DANCEIN THE MUSIC

CURRICULU
Musicand dancearenaturalpartnersin a generalmusiccurriculum
witha multiculturalfocus.

he status of dance in the

school curriculumhas stimu-
lated much debate in recent
decades. Many educators
have been critical of its loca-
tion in the school'sphysical education
department where it is likely to be
presentedas "anisolated activitylimit-
ed to the mastery of discrete move-
ment skills."l In addition, they argue
that dance tends to receive less atten-
tion in physical education programs
than, say, games and gymnastics.2
Others argue that dance is less an ath-
letic feat and more an artisticand cul-
tural endeavor3 and that it would
seem logical to align it in the curricu-
lum with related art forms such as
music or theatre. A shift in focus has
been underway in the last decade or
so. In assessing the state of dance in
education in the early 1980s, aestheti-
cian Curtis L. Carter concluded that Interaction isa keypartofdance,
ofparticipants which
oftenservesa socialfunction.
its role was expanding "fromits origi-
nal locus in physical education to its
inclusion among the fine arts."4The much where dance is located in the and life of people of different ethnic
inclusion of dance with music, the- curricularorganizationof subjects but origins: their customs, their music,
atre, and the visual arts in the recently that all children have learning experi- their celebrationsand costumes."7
published National Standardsfor Arts ences in this expressive art form.6 The naturalalliance between music
Educationconfirms this change of cur- Dance can be linked easily with many and dance learning experiences has
ricularorientation.5 other learning experiences. It is, as been underestimated and under-
In the end, the concern is not so dance educators Jennifer Wall and explored in the general music class.
Nancy Murraypoint out, "One of the Over a decade ago, PatriciaK. Shehan
MarieMcCarthy is assistantprofessorin the
best examplesof integrationof subject pointed out that "the potential of folk
matter which can be found in the dance has largely been neglected by
Schoolof MusicattheUniversityof Marylandin
school curriculum. Here it is possible music specialistsas a means for teach-
Park,
College Maryland. for children to learn about the history ing rhythm and meter."8There are, I
MAY 1996 17

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believe, historical, curricular, and
logistical reasons for this neglect. In
the past, negative connotations and
stereotypeshave surroundedthe activ-
ity of dance. Some religious groups
viewed bodily movement and dance
with hostility and, in many cases,
banned dancing. Also, the view of
dance as a feminine activity dominat-
ed Victorian social and educational
values, and this view continued to
shape attitudes toward dance in the
twentieth century.
In addition to the socioculturalfac-
tors, the fact that the teaching of
dance since the early decades of the
century was the responsibility of the
physicaleducation teacherdiscouraged
the music teacher from integrating
dance into the general music class.
Besides, music teacherswere generally
not trained to include dance in the
curriculum beyond singing games for
the primary grades. Also, there are
some logistical problems identified by
teachers in informal interviews-pri-
marily the lack of classroomspace and
suitable recordingsof dance music.
With the rising popularity of a
multicultural approach to music edu-
cation and the curricular shift of
dance from physical education to the
fine arts, it is timely to examine the
potential of dance in the general
music class and to make some discipli-
nary connections. I am not suggesting
that music teachers ought to assume
responsibility for dance education.
Similar to the other arts, dance is a
unique way of knowing and experi-
encing oneself in the world and, as a
curriculardiscipline, should ideally be
taught by a specialist. However, as
Charles B. Fowler pointed out, "All
arts teachers, regardless of focus,
should know something about dance,
just as dance teachers should know
something about the other arts."9
More recently, the chair of the Task
Force for National Standards in
Dance, Mary Maitland Kimball, has
suggested that dance should be taught
"in alliancewith other arts that share a
similar philosophy."10Music is indeed
one of those arts. The presenceof chil-
dren's singing games and dances in
playgrounds across cultures is one
convincing piece of evidence that a
naturalalliance exists between the two
18
art forms. Furthermore,cross-cultural ing a musical style, they are in an
research on the role of dance clearly advantageous position to engage in
demonstrates its close links to music creative musical activity that emulates
making. that style. For example, students who
can perform the Russian "Troika"or
the Russian-American "Korobushka"
dances, in addition to learning folk
songs and listening actively to Rus-
sian compositions, have a musically
enlargedand culturallyenriched reper-
Thepresenceof childrens toire to draw from when asked to cre-
ate a musical setting based on the
singinggamesand Russian folktale "The Snow Maiden."
