For Level 4: Unit 3 Field Test

3
Cause and effeCt
essays
sOCIOLOGy: effeCts Of GeOGRaPHIC MOBILIty

“History in its broadest

aspect is a record of
man’s migrations from
one environment to
another.” 
Ellsworth Huntington
(1876–1947)

About the Author:

Work with a partner. Read the quotation about migration. Then answer
Ellsworth Huntington was
the questions. an American geographer
and professor.
1 Huntington said that history is “a record of man’s migrations from one
environment to another.” What did he mean by a “record”?
2 Give an example of a time in history when people migrated to a new environment.
Where did they go and why?
3 Have you ever moved to a new place? If so, how did you change?
How did you stay the same?

Cause and effeCt essays 79

 1 PRePaRe yOuR Ideas

a Connect to Academic Writing

In this unit you will learn skills to help you analyze causes and effects. While some of the writing
skills that you will use may be new to you, the skill of identifying causes and effects is not new.
In your everyday life you identify causes and effects when you ask questions such as What effect
will my major have on my career options? and How will moving to the United States change my life?

B Reflect on the Topic

In this section you will choose a writing prompt and reflect on it. You will develop these ideas
throughout the unit and use them to practice skills that are necessary to write your final essay.
The writing prompt below was used for the Student Model essay on pages 86–87. The
student reflected on her topic and used a cause-effect graphic organizer to help her remember
specific events and details that made the situation clear in her mind. This helped her think of a
possible thesis.

WRITING PROMPT 1: Why have so many people moved out of rural communities in recent
years? Give at least three reasons.
Causes Effect
not enough jobs
boring for young people
Many people are leaving
not enough educational opportunities rural communities

My thesis: A lack of jobs, entertainment, and educational opportunities is causing many young
people to move away from rural towns.
In writing prompt 1, the student reflected on the causes of a situation. At other times, you will
need to reflect on the effects of a situation, as in the writing prompt below.
WRITING PROMPT 2: How has an increased Spanish-speaking population changed Arizona?
Cause Effects
more jobs advertising for bilingual applicants
More Spanish
speakers in increased interest in changes in immigration policies
Arizona

My thesis: An increase in the number of Spanish speakers in Arizona has resulted in new job
openings and business opportunities as well as changes to immigration policies.

1.1 Notice
Work with a partner. Discuss an additional cause in the first cause-effect graphic
organizer and an additional effect in the second one. Share your ideas with the class.

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 1.2 Apply It to Your Writing
Follow the directions to reflect on your topic.

A Choose a prompt:
• Choose a country. Describe a current trend of migration within the country (e.g., rural
areas to urban centers, north to south, east to west). Why has it been happening?
• Choose a country. Describe a current trend of migration to or from the country (e.g.,
people immigrating there from certain countries, or people moving away to certain
countries). How has it affected the immigrants and/or the country itself?
• How has the increasing ease and frequency of international travel affected those who
travel and the places they go to?
• A topic approved by your instructor

B Work with a partner and complete the following tasks:

1 Think about your prompt. Decide if you need to write about the causes of something or
the effects of something.
2 Choose the cause-effect graphic organizer below that best fits your prompt and complete
it. Think of everything that might have happened to cause the situation or all the effects
that might result from the situation. Add more boxes if you need them.
3 Write a possible thesis statement.

Causes Effect

Cause Effects

Possible thesis statement:

Cause and effeCt essays 81

 2 eXPand yOuR KnOWLedGe

In this section you will learn academic language that you can use in your cause and effect essay.
You will also notice how a professional writer uses the language and features of cause and effect.

a Academic Vocabulary
The words below appear throughout the unit. They are from the Academic Word List. Using
these words in your writing will make your ideas clearer and your writing more academic.

document (v) exhibit (v) reaction (n) summarize (v)

enhance (v) mutual (adj) subsequently (adv) sustain (v)

2.1 Focus on Meaning

Work with a partner. Read the sentences. Decide the meaning of the bold words and
circle the correct answer.
1 Many study-abroad programs require students to document what they learned overseas in
papers and projects after they return home. Document means
a to record the details of something. b to avoid thinking about something.
2 Some residents of Arizona believe that newer immigrants enhance their communities, while
others believe immigration is not beneficial to them. Enhance means
a to decrease the quality of something. b to improve the quality of something.
3 Children who move to a new town often exhibit symptoms of psychological problems such
as anxiety and difficulty sleeping. Exhibit means
a to talk about something. b to show something publicly.
4 Expanding internationally offers mutual benefits to companies and to their traveling
customers. Companies increase revenues, and customers enjoy familiar products and
services. Mutual means
a doing something for each other. b doing two different things.
5 When students move to their new college campus, they often have positive reactions when
they like things and negative ones when they do not. Reaction means
a statement that one person makes to b feeling in response to something.
another.
6 Many auto workers in Detroit were laid off in the 1980s. Subsequently, the city’s population
decreased as people left to find work elsewhere. Subsequently means
a happening after something. b never happening.

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7 The most recent UN report on urban
migration is fascinating but too long for
many people to read. However, the first
page summarizes the key information in
the report. Summarize means
a to present the most important facts or
ideas in a short space.
b to replace older facts or ideas with new
information.
8 If a city does not have enough jobs to
sustain all of its residents who need work,
people will begin to leave. Sustain means
a to keep something going; to maintain.
b to generate new revenue for.

B Academic Collocations
Collocations are words that are frequently used together. Research tells us that the academic
vocabulary in Part A is commonly used in the collocations in bold below.

