CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Problem

Most people in developing countries need to study English,

because it is International language. Language educators have long used

the concept of four basic language skills is listening, speaking, reading and

writing. They are study four skills of language above like. Speaking is the

productive skill in oral mode. Speaking had connection of listening

because said begin from hearing, it means that there are relation add

vocabulary then speaker lavish were deliver to inspirations or something

will be pronounceable. Speaking is also a communication process, the

process of a message from speaker to listener, speaking skill is an ability

to express opinion or idea and feeling to someone or group with oral, face

to face or with long distance. Speaking is tool for communication that is

natural between societies member to express ideas and as of social

behavior.

Generally, many students is not active interaction on teaching

learning process, this found at courtyard that the students busy about

theirselve in order to attention students not control. Therefore the teacher

should have strategy in order students focus about the material.

1
 To achieve a good interaction the teachers should be approaches

doing to students like involve students others so that communication

which want the teacher can found in the class and another the teacher can

give learn which knowledge eleciatation the students and this can

elecitation an arguments positive escort another. To encourage speaking

skill of learners interaction can apply such as the teacher shape small

group with make dialogues or conversations, the important the teacher be

able involve students all without expect.teacher is also used question

answer strategy but if their have mistakes the teacher should not price

them with say he or she is fault because interaction teacher between

learners could influence so the teacher can used with way giving reward

above nerve to give informationt or argument in the class.

To get the goal interaction of the class, teacher should create many

interesting strategies. one of them is using for example media . it would

ask students to focus and students is ready to follow in teaching and may

be make the students battle arguments because the teacher will ask them to

give arguments about the material which there in media.

There are strategies do solve the problem above, they are ALM

(Audio Lingual Method) is a method where students are asked to repeat

corectly the words or phrase until it is correct. CLL (Cooperative

Language Learning) is an approach to teaching that makes maximum use

of cooperative activities involving pairs and small groups. CLT

(Communicative Language Teaching) is an approaches which important

2
 communication in teaching learning process, where the students more

action such as: practice, presentation, etc. Where oral language more using

in this strategy.

B. Limitation of the Problem

As stated above, it can explained that there are some strategies that

can be applied in teaching learning process to support students become

active communication or interaction in speaking skill. The teaching

strategies are specifically such asAudio Lingual Method, Cooperative

Language Learning. However, limits the problem from this paper into

teaching speaking through Coomunication Language Teaching. Applying

CLT is strategy to improve learners interaction and their can to increase

the way into learning process and be able achievement the purpose from

the strategy have to used.

C. Formulation of the Problem

Based on the limitation above the paper will be formulated as

follows “How to encouraging interaction in speaking by using

Communication Language Teaching at Senior High School”?

D. Significance of the Paper

The significance this paper is to give information to the teacher

using CLT (communication language teaching) in teaching speaking,

3
help the teacher to increase speaking skill students’. For the students ,

it can make the students more active in interaction in the class,

achievement is great interaction in the class during teaching learning

process and give contribution as guidance to increase their speaking skill.

For the reader, it can add knowledge for the people that read this paper,

give information for the people about this strategy that can be used in

teaching speaking. For the writer, this paper is used to find a strategy in

teaching speaking and apply this strategy when become a teacher.

4
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. SPEAKING

1. The Nature of Speaking

Speaking is an interactive speaking include face to face

conversation and telephone calls, in which we are listening and

speaking and in which we have a changce to as for clarification

and repetition. Some of the micro skills involved in speaking that

the speaker has to know about pronounciation the distinctive sound

of a language clearly enough so that people can understand what

did said, use stress and into connections patters which conkrit and

intonation patters of the language clearly so that people can

understand what is said, use the correct form of words so that

purpose main ideas or reached, use vocabulary appropriately and use

language variety that is appropriate the situation and the

relantionship to the conversation partner. It means that speaking

should has ability in distinct context so that achievement become a

comprehension of easy understand.

For the learners, speaking ability to be able from reading,

because someone will know more about if he read much. On the

other side, it can also additional vocabulary so that is time speaking

5
can develop ideas what is said. According to Joyce (1997) speaking

is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves

producing and receiving and process information. Its form and

meaning are dependent on the context in which it occurs, including

the participants themselve, their collective experiences, the physical

environment, and the purpose for speaking.