dancesin playgrounds Or those students who have been
introduced to the unique aesthetic of
acrossculturesis one Japanesedance and performed"Tanko
Bushi" or "Toyko Dontaku" may
convincingpieceof structurea musical composition based
evidencethat a natural on a haiku poem around a dance that
incorporates movement patterns they
allianceexistsbetween have learned. In sum, the presentation
of multiculturaldances can have mul-
the two artforms. tiple positive effects on musical perfor-
mance and achievement.
to Classroom
FromCulture
Attention to dance style and cross-
cultural aesthetics is vitally important
DanceintheMusicClassroom in the backgroundstudy and presenta-
The fact that dance intermingles tion of dances in the classroom. Since
with music and other relatedart forms dance is "an embodiment of culture
in cultural contexts affords multiple ... a way of knowing, a way of
opportunities for using it as an inte- communicating, a kinetic human his-
gral and naturalpart of the music cur- tory,"12 a study of its patterns and
riculum. Teacherscould introduce, for characteristicscan provide musical and
example, song dances such as the tra- cultural insights into the performance
ditional Anglo-American "Alabama and the meaning of the dance. These
Gal," the Japanese"SoranBushi," the insights are not only interesting for
African-American "Zudie-O," the students but lead toward more educa-
Greek "Gerakina,"or those presented tionally resonant experiences and
by Bryan Burton in Moving within the improve the quality and meaning of
Circle:Contemporary Native American multiculturaleducation in music. The
Music and Dance.11 Dances that pro- following sections describe different
vide kinesthetic knowledge of and per- lenses for looking at dance in its myri-
forming skill in a variety of meters ad forms and with its shifting dimen-
include the Philippine "Tinikling"in sions of meaning.13 Not all these
triple meter, reels in quadruple meter, dimensions of dance meaning are nec-
jigs in compound duple meter, and essarilyapplicableto any one dance.
the Bulgarian"ruchenitsa"in irregular Dance context.What is understood
meter. Dance also provides a visual as dance varies across cultures. Many
and moving experience of musical societies have no word that translates
form. Consider the binary form of"La the word "dance,"while other societies
Cucaracha," both in its musical and have multiple words for different
dance forms, in contrast to the dances without having a single generic
Ecuadorean"AmoresHallares,"where term. Judith Lynne Hanna provides
the dance pattern differs each time the the following examples to show the
musical section is repeated. flexibility of this art form in cultural
Furthermore, when students learn contexts: In Hawaii, a single word for
dances as a component part of learn- dance (hula) has many referents-the
MUSIC EDUCATORS JOURNAL
dance, the dancers, or song or chant
used, to name a few. For the Ubakala
of Nigeria, drum accompaniment is a
necessarypart of dance, and therefore
the word for dance also denotes a
drum. In Japan, there are men's song
dances ("Utamai") and women's
dances ("Miko-mar"), while "Odori"
refers to dances that emphasize foot
movement.14
In contrast, the Hopi Pueblo
Native Americans call their dance
"work," while in the West African
Akan tradition, the word "agor"means
dance, music, play, and is a metaphor
for participation in Asante society.15
What is clear from a cross-cultural
study of dance is that its definition is
intricate and embraces a broad range
of human behaviors.
Purpose. Generally dances have a
social function at some level in the
sense that they are performedby or for
groups of people who share artistic
values and aesthetic expectations.
Within that social function there is a
tremendous variety of purposes. A
dance can celebrate work and/or pro-
vide opportunities for the young to
practice work rhythms-for example,
the English "Sailor'sHornpipe," the
Haliwa-Saponi "Canoe Dance," the
Danish "Shoemaker'sDance," or the
Japanese coal miner's dance, "Tanko
Bushi."
Mimetic actions associated with
these dances are also found in dances
that recall activities or experiences
from the dancers'environment. In the
"Tinikling," hopping over bamboo
poles reminds dancers of the long-
legged tikling bird, which moves in
and out of the tall grasses of the
Philippines. Likewise, in the "Troika,"
dancers imitate the steps of the horses
as they move around the imaginary
spoke of the troika'swheels. In Japan-
ese folk dances, imitation of nature is
prevalent,in keeping with their atten-
tion to nature in all art forms. Finding
a partner or a reenactment of mating
rituals is also a common purpose to
dances cross-culturally-for example,
the Ecuadorean"AmoresHallaras."Yet
other dances originated in a historical
event that was significant to a commu-
nity. "La Cucaracha"became popular
during the Mexican Revolution.