2.2 Focus on Meaning

Read the sentences. Decide the meaning of the phrases in bold and circle the
correct answer.
1 One of the results of more Spanish-speaking immigrants in Tucson, Arizona, has been that
English-language centers are working with job centers for the mutual support of those
needing bilingual employees and those seeking jobs. Mutual support means
a help that one side gives the other. b help that both sides give each other.
2 A partnership between ESL centers and job placement services also creates mutual benefit
for those operations because the partnership makes both of their businesses grow. Mutual
benefit means
a no change for either side. b positive results for both sides.
3 It is easy to identify new residents in a city because they exhibit behavior similar to tourists
who do not know the public transportation system and need maps. Exhibit behavior means
a to act a certain way. b to act in a strange way.
4 A very small portion of students have a negative reaction to studying abroad and become
too homesick to continue. Negative reaction means
a a bad response. b a good response.
5 The diversity brought to many countries because of increased immigration has greatly
enhanced the cultural awareness of people around the world, which is valuable in our
globalized world. Greatly enhance means
a to make something impossible. b to make something stronger.

Cause and effeCt essays 83

 C Writing in the Real World
The author of “Moving Is Tough for Kids” uses cause and effect to make her argument clearer
and more persuasive.
Before you read, answer these questions: What might make moving tough for kids? What
might be easy for them?
Now read the article. Think about your answers to the questions above as you read.

nanCy daRLInG (adaPted)

MOVInG Is tOuGH fOR KIds

1 The bad news. The New York Times recently

summarized new research on how kids are
affected by moving. The study, published
in the Journal of Social and Personality
Psychology, carefully documents the fact
that frequent moves are tough on kids
and disrupt1 important friendships. The
study reports that these effects are most
problematic2 for kids who are introverted3
and whose personalities tend toward anxiety
and inflexibility. The study also goes on to
say that adults who moved frequently as kids
have fewer high-quality relationships and
tend to score lower on well-being and life
satisfaction.
2 The not-so-bad news. The reports warns,
however, that these findings should be
treated with caution because often families 3 A touchy subject.5 The subject of moving is
that move a lot may be doing so because of a touchy one for my family. We know a lot
already existing problems, such as a divorce about it because during the first 25 years of
or a job loss. In addition, the moves may be my marriage, we moved 10 times. Yes, that’s
taking place during a time when children are right, 10 times! My oldest son moved five
already making difficult transitions. They times before college (a very touchy subject)
may be going through puberty4 or moving and my youngest has moved three. We
from primary education to secondary school, were always the ones who moved. I don’t
which can be a particularly difficult period. remember my kids ever being the ones left
So the difficult behaviors exhibited by behind. Now, however, things have changed.
kids (and adults) who move may be greatly I have become tenured,6 and we are the ones
enhanced by factors that are not directly who are staying. It was my son’s best friend
related to moving. who moved away.

1
disrupt: prevent something from continuing as usual a touchy subject: a subject that must be dealt with carefully
5
2
problematic: causing difficulty, or hard to deal with become tenured: receive a job for life, usually as a teacher
6
3
introverted: shy, quiet, and unable to make friends easily or university professor
4
puberty: the stage of life when a child develops physically
into an adult

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4 The child left behind. After his best
friend moved, my son went through a very
difficult time. Children react very differently
from adults when things don’t go well.
For kids, negative reactions can include
inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and acting
out – yelling, hitting, and generally being
difficult to control. Fortunately, my son did
not hit those depths, but he did have trouble
sleeping, his attention was poor, and he was
sad a lot of the time. This, of course, hit his
friend as well, who was perhaps even more
seriously upset and, being extroverted, was
even more prone to acting out.
5 A different generation. Fortunately, it is
much easier for children today to sustain a
distant relationship. Technology has changed
things a lot. When I was a kid and my best
friend moved, we wrote weekly letters, but
never made a phone call. It was 7 cents a
minute and that was a lot of money. Now
the kids use the unlimited phone minutes
on their cell phones to call each other. My
son and his friend have been video chatting
regularly on the Internet. And just seeing
each other’s faces – and the messiness of
our familiar family room and his messy
new bedroom – provides them with mutual
support and comfort. And the kids today
have video games that can be played online
and that tend to promote communication
since the kids inevitably talk around and
through a game as they play.
6 Getting involved. When we were kids and
moved to a new town, my parents would
immediately settle themselves in, join
organizations, and take on leadership roles.
I remember my father saying that one of the
reasons that families moving through our
community had such a hard time is that they
kept their distance and didn’t get involved in
the community. Often, these families came
to town not knowing if they would be there
for one year, three years, or a lifetime. As a
result, they never really committed to staying;
they never made friends; they never set down
roots. My father would say – and I agree with
him – that although it can be painful to have
to tear up roots and leave, it is still better to
go through that pain than never to become
part of a community.

2.3 Check Your Understanding

Answer the questions.
1 What are some of the effects of moving on children?
2 Was the effect of moving mostly positive or mostly negative for the author’s son? How
convincing is this evidence? What kinds of evidence would be better?
3 How does the author’s experience differ from your own? What other effects do you think
moving can cause for children?

2.4 Notice the Features of Cause and Effect

Answer the questions.
1 Look at the first paragraph. Is this paragraph mostly about the effects of something or the
causes of something? What words show you this?
2 Is the second paragraph mostly about the effects of something or the causes of something?
What language does the author use to show this?

