RADAR (RADI DETECTION AND RANGING)

Marine radars are X band or S

band radars on ships, used to detect
other ships and land obstacles, to
provide bearing and distance
for collision
avoidance and navigation at sea. They
are electronic navigation instruments
that use a rotating antenna to sweep a
narrow beam of microwaves around
the water surface surrounding the ship
to the horizon, detecting targets by microwaves reflected from them, displaying a picture
of the ship's surroundings on a display screen. A Radar has a flat antenna that spins. It
emits a signal, then listens back for that signal. The signal bounces back at varying times
based on what it may be bouncing off of.
Radar is a vital component for safety at sea and near the shore. Captains need to
be able to maneuver their ships within feet in the worst of conditions and to be able to
navigate "blind", when there is no visibility at night or due to bad weather. Radars are
rarely used alone in a marine setting. In commercial ships, they are integrated into a full
system of marine instruments including chart plotters, sonar, two-way marine radio,
satellite navigation (GNSS) receivers such as the US Global Positioning System (GPS),
and emergency locators (SART).
The integration of these devices is very important as it becomes quite distracting
to look at several different screens. Therefore, displays can often overlay charting, radar,
sonar into a single system. This gives the captain unprecedented instrumentation to
maneuver the ship. With digital backbones, these devices have advanced greatly in the
last years. For example, the newer ones have 3D displays that allow navigators to see
above, below and all around the ship, including overlays of satellite imaging.
In port or in harbor, shore-based vessel traffic service radar systems are used to monitor
and regulate ship movements in busy waters.

Collision avoidance
As required by COLREGS (The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions
at Sea), all ships shall maintain a proper radar lookout if it is available on board to obtain
early warning of risk of collision. Radar plotting with the use of an EBL (Electronic Bearing
Line) and VRM (Variable Range Marker), or the ARPA (automatic radar plotting
aid) should be used to get the information of movement and the risk of collision (bearing,
distance, CPA (closest point of approach), TCPA (time of closest point of approach) of
other ships in vicinity.
Navigation
Marine radar systems can provide very useful radar navigation information for
navigators onboard ships. The ship's position could be fixed by the bearing and distance
information of a fixed, reliable target on the radar screen.
Radar controls
Marine radar has performance adjustment controls for brightness and contrast,
also manual or automatic adjustment of gain, tuning, sea clutter and rain clutter
suppression, and interference reduction. Other common controls consist of range scale,
bearing cursor, fix/variable range marker (VRM) or bearing/distance cursor (EBL).

ARPA (automatic radar plotting aid)- A marine radar with automatic radar plotting
aid (ARPA) capability can create tracks using radar contacts. The system can calculate
the tracked object's course, speed and closest point of approach (CPA), thereby knowing
if there is a danger of collision with the other ship or landmass.

EBL (Electronic Bearing Line)- A feature in

a radar that is used to determine the relative
bearing of an object from the observing ship's
bearing. EC - Electronic Chart.
Bearing- bearing is the horizontal angle
between the direction of an object and another
object, or between it and that of true north.
Absolute bearing refers to the angle between
the magnetic North (magnetic bearing) or true
North (true bearing) and an object.
... Bearings can be measured in mils or
degrees.
VRM (Variable Range Marker)- It is an
electronic mark or ring that can be placed over
any target on your radar display. An on-screen
digital readout will let you know the precise
range, in nautical miles, between the target and you.
GPS (GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a
space-based satellite navigation system that provides
location and time information in all weather conditions,
anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to
military, civil and commercial users around the world. It
is maintained by the United States government and is
freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
The GPS is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24
satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense. GPS was originally
intended for military applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the system
available for civilian use. GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world,
24 hours a day. There are no subscription fees or setup charges to use GPS.

Fundamentals
The GPS concept is based on time and the known position of GPS
specialized satellites. The satellites carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized
with one another and with the ground clocks. Any drift from true time maintained on the
ground is corrected daily. In the same manner, the satellite locations are known with great
precision. GPS receivers have clocks as well, but they are less stable and less precise.
Each GPS satellite continuously transmits a radio signal containing the current
time and data about its position. Since the speed of radio waves is constant and
independent of the satellite speed, the time delay between when the satellite transmits a
signal and the receiver receives it is proportional to the distance from the satellite to the
receiver. A GPS receiver monitors multiple satellites and solves equations to determine
the precise position of the receiver and its deviation from true time. At a minimum, four
satellites must be in view of the receiver for it to compute four unknown quantities (three
position coordinates and clock deviation from satellite time).
GYRO COMPASS
A gyrocompass is a type of non-magnetic compass which is based on a fast-spinning
disc and the rotation of the Earth (or another planetary body if used elsewhere in the
universe) to find geographical direction automatically. The use of a gyrocompass is one
of the seven fundamental ways to determine the heading of a vehicle. [1] Although one
important component of a gyrocompass is a gyroscope, these are not the same
devices; a gyrocompass is built to use the effect of gyroscopic precession, which is a
distinctive aspect of the general gyroscopic effect. Gyrocompasses are widely used
for navigation on ships, because they have two significant advantages over magnetic
compasses:

 they find true north as determined by the axis of the Earth's rotation, which is
different from, and navigationally more useful than, magnetic, and
 they are unaffected by ferromagnetic materials, such as in a ship's steel hull, which
distort the magnetic field.
A Gyro compass is a form of gyroscope, used widely on ships employing an electrically
powered, fast-spinning gyroscope wheel and frictional forces among other factors utilizing
the basic physical laws, influences of gravity and the Earth’s rotation to find the true north.

Construction

Gyro compass has become one indispensable instrument in almost all merchant ships or
naval vessels for its ability to detect the direction of true north and not the magnetic north.
It is comprised of the following units:

 Master Compass: Discovers and maintains the true north reading with the help of
gyroscope.
 Repeater Compasses: Receive and indicate the true direction transmitted
electrically from the Master Compass.
 Course Recorder: Makes a continuous record of the maneuvering on a moving
strip of paper.
 Control Panel: Governs the electrical operation of the system and ascertains the
running condition by means of a suitable meter.
 Voltage Regulator: Maintains constant supply of the ship to the motor-generator.
 Alarm Unit: Indicates failure of the ship’s supply.
 Amplifier Panel: Controls the follow-up system.
 Motor Generator: Converts the ship’s DC supply to AC and energizes the Compass
equipment.
Gyro compasses are linked to
the repeater compasses via one
transmission system. The fast-
spinning rotor attached weighs
from 1.25 pounds to 55 pounds.
It is driven thousands of
revolutions per minute by
another electric motor. However,
the most essential part in a Gyro
compass system is the spinning
wheel, which is known as the
Gyroscope.
Gyro Compass – Basic Principle, Operation and Usage on Ships

Gyro Compass is a navigational compass containing gyroscope motor that registers the
direction of true north along the surface of the earth and it does not depend on
magnetism.
A compass with a motorized gyroscope whose angular momemtum interacts with the
force produced by the earth’s rotation to maintain a north-south orientation of the
gyroscopic spin axis, therby providing a stable directional reference.

