University of Bolton

School of Built Environment and Engineering

BEARING PILES AND GROUPS

CONTENTS:
1. Introduction
2. Types of bearing pile
3. Pile types in more detail.
4. Load capacity of the pile shaft
5. Load capacity of the soil.
a. Capacity by calculation from soil properties
i. Ultimate capacity
1. General principles
2. Piles in cohesive soils
3. Piles in non-cohesive soils
4. Time effects
ii. Working capacity, factors of safety
b. Capacity from driving formulae
6. Settlement of Piles
7. Pile testing
a. Load testing
b. Indirect testing methods
8. Tolerances, spacing, pile caps and ground beams
9. Piles in tension
10. Downdrag (negative skin friction)
11. Laterally-loaded piles
12. Capacity of pile groups.

NB: These notes do not cover retaining walls formed by sheet piles or diaphragm walls

1 Introduction

The function of a bearing pile is to transfer loads to lower levels of the ground which are
capable of sustaining the load, with an adequate factor of safety and without settling at the
working load by an amount detrimental to the supported structure

Bearing piles are used:

Where adequate bearing soil is at low depth
Where loading is uneven, thus making the use of a raft unadvisable
In shrinkable clay soils, where loads can be transferred to below the zone of shrinkage

Piles are normally used in compression. Sometimes piles have to carry tension, as shown in
the diagrams of a piled quay on the next page. Generally the lateral load capacity of piles is
much less than their capacity for tension or compression.

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Ship Impact
Quay Ship Pull Quay

Pile in
Pile in Pile in
Compression
Tension Compression
Pile in
Compression Pile in
Tensionn

Illustrations of Tension Piles used to Sustain Lateral Forces

2 Types of Bearing Pile

Plies can be classified:

A By method of installation:
Bored piles
Driven piles.
B By the way that the soil is moved to make way for the pile:
Displacement Piles
Replacement Piles
C By the way that they carry load :
Friction piles
End-bearing piles
Combined friction and end-bearing piles.
D By material and installation
Steel piles
Pre-cast concrete piles
Cast-in-situ concrete piles
Timber piles.

3 Pile types in more Detail

Displacement Piles

The pile is driven, jacked or vibrated into the ground. The soil is displaced outwards but is
not actually removed:

Displacement Piles: Pre-formed

These are driven by heavy hammer blows until the required “set” is achieved. (ie number of
blows for 100mm penetration). Various devices (pile frames, hanging leaders, suspended
hammer guides) are used to keep the pile upright (or raked) and to align the hammer with the
top of the pile.

Pile hammers may be “drop hammer”, “single-acting hammer” or “double acting hammer”.
The first of these is a simple weight, the other two are specially designed machines, normally
hydraulically powered, that can deliver blows much faster than a drop hammer.

To prevent damage to the top of the pile, a cushion or helmet is used.

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010
Water-jetting is sometimes used to aid pile penetration, and vibration is and alternative
driving method in granular soils. Where sufficient dead-weight or reaction is available, piles
can be jacked into place.

Driven Pre-Formed Notes

Piles
Steel H piles H Small displacement
Tube piles O
Box piles
Pre-Cast Concrete Long Piles Made on site: heavily
reinforced or pre-
stressed to withstand
handling and driving
Modular jointed piles West “Hardrive”
Johnson “Herkules”
Timber Limited length
A special case is the screw pile, in which the helical head is both the boring device and the
loadbearing element. These are mainly used in sand, and are found under Victorian seaside
piers.

Displacement Piles: Driven Cast-in-Place

A casing with a closed end is “bottom driven” into the ground to a set or a pre-determined
depth. The casing may be temporary or permanent.
Temporary casing. The casing is normally steel, and the closed end is a plug of dry
concrete or gravel which is driven out at the required depth. The empty casing can
then be inspected from the top. The pile is filled with concrete and the casing is
carefully withdrawn. The correct driving and extraction of the casing is a skilled job.
Permanent casing. The casing is usually a stack of pre-cast concrete tubes, sometimes
a steel tube. The closed end is a steel shoe. After driving the empty casing can be
inspected from the top. The casing is then filled with concrete.