Cause and effeCt essays 85

 3 study aCadeMIC WRItInG

In Section 1 on page 80 you saw how the writer of the Student Model reflected on her topic.
In this section you will analyze the final draft of her cause and effect essay. You will learn how to
structure your ideas for your own essay.

a Student Model
Read the writing prompt again and answer the questions.
WRITING PROMPT: Why have so many people moved out of rural communities in recent
years? Give at least three reasons.
1 What cause and effect relationship will the writer focus on?
2 Will the essay be about the causes of something or the effects of something? Which
organization from Section 1 will fit this essay best?

Read the essay twice. The first time, think about your answers to the questions above.
The second time, answer the questions in the Analyze Writing Skills boxes. This will help
you notice key features of cause and effect essays.

Rural Communities Left Behind

1 While many news reports focus on struggling cities like Detroit, there
have been few reports about the crisis in many rural communities, which are
steadily declining and struggling, too, because of a trend called “outmigration.”
Outmigration is when people leave one area and move to another. This problem
interests me because I have lived in a rural community for three years and
have personally experienced seeing friends move away and businesses close.
According to William H. Frey of the Brookings Institution, a 2014 Census report
1 Analyze Writing Skills
showed that as of July 2013 almost two-thirds of rural counties had become
Does this essay focus
smaller. Outmigration happens for many reasons, but some common factors are on multiple causes or
multiple effects?
fewer good job opportunities, lack of amenities,1 and inaccessible health care.
2 One reason for outmigration is a limited number of decent employment
opportunities. There are fewer good jobs and more competition in smaller
towns, so it is harder to find a job. Young people are the largest group who
are most likely to leave to seek job opportunities (McGranahan, Cromartie,
and Wojan). For example, in my town there are not many opportunities for
2 Analyze Writing Skills
jobs in accounting. Many college students graduate with accounting degrees;
In paragraph 2, underline
subsequently, if they want to have a career in accounting, they have to move to all the transition words
or phrases that signal
a city. In addition, jobs in larger cities usually have a higher salary. In the small reasons or causes.
town of Macon, Georgia, a paralegal makes around $20,000, but in Savannah
the amount is almost double. A lack of economic opportunities is clearly a key
factor in outmigration.

amenities: the desirable or useful features of a place

1

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 3 Another reason people leave rural areas is that they often do not have a
lot of conveniences, such as entertainment and shops. Young people usually
leave areas that do not exhibit attractive qualities, such as exciting social and
cultural events (McGranahan, Cromartie, and Wojan). In my opinion, this is
true because when you are young, you want to learn and know about life, and
larger cities have many more things to do and experience. In addition, data in a
2013 USDA report also shows that when people retire they will leave for better 3 Analyze Writing Skills

services and entertainment (“Population”), which enhance their quality of life. In paragraph 3, the
writer uses two sources
These quality of life concerns have played a major role in outmigration from to support her topic
sentence. Circle them.
many rural areas.
4 A lack of access to health care makes people leave. According to the National
Council of State Legislatures (NCSL), 90 percent of physicians work in cities,
and over three-quarters of rural counties do not have enough health care
professionals to serve the population. This means that families with children
will have to travel far to get basic health care and older adults will not get the
attention that they need. It seems logical that with fewer health care services,
both families and older adults would choose to leave for metropolitan areas.
5 In sum, a shortage of job opportunities, lack of amenities, and difficulty
4 Analyze Writing Skills
getting health care are compelling causes of outmigration. More attention
Look at paragraph 5.
should be paid to this phenomenon since 20 percent of the population live in What kind of comment
these areas and their quality of life is important, too. I will probably move to does the writer make in
the last sentence? Circle
the city, but I would like one day to return to my town. However, my town may your answer.
not be able to sustain itself until then. a a prediction
b a recommendation
Works Cited
Frey, William H. “A Population Slowdown for Small Town America.” Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution,
31 Mar. 2014. Web. 2 Aug. 2014.
McGranahan, David, John Cromartie, and Timothy Wojan. Nonmetropolitan Outmigration Counties: Some Are Poor, Many Are
Prosperous. ERR 107. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Nov. 2010. Web. 11 July 2014.
“Rural Health.” NCSL. National Conference of State Legislatures, n.d. Web. 2 Aug. 2014.
United States. Dept. of Agriculture. Population and Migration: Overview, 3 Apr. 2014. Web. 11 July 2014.

3.1 Check Your Understanding

Answer the questions.
1 What is the main idea of this essay?
2 Which paragraphs deal with reasons
people leave rural communities?
3 What ideas presented here about rural or
urban communities have you experienced?

Cause and effeCt essays 87

 3.2 Outline the Writer’s Ideas
Complete the outline for “Rural Communities Left Behind” with the ideas in the box.

Lack of access to health care makes people leave

Accounting example
Families with children have to travel far for health care
When people retire, they leave for better services and conveniences
Jobs in larger cities usually have a higher salary
Rural areas often do not have a lot of conveniences

ESSAY OUTLINE

I. Introduction

Thesis Outmigration happens for many reasons, but the most important are fewer job
Statement

opportunities, lack of amenities, and inaccessible health care.

Body
Paragraph 1: II. Limited number of decent employment opportunities
Cause 1

Supporting A. Fewer good jobs and more competition

Idea 1

Detail 1. Young people want good careers (McGranahan)

Detail 2.

Supporting B.
Idea 2

Detail 1. Paralegal example

Body
Paragraph 2: III.
Cause 2
Supporting A. Young people leave areas that are not attractive and exciting (McGranahan)
Idea 1

Detail 1. My opinion – young people want to learn and experience new things

Supporting B.
Idea 2

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 Body
Paragraph 3: IV.
Cause 3
Supporting A. 90 percent of physicians work in cities (NCSL)
Idea 1

Detail 1.