Of course, similar to music, many
MAY 1996
dances do not have a program. Their
purpose may be primarily movement,
the creation of a "kinetic design."16
Consider Appalachian clogging, Irish
traditional solo and set dances,
African-American tap dancing, or
Russian cossack dances. In many of
these practices, display of virtuosic
movement is central to its purpose. Yet
in other instances, the social function
is of primary importance and some-
times dancersactuallyconverse as they
move. Balkanwomen's dances are like-
ly to exemplify this strong orientation
for "making, renewing, or retaining
friendshipson a social level."17
The evocationofimages
throughmovement
patternsisfrequently
encounteredin dance.
Location. The place in which the
dance is performed is influenced by
many factors, including the purpose,
the climatic conditions, the time of
day it is performed, and changing cir-
cumstances over time. An authentic
dance environment may not be possi-
ble to replicatein the classroom;yet it
is important for students to see how
dance fits into the everyday life of
a community.18 Then the human
importance of dance and its key role
in communal life are more likely to
become evident to them.
Use of imagery. The evocation of
images through movement patterns is
frequentlyencountered in dance. As in
any art form, their use lends depth,
adds color, and sharpens the focus of
the expression. Images used in dance
range from the tikling bird in
"Tinikling," the cockroach in "La
Cucaracha,"the paddles of the "Canoe
Dance," the horses of the "Troika,"to
the oars of "SoranBushi."A compari-
son of the use of images acrosscultures
provides insight into a people's values,
their modes of expression, and their
uses of environmentalmaterials.
Form. This component can be
describedand analyzedby the students
themselves. If a videotape of the dance
is available,they can see its formation
(lines, squares, closed or open circles,
dial, partners, or combinations of
these formations), the sequence of the
dance movements, and the overall
structure. The dance's form can be
comparedwith the form of the accom-
panying song or dance music, where
either applies.
Interactionof dancers.Related to the
dance formation is the interaction of
the participants. Do dancers touch
physically and how? Who dances with
whom? How are dancers grouped?
How do they move through space?Are
there specific gender roles? Are other
forms of interaction such as eye con-
tact or direction of the body signifi-
cant?
Movement style. This refers to the
kind of movements used in the dance,
identified by Hanna as postural (whole
body), gestural (body parts), and loco-
motor (change of location of the
whole body).19 It also involves body
levels, size of movements, direction,
function of particularbody parts, the
shape of the movements, and the spa-
tial patterns created by the dancers as
they move. If we heighten students'
awarenessof stylistic details by model-
ing and/or by verbal description, the
chances of their movements being styl-
istically accurate are increased.Also, a
live or videotaped performance of a
dance can help achieve this end.
Dress.Do dancerswear special dress
when performing? How does this
influence or enhance the performance?
Consider, for example, the impact of
the kimono and "tabi" (Japanese
footwear) on the body and foot move-
ments of certain Japanese dancers, or
the impact of the headdress and bells
worn by some Native American
dancers on the sounds produced by
the movement of the body, or the
19

Dance students
provides withavisualandmoving
experience
effect of the elaborate and beautiful
Celtic designs of Irish traditional
dance costumes on the overall visual
presentation of the dance. No doubt
footwearis closely linked to the nature
of the dance step. A tap dancer could
not perform in the moccasins of the
Native American dancer. Likewise, a
barefoot West African dancer has no
need for the "hard"shoes worn by the
performerof an Irish hornpipe. Form
follows function.
Use of props. Another concrete
aspect of dance that students can
observecriticallyis the use of props or
objects in the course of perfor-
mance-the swords of the Morris
dancers, the ribbons of the English
"Maypole" or "Ribbon Dance," the
masksworn by certainWest Africanor
Caribbean dancers, or the handker-
chiefs used to link dancers in some
Greek dances. For their own perfor-
mance, students can, as part of an
interdisciplinary project, make these
props (or imitations of them).
Language. Dance educator Phyllis
Weikart emphasizes the role of lan-
guage as a bridge to movement and
provides a list of movement vocabu-
lary that is useful for teaching dance
across cultures, for example, "step,"
"close," "cross,""touch," "turn,"and
"kick."20Beyond this common vocab-
ulary,there are also words and phrases
20
ofmusical
form.
that are unique to dance traditions.
They can describe the dress, a parti-
cular movement, dance titles, or cus-
toms that have grown with the prac-
tice of a particulardance.