Replacement Piles can be divided into

Bored and cast-in-place piles
Drilled-in Tubular Piles.

Replacement Pile: Bored and Cast-in-Place

By Mechanical Auger. In stable ground, an unsupported hole can be drilled with a

mechanical auger. In suitable ground an enlarged base, or under-ream can be formed. A light
reinforcement cage, if required, is placed in the hole, followed by concrete.

In water-bearing soils support is required to the sides of the hole. This is provided by
temporary casings (often only for the top part of the PILE) or by bentonite slurry, or by some
combination of these.

If concrete is placed under water or under bentonite slurry, it must be fed to the bottom using
a tremie pipe. Thus delivers the fresh concrete below the surface of the concrete that is
already poured, so the concrete never falls free through the water. Care is needed to lift the
tremie pipe so that it remains within the concrete at all times, and failure to achieve correct
pouring may result in necking or waisting of the pile.

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

By Continuous Flight Auger. The CFA is drilled into the ground to the correct depth. A
cement-sand mortar is then pumped down the hollow stem of the auger to fill the void as the
auger is slowly withdrawn while still rotating. The sides of the bore are first supported by the
auger and the soil, then by the mortar as it is pumped in. If required, a cage of reinforcement
can be pushed into the top of the fluid mortar (max length about 12m)..

By Percussion Rig. For small and medium diameter piles. A conventional cable percussion
rig (similar to those used for site investigation borings) is used. Appropriate granular soil
shells or clay cutters are used, with a casing. The hole is filled with concrete and the casing is
withdrawn. Although this is a labour-intensive technique, it can be used in cramped
conditions and where headroom is limited.

Replacement Piles: Drilled-in Tubular Piles or Caission Piles

These have a robust permanent casing, normally steel, which is pushed or drilled into the
ground. The soil inside the casing is removed by grabbing, augering or other methods. Large
machines can install 1m diameter casings, but the technique can be expanded to almost any
size with complete bridge foundations being formed in a single caisson that is driven down by
deadweight. Classically large caissons were kept dry by compressed air as men worked to
excavate the soil inside, but the hazards of compressed-air working make this technique
unacceptable today.

Note that modern piling machines are versatile, and can drive many different types of pile.

A Categorisation of Pile Types

Pile Types

Displacement Replacement CFA

Driven Cast-in-Situ Concrete Pre-Formed Unsupported Supported

Permanent Casing Temporary Casing Concrete Timber Steel Permanent Casing Temporary Support

Normal Pre-Stressed Box Tune H Section Screw Casing Drilling Mud

Reinforced Concrete or Water
Concrete

Type Materials Advantages Disadvantages

Pre-Formed Steel Inspected for quality Unjointed types cannot
Displacement Timber and soundness before easily be varied in length.
Piles Pre-Cast driving. May break or bend during
Concrete Not liable to squeezing driving.
or necking. Uneconomic if the design
Construction not is governed by driving
affected by stresses rather than
groundwater. working stresses,
Can be left protruding Noise and vibration
(useful for marine during driving.
applications) Displacement of soil may
Can withstand high damage adjacent
bending and tensile installations.
stresses. Cannot be driven in low
Can be driven in long headroom.
lengths

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Driven Cast- Concrete Length easily adjusted
in-Place Piles Groundwater can be
excluded by a driven
closed end.
Enlarged base
possible.
Design governed by
working conditions.
Noise and vibration
reduced by internal
hammer.
Bored and Concrete Length easily adjusted
Cast-in-Place Removed soil can be
Piles inspected for
comparison with
design data.
Very large bases can
be formed in
favourable ground.
Drilling tools can
break up boulders and
other obstructions.
Pile is designed to
working stresses.
Very long lengths
possible.
Little noise and
vibration during
construction.
No ground heave.
Where temporary tubes
are used, necking is
possible.
Concrete cannot be
inspected after
installation.
Length may be limited if
tubes are to be extracted.
Displacement of soil may
damage adjacent
installations.
Noise and vibration
during driving.
Pile liable to squeezing
and necking in soft
ground.
Special techniques
needed for concreting in
water-bearing ground.
Concrete cannot be
inspected after
installation.
Enlarged bases cannot be
formed in collapsible
soil.
Cannot easily be
extended above ground.
Boring may cause loss of
ground and settlement at
adjacent structures.