The Principle of Gyroscope

A gyroscope consists of a spinning wheel or rotor contained within gimbals which permit
movement about three mutually perpendicular axes, known as the horizontal axis,
the vertical axis, and the spin axis. When spun rapidly, assuming that friction is not
considered, the gyroscope develops gyroscopic inertia, tending to remain spinning in
the same plane indefinitely. The amount of gyroscopic inertia depends on the
angularvelocity, mass, and radius of the wheel or rotor.

If a gyroscope is placed at the equator with its spin axis pointing east-west, as the earth
turns on its axis, gyroscopic inertia will tend to keep the plane of rotation constant. To
the observer, it is the gyroscope which is seen to rotate, not the earth. This effect is
called the horizontal earth rate and is maximum at the equator and zero at the poles.
At points between, it is equal to the cosine of the latitude.
If the gyro is placed at a geographic pole with its spin axis horizontal, it will appear to
rotate about its vertical axis. This is the vertical earth rate. At all points between the
equator and the poles, the gyro appears to turn partly about its horizontal and partly
about its vertical axis, being affected by both horizontal and vertical earth rates. In order
to visualize these effects, remember that the gyro, at whatever latitude it is placed, is
remaining aligned in space while the earth moves beneath it.
Gyrocompass Operation

The gyrocompass depends upon four natural phenomena:

1. gyroscopic inertia,
2. precession,
3. earth’s rotation, and
4. gravity.
To make a gyroscope into a gyrocompass, the wheel or rotor is mounted in a sphere,
called the gyrosphere, and the sphere is then supported in a vertical ring. The whole
assembly is mounted on a base called the phantom. The gyroscope in a gyrocompass
can be pendulous or non-pendulous, according to design. The rotor may weigh as little
as half a kilogram to over 25 kg.
To make it seek and maintain true north, three things are necessary.

1. First, the gyro must be made to stay on the plane of the meridian.
2. Second, it must be made to remain horizontal.
3. Third, it must stay in this position once it reaches it regardless of what the vessel
on which it is mounted does or where it goes on the earth.

To make it seek the meridian, a weight is added to the bottom of the vertical ring,
causing it to swing on its vertical axis, and thus seek to align itself horizontally. It will
tend to oscillate, so a second weight is added to the side of the sphere in which the
rotor is contained, which dampens the oscillations until the gyro stays on the meridian.
With these two weights, the only possible position of equilibrium is on the meridian with
its spin axis horizontal.
To make the gyro seek north, a system of reservoirs filled with mercury, known as
mercury ballistics, is used to apply a force against the spin axis. The ballistics, usually
four in number, are placed so that their centers of gravity exactly coincide with the
center of gravity of the gyroscope. Precession then causes the spin axis to trace an
ellipse, one ellipse taking about 84 minutes to complete. (This is the period of oscillation
of a pendulum with an arm equal to the radius of the earth.) To dampen this oscillation,
the force is applied, not in the vertical plane, but slightly to the east of the vertical plane.
This causes the spin axis to trace a spiral instead of an ellipse and eventually settle on
the meridian pointing north.

Using the Gyrocompass

Since a gyrocompass is not influenced by magnetism, it is not subject to variation or

deviation. Any error is constant and equal around the horizon, and can often be reduced
to less than one degree, thus effectively eliminating it altogether. Unlike a magnetic
compass, it can output a signal to repeaters spaced around the vessel at critical
positions.
But it also requires a constant source of stable electrical power, and if power is lost, it
requires several hours to settle on the meridian again before it can be used. This period
can be reduced by aligning the compass with the meridian before turning on the power.
The directive force of a gyrocompass depends on the amount of precession to which it
is subject, which in turn is dependent on latitude. Thus the directive force is maximum at
the equator and decreases to zero at the poles. Vessels operating in high latitudes must
construct error curves based on latitudes because the errors at high latitudes eventually
overcome the ability of the compass to correct them.
The gyrocompass is typically located on the wheelhouse as close as possible to the
center of roll, pitch and yaw of the ship, thus minimizing errors caused by the ship’s
motion.
Repeaters are located at convenient places throughout the ship, such as at the helm for
steering, on the bridge wings for taking bearings, in after steering for emergency
steering, and other places. The output can also be used to drive course recorders,
autopilot systems, plotters, fire control systems, and stabilized radars. The repeaters
should be checked regularly against the master to ensure they are all in alignment. The
repeaters on the bridge wing used for taking bearings will likely be equipped with
removable bearing circles and azimuth circles.
MAGNETIC COMPASS

The compass consists of a magnetized metal needle that floats on a pivot point. The
needle orients to the magnetic field lines of the earth. The basic orienteering compass is
composed of the following parts:

 Base plate
 Straight edge and ruler
 Direction of travel arrow
 Compass housing with 360 degree markings
 North label
 Index line
 Orienting arrow
 Magnetic needle (north end is red)

To determine the direction, or bearing, from one point to another, you need a
compass as well as a map. Most compasses are marked with the four cardinal points —
north, east, south, and west—but some are marked additionally with the number of
degrees in a circle (360 north is 0 or 360, east is 90, south is 180, and west is 270). Both
kinds are easy to use with a little practice. The illustrations on the reverse side show how
to read direction on the map.

One thing to remember is that a compass does not really point to true north, except
by coincidence in some areas. The compass needle is attracted by magnetic force, which
varies in different parts of the world and is constantly changing. When you read north on
a compass, you're really reading the direction of the magnetic north pole. A diagram in
the map margin will show the difference (declination) at the center of the map between
compass north (magnetic north indicated by the MN symbol) and true north (polar north
indicated by the "star" symbol). This diagram also provides the declination between true
north and the orientation of the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid north (indicated
by the GN symbol). The declination diagram is only representational, and true values of
the angles of declination should be taken from the numbers provided rather than from the
directional lines. Because the magnetic declination is computed at the time the map is
made, and because the position of magnetic north is constantly changing, the declination
factor provided on any given map may not be current. Contact the National Geophysical
Data Center (NGDC) to obtain current and historical magnetic declination information for
any place in the United States
ECHO SOUNDER

Short pulses of sound vibrations are transmitted from the bottom of the ship to the
seabed. These sound waves are reflected back by the seabed and the time taken from
transmission to reception of the reflected sound waves is measured. Since the speed of
sound in water is 1500 m/sec, the depth of the sea bed is calculated which will be half the
distance travelled by the sound waves.
The received echoes are converted into electrical signal by the receiving transducer and
after passing through the different stages of the receiver, the current is supplied to stylus
which burns out the coating of the thin layer of aluminum powder and produces the black
mark on the paper indicating the depth of seabed.