The function of learners interaction are very important to

themselves, behind of interaction it the learnes can define an

infomation or knowledge to other. In addition, Harmer (2001)

explains that speaking the ability to speak fast give the symbol not

only just from a knowledge which give the principle but also the

ability to process information.

Finally, based on the descption above, the writer concludes

that speaking is a part of the important in communication which is

have the function giving and receiving an information, knowledge,

and a constructing meaning process interaction. And speaking is also

its form communication that is used by someone to delivering an

opinion, thought, feeling and this all can be a form of interaction

by other people.

2. Teaching Speaking

Speaking is very important skill in human life to

communicate. As we know, speaking is an ability to interaction with

6
other people and giving information to other with a form knowledge

and context there are into what we did say or what others is say,

so that give undestand a compehension to others people. Other

important to speak for the students are describe as the ability of

person to expression his or her ideas, feeling or something in his or

her mind to other by using spoken language.

However, speaking english is very important to teach.

According to Nunan (2005; 47) speaking is important in children

overall languange development. Children learning english their native

language spend time developing speaking skill, beside that the

student will more `know about vocabulary if speaking teaching

briefly with manner easy such as simple chants and the teacher

should give the meaning of singing is. How it the teacher giving

introduce about material and it is a knowledge also to students in

teaching english.

According to Brow (1994) speaking lesson can follow the

usual pattern of preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation and

extension. The teacher can use preparation in learning because the

teacher can encouranging students in speaking skill and helps , them

become more attentive about of language use. The teacher can use

the preparation a context for the speaking task (where, when, why,

and with whom it will occur) so that words of place used exact,

beside that the students know about gammar. In presentation, the

7
 teacher can improve learners with a preproduction model that

furthers learners comprehension and helps them become more

attention of language use. Practice involves learners in reproducing

the target structure, usually in a controlled or highly supported

manner. Evaluation is also involves directing at attention to the skill

being examined and asking learners to monitor and assess their own

progress. And the last extension consists of activities that ask

learners to use the strategy or skill in a different context or

authentic communicative situation or to integrate use of the new

skill or strategy with previous acquired.

There are some example of teaching in a speaking lesson and

we can use suitable appropriate topics for small talk.

1. Preparation

Show the learners a picture of two people conversing in a familiar

casual setting. (the setting will be determined by a leader needs

assessment.) Ask them to concept what the people might be

discussing such as what topics, etc.

2. Presentation

Present several video clips of small talk in casual situation. Have

learners complete a worksheet in which they describe or list the

topics discussed, the context in which the speech is occurring, and

any phrases that seem typify small talk. Follow up with a discussion

of the topics that are appropriate for small talk, the factors in the

8
 specific situations that affect selection, example relationship of

participant, and typical phrases used in small talk.

3. Practice

Define to the students specific information about the participants and

the setting of a scenario where small talk will take place. In pairs,

have them list topics that may be discussed of the participants and

simple phrases they might use. After that the learners using in

improvised dialogues based on these simple phrases.

4. Evaluation

Give pairs a teacher prepared dialogue based on their scenario based

on their scenario from situations. Ask them to compare their

improvised dialogues with the prepare dialogue, analyzing

similarities, difference and reasons for both.

5. Extension

Have learners go individually or in small groups into various context

in the community (work, school, etc) and record the conversation

they hear.

Types of learning and teaching activities in speaking such as

exercise and activities compatible with communicative approach is

unlimited, however provided that exercise enable learners to attain

the communicative of the curriculum, follow learners in

communication, and require the use of such communicative process

as information sharing, and interaction. Based on these definitions

9
above, we know that in this teaching speaking is a learning theory

the communicative principle and also language is a system for the

expression of meaning and the main function of the language is for

interaction and communication.

Furthermore, the learners role discussing about learners role.

According to Breen and Candlin (2001) describe the learners role

within communicative language teaching in the following terms:

“the role of learners as negotiator between the self, the learning

process , and the object of the learning emerges from and interact

with the role of joint negotiator within the group and within the

classroom procedures and activities which the group undertakes.” So

the purpose of language teaching are language as a means of

expression and language as semiotic system.

