salt, sugar, soy sauce, monosodium glutamate, soybean flour, and antioxidants

in oil at 120 C for 65 minutes), the total content of four different HAs ranged
from about 1 to 85 ng per g, depending on the kind and quantity of added
ingredients (Tai et al., 2001).

13.2.4 ACRYLAMIDE IN HEAT PROCESSED FOOD

Acrylamide (ACA) (Figure 13.9) is generated primarily in fried, grilled, and
baked products at temperatures above 120 C. Its content can vary due to the
composition of the food and the cooking conditions; the highest concentrations
occur in potato chips, French fries, bread, and processed cereals. It has also
been found in microwaved grated potato, fried beetroot, and fried spinach. In
beef and chicken heated at high temperature, only low amounts of ACA have
been detected. By using available analytical techniques, the detection limit of
ACA in foods can be 10 ng per g (FAO/WHO 2002).

FIGURE 13.9 Structure of acrylamide.

The mechanisms of ACA formation in foods and its precursors are not
known yet, although it is clear that the product yield increases with the
duration and temperature of heating (Table 13.3). It has been suggested that
ACA may be formed directly from amino acids, from lactic acid in dehydration
and decarboxylation reactions, or from acrolein or acrylic acid, which might be
derived from lipids, saccharides, or amino acids. Maillard-type reaction
between glucose and asparagine may also be involved. ACA is a very reactive
compound that interacts with the thiol group of cysteine, and, at a lower rate,
with amino and hydroxyl groups of different food constituents. As a volatile
and reactive substance, it can be partially lost after formation. The observed
low concentrations of ACA in protein-rich foods may be due to volatilization,
or to further interactions with other food components.
Since the mechanism of formation of ACA is not known, it is not yet
possible to optimize conditions of formulation, processing, and cooking of
food that would minimize the generation of this compound. However, it is
known that the yield of ACA in fried and roasted potatoes increases with the
content of fructose and glucose in the product. Therefore, it has been proposed
that potatoes used for roasting and frying should contain less than 1 g per kg
of reducing saccharides. By extracting the reducing sugars and asparagine from
the surface of the cut potato in a water bath or spray, pre-frying at 140 C for
2.5 min, and frying at about 170 C, French fries with 40 to 70 ng per g ACA
can be produced (Grob et al., 2003). German food processors have agreed to
cook French fries at oil temperature not higher than 175 C.

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 Table 13.3
Acrylamide content in various foods.

Acrylamide Number of
Product (ng/g) samples

Chips, potato <50–3500 39

Biscuits, crackers, toast, bread crisps <30–3200 58
Crisps, potato/sweet potato/corn 34–2287 45
Breakfast cereals <30–1346 29
Bakery products <50–450 19
Coffee powder 170–230 3
Chocolate powder <50–100 2
Instant malt drinks <50–70 3
Poultry, game, fish and seafood products, crumbed, 30–64 6
battered

Source: data from FAO/WHO. Health implications of acrylamide in food, Report of a joint FAO/
WHO consultation, Geneva, 25–27 June 2002.

ACA has been classified by the International Agency for Research on

Cancer as ‘‘probably carcinogenic to humans.’’ It has a carcinogenic potency in
rats similar to that of other carcinogens in food. Furthermore, ACA has
neurotoxic activity and may induce heritable damage.

13.3 HEALTH IMPAIRING OXIDATION PRODUCTS

13.3.1 OXIDIZED LIPIDS

Lipids are the food components that are most prone to oxidation. In food
systems, oxidation of lipids starts as autoxidation, photooxidation, or
lipoxygenase-catalyzed reactions, depending on the properties of the product
and conditions of storage or processing (Kolakowska, 2002). The factors that
affect the rate of oxidation of lipids in foods are high temperature, light, and
the presence of oxygen and prooxidants. Polyenoic fatty acids oxidize at a very
much higher rate than monoenoic fatty acids. Natural and added antioxidants,
acting through various mechanisms, decrease the rate of reaction.
Cholesterol, present in animal fats, and phytosterols, the minor compo-
nents of the unsaponifiable fraction of plant oils, turn into oxysterols in
conditions known to promote the oxidation of fatty acids. A range of
cholesterol oxidation products has been found in foods, mainly 7a- and 7-b-
hydroxycholesterols, cholesterol-a- and -b-epoxides, cholestanetriol, 7-keto-
cholesterol (Figure 13.10a), 20-a-hydroxycholesterol (Figure 13.10b), and
25-hydroxycholesterol. The total content of oxysterols ranges from trace
amounts in fresh eggs, milk, and meat, through to several mg per g in fresh
infant formulae, up to about 30 mg per g in sausages and powdered milk, and to

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