COMPONENTS
Basically an echo sounder has following components:
Transducer – to generate the sound vibrations and also receive the reflected sound
vibration.
Pulse generator – to produce electrical oscillations for the transmitting transducer.
Amplifier – to amplify the weak electrical oscillations that has been generated by the
receiving transducer on reception of the reflected sound vibration.
Recorder - for measuring and indicating depth.
CONTROLS
An echo sounder will normally have the following controls:
Range Switch – to select the range between which the depth is be checked e.g. 0- 50
m, 1 – 100 m, 100 – 200 m etc. Always check the lowest range first before shifting to a
higher range.
Unit selector switch – to select the unit feet, fathoms or meter as required.
Gain switch – to be adjusted such that the clearest echo line is recorded on the paper.
Paper speed control – to select the speed of the paper – usually two speeds available.
Zero Adjustment or Draught setting control – the echo sounder will normally display
the depth below the keel. This switch can be used to feed the ship’s draught such that
the echo sounder will display the total sea depth. This switch is also used to adjust the
start of the transmission of the sound pulse to be in line with the zero of the scale in use.
Fix or event marker - this button is used to draw a line on the paper as a mark to indicate
certain time e.g. passing a navigational mark, when a position is plotted on the chart etc.
Transducer changeover switch – in case vessel has more than one switch e.g. forward
and aft transducer.
Dimmer – to illuminate the display as required.
Pulse Length
The pulse length is the duration between the leading edge and the trailing edge.
The pulse length determines the minimum distance that can be measured by the echo
sounder. The minimum measurable distance will be equal to the half of the pulse length
for the shallow water short pulse is used while for the deeper water long pulse is used.
Pulse repetition frequency
This is the number of pulse transmitted per second. This determines the maximum range
that can be measured by the echo sounder. The PRF is normally automatically selected
and changes as the range scale is changed. For lower range, High PRF is used whereas
for the higher range ,low PRF is used.
SITING OF TRANSDUCER
Factors affecting the siting of transducer:
AIR BUBBLE & CROSS NOISE: The transducer should be installed in a position where
there is very less chance of formation of the air bubbles. Air bubbles will act as large
reflectors of transmitted energy if lot of air bubbles are formed close the transducer.
This will also create the cross noise.
There are various locations on the ship where formation of air bubble is less e.g.
a) On large, fast, deep draft ships-1/8 to ¼ L of the ship from forward
On medium speed ships- forward most portion of the ship.
On slow cargo ships-1/4 L from aft
On oil tanker –normally forward end of the E/Room bulkhead.
Ranging
In echo sounder the stylus is moving with certain constant speed and transmission takes
place when the stylus passes the zero marks. When the higher range is selected the
speed of the stylus is reduced as stylus has to paper for the longer duration. This system
is called the ranging.
PHASING
—In phasing the speed of the stylus motor remains constant. Instead of changing the
speed of the stylus, the transmission point is advanced.
The sensors are positioned around the stylus belt. The magnet generates the pulse when
it passes the sensors which in turns activate the transmitter.
ERRORS OF ECHO SOUNDER
1.Velocity of propagation in water:
The velocity taken for the calculation of the is 15oom/sec. The velocity of the sound
wave is changing due to the change of the salinity and temperature of the sea water. As
velocity is varying hence depth recorded will be erroneous.
2. STYLUS SPEED ERROR: The speed of the stylus is such that the time taken by the
stylus to travel from top to bottom on chart is same as the time taken by sound wave to
travel twice the range selected.
—
but due to fluctuation in voltage supplied to stylus motor, will cause error in the recorded
depth.
3. PYTHAGORAS ERROR:
This error is found when two transducers are used one for transmission and one for
reception. This error is calculated using the Pythagoras principle.
4.Multiple ECHO: The echo may be reflected number of times from the bottom of the
sea bed, hence providing the multiple depth marks on paper.
5.The thermal and density layers:
The density of the water varies with temperature and salinity, which all tends to form
different layers. The sound wave may be reflected from these layers.
6.Zero-line adjustment error:
If the zero is not adjusted properly, it will give error in reading
CROSS NOISE:
If sensitivity of the amplifier is high, just after zero marking a narrow line along with the
several irregular dots and dashes appear and this is called cross noise. The main reasons
for the cross noise are aeration and picking up the transmitted pulse. If intensity of cross
noise is high, it will completely mask the shallow water depths. This is controlled by swept
gain control circuit.
AERATION:
When the sound wave is reflected from the reflected from the air bubbles, it will appear
as dots, this is known as aeration.

Computation of depth as determined by an echo sounder is determined via the following

formula:
D=(V×T/2)+K+Dr

where D is depth below the surface (or from the measuring platform), V is the mean
velocity of sound in the water column, T is time for the round trip pulse, K is the system
index constant, and Dr is the depth of the transducer below the surface.
BOAT TACHOMETER (GAUGE)
A tachometer measures your boat engine's RPMs.
Great Lakes Skipper has tachometers for all different boat
engines: outboard boat motor tachometers,
inboard/outboard boat tachometers, diesel boat engine
tachometers, inboard boat engine tachometers, digital
tachometers, analog tachometers, and more.

PSYCHROMETER
A psychrometer measures the relative humidity in the
atmosphere through the use of two thermometers: a dry bulb
thermometer, is used to measure the temperature by being
exposed to the air. a wet bulb thermometer, measures
temperature by having the bulb dipped in a liquid.

ANEMOMETER
A tube anemometer uses air pressure to determine the wind pressure,
or speed. A tube anemometer measures the air pressure inside a
glass tube that is closed at one end. By comparing the air pressure
inside the tube to the air pressure outside the tube, wind speed can
be calculated.
We use a special instrument called an anemometer. Wind speeds are
usually measured using a cup anemometer. A cup anemometer has a
vertical pole with three cups that capture the wind. The number of
times the cups spin around per minute is counted electronically.
BAROMETER
A barometer is a scientific instrument that is used to
measure air pressure in a certain environment. Pressure
tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather.
Many measurements of air pressure are used within surface
weather analysis to help find surface troughs, pressure
systems and frontal boundaries.
BAROGRAPH
A barograph is a recording aneroid barometer where the
changes in atmospheric pressure are recorded on chart
paper. A barograph chart is mounted on to the drum which
is normally turned by clockwork. The ink trace, or barogram,
on the recording paper is a visual record of changes in
pressure.

CLINOMETER
An inclinometer is the device used for pointing and
measuring the angles of the earth's surface. In the
marine industry, inclinometers are used mainly
on ships and oil rigs to measure how much
a vessel slants while being on still water and when
the water is choppy. The inclinometer is also known
as a clinometer.

