says, “Determination
of the temperature range is extremely important. There is no point in discussing other
fluid characteristics until the temperature range is satisfied.

Once this criterion is fulfilled, other important fluid properties (i.e., viscosity, density,
specific heat and thermal Conductivity) can be considered.”

Different fluids can create different kind of problems during operation. Mohapatra says,
“Before examining the actual application, the customer must evaluate the compatibility,
cost, environmental impact and toxicity of the heat transfer fluid.

For Michael Bates, Extended Life Fluids in Lewistown, N.Y., different customers have
different needs which dictate the selection of the heat transfer fluid. He adds, “A number
of criteria such as heat capacity and thermal conductivity must be evaluated, but the
key parameters are determined by such factors as the size of the system, heating source
(gas fire boiler, electric resistance heaters), pumping capabilities and perhaps any flash
point requirements of the fluid.”

Dr. Steve Stanley, says, “Temperature range and not just the highest use temperature
for a specific fluid type is very important. Viscosity and pump ability are important
factors because both impact the economics of the operation. If the viscosity is too high,

19
then a large amount of electricity could be consumed in pumping the fluid through the
system.”

3.1.2 FLUID MAINTENANCE

After the selection of the fluid, now it is our duty to continuously monitor fluid in
operation. Heat transfer fluids are designed to last over a long operating Time. Most
heat transfer fluids are formulated to operate for at least 10 years. The median lifetime
is usually approximately 20 years. Here have some fluids that have been in service for
30 years.

Gas chromatography (GC) is the technology that is used to check the performance of
the working fluid if the concentration of high boilers increases above 10%, and then it
is time to change the heat transfer fluid. High boilers are formed through the
combination of free radical species. Their higher level means fluid oxidation is readily
occurring.

Corrosion is a major factor in low temperature heat transfer fluids because they are
water-based. Stanley says, “In doing fluid checks, careful analysis of corrosion
inhibitors needs to be done to determine the extent of corrosion protection provided by
the fluid. If insufficient, then the fluid may need to be supplemented with additional
corrosion inhibitors.

No maintenance is typically required on heat transfer fluids, but regular analysis is very
important. Reduction in the flash point and viscosity of a heat transfer fluid. It indicates
that the wrong pump was used to move fluid through a boiler. The result is that the fluid
moved too slowly through the boiler and, as a consequence, picked up too much heat,
leading to its decomposition.by keeping in mind above criteria have selected following
fluid.

There is no. application of the heat transfer oils one of them is their use in the solar
thermal power plants. This field is quite new as compared it with other applications but
it has als0 has 20 years of experience itself. Mineral oils are commonly used for this
purpose.

After all the literature review selected the following fluid.

20
Nano-Heat Transfer Oil
Nano-Heat Transfer Oil is actually nanofluid containing Paraffin with dispersed
amount of Double Waleed CNTs. It is based on carefully selected for its ability to
provide superior performance in indirect closed fluid heat transfer systems.

3.1.3 (carporation, August,2008 )Applications

3.1.3.1 Enclosed circulated heat transfer systems

For industrial applications such as process industry, chemical plants, textile producers
etc. and in household equipment such as oil filled radiators. Nano-Heat Transfer Oil
can be used in high temperature continuous heat transfer equipment with the following
application limits. Fluid application properties are given in the following Table 3-1:
(carporation, August,2008 )

Table 3-1: Oil Application Limit

Max. film temperature 340°C

Max. bulk temperature 320°C

3.1.4 Performance Features and Benefits

3.1.4.1 Extended maintenance intervals

Nano-Heat Transfer Oil is based on carefully selected highly refined mineral oils and
resists oil cracking, oxidation and thickening. This provides extended oil life, provided
efficient fluid heating and good pump circulation is ensured, such that film temperatures
on the heater surface do not exceed the limits above.

3.1.5 System efficiency

Low viscosity enables excellent fluidity and heat transfer over a wide temperature
range. Nano-Heat Transfer Oil also has a low vapor pressure so resists cracking. This
minimizes the formation of volatile decomposition products; these would require
recovery via expansion chamber and condensate collector.

21
3.1.6 Wear protection
Nano-Heat Transfer Oil is non-corrosive and has high solvency. This reduces deposit
formation by holding oxidation products in solution and keeping internal surfaces of
heat exchangers clean.

3.1.7 Health and Safety

3.1.7.1 Protect the environment

Take used oil to an authorized collection point. Do not discharge into drains, soil or
water. (carporation, August,2008 )

3.1.8 Typical Physical Characteristics

Different properties of the fluids are given in Table 3-2.