Attentionto dancestyle
and cross-cultural
aesthetics
is vitally
importantin the
background studyand
presentationof dancesin
theclassroom.
Musical accompaniment.Of central
importance to many dance perfor-
mances and of particularsignificance
to the music educator and student are
the role and nature of musical accom-
paniment. Is the dance accompanied
by song, choral dialogue, hand-clap-
ping, or finger clicking? Do the
dancers wear and/or play musical
MUSIC
instruments as they move? If musical
instruments are used, what are they
and what is their role in the dance
context? Is the spatial relationship
between the dancers and the musi-
cians significant? When performed
today, is the dance usually accompa-
nied by live or recordedmusic?
Curricular
Making Connections
The foregoing lenses with which to
view dance practices are enlightening
to our own and to our students'
understanding,appreciation, and per-
formance of dance in cultural context.
They may also be useful when plan-
ning integrated lessons across the dis-
ciplines of music and dance since they
make vital disciplinary connections
between the two art forms, connec-
tions that are implicit in the National
Standards for Arts Education. For
example, consider the similarities of
some of the content standards for
music and dance. Music content stan-
dard 8 calls for "understanding rela-
tionships between music, the other
arts, and disciplines outside the arts,"
and dance content standard7 calls for
"making connections between dance
and other disciplines."Music content
standard 9 calls for "understanding
music in relation to history and cul-
ture," and dance content standard 5
calls for "demonstrating and under-
standing dance in various culturesand
historicalperiods."
In considering the implementation
of the National Standardsand, specifi-
cally, the challenge of making discipli-
nary connections, Samuel Hope urges
that teachers consider seriously the
integrity of the connections: "Integrity
means ensuring that programs com-
bining disciplines are honest about
how they advance the knowledge and
skills of students."21 Integrating
knowledge and skills from the disci-
pline of dance into the general music
class has the potential to increase dis-
ciplinary competence in music. Music
and dance, as curricularsubjects, need
to be taught as separate disciplines.
But if we as educators are going to be
true to the artisticconnection between
these two art forms in culture, then we
need to make appropriateconnections
that involve the dance or physical edu-
cation teacher (wherethat applies) and
EDUCATORS JOURNAL
teachersof other relateddisciplines.
With thoughtful and careful cur-
riculum planning, then, general music
teachers can draw on dances from a
variety of cultures to deepen student's
musical knowledge, increase their
skills, and shape their attitudes and
values. At the level of knowledge and
understanding, students gain insight
into (1) the myriad of ways in which
music relates to dance across cultures,
(2) the various vocal and instrumental
ensembles that accompany dance, (3)
the relationship between the musi-
cal form and dance patterns and
sequences, and (4) historical, cultural,
and geographical background that
sheds light on both the music and
dance styles of the period and/or cul-
ture.
At the skill level, students gain (1)
kinesthetic experience of a wide vari-
ety of dances, (2) increased skill in
identifying and performing various
meters and rhythmic patterns, (3)
competence in recognizing form and
in creating within a particular music
form, and (4) performing experience
(in a variety of cultural styles) that
expands students' concept of style and
increasestheir ability to create within
a given style. At the affective level,
educational experiences that make
interdisciplinary connections between
music and dance can have the effect of
improving students' general attitudes
toward dance and movement in the
school curriculum. These experiences
engage students directly in perfor-
mance and help them view dance as
an activity that is frequently insepara-
ble from music and is embedded in
human values.
While the value of dance in chil-
dren's musical development is widely
acknowledged,there are certain factors
working against a true integration of
dance into the music curriculum:the
ambiguous status of dance education
in the schools; the limited amount of
graded, up-to-date materialsin multi-
cultural dance; and the general lack
of research-based knowledge and
resourceson the role of dance in con-
temporary children's culture. In this
transitional time for dance in general
education, music educators have a
prime opportunity to assess the rela-
tionship of music and dance in cul-
MAY 1996
ture, to reassess their relationship in
generaleducation, and to redefinecur-
ricula to reflect the natural alliance
between these two art forms.22
Notes
1. Sarah Hilsendager, "In Transition-
AmericanDance Education," Journalof Phys-
icalEducation,Recreationand Dance61 (Feb-
ruary1990):47.