MARINE WEATHER FACSIMILE

Facsimile (fax) is a means of providing weather

information to ships at sea. The information is
presented as a chart (map), showing barometric
high pressures, low pressures, pressure
gradients, wind speed and direction, and
temperature.
MARINE CHRONOMETER
A marine chronometer is a timepiece that is
precise and accurate enough to be used as a
portable time standard; it can therefore be
used to determine longitude by means of
accurately measuring the time of a known
fixed location, for example Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT) and the time at the current
location.
How does a chronometer determine
longitude?
The position of the sun is given in degrees and minutes north or south of the equational
or celestial equator and east or west of Greenwich, established by the English as the
Prime Meridian. ... To determine "longitude by chronometer," a navigator requires
a chronometer set to the local time at the Prime Meridian.
STEERING EQUIPMENT W/ AUTOPILOT
We are all familiar with the use of a rudder, which helps in turning a ship as and when
required. Rudders are the principal system for the entire motion and control of the ships.
But we mustn’t forget that the entire rudder action is dependent on another pivotal system
called the Steering Gear.
Steering Gear integrated with the rudder system defines the complete ‘turning
mechanism’ mandatory for each and every ship irrespective of size, type and operation.
Steering gear system has been an indispensable part of the ship’s machinery since the
advent of the very early ships, which were operated by hand.

Steering Gear System In Ship

The efficiency of performance of steering gear depends on some main aspects. These
basic requirements to be invariably met by all steering gears are guided by rules set by
classification societies. They can be briefly outlined as:

 As per standard requirements, the steering gear should be capable of steering the ship
from 35 degrees port to 35 degrees starboard and vice-versa with the vessel plying
forwards at a steady head-on speed for maximum continuous rated shaft rpm. and
summer load waterline within a time frame of maximum 28 seconds
 With one of the power units inoperative, the rudder shall be capable of turning 15 degrees
port to 15 degrees starboard (and vice-versa) within a time frame of 1 minute with the
vessel moving at half its rated maximum speed or 7 knots (whichever is greater) at
summer load line
 The major power units and the control systems are to be duplicated so that if one of them
fails, the other can easily substitute for them as standby

 Emergency Power Supply: The steering gear system is to be provided with additional
power unit (hydraulic pump etc.) connected to the emergency power supply from
Emergency Generator, which shall be capable of turning the rudder from 15 degrees from
one side to other side within 60 seconds with the vessel moving at a maximum service
speed or 7 knots, whichever is greater

Types of Steering Gears On Ships

As ships continued to grow in size and became faster, modern systems easing human
effort were incorporated. Basically, there are two types of commonly used steering gear
systems present:

 Hydraulic
 Electro-hydraulic type
Though the system has undergone some major evolution, the basic physics of operation
remains the same.

The main control of the steering operations

is given from the helm of any ship, similar
to an automobile where the entire control of
the vehicle’s “steer-ability” rests on the
steering wheel of the driver. The ‘control
force’ for turning is triggered off from the
wheel at the helm, which reaches the
steering gear system.

The steering gear system generates a

torsional force at a certain scale which is
then, in turn, is transmitted to the rudder
stock that turns the rudder. The
intermediate steering systems of a modern
day ship can be multifarious with each
small component having its own unique function. We omit to discuss each and every
such component in detail.
A Steering Gear is the equipment provided on ships to turn the ship to left (Port side) or
to right (Starboard side) while in motion during sailing. The Steering Gear works only
when the ship is in motion and, does not work when the ship is stationary. All the ships
are to be provided with, an efficient main steering gear, an auxiliary steering gear and,
except for very small ships, the main steering gear should be power operated.
Manually operated, mechanical Steering Gears were in use during sailing ship days.
Sailors with strong body were required to operate the Steering Gears. Later on, after the
onset of steam engines, mechanized gears were used. Modern ships use all very
sophisticated Steering Gear systems which could fall in either of the categories
 Fully hydraulic type
 Electro-hydraulic type
 Fully electric type
We also saw a general overview about these Steering Gears in a previous article. In this
article we will proceed to know more about their constructional details and components.
Before studying further, just take a close look at the sketch of the Steering Gear
arrangement which shows the various parts and components of a dual type system i.e.

electro-hydraulic type gear arrangement.

Working of the Steering Gear

When the ship is required to be turned on receiving an order (say by 10°to port) from the
Master or, the Duty Officer, the helmsman turns the steering wheel towards port until the
rudder has reached 10° to port as read on rudder indicator. The mechanism of
the Steering Gear works as under;
Complete Steering Gear system consists of three main parts namely
1. Telemotor
2. Control Unit
3. Power Unit.
A brief description about the construction and working of these components is as follows
Telemotor unit comprises of two parts namely, Transmitter and Receiver. The
Transmitter is located on the navigation bridge in the form of a wheel, which transmits the
given order to the Receiver located in the steering gear compartment, by turning the
steering wheel. The Receiver conveys this order to the Control Unit, also located in the
steering gear compartment, via linear motion.
The Telemotor is generally hydraulic type, electric type or, as is the case with
modern steering systems, it could be electro-hydraulic type. In olden days, Telemotors
were purely mechanical type consisting of linkages and chains with sprockets. As they
were operated manually, they required very healthy sailors to operate them.
Control Unit is the link between the Telemotor and the Power Unit. It receives
signal from the Telemotor and operates the Power Unit until it receives another signal,
this time from the Rudder through the Hunting Gear, to stop the operation of Power Unit.
Power Unit can be any prime mover like steam engine, diesel engine or, an electric motor,
directly coupled to the Rudder; it can be an electro-hydraulic unit or, an all- electric unit
complete with the Telemotor.
Power Unit can be any prime mover like steam engine, diesel engine or, an
electric motor, directly coupled to the Rudder; it can be an electro-hydraulic unit or, an all-
electric unit complete with the Telemotor.

AUTOPILOT

An autopilot (or pilot) is a mechanical, electrical or hydraulic system which can maintain
a vessel on a predetermined (set) course without the need for human intervention. Using
a direct or indirect connection with a vessel’s steering mechanism, the autopilot relieves
the crew from the task of manually steering the ship.
Autopilot have evolved from simple course holding systems to adaptive computer
systems that offer reduced fuel costs and increased transit times. These new systems
learn the characteristics of the vessel’s handling and minimize rudder movement reducing
drag on the vessel. Increased speed and lower fuel consumption makes autopilot more
user friendly.
Autopilots do not replace a human operator, but assist them in controlling the ship,
allowing them to focus on broader aspects of operation, such as monitoring the trajectory,
weather and systems.
 This instrument is not to replace the helmsman.
 It is not to be used in restricted waters or during manoeuvring.
 Not to be used for large alterations of more than 15-20
 Autopilot will operate efficiently over a certain speed (approx. > 5 knots), below which
it will start to wander.
 Autopilot is normally used when ship has to steer same course for long period of time.

What is working principle of autopilot system?