Choice of Pile Timber Cheap and easy to Decays above water table
Materials handle Limited lengths
Durable below water Unsuitable for heavy
table. loads
Concrete Suits a range of pile Pre-cast piles can be
types damaged by very hard
Resistant to aggressive driving.
conditions Cast-in-place piles can
Resistant to reasonably suffer from necking or
hard driving. from poor concrete
quality.
Steel High strength Expensive
Easy to handle May require protection
Can be driven hard. from corrosion.
Little ground
displacement

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

4 Load Capacity of the Pile Shaft

The axial load capacity of the pile shaft is not usually critical. Although the pile is a slender
column, buckling will be prevented by the upper layers of soil unless these are very weak (cu
< 20 kN/m2)

Working stresses (calculated as axial force/area) on piles should not exceed:

Concrete piles: fcu/4 fcu is the cube strength of the concrete, typically 35 N/mm2 for
cast-in-place piles or 45 N/mm2 for pre-cast piles.
Steel piles py/3 py is the yield strength of the steel, typically 275 N/mm2

Driven piles have to resist installation damage, and so pre-cast concrete piles may need to be
stronger than is required for the permanent load.

5 Load Capacity of the Soil:

5a Capacity by Calculation from Soil Properties

5(a)(i) Ultimate Load Capacity

5(a)(i)(1) General Principles

The Ultimate Load Capacity of a pile is:

Shaft Resistance plus Base Resistance

Qu = Qs + Qb where Qu = ultimate total resistance, kN

Qs = ultimate shaft resistance, kN
Qb = ultimate base resistance, kN

Qs = sAs where s = ultimate skin friction or cohesion, kN/m2

( s will vary down the pile.)
As = area of shaft = dL
(d = shaft diameter, L = shaft length)

Qb = qbAb where qb = end bearing resistance kN/m2

Ab = base cross sectional area = D2/4
(D = base diameter)

Typical amounts of movement to develop the full resistances are:

1% to 2% of diameter for skin friction
10% to 20% of diameter for end bearing.

It is common to apply different factors of safety to the two resistances.

In layered soil, the skin friction resistance is the sum of the resistances in the various layers.
Skin friction is ignored for the depth of any under-ream.

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

 End bearing resistance depends on the soil at the base of the pile. If this soil is underlain by a
layer of weaker soil less than 10 pile diameters below the pile base, the end bearing resistance
is reduced (see box below).

Qstrong = base resistance in strong soil Q

Qweak = base resistance in weak soil.
H = depth of strong soil beneath the pile base Qstrong
D = diameter of pile base. Pile
Base Strong Soil
Qb = Qweak + (Qstrong – Qweak) H/10D
10 x Pile
but not more than Qstrong
H Diameter
Base Capacity in Strong Soil above
a Layer of Weak Soil Qweak Weak Soil
(after Meyerhoff)
Depth

5(a)(i)(2) Piles in Cohesive Soils

If cohesion does not vary with depth

Qs = ca dL where cu = cohesive strength of clay (kN/m2)

is an adhesion factor (not more than 1)
L = length of pile in clay (m)
d = pile diameter (m)

If the cohesion varies with depth, we replace this by

Qs = ( cu dL) or d ( cuL)

Now add the base resistance to get

Ultimate Load Capacity of a Single Pile in Clay

Qu = cuNcAb + d ( cuL)
Now we have the tricky task of determining values for all the bits of the formula for Qu.
Parameter Commentary
cu The undrained shear strength of the clay. This may vary with
depth. If the clay is fissured, laboratory cu values should be
reduced to represent the fissured shear strength. Skempton
(1966) suggested reduction factors:
fissured clay, d < 0.9m. reduction factor 0.8
fissured clay, d > 0.9m. reduction factor 0.75

Under Eurocode 7 cU is modified by a materials factor m of 1.5

to 1.8 for both the shaft and base.
Nc If pile depth in bearing stratum > 5 base diameter, Nc = 9
Ab This is easy. Ab = D2/4, where D = base diameter
OK?