And the last teachers role is that teacher has two main roles

in communicative language teaching. First, to facilitate the

communication process between all participants in the classroom, and

between these participants and the various activities and text. It

means that the teacher maximum opportunity to speak the target

language by providing a rich environment that contains collaborative

work, authentic materials and tasks and shared knowledge. Second,

to act as an independent participant within the learning teaching

group. Other roles assumed for teachers are need analyst, counselor,

and group process manager. It is also the same teacher provide

10
 every students speaking activity, for this aim , practice different

ways of student participation. And reduce teacher speaking time in

class while increasing student speaking time. Step back and observe

students.

B. Learner – Learner Interaction

According to Wells (1981: 29) Students achieve facility in usin a

language when their attention is focused on confeying and receiving

authentic messages (that is, messages that contain information of interest

to speaker and listener in a situation of important to both). This is

interaction. As well has expressed it. Exchange is the basic unit of

discourse. Linguistic interaction is a collaborative activity “involving” the

establishment of a triangular relantionship between the sender, the receiver

and the context of situation, whether the communication be in speech or

writing. It means that, the teacher should give opportunities about learners

in order to get learners well interaction that surely there are in teaching

learning process.

Interaction involves not just expression of one own ideas but

comprehension of those of others. One listens to others, one responds

(directly or indirectly), others listens and respons. The participant work out

interpretations of meaning through this interaction, which is always

undestood in a context, physical or experiential, with nonverbal cues

adding spects of meaning beyond the verbal. All of these factors shas

11
sould be present as students learn to communicate: lisrening to others,

talking with others, negotiating meaning in a shared context. A structured

sequence or stuctured activities we may or may not have, we may promote

inductive or deductive learning, or a mixture of the two, but

communication there must be- interaction between people who have

something to share. From the stated above one of all from communication

is respons, because respons is a form feedback which are what the feel we

are doing with form expression or additional information about something.

Collaborative activity of this type should be the norm from the

beginning of language study. Part of the teacher’s art is to create, or

stimulate students creation of the types of situations in which interaction

naturally blossoms and in which students can use for actual

communication what they have been learning in a more formal fashion. In

this way, they are already enganging in the central activity for which

language is used in human relations. So, create the collaboration activity

the purpose to create communication the way like natural and

collaborative is also can used as form interaction between as every day

activity, so that created a language is used in a relantionship.

Based on of state above, the teacher have the plans it in order to

learners interaction with others be going fluent and learners accompany

another give influence which positive about learners other.

12
C. Communicative Language Teaching

1. Theory of CLT (Communication Language Teaching)

In the early days of language teaching, emphasis was placed on the

understanding of linguistic forms while little time and energy was devoted

to their function in real situations. Language learning was a cerebral rather

than a practical activity.

With the advent of widely accessible foreign travel, however, came

the increased requirement for oral and aural skills to enable pupils to

actually communicate in the target country. At the same time,

technological advances facilitated a new approach to language learning.

This initially took the form of the language laboratory, which has now

seen demise, but the emphasis on recorded authentic language and

information technology remains.

The intention of the communicative approach is to equip pupils

with the skills and relevant information to use the target language in a

realistic way. Littlewood (1981, pp 95) clarifies, “The underlying message,

then, is that foreign language teaching must be concerned with reality:

with the reality of communication as it takes place outside the classroom

and with the reality of learners as they exist outside and inside the

classroom.“

Communicative competence is the ultimate purpose of

communicative language teaching (C.L.T.) and Canale (1983) suggested

13
that this is achieved by mastering four basic skills. These are ‘grammatical

competence’, ‘strategic competence’, ‘socio-linguistic competence’, and

‘discourse competence’.

The importance of grammatical competence is particularly relevant

because as the communicative approach has been put into practice, it is

this area that seems to have suffered. This was never the intention.

Littlewood (1981, pp 6) confirms, “It is one of the undeniable facts about

language that we communicate by exploiting the creative potential of

linguistic structures.” Strategic competence is the ability to ‘think on our

feet’ in a foreign language, and this is critical to effective communication.

Holmes (1994, pp 6) says of strategic competence, “This is all to do with

linguistic problem-solving, dealing with the unpredictable. What do you

do when your existing knowledge of language runs out?”