Table 3-2: Physical Properties

Property Units Standard

Density at 15 °C kg/m3 ISO 2719 866
Flash Point PMCC °C ISO 2592 210
Flash Point COC °C ISO 2592 220
Fire Point COC °C ISO 3016 255
Pour Point °C ISO 3016 -12
Kinematic Viscosity ISO 3104
at 0 °C mm2/s 151
at 40 °C mm2/s 25
at 100 °C mm2/s 4.7
at 200 °C mm2/s 1.1
Initial Boiling Point °C ASTM D 2887 355
Auto ignition Temperature °C DIN 51794 360
Neutralization Value mgKOH/g ASTM D974 < 0.05
Ash (Oxide) %m/m ISO 6245 < 0.01
Carbon Residue (Conradson) %m/m ISO 10370 0.02
Copper Corrosion (3h/100°C) ISO 2160 class 1

22
 Fluid properties at different temperature are given in the Table 3-3.

Table 3-3: Operating Condition (carporation, August,2008 )

Temperatur °C 0 20 40 100 150 200 250 300

e
Density Kg/ 876 863 850 811 778 746 713 681
m3
Specific kJ/k 1.809 1.882 1.954 2.173 2.355 2.538 2.72 2.902
Heat g*K
Capacity
Thermal W/m 0.136 0.134 0.133 0.128 0.125 0.121 0.118 0.114
Conductivit *K
y
Prandtl No. 3375 919 375 69 32 20 14 11 9

Calculation of Mass Flow Rate 𝒎̇

Mass flow rate is calculated that would be needed to carry the heat from the parabolic
trough. It has already discussed all the properties that would be needed in calculating
the mass flow rate. So it here required a fluid with higher value of heat capacity for the
complete removal of the heat.

So flow rate is the amount if the fluid that passes through the pipe per unit time its
symbol is given as 𝑚̇

Basic equation of the mass flow rate depicts that mass flow rate is equal to the density
of the fluid multiplied by area of the pipe of flow and the velocity of the fluid at which
it is passing through. It is given as in equation form as

23
 𝑚̇ = 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝑣

Where

ρ is the density of the fluid.

A is the cross sectional area of the pump.

V is the velocity of the fluid.

Start with basic equation of energy from that equation is given as:

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 (3.1)

𝑄̇
∆𝑇 =
𝑚̇𝐶𝑝

In which

𝒎̇ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝐶𝑝 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒

∆𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑠

As it is known that all trough installed have the same size so they will provide same
amount of energy. So value of 𝑄̇ would be same for each parabolic trough. So the
change in the temperature is also considered same, because it is assumed that the heat
capacity of the fluid changes in very small value.

It has been considered that sum of temperature rise in each parabolic trough would
result in equation which will give us total temperature rise in the fluid. This is given as:

∆𝑇 = ∆𝑇1 + ∆𝑇2 + ∆𝑇3 + ∆𝑇4 (3.2)

If write the value of each temperature rise in the fluid from the energy of equation than
have equation in the following form

𝑄̇ 𝑄̇ 𝑄̇ 𝑄̇
∆𝑇 = [ + + + ] (3.3)
𝑚̇𝐶𝑝1 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝2 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝3 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝4

24
In the above equation have value 𝑄̇ and 𝑚̇ are constant. Only variable that have left
undefined is the heat capacity whose value changes with the temperature. Values of the
specific heats are different at the end of each parabolic trough. Here have one equation
and two variables those are unknown. That’s why assumption was made that rise in the
value of specific heats are not increasing much so consider an average value of specific
heat.

𝐶𝑝,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐶𝑝1 = 𝐶𝑝2 = 𝐶𝑝3 = 𝐶𝑝4 (3.4)

If replace the average value of specific heat into the above equation than have the
overall temperature raise equation in the following form:

4𝑄̇
∆𝑇 = (3.6)
𝑚̇𝐶𝑝,𝑎𝑣𝑔

Now it is find out those different values of heat rate from the each parabolic trough for
the different months of the year per unit area 𝑄̇ . So the average value of energy in
different months of the year that has already been calculated in the previous section.

𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑠 = 𝑄̇

= 7.035 𝐾𝑊ℎ⁄𝑚2 . 𝑑𝑎𝑦

So the calculated amount of power per second that can attain full power from panel
with the maximum efficiency of parabolic trough. Sun hours available per day are about
10. So calculated power in watts is as:

𝐴 = 2 × 2.42𝑚2

𝐴 = 4.84𝑚2

𝑄̇ = 34.05𝐾𝑊ℎ

𝑄̇ = 3.405𝐾𝑊

So

Now the second unknown in the equation is average specific heat. Fluid in the primary
circuit has the value of 𝐶𝑝,𝑎𝑣𝑔 selected from the property table of the fluid at 200 Celsius
that is the average temperature of the fluid.