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

d Shaft diameter
Symbol indicates adding
The cohesion between the pile and the clay may be less than cu
(See Note 1). The factor takes account of this.

Ways of finding :
1. Simple Values for bored piles
Soft and firm clays = 1.0 (Vesic 1977)
London clay – long piles = 0.45 (Skempton 1959)
London clay – short piles = 0.30 ( .. )
Underreamed piles = 0.30 (Tomlinson 1995)

2. Tomlinson (driven piles)

See Barnes Figures 10.3 (short piles) or 10.4 (long piles).

3. Weltman and Healy (driven piles in boulder clays)

See Barnes Figure 10.5 for predictions of based on cu

4. Semple and Rigden (driven piles)

For values based on the soil strength ratio cu/ v and the
length/diameter ratio L/d, see Barnes Figure 10.7. Note that
Semple's pF corresponds to the used here.

See Note 2 on maximum adhesion values.

cu See above. See also Note 2.
L Length of pile shaft. Divide the pile shaft into suitable lengths
and calculate average friction over each length.
Note 1
Softening of the clay may be caused by
disturbance during piling.
swelling in the unconfined pile bore,
groundwater,
water from in-situ concrete
Note 2 - Maximum Adhesion Values
Suggested maximum values for adhesion cu are
Most clays 100 kN/m2 (Skempton, Vesic)
Glacial Clays 70 kN/m2 (Weltman and Healy)

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Under-Reamed Piles. The diameter D used for
d
calculating the base resistance is greater than
the diameter d of the shaft. Skin friction on the
under-ream is ignored: (see diagram). Shaft resistance
used

Shaft
resistance
ignored

Base resistance used

D

Under –Reamed Pile

Design Charts for Piles in Cohesive Soils

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Design Charts for Piles in Cohesive Soils

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

5(a)(i)(3) Piles in Non-Cohesive Soils

If friction did not vary with depth

Qs = fs dL fs = ultimate skin friction of sand (kN/m2)

d = pile diameter (m)
L = length of pile in sand (m)
Assuming:
A vertical effective stress = 'v kN/m2
A coefficient Ks, so that horizontal stress = 'vK s
A coefficient of friction between the pile and the soil = tan( )
Then the ultimate skin friction fs = 'vKs tan( )

The vertical stress, and so the friction, will increase with depth, so we replace the formula for
Qs by

Qs = ( 'vKs tan( ) dL), where we add the resistances for the different depths.

Normally d will be constant, so we can write

Qs = d ( 'vKs tan( )L),

Now add the base resistance to get

Ultimate Load Capacity of a Single Pile in Sand

Qu = Abq0Nq + d ( 'vKs tan( )L)

Now we have to determine values for all the bits of the formula for Qu.

Parameter Commentary
Ab Ab = D2/4, where D = base diameter
q0 Vertical effective pressure in the soil beside the base of the
pile.(but see Note 1 on Critical Depth)
Nq Bearing capacity factor (see Note 2). Values from Beresantzev
are shown in Barnes Figure 10.8. The value of ' after
installation should be used: see Note 3.

d Shaft diameter
Symbol indicates adding
'v Effective Vertical Stress (but see Note 1 on Critical Depth)
Ks Coefficient of Horizontal Effective Stress
tan( ) Coefficient of friction between the pile and the soil.
Kstan( As an alternative to determining Ks and tan( ) separately, Poulos
has published a direct correlation between ' and Kstan( ). See
Barnes Figure 10.12
L Length of pile shaft. Divide the pile shaft into suitable lengths
and calculate average friction over each length.