Detail 2. Older adults do not get the medical attention that they need

V. Conclusion

B Cause and Effect Essays: Organization

Writers analyze cause and effect relationships to show important reasons why something
happened (its causes), or to show how something has changed (its effects). While you may be
asked to write a traditional cause and effect essay for a composition class, you will more often
use this skill to support an argument.

Read the following outlines that show two ways to organize a cause and effect essay.

Organization A: Many Causes, One Effect
WRITING PROMPT: Why are more people
around the world moving from rural to
urban areas?
Introduction
Organization B: Many Effects, One Cause
WRITING PROMPT: How has migration
from rural to urban areas changed the way
people live?
Introduction

Thesis: Rural-to-urban migration results Thesis: Urbanization has resulted in

from a lack of job opportunities, difficult overcrowding in many cities, but has also
farming conditions, and poor health care in helped people support rural relatives and
rural areas. changed the status of women.
Body paragraph 1 (Cause 1): Lack of rural jobs Body paragraph 1 (Effect 1): Overcrowding

A Most work is low-paying farm work A UN: 3 billion people in cities now; will
B USDA: Rural incomes “substantially double by 2050
lower” B 863 million live in dirty, crowded slums
Body paragraph 2 (Cause 2): Farming is difficult Body paragraph 2 (Effect 2): Supporting

A Major droughts in California and relatives

elsewhere A City workers send money to rural
B Farm work harder and riskier than relatives
before B $250 billion sent home every year

Cause and effeCt essays 89

 Organization A: Many Causes, One Effect Organization B: Many Effects, One Cause
Body paragraph 3 (Cause 3): Poor rural health Body paragraph 3 (Effect 3): Status of women
care A Women in cities have fewer babies
A Fewer hospitals nearby B Women receive more education in cities
B Hard to find specialists, e.g.,
obstetricians
Conclusion Conclusion

3.3 Notice
Look at each organizational pattern. Circle T if the statements are true or F if the
statements are false.
Organization A
1 Rural-to-urban migration is presented as a cause in this essay. T F
2 The writer discusses more than one effect in this essay. T F
3 The writer discusses one cause in each body paragraph. T F
Organization B
1 Rural-to-urban migration is presented as a cause. T F
2 The body paragraphs in this essay focus on effects. T F
3 The writer discusses more than one effect in each body paragraph. T F

tHe IntROduCtORy PaRaGRaPH In Cause and effeCt essays

Like other introductory paragraphs, a cause and effect introductory paragraph engages readers
and prepares them to understand and consider the ideas that the writer will present.
A cause and effect introduction
• mentions the causes or the effects of the situation.
• makes it clear why the topic is important.
• provides background information on the situation.
• states the causes or effects in the thesis statement.
Writers use the language below to indicate causes or effects: The thesis statement for a
cause and effect essay clearly states whether the writer will focus on causes or effects. Below
are examples of good thesis statements that focus on causes. Notice the words in bold that
indicate causes.
There are three main causes of illness that can occur when moving to another country: changes in
diet, being unprepared for a new climate, and stress.
Rural-to-urban migration results from a lack of job opportunities, difficult farming conditions, and
poor health care in rural areas.

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Urban areas in many parts of the world are experiencing tremendous population growth due to
migration and improved health care.
Language that introduces effects includes: … consequences of …., … leads / has led to …, …
contributes to …, … the effects of …, because … and … has (positive/negative) effects on.
Below are examples of good thesis statements that focus on effects. Notice the words in bold
that indicate effects.
Traveling internationally for work contributes to personal growth in many ways, including improved
communication skills, increased awareness of global politics, and an enhanced ability to get along
with diverse groups of people.
Changing demographics in France has had positive effects on the country’s fashion, food, and
popular music.
Some thesis statements do not use the language listed above to introduce causes or effects,
yet they clearly show cause and effect relationships through the words in bold. Here are two
examples:
Studies have shown that when children live abroad while growing up, they tend to have better
grades, experience faster emotional growth, and have an increased tolerance for “newness.”
Moving to unfamiliar surroundings often makes people stressed, disoriented, and isolated.

3.4 Notice
Look at the Student Model on pages 86–87. Circle the words that help you know why the
issue is important. Underline the thesis. Which words in the thesis tell you whether the
focus is on causes or effects?

3.5 Complete the Introduction

Read the prompts for cause and effect essays. Then write a thesis statement.
WRITING PROMPT 1: What are three reasons that people might choose to leave their home
country and start a life in a new one?

Thesis statement:

WRITING PROMPT 2: Many people agree that moving is stressful. What are the positive or
negative effects of moving to a new home?

Thesis statement:

Cause and effeCt essays 91

 3.6 Apply It to Your Writing
Think about the ideas you wrote for your own essay in Section 1 on page 81.
Write some sentences for background information on your topic. Remember to
tell your reader why your topic is important.

BOdy PaRaGRaPHs
Each body paragraph develops a main point, in other words, a single cause or a single effect.
The topic sentence of a cause or effect body paragraph:
• states the cause or effect idea.
• connects the idea to the thesis statement.
A good cause or effect topic sentence uses connecting words such as one, another, and
synonyms of the cause or effect to connect it the thesis statement:
• One [significant/important/…] effect/cause of … is …
• Another effect/cause of … is …
• One/Another reason why …
Read the example below. Notice that the topic sentence repeats the key words of outmigration
and reason and paraphrases the effect fewer good job opportunities in the thesis statement.
Thesis statement: Outmigration happens for many reasons, but some common factors are
fewer good job opportunities, lack of amenities, and inaccessible health care.
Topic sentence, body paragraph 1: One reason for outmigration is a
limited number of decent employment opportunities.
Each body paragraph contains supporting ideas and details that make the ideas clear and
interesting to the reader. Read the example below. Notice how the detail gives an interesting
personal example that explains the idea that young people “prefer exciting social and cultural
events.”
SUPPORTING IDEA
Young people usually leave areas that do not exhibit attractive qualities, such as exciting social and
DETAIL (PERSONAL EXAMPLE)
cultural events (McGranahan, Cromartie, and Wojan). In my opinion, this is true because when you
are young, you want to learn and know about life, and larger cities have many more things to do
and experience.