25
If put this in above equation have

𝐶𝑝,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2.538𝐾𝐽/𝐾𝑔. 𝐾

4𝑄̇
∆𝑇 =
𝑚̇𝐶𝑝,𝑎𝑣𝑔

4 × 3.405𝐾𝑊
∆𝑇 =
2.538 𝐾𝐽/𝐾𝑔. 𝐾 × 𝑚̇

By solving

8.0496
∆𝑇 = (3.7)
𝑚̇

Where

∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟

∆𝑇 = 𝑇4 − 𝑇1

As known temperature at the inlet of the parabolic trough is 120 oC (393.15k)

So write this equation in the following form

8.0496
𝑇4 = + 𝑇1
𝑚̇

8.0496
𝑇4 = + 393.15 (3.8)
𝑚̇

In the equation there two are unknown mass flow rate and the temperature difference if
initial temperature of the fluid at the inlet of the parabolic trough is at temperature 120
Celsius and the limitation condition for the maximum temperature less than 300 Celsius
than have the following relation between them:

Now calculated the values of final temperature of the fluid for a range of mass flow rate
0.01 to 0.1(m3/sec) and notice values of outlet temperature of the final parabolic trough.
T6 should be less than 300℃. Write an algorithm in mathematica for this purpose which
is shown in Figure 3-2 as follow:

26
3.1.9 Mathematica Program

Figure 3-2: Mass Flow Rate Primary System

From the Figure 3-2 it is clear that when mass flow rate of the fluid varies from, .04 to
.05 then the temperature varies from 554.1 to 594𝐾.

More precise calculation and ranges give us more accurate value which is given as:

𝑚̇ = 0.045 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

27
4 Designing and Fabrication of Parabolic
Trough

4.1 Introduction
Parabola has unique property that all Sun rays falling on aperture of Parabolic Trough
will ultimately be focused onto Receiver i.e. Focal Point. The most important designing
aspect in Parabolic Collectors is to calculate Focal Point accurately. This is the point
where we have ZERO tolerance.

Parabolic Solar Trough Concentrator [22]

28
4.2 Components Used

 Temperature Gauges
 Collector (SS Polished Sheet)
 MS Pipe ( 1” and 1.5 “)
 3 Targeted Glass Tube
 Copper Tubes
 SS Connectors
 Male & Female Socket
 Teflon
 Silicone Gel

4.4 Design Model In Pro-Engineer

Nano-Fluid

Water

Concentric Receiver

Parabolic
Collector

Pro E Model of Parabolic Collector

Pro E Model of Receiver Tube

29
4.5 Parabola Designing

4.5.1 The Parabola

You find them built into car headlights, spotlights as well as astronomical telescopes.
Here we explore the parabola to design solar parabolic mirror surfaces are found
wherever energy needs to be focused efficiently and heaters. [23]

When Sun light (parallel rays) falls onto a correctly aligned parabolic mirror it will be
reflected back towards a single point known as the focus. The parabolic mirror therefore
directs the energy arriving over its surface to a 'hot spot' at the focus. You can use this
energy to heat something.

The basic shape of a parabola is derived from the equation:

y² = 4ax

Where y represents the distance away from the mirror centre and x represents the 'height
above' the centre, see figure 1 and 2. The constant a is known as the focal length - the
distance from the origin to the focus point.

Light rays coming from infinity will tend to be reflected towards a point called the focus
or focal point.

If we want to make a parabolic reflector to our own particular specification i.e. in terms
of its size D (i.e. having maximum y = D/2), height h and focal length a, then equation
1 becomes:

a = D²/16h [23]

A simple curved plane (rather than dish shape) solar heater is shown in photo 1 and we
shall use this as an example, of course what follows can also be used for a full 'dish
shaped' parabola and for much larger designs.

30
Figure . Parabolic surface made using i) a cut-
out template or ii) by thin sheet fixed to vertical
wooden supports.

To make it easy to locate the focal point when

we are using it, I chose to design the mirror
surface height The position (y*) and height (x*)
of each support (point) is calculated from the
above (h) to be the same value as a - the focus
distance above the canter of the mirror (so a =
h).