Socio-linguistic competence, which requires the application of

social sensitivity to language, and discourse competence, which involves

sustained communication, present a challenge to pupils at Key Stage 4. “In

the early years learners are well rehearsed in recognition and response,

imitation and production. In order to progress, they are now required to

use a range of more complex linguistic and social skills. They may need to

negotiate, describe, explain, persuade - all functions of socio-linguistic and

discourse competence. It may well be the first time they have been

required to do so.” (Holmes 1994, pp 8). Littlewood (1981, pp x)

summarises the theory which underpins C.L.T., “We can therefore

14
combine the newer functional view of language with the traditional

structural view, in order to achieve a more complete communicative

perspective.

2. Procedure of CLT (Communication Language Teaching)

According to Jack (2001; 153) communicative language

teaching is a situation language teaching, language, was taught by

practicing basic stucture in meaningful situation based activities. It

means that communicative language teaching have some element in

communicative competence is sociolinguistic competence refes to

understanding social context and it is have the purpose to focused at

where is we activity and discourse competence to intrepetation of an

individual message, it is a form comprehension about other people

message which conversation have to be equal with talked and not

change the meaning of themselve.

Based on approach the communicative approach in language

teaching the starts from a theory of language as communication. The

goal of communicative language teaching is to develop

communicative competence which is to the students. Another

linguistic communicative of the theory this like in communicative

language teaching is a functional of language use. Linguistic is

concerned with the description of speech acts of texts, because only

15
 through study of language in use all to all the fuction of language

and therefore all components of meaning brought into focus.

Next, Savignon (1983) discuses technique and classroom

management procedure associated with a number of communicative

language teaching classroom procedure (e.g; group activity, language

game, role plays), but neither these activities nor the ways in which

they are used are exclusive to communicative language teaching

classroom communicative language teaching classroom. Lesson

outline for teaching the function making a suggestion for learners in

the beginning level of a secondary school program that suggests that

communicative language teaching procedure are evolutionary rather

than revolutionary:

1. Presentation of a brief or mini- dialogues, preceded by a motivation

(relating the dialogue situations) to the learners’ probable community

experience.

2. Oral practice of each utterance of a dialogue segment to be present.

3. Questions and answer based on dialogue topic and situations itself.

4. Questions and answer related to the students personal experience but

centered around the dialogue theme.

5. Study one of the basic communicative expressions in the dialogue or

one of the structure which exemplify the function.

6. Learners discovery of generalizations or rules underliying the functional

expression or structure.

16
7. Oral recognition, interpretative activities.

8. Oral production activities- proceding from guided to freer communicative

activities.

Based on these definitions above this is a procedure of

communicative language teaching and the teacher can use this media

suitable or appropriate with the materials or topics.

3. Advantages of CLT (Communication Language Teaching)

Communicative teaching emphasis on “task-oriented, student -

centered” language teaching practice, asked to show the life of the

actual needs of the English language to simulate a variety of life

contexts, emotional, and to provide students with comprehensive use

of English language, for communication of opportunities, its focus is

not only a language in the form, grammatical accuracy, more

emphasis on the appropriateness of language use, feasibility,

communication skills, as well as training students in communicative

activities in the strain and problem - solving ability.

Specifically, the communicative approach of teaching has the

following three advantages:

1. The interaction between students and teachers. Communicative

teaching is becoming increasingly clear feature is the change in the

17
way as the internship, students develop the subject, initiative and

become increasingly important. Teacher – student relationship is an

interactive, harmonious relationship, rather than the traditional

education, the kind of master – servant relationship.

2. To impart the basic knowledge and ability to skillfully

combine the development. Traditional classroom teaching of English

in the main body of the expense of home study, only emphasized

the teachers on the knowledge of the systematic and integrity, which

is a teacher - centered, knowledge – centered from the medieval

“scholastic” teaching methods inherited One consequence of the

neglect of student ability. The communicative teaching emphasizes

the learner’s cognitive ability and operational capabilities, which

allow the students themselves to think about and express their

views, thus trained in real life the ability to use language to

communicate.

3. Greatly enhanced the student’s interest. Communicative

teaching students to participate in, sometimes accompanied by scenes

or simulated scenarios, so that students more close to life, the

students became the main character, naturally they were interested in

the English language, to learn English as a pleasure.

18
 CHAPTER III

DISCUSSION

A. Preparation

In this chapter will describe about encouranging learner-learner

interaction speaking activity using Communicative Language Teaching.