An output from a gyro or magnetic repeating compass is coupled to a differential
amplifier along with a signal derived from a manual course-setting control. If no difference
exists between the two signals, no output will be produced by the amplifier and no
movement of the rudder occurs. When a difference is detected between the two sources
of data, an output error signal, proportional in magnitude to the size of the difference, is
applied to the heading error amplifier. Output of this amplifier is coupled to the rudder
actuator circuit, which causes the rudder to move in the direction determined by the sign
of the output voltage. The error signal between compass and selected course inputs
produces an output voltage from the differential amplifier that is proportional to the off-
course error. This type of control, therefore, is termed ‘proportional’ control. As it has
been shown, the use of proportional control only, causes the vessel to oscillate either side
of its intended course due to inertia producing overshooting.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
The effect on steering when only proportional control is applied causes the rudder to move
by an amount proportional to the off-course error from the course to steer and the ship
will oscillate on either side of the required course-line.
DERIVATIVE CONTROL
The rudder is shifted by an amount proportional to the rate of change of ship’s deviation
from the course. The ship will make good a course which is parallel to the required course
and will continue to do so until the autopilot is again caused to operate by external force
acting on the ship.
INTEGRAL CONTROL
There are certain errors due to design parameters of the vessel which have to be
corrected. Data signals are produced by continuously sensing heading error over a period
of time and applying an appropriate degree of permanent helm is used for this purpose.
The permanent helm acts as mid-ship.
PID CONTROL
The output of the three controls are combined and the net resultant drives the rudder.
This type of autopilot is also called as PID Auto Pilot.
A Proportional–Integral–Derivative Controller (PID controller) is a control
loop feedback mechanism (controller) commonly used in industrial control systems. A
PID controller continuously calculates an error value as the difference between a
desired set point and a measured process variable. The controller attempts to minimize
the error over time by adjustment of a control variable, such as the position of a control
valve, a damper, or the power supply.
 P accounts for present values of the error. For example, if the error is large and
positive, the control output will also be large and positive.
 I accounts for past values of the error. For example, if the current output is not
sufficiently strong, error will accumulate over time, and the controller will respond
by applying a stronger action.
 D accounts for possible future values of the error, based on its current rate of change
With a Proportional, Integral and Derivative steering control system, the oscillation is
minimized by modifying the error signal produced as the difference between the selected
heading and the compass heading. Figure shows that a three-input summing-amplifier is
used, called a dynamics amplifier, to produce a resultant output signal equal to the sum
of one or more of the input signals.
The demanded rudder error signal is inspected by both the differentiator and the
integrator. The differentiator determines the rate of change of heading as the vessel
returns to the selected course. This sensed rate of change, as a voltage, is compared
with a fixed electrical time constant and, if necessary, a counter rudder signal is produced.
The magnitude of this signal slows the rate of change of course and thus damps the off-
course oscillation.
Obviously the time constant of the differentiation circuit is critical if oscillations are to be
fully damped. Time constant parameters depend upon the design characteristics of the
vessel and are normally calculated and set when the vessel undergoes initial trials. In
addition, a ‘counter rudder’ control is fitted in order that the magnitude of the counter
rudder signal may be varied to suit prevailing conditions
What are settings of Autopilot system?
 Permanent helm:
To be used only if a constant influence, like cross wind or beam sea is experienced. If
there is a very strong beam wind from starboard side then a permanent 5 degrees
starboard helm may be set.
 Rudder:
This setting determines the rudder to be given for each degree of course drifted. Eg. 2
degrees for every 1 degree off course.
 Counter rudder:
Determines the amount of counter rudder to be given once v/l has started swinging
towards correct course to stop swing. Both rudder & counter rudder to be set after
considering condition of v/l (ballast, loaded, etc.). Eg. Laden condition full ahead, not
advisable to go over 10 degrees rudder.
 Weather:
The effect of weather & sea conditions effectively counteracted by use of this control. This
setting increases the dead band width. Comes in handy if vessel is yawing excessively.
What are different Steering modes of Auto Pilot?
 Auto / manual: allows user to select between manual steering & autopilot. Officer to
steer correct course, rudder to be on midships,course to steer set (gyro pointer on
lubber line), off course alarm set before changing over to autopilot.
 Follow up: if rudder is to be put on starboard 10, helm is put on starboard 10. When
helm is on midship rudder will return to midships.
 Non-follow up: if rudder to be put on starboard 10 helm is turned to starboard, a few
degrees before starboard 10 the helm is put on midships, rudder then settles on
starboard 10. If rudder goes beyond starboard 10, slight port helm to be given.
Rudder will remain on starboard 10 even when helm is returned to midship. To bring
it back to midships port helm to be given.
What is Off course alarm?
 It is fitted on the autopilot usually set for 5 or 10 degrees. If difference between actual
course & course set by officer for autopilot is more than value set for alarm, it will
sound.
 This alarm will not sound in case of gyro failure.
 Only indication in this case is a gyro failure alarm. Gyro compass & repeaters to
compared frequently along with magnetic compass.
What are disadvantages of Autopilot?
 The auto pilot gives rudder according to the gyro heading.
 If the gyro fails the autopilot will still keep the gyro course & wander with the gyro.
 Gyro alarm to be taken seriously or the v/l will collide if there are sudden alterations.
BRIDGE/ ENGINE ORDER TELEGRAPH

In a sea going vessel, navigational officers control the ship’s navigation system
from bridge and engineering officers control the propulsion plant from the engine room.
Bridge is right on top of the ship, hence the officer on the bridge does not know about the
condition of the propelling engine and marine engineer in the engine control room does
not knows where the ship is heading as the engine room is situated below the water line
of the ship. Hence a fail-safe communication is required in between the navigation and
engineer officer to ensure smooth and safe sailing of the ship.
As the word describes, the telegraph on board ship is used as a communicating
device to transfer orders of change in speed or direction from the bridge to the engine
control room.
The engine order telegraph consists of a lever which can be moved over different
speed positions for ahead and astern direction.