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Below in the chart are words and phrases that writers often use to explain cause and effect
relationships:

WORds and PHRases tO sHOW Cause and effeCt

because Because they have just moved on to campus, many freshmen get lost
easily.

because of Freshmen get lost easily on campus because of their recent move
to campus.

since Freshmen get lost easily on campus since they have just moved to
the university.

due to Freshmen get lost easily on campus due to the fact that they have
just moved to campus.

as a result Freshmen have just moved to campus and, as a result, get lost easily.

as a consequence/ Freshmen have just moved to the university and, consequently, get
consequently lost easily on campus.

therefore Freshmen have just moved to campus and, therefore, get lost easily.

so Freshmen have just moved to campus, so they get lost easily.

so that Freshmen are given maps to the campus so that they will not get lost
easily.

for this reason Freshmen have just moved to campus, and for this reason, they can
get lost easily.

Cause and effeCt essays 93

Below in the chart are words and phrases that writers often use to explain cause and effect
relationships:

WORds and PHRases tO sHOW Cause and effeCt

because Because they have just moved on to campus, many freshmen get lost
easily.

because of Freshmen get lost easily on campus because of their recent move
to campus.

since Freshmen get lost easily on campus since they have just moved to
the university.

due to Freshmen get lost easily on campus due to the fact that they have
just moved to campus.

as a result Freshmen have just moved to campus and, as a result, get lost easily.

as a consequence/ Freshmen have just moved to the university and, consequently, get
consequently lost easily on campus.

therefore Freshmen have just moved to campus and, therefore, get lost easily.

so Freshmen have just moved to campus, so they get lost easily.

so that Freshmen are given maps to the campus so that they will not get lost
easily.

for this reason Freshmen have just moved to campus, and for this reason, they can
get lost easily.

Cause and effeCt essays 93

3.7 Practice Writing Ideas

Read the writing prompt below. Then complete the first body paragraph by writing the
missing topic sentence.
WRITING PROMPT: What are three reasons that people might choose to leave their home country
and start a life in a new one?

The desire to improve one’s economic circumstances is very strong. When job prospects in one’s
home country are limited, people tend to move to places where they think they can provide a
better life for themselves and their families. The search for improved job prospects is the major
reason people immigrate, according to the United Nations Population Fund. The UNFPA points
out that many countries that previously had large populations moving away for work, such as
Argentina, Ireland, and South Korea, are now experiencing their own influx of immigrants looking
for better prospects (“Migration”). This trend illustrates one of the most significant reasons that
people move from their home country.

3.8 Practice Writing Ideas

Read the thesis statement and first body paragraph topic sentence for a cause and effect
essay on moving. Complete the body paragraph with your own ideas.
Thesis: Moving is considered to be one of the top causes of stress because it’s expensive, it’s
disorienting, and it can cause feelings of isolation.
One stressful effect of moving is that people encounter many unexpected expenses.

3.9 Connect Causes and Effects

Circle the best answers to complete the cause and effect sentences.
1 Redevelopment of failing cities in the United States has brought populations back to
run-down and abandoned urban centers. People come back due to .
a the lower cost of living in these areas
b the lower cost of living in rural areas
2 Urban development has been considered a negative thing in many developing nations because
.
a it improves the living conditions of everyone, including the poor
b it requires funding that might be better used to provide basic needs such as food and health care

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3 Researching new homes in an unfamiliar city can be challenging. Therefore, .
a many experts suggest consulting a real estate agent
b it’s a good idea to research new homes on your own
4 Studies show that one of the most important parts of preparing children for a move is
finding ways to continue their existing friendships so that .
a they will not experience loneliness
b they will be able to make new friends
5 People tend to . Consequently, housing is abundant in many rural areas with closed
factories.
a remain in rural areas to be near their families
b move away from areas lacking in economic opportunities

3.10 Apply It to Your Writing

Use the cause and effect expressions in the chart on page 93 to write three cause
and effect sentences about the writing prompt you chose in Section 1 on page 81.

Cause and effeCt essays 95

 tHe COnCLudInG PaRaGRaPH
A concluding paragraph for a cause and effect essay summarizes the thesis and ends with a final
comment. This comment can be an observation, prediction, or recommendation.
Read the concluding paragraph below from the Student Model. Notice that the first sentence
of the conclusion restates the thesis and the last sentence gives a prediction.
In sum, a shortage of job opportunities, lack of amenities, and difficulty getting health care
are compelling causes of outmigration. More attention should be paid to this phenomenon since
20 percent of the population live in these areas and their quality of life is important, too. I will
probably move to the city, but I would like one day to return to my town. However, my town may
not be able to sustain itself until then.

3.11 Write Final Comments

Complete the concluding paragraph with a final comment.
In conclusion, moving can be very traumatic for children because it can cause an increased
susceptibility to illness, low self-esteem, and depression. However, the parents’ attitude and the
way in which they handle a move with their children can make all the difference in the world.