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Note 1 - Critical Depth.
The equations for Qb and Qs suggest that skin friction and bearing capacity
increase without limit as the depth increases. Field tests show that both reach
peak values at a "Critical Depth" zc of between 10 and 20 diameters. Barnes
Figure 10.10 suggests values of Critical Depth zc based on the value of ' after
installation. See note 3.

Note 2 - Bearing Capacity Factor.

The Nq values used here are equivalent to Terzaghi's (Bearing Capacity
Factor) (Depth Factor)

Note 3: Values of before and after installation.

The initial value of the soil can be estimated from site data (SPT or qc tests)
using Barnes Figure 10.11. Note that the SPT or qc values should be sampled
to below the pile base. will change as the pile is installed. Values of after
installation can be estimated from this table (Poulos 1980)
Value of after installation
( I = value before installation)
Bored Piles Driven Piles
For finding Nq I-3 ( I + 40 )/2
For finding zc 0.75 I + 10
For finding K0tan( ) I

Design Charts for Piles in Non-Cohesive Soils

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Design Charts for Piles in Non-Cohesive Soils

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

5(a)(i)(4) Time Effects

Driving piles into soft clays increases the pore-water pressure and so reduces the effective
stress. As the excess pore water pressure dissipates, the bearing capacity of the pile increases.

Stiff clays are cracked and heaved by the driving, and vibrations form an enlarged hole which
fills with groundwater. Some strengthening occurs as the disturbed soil stiffens.

The diagram below suggests that it may take between one day and a year for the bearing
capacity to stabilise.

Diagram from Vesic/Tomlinson

Gain of Carrying Capacity with Time: Driven Piles in Soft to Stiff Clay
(after Vesic, figure from Tomlinson 1995)

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

5(a)(ii) Working Load Capacity, Factors of Safety

According to the Code BS8004,

“The main function of bearing piles is to transfer the load to lower levels of round which
are capable of sustaining the load with an adequate factor of safety and without settling
at working load by an amount detrimental to the structure they support”

It suggests

Working load for single pile = Ultimate Bearing Capacity FoS

where FoS is normally 2 to 3

The ultimate bearing capacity may be taken to be that load applied to the head of the pile
which causes the head of the pile to settle 10% of the pile diameter

Tomlinson (1987) suggested that for piles up to 600mm dia, if an overall FoS of 2.5 is
adopted, then the settlement of the pile under working load is unlikely to exceed 10mm.

In the case of large bored piles, particularly ones with enlarge bases, it is advisable to take
into account the different resistance/settlement relationships of the shaft and base when
calculating the working load by applying different load factors to the calculated ultimate
resistances of the shaft and base.

Burland et al (1966) suggested that, for bored piles in London Clay, the allowable working
load, Qa, is the smaller of :

Qa = Qult = Qs + Qb or Qa = Qs + Qb
2 2 3

where Qs = Ultimate shaft resistance

Qb = Ultimate base resistance

The first expression tends to govern design for straight sided piles, the second for large
underreamed piles.

Where there is less certainty about ground conditions, loads and pile construction effects,
higher factors of safety should be applied.

EC7 also gives separate factors for base and shaft resistance:
EC7: Partial Safety Factors b, for Base s for Shaft t for Total
Resistance Resistance Resistance
Driven Piles 1.3 1.3 1.3
Bored Piles 1.6 1.3 1.5
CFA Piles 1.45 1.3 1.4

5(b) Capacity from Driving Formulae

An accepted in-situ test for soil is the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) which measures the
number of blows needed to drive a standard cone 300mm. By analogy, it is suggested that the
capacity of a driven pile can be determined by its set, the number of blows needed to drive it
through a certain distance. In effect, the installation of the pile IS the site investigation.