Location of Engine Telegraph

The telegraph and its bell, also
known as telegraph bell, are
located both in the engine
control room (ECR) and the
bridge. A responsible officer
from each of the departments
handles the telegraph from
these locations. One more
telegraph is located on the
emergency maneuvering or local maneuvering station of the main engine. There is a
changeover switch located in the ECR for telegraph selection which can be manually or
automatically changed between the local control and engine control room telegraph.
Different Position on Engine Telegraph

Ahead Direction Movements:

 Full Ahead
 Half Ahead
 Slow Ahead
 Dead Slow Ahead
 Stop

Astern direction movements:

 Dead slow astern

 Slow Astern
 Half Astern
 Full Astern

Engine Telegraph Operation

The initial movement of telegraph is always from the navigation bridge and is done by
moving the lever in the required direction, which rings the telegraph bell of both the
locations (Engine room and Bridge). After hearing the bell, the engineer officer
acknowledges the telegraph of the engine room to the same position as that of the bridge
which stops the ringing of the bell. This ensures that the correct movement is
acknowledged and the engine speed and direction is controlled accordingly.
In modern ships with automation and controls, the bridge telegraph is directly connected
with the engine controls and it doesn’t require involvement of engine room personnel.
Such type of telegraph is called remote controlled telegraph device. A provision is given
to link both the telegraph so that manual operations can also be carried out in case of
automation failure.
MARINE SEXTANT
A sextant is an instrument that is used to determine the angle between the horizon
and a celestial body such as the Sun, the Moon or a star, and used in navigation to
determine longitude and latitude. The name sextant comes from the Latin "sextus,"
meaning "one-sixth," as the sextant's arc spans 60 degrees. The sextant is made up of a
number of different parts, which have to be arranged to take a reading.
The sextant is an instrument used to measure angles. Mainly used at sea, the
tool is so named because its arc is one-sixth of a circle – 60 degrees. It adheres to the
principle of double reflection hence it can measure angles up to 120 degrees. Practically
speaking, the arc of the sextant is a little over 60 degrees and therefore the total angle
measurable is about 130 degrees. Sextant is an essential tool for celestial navigation
and is used to measure the angle between the horizon and a visible object (or two
objects at sea.

Small Mirror Regulation Screw- The small mirror regulation screw is used to adjust the
horizon mirror.
Frame- The frame provides the structure for the other parts of the sextant.
Release Levers- The release levers disengage the index arm, which holds the sextant in
place, from the arc scale, allowing the index arm to move freely.
Filter- The filter is a colored transparent strip that protect the user's eyes from the sun in
a similar manner to sunglasses.
Telescope- The telescope directs the user's eyes to the horizon glass and magnifies the
objects under observation.
Telescope Clamp- The telescope clamp is a reinforcing circle that attaches the telescope
to the sextant.
Eyepiece- The eyepiece is the lens through which the user looks through the telescope.
Telescopic Printing- The telescopic printing is the tube attaching the eyepiece to the
telescope, which can be twisted for lens adjustment.
Horizon Glass- The horizon glass allows the user to look at one object directly on one
side and observe a second object reflected next to it. One half of the horizon glass is
silvered to convert the glass portion into a mirror, while the other side is clear glass.
Index Plate- The index plate is a large polished plate reflecting objects onto the horizon
glass.
Vernier Scale- The Vernier scale is attached to the index arm, next to the micrometer
drum and indicates tenths of a degree of an angle.
Micrometer Drum- The micrometer drum is attached to the lower end of the index arm
and rotated to make fine adjustments when measuring angles, and indicates minutes of
a degree of angle.

SIGNALING LAMP
A signal lamp (sometimes called an Aldis lamp, after Arthur Cyril Webb Aldis, who
invented a widely used design, or a Morse lamp) is a visual signaling device for optical
communication, typically using Morse code. Modern signal lamps are
focused lamps which can produce a pulse of light.
SIGNALING FLAGS

These flags are international signals used by ships at sea to spell out short
messages, or more commonly, used individually or in combination they have special
meanings.

Flag Letter Meaning

Diver below (when stationary); Keep

Alfa
clear see note...

I am taking on, discharging, or carrying

Bravo
dangerous cargo

Charlie "Yes" or "affirmative"

I am maneuvering with difficulty; keep

Delta
clear

Echo I am altering my course to starboard

Foxtrot I am disabled, communicate with me

Golf I require a pilot

Hotel I have a pilot on board

India I am altering my course to port

I am on fire and have dangerous

Juliet
cargo; keep clear
Kilo I wish to communicate with you

You should stop your vessel

Lima
immediately

My vessel is stopped (Not international

Mike
but commonly used: Doctor on board)

November "No" or "negative"

Oscar Man overboard

All personnel return to ship; about to

Papa
sail - the Blue Peter

Ship meets health regs; request

Quebec
clearance into port

None (previous meaning: The way is

Romeo off my ship. You may feel your way
past me)

Sierra I am moving astern

Keep clear (Not international but

Tango commonly used: Request for club
launch)

Uniform You are standing into danger

Victor I require assistance (not distress)

Whiskey I require medical assistance

 Stop carrying out your intentions and
Xray
watch for my signals

Yankee I am dragging anchor

Zulu I require a tug

There are many flag combinations with

additional meanings. Here's one that
N+C we hope you won't have to use:

I am in distress

The red flag with white diagonal stripe,

while not international, is commonly
used to indicate a diver in the water.
Diver Many states now require this flag. It is
Down usually exhibited on a float to mark the
diver's approximate location whereas
the "A" flag should be used on the
vessel.

Message is understood. Also,

Code/Answer
numeric decimal point

Substitute for the first flag in

Substitute 1
this hoist

Substitute for the second flag

Substitute 2
in this hoist

Substitute for the third flag in

Substitute 3
this hoist
 Substitute for the forth flag in
Substitute 4
this hoist

0 Numeral zero

1 Numeral one

2 Numeral two

3 Numeral three

4 Numeral four

5 Numeral five

6 Numeral six

7 Numeral seven

8 Numeral eight

9 Numeral nine
NAVIGATION LIGHTS AND INDICATORS
PATENT LOG
Pitometer logs (also known as pit logs) are
devices used to measure a ship's speed
relative to the water. They are used on both
surface ships and submarines. Data from the
pitometer log is usually fed directly into the
ship's navigation system.

Parts of Binoculars and Their Functions

Binoculars are a pair of two telescopes mounted side-by-side and aligned to point in the
same direction which allows the viewer to see magnified distant object with both eyes
while looking through them. They are the
second most popular optical devices used in
the world beside glasses.
They are used for different purposes. Some of
the popular uses of binoculars are military
applications, the military used them both in the
sea and inland for various security
applications. These devices are also used by
nature enthusiasts; which include hobbies such
as hunting, bird watching, hikers, astronomers,
and among others.
But before we look at the parts of binoculars
and their functions, let’s see how these devices
have evolved.

Binoculars over the years have evolved. From Galilean glasses to the modern
binoculars we see today. Their fundamental structure has not changed much except
some few improvements and add-ons that some recent day binoculars have such as
lens and prism coatings, gas purging in the binoculars interior and stabilization
techniques used to stabilize high magnification binoculars.
A quick Lists of the Parts of Binoculars

1. Objective Lenses
2. Eyepiece Lenses
3. Prisms
4. Focus wheel
5. Diopter
6. Chassis
Below are the detailed roles each part plays in the proper functioning of the binoculars.

Objective Lenses

The objective lenses are located directly opposite the eyepiece lenses and are the
furthest from the user’s eyes when viewing. They are noticeably bigger than the
eyepiece lenses. Their diameter determines how much light the binoculars are able to
gather from the target. They capture the available light and then direct it to the eyepiece
which allows the viewer to see the object.