3.12 Apply It to Your Writing

Think about the ideas you wrote for your own essay in Section I. What might
your final comment be? Write some ideas below.

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4 sHaRPen yOuR sKILLs

In this section you will learn the writing and grammar skills that will help make your writing
more sophisticated and accurate.

a Writing Skill 1: Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is an essential skill in U.S. academic culture, and you must practice it in different
subjects and with different kinds of essays. Paraphrasing means putting someone else’s ideas in
your own words, changing the order and the language without changing the original meaning.
(You must also cite the source of these ideas.) Paraphrasing is important because it gives a
consistent voice to your paper and shows that you understand your subject. Here are some
useful strategies for creating a good paraphrase.

stRateGIes fOR PaRaPHRasInG

Original Quotation from Robert Huesca:

“When I studied in Mexico City in 1980, telephone access was neither easy nor inexpensive
nor of good quality. Attempts to call home were infrequent, costly, and often unsuccessful,
which led to feelings of isolation and vulnerability.”

1 Use synonyms or antonyms Huesca says that phone calls from Mexico City in
for key words (nouns, verbs, 1980 were expensive and of poor quality.
adjectives, etc.).

2 Change the parts of speech According to Huesca, calling home while abroad used
of some words (verb to noun, to fail regularly and would leave students isolated and
etc.). vulnerable.

3 Break up the ideas and/or Huesca points out that students studying abroad
combine them differently. often felt lonely because of the difficulty of calling
home, which was expensive and often failed.

4 Connect to your own ideas to Huesca talks about the problems of calling home
integrate the quote into your while studying abroad over 30 years ago, noting the
paper topic. cost and the poor connections, but he does not point
out how technology has changed things.

To successfully paraphrase text, you must:

1 Use at least two of the above strategies to change the text so that it reads like your writing –
but make sure you do not change the ideas.
2 Include the name of the source. Use phrases like the following to give credit to the source:
According to [author/title], …
[Author] states/claims that …
In [name of article/book], [name of author] states/claims that …

Cause and effeCt essays 97

 4.1 Practice Paraphrasing
Work with a partner. Read the following quotes. Use the strategies in the chart on
page 97 to make good paraphrases.
1 “Kids who are economically distressed and those at the top end of the socioeconomic
spectrum are more likely to move than those in the middle.” – Nancy Darling, “Moving Is
Tough for Kids”

2 “Persons who left rural Pennsylvania moved to counties with generally lower unemployment,
more business starts, and higher wages.” – Center for Rural Pennsylvania, “The Outs and Ins
of Rural Migration”

3 “Internal migration within countries is also on the rise, as people move in response to
inequitable distribution of resources, services and opportunities, or to escape violence,
natural disaster or the increasing number of extreme weather events.” – The United Nations
Population Fund

4 “We identify two types of cross-cultural contact: a) meetings that occur between two
societies when individuals travel from their place of origin to another country for a specific
purpose and a limited amount of time […], and b) meetings within multi-cultural societies
among its ethnically diverse permanent residents.” – Stephen Bochner, “Culture Shock Due
to Contact with Unfamiliar Cultures”

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B Writing Skill 2: Avoiding Fragments, Run-On Sentences, and
Comma Splices
Complete sentences are expected in academic writing. Using sentence fragments, run-ons, and
comma splices undermines the validity of your writing.

1 A complete sentence in English has a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete idea:
SUBJECT VERB
A significant cause of migration is lack of economic opportunity.
2 When a sentence has two independent clauses, the clauses are joined by a comma and a
conjunction or a semi-colon.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE 1 INDEPENDENT CLAUSE 2
Freshmen have just moved on to campus, so they get lost easily.
Moving is especially stressful for children; the number of changes is overwhelming for them.

Below in the chart are ways to identify and avoid the common errors that writers make.

HOW tO aVOId fRaGMents, Run-On sentenCes, and COMMa sPLICes

1 A sentence fragment is a sentence that does not contain a subject or a verb and
does not express a complete idea.
Missing verb: Another reason people leave rural counties for metropolitan suburbs and
is
cities for employment.
^
It i
Missing a subject: Is not easy to find a job in a small town.
^
2 A run-on sentence has two or more independent clauses that are joined without
a comma or a conjunction.
, and
Moving is stressful it can cause physical and emotional problems.
^
3 A comma splice is similar to a run-on sentence. It is when two or more
independent clauses are connected only by a comma. Notice the three ways that
you can correct the sentence.
and
a Add and: There aren’t enough services in rural areas, young families are moving out.
^
.Y
b Add a period: There aren’t enough services in rural areas, young families are
moving out. ^
;
c Add a semicolon: There aren’t enough services in rural areas, young families are
moving out. ^

Cause and effeCt essays 99

 4.2 Correct Mistakes
The following sentences are fragments or run-ons, or have comma splices. Rewrite the
sentences correctly.
1 Moving from one city to another.

2 Tourism has helped the global economy it has harmed the environment.

3 Everyone who comes to the United States must have a visa, people who work in the U.S.
must get a special kind of visa and must be supported by a company in a particular field.

4 It has always been challenging for immigrant job applicants to be treated equally they are
viewed as less important than citizens.

5 Many believe moving to a warm location like Florida is easy for everyone recent research
shows that changing climates can cause depression and anxiety.

C Grammar for Writing: Present Perfect and Present Perfect

Progressive
In general, we use the present perfect to emphasize a time in the past up to now. The time
period may or may not be completed, but in both cases, there is a connection to the present.
We use the present perfect progressive to describe an action that started in the past and to
emphasize that it is still going on.