Rearranging equation 2 we get the diameter / length of the solar heater D to be:

D² = 16ah, so using h =9.84 in a =8.28 in we get:

D = √(16x8.28x9.84) = 36.1054 in

We have y² = 4ax and a = 8.28 in

For the solar heater shown in photo 1 we get x = y²/33.12

31
 Parabola Calculator version 2.0
About This Program
This Freeware program was written to help you design solar collector or wifi projects

using parabolic reflectors. Whether you're improving the signal strength of your wifi

antenna, or designing a satellite antenna or solar trough, this program calculates the

focal length and (x, y) coordinates for a parabola of any diameter and depth. It can help

you determine what size and shape to make your parabola very quickly. Version 2

includes Wifi calculations for centered or offset feedhorn dishes.

32
4.5.3 Program Notes

1.When you run the program you will see the main program window shown here. Use
any units you like, as long as you use the same units for both the Depth and Diameter.
You can also select Diameter and f/D as inputs using the Options > Select Inputs menu
choice. I recommend using smaller units: inches instead of feet, or millimeters instead
of meters, to increase the resolution of your measurements.

2. After you enter some numbers into the Diameter and Depth text boxes and click the
Calculate button, the program will show you the scaled down shape of the parabola you
described, and it will calculate the (x, y) coordinates of the curve of the parabola in 16
straight line segments. You can calculate the (x, y) coordinates using anywhere from 2
to 1000 segments.

33
3. If you click the Save to Text File button, the program will prompt you to select a
folder and enter a filename, and then it writes a file with the information you see in the
text box on the right. Here's how the saved file looks when it is opened using Windows
Notepad (using the Lucida Console non-proportional font where all characters have the
same width so the columns line up vertically). The program will automatically suggest
a filename that includes depth and diameter but you can enter any filename you like.

Linear Diam. 47 “

Diameter 43”

Focal Length 13.69”

Parametric Dimension

4. If you'd like to see the coefficients of the Equation that describes the current Parabola,
use the menu choice: File > View the Coefficients. You will see a message box like this
one showing you the values used in the parabola equation:

34
5. If you move your cursor over the image of the parabola, you will see the individual
points calculated by the program: the (x, y) coordinates are shown at the bottom of the
display. The point (horizontally) closest to the mouse cursor will be shown, you can see
the location of each point listed in the text box.

6. There are several file output formats you can use to save the data to a file that can be
read by another program like ACAD, CorelDraw, or MS Excel. You can see these menu
choices under the File menu.

You can print the graphic of the parabola to a printer using the Print menu choice.

35
You can change the foreground and background color of the Parabola graphic using the
Options menu choice.

4.6 Fabrication Of Solar Parabolic Trough

4.6.1 Making of Nano-Heat Transfer Oil

Fabrication of Supporting Structure

36
Fabrication of Stand

Machining of Teflon

37
Teflon Corks

Paint

38
Experimentation

39
40
5 Result and Discussion
Results shows that using Nano-Fluids based parabolic Collector, we got 5-10 %
increase in efficiency. Due to good thermal and optical characteristics, Nano-Fluids
based parabolic troughs showed increase in optical as well as thermal efficiency.

However, handling of Nano-Fluids is bid issue to deal. Secondly, with increase in

temperature there is negative affect on thermal as well as optical efficiency due to
instability of Nnao-Fluids.
Efficiency (%)

Temperature (Toc)

System designed based on simple Ideal Rankine System, thermal efficiency can be
increase by using the different accessories and arrangement of the equipment.

One of them is by superheating the steam. When temperature of the steam is above the
saturation temperature at the same pressure is called superheated steam. It can be done
by installing the electric heaters at the end of the heat exchanger.

41
Second way is to install two steam turbines, one operating at higher pressure and other
at lower one. After passing the steam at the exit of high pressure steam turbine it is
passed through heat exchanger before passing it to the low pressure steam turbine. By
using this technique efficiency of the power plant can be increase 2 to 3%.

Regeneration is also another option to increase thermal efficiency of the power plant
but due small capacity of the power plant that would not be a smart option. That is
handsome increase in the capital cost of the power plant.

Calculated power for the 15 K𝑊𝑒 is about 140 KW thermal. In this calculation no
consideration was made for any line losses from the different equipment such as pump,
turbine, and Heat exchanger. To add more practicality into our system, these losses
must be considered. Another option is to use covering on the piping and make sealing
of all the pumps perfect.

Calculated mass flow rate in the steam System is 0.06 Kg/sec. this mass flow rate is
calculated without considering leakage through piping and other equipment. Feed water
tank must be used to accomplish that problem.