These days you will find many manufacturers use coatings on them to enhance the light
transmission. These coatings vary from partial to fully multi-coated. The more coatings
that are applied the better the optical performance of the binoculars.

It is always vital to ensure these lenses don’t get damaged otherwise, they will render
the binoculars useless as they are the ones that provide the main insight of your target.

This part of the binoculars also determines how big or small your binoculars might look
or feel. As the size of the objective lens affects the weight of the binoculars. The bigger
the objective lens, the more light is able to gather from the target.

For example, Binoculars marked 8 x 42. Has an objective lens diameter of 42mm and
magnification of eight times( 8 x ).
Eyepiece Lenses

These lenses are closest to the viewer’s eyes when you look through your device and
are noticeably smaller than the objective lens. When the objective lens collects the light
and brings it to focus creating the image, the eyepiece which is placed near the focal
point of the objective lens then magnifies the image.
The amount of magnification depends on the focal length of the eyepiece. Eyepiece
consists of several lens elements in a housing. The image can be focused by moving
the eyepiece nearer or further from the objective lens. Most binoculars have a focusing
wheel to allow you to move the shaft in which the eyepiece is mounted without having to
manipulate the eyepiece directly.

This part of the binoculars is usually permanently mounted in the binoculars. which
causes them to have pre-determined magnification and field of view. However, they are
also interchangeable. When this is done the magnification could either be reduced or
increase while also altering the field of view as well.

Prisms

when the objective lens gathers the light and create the image when it gets to focus on
the eyepiece it will be viewed as inverted image and to correct the inverted image,
prisms are introduced in between the objective lens and the eyepiece to correct the
image orientation. Maybe for some applications, it might not be necessary but for
others, it might be an issue.

The prisms are also responsible for making the binoculars smaller enough to be held in
the hands. This is as a result of their path bending qualities, as the light’s path curls
through the prisms, the length of the instrument is reduced making it easier to handle

Binoculars are classified into types by the type of prism used inside them. The two most
common type of binoculars are the roof prism binoculars and Porro prism binoculars.
The two are identified by their shapes. The roof prism binoculars have a straight sleeker
shape while the Porro prism binoculars have a dog leg like shape.

Focus Wheel

The focus wheel is often located near the eyepiece. It can either be in between the
lenses or on one of the eyepiece.

When the focus wheel is in the center, its called center focus and when it is in the side,
it is either left or right focus binoculars. The purpose of the focus wheel is to slightly
move the interior lenses of the eyepiece to bring the image into focus.
It is important especially for those who wear glasses as this will help them adjust the
binoculars to get sharper images.

You will find binoculars in the market that are also called self-focusing binoculars – not
often recommended for eyeglass wearers because they rely on the strength of the
viewer’s eye to bring the image to focus.

Diopter Knob

The diopter knob is a ring that is directly situated behind the eyepiece lenses. You will
find the knob on one of the oculars which can either be turned to the right or left. It
permits you to individually focus the eyepiece lenses. This is to compensate for the
differences in the eye strength of the user. Mostly useful for those wear glasses.
Chassis

The chassis is the housing that is holding all the parts of the binoculars together in one
unit. Different manufacturers use different materials to create the body of the binoculars.
Some are lightweight and durable, others have more strength. Depending on the type of
material used for the body, it can affect the weight as well as the longevity of the device
and how much harsh weather conditions it can endue with damage.
What is Electronic Chart Display and
Information System (ECDIS)?
The Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) is a development in the
navigational chart system used in naval vessels and ships. With the use of the
electronic chart system, it has become easier for a ship’s navigating crew to pinpoint
locations and attain directions.

The ECDIS utilises the feature of the Global Positioning System (GPS) to successfully
pinpoint the navigational points. It also has to be noted that the ECDIS adheres to the
stipulations set by the International Maritime Organisation, and thus it adds to the
trustworthiness of the electronic chart system. ECDIS is basically a navigational
information system, interfaced with other navigational equipments such as the GPS,
Gyro, RADAR, ARPA, Echo Sounder etc.

ECDIS also incorporates and displays information contained in other nautical

publications such as Tide Tables and Sailing Directions and incorporates additional
maritime information such as radar information, weather, ice conditions and automatic
vessel identification.

Advantages of ECDIS over paper charts

1. All information is processed and displayed in real time

2. It eases the process of passage planning
3. One can get all necessary navigational information at a glance
4. Alarms and indications are in place to indicate and highlight dangers
5. Chart correction is made easier in ECDIS as compared to paper charts
6. Charts can be tailored as per the requirement of the voyage
 7. Other navigational equipments such as the AIS, ARPA etc can be overlayed and
integrated
8. Charts can be oriented as per requirement
9. With the facility to zoom in and out, features can be examined as per necessity
10. One can obtain a more accurate ETA
11. Charts can be interrogated for detailed information
12. All in all, it enhances the safety of navigation

Types of ECDIS charts

1. Raster Chart (RNC): RNCs are direct copy or a scan of the paper charts. It looks
identical to a paper chart as all the information shown is directly printed. The chart
only grows larger or smaller as per the zooming and when rotated, everything
rotates.
2. Vector Chart (ENC): ENCs are computer generated charts. The details on an ENC
can be turned on and off depending on the requirement of the user. Objects on the
ENC can be clicked for more details on the same. Depths can also be monitored
to obtain a warning with regard to grounding. When zooming, the features grow
large or small but the text remains the same.

ENC (Electronic Navigational Chart) Layers

 Display Base (No information can be deleted)

 Standard Display
 Full Display
 Custom Display

Minimum Interface Requirement

 Position Sensor
 Heading Sensor
 Speed Sensor

Chart Updating

Updates to the ECDIS charts may reach the ship in various ways, depending upon the
capabilities of the service provider and the onboard communication facilities.

 On data distribution media (DVD)

 As an email attachment (SATCOM)
  As a broadcast message via SATCOM plus additional communication hardware
 As an internet download

Voyage Recording

 Minute by minute recording for the past 12 hours of the voyage

 Record of 4 hourly intervals of voyage track for a period of 6 months

Dual Fuel: Dual Fuel is the use of RNCs when ENCs are not available with approved
paper chart backup.

Alarms and/or Indication in ECDIS

Alarms

1. Exceeding cross track limits

2. Crossing selected safety contour
3. Deviation from the route
4. Critical Point Approach
5. Different datum from the positioning system

Alarms or Indication

1. Largest scale for alarm (present chart too small a scale)

2. Area with special conditions
3. Malfunction of ECDIS

Indication

1. Chart over scale (zoomed too close)

2. Larger scale ENC available
3. Different reference units
4. Route crosses safety contour
5. Route crosses specific area activated for alarms
6. System test failure

For ease of understanding, Indications may be either visual or audible whereas Alarms
must be audible and may be visual as well.