PResent PeRfeCt and PResent PeRfeCt PROGRessIVe

1 The present perfect or the present perfect progressive can be used to talk about habitual
actions that began in the past and continue in the present, especially with verbs like get, go,
increase, live, study, and work. The meaning is the same.
In the United States, it is rare to encounter people who have lived in the same place their
entire lives.
In the United States, it is rare to encounter people who have been living in the same place their
entire lives.

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2 The present perfect is for completed actions, and the present perfect progressive is for
actions still in progress.
Immigrants who have adjusted to their new country often find it difficult to return home.
The refugees have been adjusting to a new culture and hope to feel more comfortable here in
the future.
3 The present perfect progressive is better for actions that are temporary.
People have lived in this city for hundreds of years.
Since the storm, many residents have been living with relatives while their homes are
being repaired.
4 Use the present perfect to express how much/many. Use the present perfect progressive to
express how long.
More than 10,000 people have moved to the city in the last year. (more than 10,000 = how
many)
People have been moving out of the country for several years now. (for several years = how long)
5 The present perfect progressive cannot be used with be and other stative verbs.
Geographic mobility has been on the rise in the United States for several decades. (NOT has
been being on the rise)

4.3 Practice
Complete the paragraph with the present prefect or present perfect progressive forms of
the verbs in parentheses. Sometimes both forms are correct.

Some rural communities (experience) new growth over the last

(1)
several years because they offer natural beauty and amenities to residents. Part of this change
has come about because dozens of new job opportunities (develop)
(2)
in areas like customer service and tourism. Some residents believe these changes are good,
while others (increase) their advocacy work against the influx of
(3)
certain kinds of businesses. For example, in one small resort town in Wyoming, residents
(protest) the recent attempts of a large chain retailer to gain permits
(4)
to build a new store. The permit has not yet been granted by the town council, and the people
believe they can stop this unwanted growth. The debate (be) a
(5)
difficult one, but it is a common topic for similar communities. What all residents agree on in
these growing, rural communities is that they (live) in changing
(6)
communities for years and that they should be in charge of how their communities change.

Cause and effeCt essays 101

 Avoiding Common Mistakes
Research tells us that these are the most common mistakes that students make when using the
present perfect and present perfect progressive in academic writing.

1 Use the present perfect for an action that is completed. Do not use the present
perfect progressive.
have finished
Now that workers have been finishing the new airport runway, international flights can
land there. ^

2 Use been when forming the present perfect progressive.

have been asking
Interns have asking for more low-cost housing in large cities in the United States for
many years. ^

3 Use has with singular third-person subjects. Use have with all other subjects.
has
Professor Dixon have spent years studying the effects of frequent moves on the children of
military families. ^

4.4 Editing Task

Find and correct five more mistakes in the following paragraph.

Culture shock is common when moving to a new country, but many people experience

cultural difficulties when moving between regions within large countries like the United States.

A new study released by Progress University examines how moving to New England (a group

of states in the northeastern United States) from many other parts of America comes with
been
challenges. Dr. Rudolph Abrams has studying 25 families that are new to New England for
^
the last five years, gathering data on community and school integration and measuring mood.

His completed study shows that most of these 25 families has reported missing favorite foods

not available in local grocery stores. Others have been describing the initial difficulty they

experienced getting to know people in workplaces, schools, and community groups. However,

those families now report significant improvement in their local relationships and increased

satisfaction with the move to New England. Other data shared from the study include trouble

with accented English. In one example response quoted by the researchers, a father of two

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said that he “has working with a man whose accent [he] could not understand. Assuming the

man was a new immigrant, [he] asked what country he grew up in and was embarrassed to be

told America – and Maine” (Abrams et al. 6). The same man reported that he had never lived

outside Alabama and never traveled outside the region until moving north for his new job (7).

Dr. Abrams and his colleagues have already been spending more than five years studying these

subjects and will expand the research to other families in the future. All said, this work so far has

presented concrete evidence for something that has coming up in conversations about national

migration for a long time.

Cause and effeCt essays 103

 d Avoiding Plagiarism
Paraphrasing is a useful skill to avoid plagiarizing, but it must be done carefully.

I wanted to use the ideas in this quotation in my paper: “According

to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2005, approximately
1.6 billion adults (age 15+) worldwide were overweight, at least
400 million of whom were obese.” I paraphrased it in this way:
“In 2005, there were over 1 billion adults over the age of 15
around the world who were overweight, and approximately
one-third of those people were obese.” My instructor said I
plagiarized, but I thought I didn’t! What am I doing wrong? I Olga
thought I understood paraphrasing. – Olga

Dear Olga,
You’ve made a good attempt in your paraphrase. You’ve changed some key words, which
is a good start. One thing I notice is that some of your paraphrase isn’t quite accurate.
For example, one-third of 1.6 billion isn’t 400 million. Accuracy in paraphrasing is very
important. Always go back and make sure your details mean the same as the original. It is
also important to change the structure of the sentences, not just a few words. Finally, and
very importantly, you forgot to cite your source. Remember that original research, data,
and statistics are not common knowledge. Always tell where this information is from, even
when you paraphrase.
Good luck!
Professor Wright

stePs tO WRItInG a GOOd PaRaPHRase

1 Read the material carefully for meaning.
• Take notes on key ideas. Don’t copy whole sentences.
• Include the source in your notes.
• Talk to someone about the ideas and details, so you are sure you understand them.
2 Write your paraphrase from memory, or use your notes to help you.
3 Compare your work with the original.
• Be sure your information is correct and accurate.
• Be sure you have used your own words: synonyms, sentence structure, word forms.
• Be sure you cite the original source, both in the text and on your Works Cited page.