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

For design purposes, the relationship is stated the other way round:

“For a driven pile of ...... diameter, the safe working load will be ........ kN if it is
driven to a set of ...... blows per 100mm”

Intuitively, there must be some rationality behind this approach. A pile which is hard to drive
is likely have a higher bearing capacity than a pile which is easy to drive. For piles which are
driven through a weak layer of soil to become endbearing on a stronger stratum at greater
depth, the approach makes more sense than trying to predict pile lengths from a limited site
investigation. However the approach has drawbacks. First we look at two common driving
formulae.

The Sanders Driving Formula.

This is based on the idea simple idea that the energy in the hammer blow is absorbed by the
pile moving through the soil.
Assume
The required ultimate load capacity of the pile is U kN
The weight of the hammer is W kN
The height of drop of the hammer is h metres.

Then each hammer blow delivers W h kNm of energy.

When the pile has sufficient ultimate capacity, each blow will push the pile S = Wh/U metres
into the soil. The formula U = Wh/S was published by Sanders in about 1850.

Example: Required safe working load on pile = 30 tonnes

Required factor of safety = 2.5
3 tonne hammer, W = 30kN
200mm drop, h = 0.2m

So Required ultimate load capacity 30 x 2.5 = 75 tonnes , U =750 kN

Set per blow = 30 0.2/750 = 0.008m.
Set for 10 blows = 80mm

The Hiley Driving Formula.

The Hiley Formula takes a slightly more sophisticated approach and assumes:
1. Only a certain percentage (usually 50% to 70%) of the hammer energy is usefully
delivered to the pile. Say this efficiency is n (n = 0.5 to 0.7)
2. Some of the energy causes elastic deformation of the soil and pile. This elastic
deformation is called the temporary compression and about half is recovered after the
blow. Say this temporary compression is c metres.
From this we get the Hiley Driving Formula, also known as the Danish Formula:
U = nWh/(S + c/2)
or S = nWh/U – c/2

In the example, taking n = 0.6 (60% efficient) and c = 0.005m (5mm)

Set per blow = nWh/U – c/2 = 0.6 30 0.2/750 – 0.005/2 = 0.0023m.
Set for 10 blows = 2.3mm

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

There are no reliable ways of estimating n and c. Terzaghi and Peck state that “no
satisfactory relation exists between the capacity of the piles as determined by load tests and
as calculated from the formula”, and that for 2% of piles installed using the formula the
factor of safety may be as low as 1.2 or as high as 30.

The formulas are unreliable because in all piles except those driven to bedrock, and especially
those in soft cohesive soils, strength increases after driving. Piles in permeable soil should
not be tested until 2 to 3 days after driving; in impermeable soils a delay of a month may be
required.

For friction piles in soft clay, the driving resistance is almost constant with depth and
application of a driving formula would suggest that the ultimate load capacity does not
increase with depth. In fact the ultimate load capacity increases almost in direct proportion to
the depth, so the driving formulae are of no use. To quote Terzaghi and Peck again, “in
Shanghi and New Orleans ….. no experienced engineer would even consider using a pile
formula”.

6 Settlement of Piles

As noted above, ultimate skin friction resistance may be developed at settlements of 1% to

2% of pile diameter, and ultimate end-bearing resistance at 10% to 20% of pile base diameter.
As the working load is likely to be 1/2 to 1/3 of the ultimate load, these figures do not assist in
predicting working load settlements.

If the soil behaviour is assumed elastic, then settlement can be predicted using this equation
from Tomlinson (equation 7.15)

WS L WB B(1 2 )
WB IP
2 AS EP 4 AB EB

Load carried by shaft WS

Load carried by base WB

The first term gives the elastic shortening of the pile:

Pile Length L
Pile Shaft Area As
Pile Elastic Modulus EP

The second term gives the settlement at the base:

Area of pile base AB (equal to AS unless the pile is under-reamed)

Pile base diameter B
Soil Elastic Modulus EB ) beneath base
Soil Poisson's Ratio )
Influence factor IP (related to L/B)

For most piles and soils ( between 0 and 0.25, L/B >5), the equation can simplified to:

WS L WB B
WB
2 AS EP 2 AB EB

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

More sophisticated methods are available which take account of shaft slip before base failure.
Similarly the effect of layered soils can be included.