Fluid selected for the primary circuit is Nano-heat Transfer Oil. Problem associated
with this fluid is that its thermal conductivity decreases as temperature increases. At
270 Celsius it value decreases to very low value that will decrease effectiveness of the
heat exchanger. So the overall thermal efficiency of the power plant would decrease.

Mass flow rate calculated for the primary system is 0.045 kg/sec. these values are
calculated based on the operating conditions. It may take little long to achieve those
steady state conditions.

42
6 Future Work
There are lots of works which can be done further.

In secondary system heaters can be installed in order to achieve steam of high

quality.
Re-Generation can be used to increase thermal efficiency of the secondary
system.
Storage tank charging and discharging phenomenon can be studied and graph is
to be generated for 4 days storage supply
Primary system piping can be covered with lamination to decrease heat transfer
losses, a study can be done to improve it.
A study can be done to calculate optimized value of no. of coils and diameters
of the concentric pipes.

43
7 References
[1] Kahlown MA, Majeed A. Pakistan water resources: development and
management. PCRWR/Most Publication, Govt of Pakistan 2004 [Chapter1, Section
1.6, Page13].

[2] Internal Report 2006 Power Sector Situation in Pakistan. Alternate Energy
Development Board (AEDB) and Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.
[3] Journal home page: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Renewable energy resource potential in Pakistan by Munawar A. Sheikh.
[4] Annual Report 2006 Livestock Statistics, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and
Livestock, Pakistan.
[5] Ghaffar MA The energy supply situation in the rural sector of Pakistan and the
potential of renewable energy technologies. Renewable Energy 1995; 6(8):941.

[6] Meena J Biogas for rural applications, renewable energy conference

international progress part B Oxford: Elsevier Publishing Company 1984.

[7] Internal Report 2006 Analysis of commercial gases. Hydrocarbon Development

Institute of Pakistan, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources, Pakistan.

[8] George Brakmann ET AL., Sep 2005, “Concentrated Solar Thermal Power-Now
“

[9] Nafisa Noor, Sadid Muneer, “Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) And Its Prospect
in Bangladesh’’.

[10] Concentrating Solar Power, Global Outlook 09, Why Renewable Energy is Hot”,
published by Greenpeace International, Solar PACES and ESTELA, 2009. Available
at:http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/concentrating-
solar-power- 2009 pdf.

[11] HANS MÜLLER-STEINHAGEN, FRENG AND FRANZ TRIEB,

“Concentrating Solar Power, A review of Technology,” INSTITUTE OF TECHNICAL

44
THERMODYNAMICS, GERMAN AEROSPACE CENTRE, STUTTGART,
GERMANY

[12] Energy efficiency and Renewable energy clearing house,” DOE/GO-102001-

1147, FS 128, March 2001

[13] Häberle, A., ET AL. 2009. “Te Solarmundo Line Focusing Fresnel collector.
Optical and thermal performance and cost calculations.”
http://www.spggmbh.com/UserFiles/File/PDF/Fresnel_trough_cost_compare.pdf
Accessed May 28, 2009.

[14] Concentrating solar power now published by The Federal Ministry for the
Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) Public Relations
Division D-11055 Berlin, Germany.

[15] Cohen, G., Kearney, D., and Kolb, G., 1999, ‘‘Final Report on the Operation

and Maintenance Improvement Program for CSP Plants,’’ Report No. SAND99-1290,
SNL, Albuquerque, NM.

[16] Lu¨pfert, E., Geyer, M., Schiel, W., Esteban, A., Osuna, R., Zarza, E., and

Nava, P., 2001, ‘‘EUROTROUGH Design Issues And Prototype Testing At

PSA,’’ Proc. of ASME Int. Solar Energy Conf.-Forum 2001, Solar Energy: The
Power to Choose, Washington, DC, April 21-25, pp. 389–394.

[17] Cohen, G., Kearney, D., and Kolb, G., 1999, ‘‘Final Report on the Operation
and Maintenance Improvement Program for CSP Plants,’’ Report No. SAND99-1290,
SNL, Albuquerque, NM.

[18] Power from the sun,” http://www.powerfromthesun.net.

[19] KJC Operating Company (December 1993). Final Report on HCE Heat Transfer
Analysis Code.SANDIA Contract No. AB-0227. Albuquerque, NM: Sandia National
Laboratories.
[20] Mahoney, A. R., and Price, H., 2002, ‘‘Solar Field Performance of New UVAC
Receivers at SEGS VI,’’ KJC Operation Co. ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng., submitted

45
for publication.

[21] Julio Chaves, Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, CRC Press, 2008.

[22] Julio Chaves, Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, CRC Press, 2008.

46
47