Power Supply

 It should be possible to operate ECDIS and all equipment necessary for its normal
functioning when supplied by an emergency source of electrical power
  Changing from one source of power supply to another or any interruption of supply
for a period of upto 45 seconds should not require the equipment to be manually
re-initialized

Limitations of ECDIS

1. The accuracy of the information received via AIS is only as good as the accuracy
of the AIS information transmitted. The same is applicable for all other equipments
interfaced with the ECDIS.
2. Position of ships received on ECDIS display might not be referenced to WGS 84
datum
3. Over reliance on ECDIS for navigational safety should be avoided until it is
confirmed that all the data transmitted, received and displayed are accurate
4. Users must be aware that any erroneous information is detrimental to the safety of
own as well as other vessels
5. Some sensors might lack the integrity with regard to accuracy and those that have
not been tested
6. Not all ships are fitted with ECDIS and hence one cannot be sure of technical
ability with regard to positioning as well as navigation; the kind that ECDIS
provides

It is never prudent for the OOW to depend solely on the information on the ECDIS. IT is
only an aid to navigation and never replaces the human quotient which brings in the skill
and expertise with experience that an ECDIS can never provide.
The Nautical Chart

As a navigator, the nautical chart is one of your most important tools. A chart is a graphical
representation of part of the earth's surface. Unlike a map, a chart emphasizes areas of water
and features that allow mariners to determine position, avoid hazards and find a safe route to
a destination.

Charts cover the open sea, coastlines, navigable inland waters and canal systems. They can
cover a large area; for example, the shipping lanes of the North Atlantic; or provide a
detailed representation of a smaller area, such as a harbour or anchorage.

Most maritime nations publish charts and Canada is no exception. Canadian paper and
electronic charts are published by the Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS). These charts
are available from chandleries and map retailers. The United States and Great Britain publish
charts for their own waters and much of the earth's navigable waters.

Projections
It's a challenge for chart makers to transfer the features of a spherical earth to a flat piece of
paper. The solution lies in using mathematical formulas to create projections. Different
formulas produce different projections and there are many types, each with its particular
characteristics. Nautical charts are usually one of three: Gnomonic (pronounced no-
monic), Polyconic and Mercator. The Mercator projection is the most common.
In a Mercator projection, meridians of
longitude are parallel. Lines of
latitude, while still parallel, are no
longer equidistant but wider apart
further north. This causes distortion in
the shape and size of land and ocean
masses as these features are enlarged
closer to the poles.

The advantage of a Mercator chart is

that meridians and parallels cross
each other at right angles to form a
rectangular grid. This means a
straight-line course through the water The Mercator Projectin
can be plotted as a straight line on the
chart — something that's not possible
on other projections.
 The Chart at a Glance
A chart identifies navigable areas,
shorelines and areas not suitable for
navigation. It indicates depths of water,
or soundings; the location of rocks and
other hazards, tidal drying areas as well
as deep water. A chart also points out the
location and type of navigational aids,
and shows symbols for piers, bridges and
other structures. On-shore landmarks that
can assist with navigation, such as radio
towers and church steeples, are also
symbolized.

Charts from different agencies (three

agencies make charts in the USA) and
countries may look different, but there
are many common characteristics.
Canadian and US charts are similar and it's not
difficult to understand one if you're familiar
with the other. Care should be taken to note
any difference in scale, units of measurement,
date of publication and so on.

A chart is usually printed on durable paper to

make it water resistant. It's numbered for
reference to a catalogue, has titles of the major
and minor areas of coverage and states its
publication date.

A grid of latitude and longitude is overlaid on

all charts. In most nautical projections, The latitude and longitude scales
parallels are graduated along the sides of the appear on the edges of most types of
chart. Longitude is graduated along the top nautical charts.
and bottom of the chart. The subdivisions of
these scales are in degrees, minutes, half-
minutes, and tenths of minutes, or seconds in
older charts.
 The Title Block
One prominent feature of a chart is
the title block. It contains information on
the area of coverage, the scale of the
chart, the type of projection, the
reference level for soundings and the
units of depth and elevation
measurement: metric or imperial. It also
lists any cautionary notes.

Datum and Soundings

Chart datum is defined as the level
below which water seldom falls.
Soundings refer to depths at datum.

Scale
Title Block of a CHS Chart.
The scale of this coastal chart is 1:50 000. A chart can cover a large area — all of
Lake Huron, for example — or a
detailed representation of a smaller area.
The difference in coverage area relates
to a chart's scale.
A chart's scale is the ratio of the distance on a chart to the distance on land or water. A scale
of 1:8 000 means that the chart is one eight-thousandths of the size of the area it represents:
Objects shown as a centimetre apart are physically 8,000 centimetres (80 metres) apart.

A coastal chart usually has a scale of between 1:50 000 to 1:150 000. The scale of a harbour
chart is typically 1:10 000.
A chart that provides a lot of detail for a small area is a large scale chart. A chart that covers
a vast area and provides little detail is a small scale chart. Remember:
large scale - small area, small scale - large area.
The same geographic area may be covered by several charts with differing scales.

One of navigation's golden rules: use the chart with largest scale available.

Symbols
Charts use symbols to represent real-world objects. Knowledge of these symbols, as well as
their common abbreviations and terminology, is an important part of using a chart. Symbols
are covered in lesson 2.2.
Measuring Distance
Because a chart is a scaled representation
of the real world, it can be used to
measure distances between objects. This
is useful, among other things, for
estimating sailing or motoring time
between points.

On a Mercator chart, the latitude scale on

the sides of the chart serves as the
distance scale.

It's worth remembering that only the

vertical, latitude scale on a Mercator chart
can be used to measure distance, not the
horizontal longitude scale. This is because
each minute of latitude equals one
nautical mile, while the distance between
minutes of longitude decreases between The latitude scale is the distance scale
the equator and the poles. on a Mercator chart because one
minute of latitude equals one nautical
Dividers are used to transfer the distance mile.
between two charted objects to the
latitude scale on the side of the chart, or
from the latitude scale to any points on
the chart.

Finding Co-ordinates
Dividers are also used to transfer a position's latitude and longitude co-ordinates to a chart or
to find a position's co-ordinates. Charts have a grid of reference lines that make it possible to
transfer co-ordinates with precision.
 The latitude of the light at Cabot
Head is found by placing one
point of the dividers on the
light's chart symbol and the
other on the nearest latitude
reference line.

The dividers are then

transferred to the side of the
chart and the latitude noted
from the scale.

To find the longitude the process

is repeated using the vertical
reference line and the scale at
the bottom or top of the chart.

Charts and Change

Charts get out of date quickly: buoys are moved, removed or changed, shorelines shift or new
hazards appear. Lesson 1.4 examines how Notices to Mariners inform boaters of changes to
charts between publications. In Canada CHS charts are revised to include changes made
between publications. The year of these revisions is printed in the lower left-hand corner of
the chart.