2. LoisChoksyand David Brummitt,120
Singing Gamesand Dancesfor Elementary
Schools(EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1987): 2; TheresaM. Purcell,TeachingChil-
dren Dance: Becoming a Master Teacher
(Champaign,IL:Human Kinetics,1994):vii;
JenniferWall and Nancy Murray,Children
and Movement:PhysicalEducationin the Ele-
mentarySchool,2d ed. (Madison,WI: WCB
Brown and BenchmarkPublishers, 1994):
140.
3. Peter Brinson, Dance as Education:
Towardsa NationalDance Culture(London:
FalmerPress,1991):79; GrahamMcFee, The
Conceptof Dance Education (London and
New York:Routledge,1994): 19; ElsaPosey,
"Discipline-Based Arts Education-Develop-
ing a Dance Curriculum," Journalof Physical
Education,Recreationand Dance59 (Novem-
ber/December1988):62.
4. CurtisL. Carter,"The State of Dance
in Education:Past and Present,"Theoryinto
Practice23 (Autumn1984):295.
5. NationalStandards for ArtsEducation:
What Every YoungAmericanShould Know
and Be Able to Do in the Arts (Reston, VA:
Music Educators National Conference,
1994).
6. Walland Murray,140.
7. Ibid., 147.
8. PatriciaK. Shehan, "TeachingMusic
throughBalkanFolkDance,"MusicEducators
Journal71 (November1984):48.
9. CharlesB. Fowler,Danceas Education
(Washington,DC: National Dance Associa-
tion, 1977):38.
10. Mary Maitland Kimball, "Writing
Standardsfor Dance,"in The Visionfor Arts
Educationin the 21st Century(Reston, VA:
Music Educators National Conference,
1994):32.
11. BryanBurton,Movingwithinthe Cir-
cle:Contemporary NativeAmericanMusicand
Dance (Danbury, CT: World Music Press,
1993).
12. Joan Frosch-Schroder, "A Global
View: Dance Appreciationfor the 21st Cen-
tury,"Journalof PhysicalEducation,Recreation
and Dance62 (March1991):62.
13. I have borrowedthe phrase"dimen-
sions of dance meaning" from Francis
Sparshott'sexcellent book, Off the Ground:
FirstStepsto a PhilosophicalConsideration
of
the Dance (Princeton,NJ: PrincetonUniver-
sity Press,1988).
14. Judith Lynne Hanna, To Dance Is
Human:A Theoryof NonverbalCommunica-
tion, rev. ed. (Chicagoand London:Univer-
sityof ChicagoPress,1987): 18.
15. Joan Frosch-Schroder, "A Global
View: Dance Appreciationfor the 21st Cen-
tury,"Journalof PhysicalEducation,Recreation
andDance62 (March1991):62.
16. Hanna,24.
17. Betty Casey,InternationalFolkDanc-
ing U.S.A., forewordby Miriam Gray (Gar-
den City, NY: Doubleday and Co., 1981):
106.
18. ElizabethFernandezO'Brien,"Teach-
ing Dance of Other Cultures,"Journal of
PhysicalEducation,Recreationand Dance 62
(February1991):40-41.
19. Hanna,36.
20. PhyllisWeikart, TeachingMovement
and Dance, 3d ed. (Ypsilanti, MI: The
High/ScopePress,1989):387-392.
21. Samuel Hope, "MakingDisciplinary
Connections,"Perspectiveson Implementation:
Arts EducationStandardsfor AmericanStu-
dents(Reston,VA: Music EducatorsNational
Conference,1994):42.
22. Resourcesthat music teachersmight
use to introduce dance to their students
include the following: Peter Amidon, Mary
Cay Brass,and Andy Davis, eds., Chimesof
Dunkirk:GreatDancesfor Children,2nd ed.
(Brattleboro, VT: New England Dancing
MastersProductions, 1991), accompanying
cassettetape; Bryan Burton, Moving within
the Circle: ContemporaryNative American
Music and Dance (Danbury, CT: World
Music Press, 1993), accompanyingcassette
tape;JaneA. Harris,Anne M. Pittman, and
MarlysS. Waller,Dancea While:Handbook
of Folk, Square, Contra,and Social Dance,
7th ed. (New York: Macmillan College
Publishing Co., 1994); Sanna Longden,
Favorite Folk Dances of Kids and Teachers
(Evanston, IL: Folkstyle Productions,
1991), accompanyingvideotape and notes;
and Phyllis S. Weikart, TeachingMovement
and Dance, 3rd ed. (Ypsilanti, MI: High
Scope Press, 1989), accompanying record-
ings and videotapes.?
21