There are several aspect will be discussed in chapter. They are:

Preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and extension.

a. Selecting the teaching material

Selecting material is very important for the teacher, the material should

interest for the teacher, so they will involve in teaching and learning

process.

b. Time allocation

The teacher should predict and limit the material time consuming for

how long and how many meeting.

c. Teaching aids

The teacher should prepare teaching aids to support teaching and

learning process.

B. Procedure Teaching Speaking of Communicative Language Teaching

The are five procedures of using CLT in teaching speaking. They

are: preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and extensive.

19
1. Preparation

In this stage, the teacher prepare anything he needed to deliver his

teaching and establish a context for the speaking tasks, this stage serves as

a warm up for the students.

a. The teacher learn the concept of teaching speaking will the learn to the

students.

b. The teacher learn the procedure of using CLT for teaching speaking.

c. The teacher identify a word English which are probably familiar to the

students.

d. The teacher gives one words of students, for example “typing”.

e. The teacher asks the students to pronounce the word “typing”.

f. The teacher asks another students to give one word associated with the

word “typing” for example the word “message”.

2. Presentation

In this stage the teacher can provide student with a prepoduction

model that increase active students and helps them become more attentive

observe of language use. In one words, in this manner the teacher provides

the students with the oretical explains and example.

a. The teacher explains the concept of speaking to the students.

b. The teacher tell the students that they should participate actively in

speaking the class.

c. The teacher emphasizes that the students should speak intelligibly or

understand.

20
 d. The teacher divides the students into several group.

3. Practice

The teacher provides the students with an opportunity to practice

speaking English.

a. The teacher give the students a picture / list of English words.

b. The teacher asks group to choose one of the pictures or the words in

the list. For example one of the groups choose the “typing” picture or

words “handphone” in from the list.

c. The teacher asks the group to tell meaning of the picture or words

which there in the list. For example: He try typing with ten fingers.

d. The teacher asks another group to expland the meaning. For example

the second group says: Typing is fun.

e. The teacher asks the next group to further expand the meaning.

4. Evaluation

In this stage the teacher asks the students to attention do examined and

asks them to monitor and assess their skills while learn.

a. The teacher provide the students with a conversation.

b. The teacher asks several students to in front of the class to practice a

dialogue.

c. The teacher marks each students paerformance in front the

conversation.

5. Extension

21
 In this stage, theacher asks the students to practice speaking

English in different context. Thus, the students are really demanded to

apply and practice their speaking skills in this stage.

a. The teacher divide the students into several groups.

b. The teacher asks each group to make their own conversation.

c. The teacher asks each group to practice their conversation.

C. The Application

There are three stages in teaching speaking comprehension. They are:

pre-speaking, whilst-speaking, and post-speaking.

a. Pre-speaking

In pre-speaking, the teacher give information to the student and giving

warning-up like: good morning, good afternoon, and others procedure.

As follows:

1. Showing and pictures or topic!

Two peoples have been interview

22
2. Asks some question about the picture.

a. Do you know about the pictures?

b. What do you see about the picture? ( two womans and one man

and their do of interview)

c. Can you mention a something sentence about the picture Interview

can be a student answer? ( Interview is form certain from selecting

such as : work in the office)

b. Whilst-speaking

Whilst-speaking can be done after pre-speaking had finished, in

whilst-speaking the teacher do the procedure below:

1. Divided the students into several group. (2 – 4 groups)

2. The teacher divided the picture to students /group.

Group I

23
(Conversation between woman and man)

Group II

(The man is confused)

24
 Group III

( A big family lunch in the restourant)

Group IV

( The teacher and student are discuss)

3. Asks the students to discuss their picture.

25
 4. Asks one of the groups to tell their conclusion from their

discuss.

5. Then, the other groups too reporting the conclusion from their

discuss.

c. Post-speaking

Post-speaking is the last step in teaching process, in post-speaking the

teacher do the procedure below:

1. Evaluate

Evaluate as purpose to know how the students understand about the

material.

a. Ask the students to do exercise like: make conversation with

own word suitable picture have to divide teacher.

b. Ask the students do show in front of the class with oral practice

c. Teacher correct grammar mistake of the students.

d. Give the point to the students which are come in front the class.