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 4.5 Practice
Read the quotation and the three paraphrases. Discuss with a partner. What is the error
in each paraphrase?
”In 2012, 13.7 percent of householders living with their own children moved.”
Source: David Ihrke, U.S. Census Bureau website

1 According to David Ihrke, in 2012, 13.7% of houses with children moved (U.S. Census
Bureau).
2 According to the David Ihrke, 13.7% of children moved (U.S. Census Bureau).
3 Nearly 14% of parents with children at home moved in 2012.

4.6 Applying the Strategies

Read the quotation in Activity 4.5. Follow the steps to writing a good paraphrase. Write a
paraphrase of the quote.

Cause and effeCt essays 105

 5 WRIte yOuR essay

In this section you will follow the writing process to complete the final draft of your essay.

steP 1: BRaInstORM
Work with a partner. Follow the steps below to brainstorm more ideas.
1 Before you start, notice how the writer of the Student Model brainstormed. She wrote many
ideas. Then she crossed out the causes she thought were not important enough to use in her
essay.

WRITING PROMPT: Why have so many people moved out of rural communities in recent
years? Give at least three reasons.
Causes Effect
not enough jobs
boring for young people
not enough educational opportunities
Many people
marriage and friendship prospects limited are leaving rural
communities
things are too expensive
lack of access to health care
want services / amenities of city

2 Write the ideas that you wrote in Section 1, page 81, in one of the cause-effect graphic
organizers below. Include ideas from the Your Turns throughout the unit. Brainstorm
more ideas.

Causes Effect

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 Cause Effects

When you are finished, circle the three most important causes or effects and write them
here. Think about how you will support each one.

Cause and effeCt essays 107

 steP 2: dO ReseaRCH: CHOOsInG a teXt tO PaRaPHRase fOR suPPORt In an essay
Selecting appropriate texts from credible sources is an important part of doing research.
Some credible sources are educational institutions, government agencies, and respected news
organizations. You choose texts to paraphrase based on the importance of their evidence, like
details, explanations, or examples, and how that evidence supports the main ideas in the body
paragraphs of your essay.
Sue needed to choose a text to paraphrase for support in an essay response to this prompt: The
populations of most countries are becoming less rural and more urban. What are some reasons for
this trend? Read and find out how she did it.

After identifying the main points in my thesis, I read several

sources and identified texts with main ideas related to my
thesis. Next, I compared the evidence in the texts to see
which one provided the best support for my main ideas. Last, I
paraphrased the text into my own words and added a citation
for the source.

sue’s Results

Thesis: Primary causes of the rapid urbanization of sub-Saharan Africa are changes in the
environment, increased economic opportunities, and population growth.

Focus of research: population growth due to rapid urbanization

Source Text How it supports my point

1 Time, “Urban Planet:
How Growing Cities Will
Wreck the Environment
Unless We Build Them
Right” (Bryan Walsh,
2012)
“… the wave of urbanization isn’t
just about the migration of people
into urban environments, but about
the environments themselves
becoming bigger to accommodate
all those people.”
shows direct link between
population growth &
larger cities (more people
= more space)

2 http://www.afdb.org/, “In the developing world, Africa statistic; general

“Urbanization of Africa”
(Mthuli Ncube, 2012)
has experienced the highest
urban growth during the last two
decades at 3.5% per year and this
rate of growth is expected to hold
into 2050.”
reference to African
population growth, but no
cause/effect given

Paraphrase of chosen text: Sizes of cities are growing in two phases: first, more people move into
the cities, and then the city space must grow to fit all of the new people (Walsh).

5.1 Apply It to Your Writing

Follow the steps Sue took to choose a text to paraphrase for support in your essay.

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 steP 3: MaKe an OutLIne
Complete the outline below with your ideas from the previous steps.

ESSAY OUTLINE

I. Introduction

Hook Idea

Background
Ideas

Thesis
Statement
Body
Paragraph 1: II.
Cause/Effect 1

Supporting A.
Idea 1

Detail 1.

Detail 2.

Supporting B.
Idea 2

Detail 1.

Detail 2.
Body
Paragraph 2: III.
Cause/Effect 2

Supporting A.
Idea 1

Detail 1.

Detail 2.

Supporting B.
Idea 2

Detail 1.

Detail 2.

Cause and effeCt essays 109

 Body
Paragraph 3: IV.
Cause/Effect 3

Supporting A.
Idea 1

Detail 1.

Detail 2.

Supporting
Idea 2 B.

Detail 1.

Detail 2.

V. Conclusion

Ideas for a Final

Comment

steP 4: WRIte yOuR fIRst dRaft

Now it is time to write your first draft. Here are some suggestions on how to get started.
1 Use your outline, notes, and the sentences you wrote in the Your Turns and in Step 3 above.
2 Focus on making your ideas as clear as possible.
3 Remember to add a title.

After you finish, read your essay and check for basic errors.
1 Check that all sentences are complete sentences.
2 Go through and look at every comma. Is it correct? Should it be a period?
3 Check that you have cited quotes and paraphrases.
4 Make sure your thesis statement and topic sentences are clear.

steP 5: WRIte yOuR fInaL dRaft

1 After you receive feedback on your first draft, review it carefully. Fix any errors.

2 Make a note of errors that were most frequent (misspellings, wrong verb tense, errors in
using commas). Try to avoid them as you write.
3 Review the Academic Vocabulary and Academic Collocations from this unit. Are there any
that you can add to your essay?
4 Turn to page 272 and use the Self-Editing Review to check your work one more time.
5 Write your final draft and hand it in.

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