2. Give Homework

Give homework to make the students will be creative and make the

students more active about communication between other friends

and teacher in teaching learning process.

a. The teacher will divide the students into new several group.

b. Ask the students to do exercise at home with their group

26
 c. The teacher ask to students to show result his homework in

front of the class.

d. The teacher give the grade about their perform.

(Picture to homework)

D. The Advantages Teaching Speaking using Communication Language

Teaching

First of all, teaching communicative to the students practice

teaching language and to give used english language comprehensive to

communication and is not language, vocabulary accumulation, but more

emphasize used approach language ability into communication and the

student to try in communication activity.

Secondly, interaction between student and teacher can improved

the students to communication with others people and students have

27
inisiative to more active because harmonious interaction will be give the

effect positive about the students, so that the students does not have afraid

about his self because this students more easy to build communication.

Thirdly, the communicative language teaching can give basic

knowledge to competent, the communication language teaching really of

used prepare about speaking skill, because it is component have to exact to

do communication or interaction. Which are presentation, practice,

evaluation and extension is role of part these in speaking skill learning

communicative emphasize cognitive skills leraner and operational skill,

probably the students it self thought and expression about opinion of their,

in order to students tried in real life to using of communication.

Fourth, learning communicative too function in participant,

because it can be become part of improve in speaking skill and approach it

often the used in the class to do communicative because in speaking skill

the important is oral practice.

Finally, there are five example activities of communication

language teaching that the writer can give. It is part of important thing thay

is to how communication language teaching can help students in teaching

speaking skill. They can exchange their mind and their opinion with

situation and condition exact. It means that, the students can use this

approach to teaching learning to building communication.

28
 CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESSTIONS

A. Conclusion

Based on the discussion on previous chapter, the writer can

conclude that speaking is an interactive speaking in human life to

communicate with ability to interaction by others people and giving

information to a comprehend. It means that, it will can encourage their

ability in English language. This skill also needed as the basic way to

understand what did say by people, because speaking is also using to

message deliver or ability the people to expression their ideas, feeling or

something in their mind to other by using spoken language. Therefore,

speaking skill has important role in successful of students in spoken

because communication the important someone in the life.

Furthermore,communicative language teaching is one approach

that involve cooperative in teaching or form of the groups in learning

process. The goal is language as a means of expression and language

learning the school curriculum which is created of language

coomunicative.

This procedures focuses students’ attention on important of

presentation, or several mini dialogues and oral practice of each utterance

the dialogue. So, the teacher should lesson considered speakingin order to

29
 balanced that students’ ability. Adds, communicative language teaching is

a language relazed the need to focus language teaching in communication

because language is a system for the expression of meaning to people that.

Onclude So, the writer conclude that, communicative is approach which

appropriate in teaching learning process. Then, it is also make te students

easy to interaction or communication in teaching learning process because

this approach easy to apply.

Teaching speaking by using Communicative Language Teaching

can application for Senior High School students as we know the students

busy about theirselve and communicative language teaching (CLT) will

building on learn that communication is very needed to it.

B. Suggesstions

Based on the description of conclusion above, it is suggestthat the

teachers of English at Senior High schoolcan use communicative language

teching in teaching speaking. Moreover, the writer sugests that the teacher

should give prepare the materials before teaching process, also the teacher

can use some strategies interesting while applying communictive language

teacing (CLT).

In addition, before teacher begin teaching with this approach, the

teacher has to understand what communicative language teaching, so that

the teacher can teach well and students get easy to understand and have

fun in teaching learning proces.

30
 REFERENCES

- Nunan, D. (2005). Practical English Language Teaching Young Learners,

McGraw-Hill. New York.

- Burn, A & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on Speaking. Sydney. National Center

For English Language Teaching and Research.

- Nihan, A, K. (2007). The Application of Communication Language

Teaching. Bahcesehir University.

- Rivers, Wilga, K. (1988). Interactive Language Teaching. University of

Cambridge. New York.

- Harmer, J. (2001). Pearson Education. Oxford University.

- Luoma, S. (2004). Assessing Speaking. university Cambridge.

- Richards, C. Jack & Rodgers, S. Theodore. (2001). Approaches and

Methods in Language Teaching. University Cambridge. New York.

31