The settlement of a pile in a group is likely to be greater than the settlement of an isolated pile
carrying the same load. See later notes.

7 Pile Testing

Once a pile is installed it can be tested, directly or indirectly, to determine its load capacity.
Direct load tests are much more reliable than indirect tests, but much more expensive.

There should be a reasonable delay between installation and testing, to allow the soil strength
to develop. Suitable delays are:
Piles in granular soil: 2 days
Piles in silt or clay: 1 month

7(a) Direct Load Testing

The two main types of test are:
i) Constant Rate of Penetration Test (CRP)
ii) Maintained Load Test (MLT)
Both these tests are normally carried out on preliminary test piles, and sometimes on a
proportion (perhaps two per hundred) of the working piles.

Constant Rate Penetration Test

The compressive force is increased to cause the pile to penetrate the soil at a constant rate
until failure occurs. The ultimate load is therefore determined and the factor of safety with
respect to the design working load calculated. Typical penetration rates are
0.75 mm/min for piles in clay, and 1.5 mm/min for piles in sand. (BS8004)

The "failure load" for the pile is the lesser of:

the load at which settlement increases without significant increase of load
the load which produces a settlement of pile diameter/10

The pile will pass the test if its failure load is at least the specified value.

This test does not give a good indication of the settlement of the pile under long-term service
load.

Maintained Load Test

Results are obtained by measuring deflections of the pile as loads are added and relieved.
A typical loading sequence for a "proof load" test is:

0, 0.5WL, 0, 0.75WL, 0, 1.0WL, 0, 1.25WL, 0, 1.5WL, 0.

Typical Maintained Load tests are shown in this diagram.

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

 Kentledge

Beam Beam

Jack Jack
Load Cell Deflection Load Cell
Gauge Deflection
Gauge
Tension Tension
Pile Pile

Test Test
Pile Pile

Kentledge Test Tension Pile Test

In both cases it is important that the deflection gauge is supported on an independent frame,
not on the main beam, so that the gauge gives true readings of pile penetration.

The criteria for passing the test may be specified as one or more of:
maximum penetration at working load.
maximum penetration at 150% of working load.
maximum permanent penetration after the load is removed.

In determining these criteria, the specifying engineer will take account of the effect of
settlement on the structure that will be built on the piles.

This test does not necessarily determine the ultimate load capacity of the pile.

Determining the Design Bearing Resistance of a Pile from Load Tests.

A "proof load" test confirms the safety of a pile that has already been designed, but is not
itself a design tool. If the test is continued until "failure" (penetration = 10% of pile
diameter), then the result can be used to determine a Design Bearing Resistance for the pile.

EC7 defines an allowance factor to convert failure loads from tests to characteristic failure
loads.
Characteristic Bearing Resistance Load = Test Failure Load /
Values of depend on the number of tests carried out:
EC7: Number of tests 1 2 More then 2
value to be used on the average test strength 1.5 1.35 1.3
to be used on the minimum test strength 1.5 1.25 1.1

Further partial safety factors ( factors) are used to derive the Design Ultimate Bearing
Resistance:
Design Ultimate Bearing Resistance = Characteristic Bearing Resistance /

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

If the skin friction and end bearing components can be determined separately, either by
purpose-designed load tests or by calculation, then different factors can be used for each. If
it is not possible to distinguish between the two, then a single factor is used.

EC7: Partial Safety Factors b,

for Base sfor Shaft for Total
t
Resistance Resistance Resistance
Driven Piles 1.3 1.3 1.3
Bored Piles 1.6 1.3 1.5
CFA Piles 1.45 1.3 1.4

7(b) Indirect Testing Methods, Integrity Tests

Refer to CIRIA Report 144 - `Integrity Testing in Piling Practice` (1997) Turner MJ
Testing techniques can be classified into `direct` and `indirect` techniques.

Direct Examination Techniques:

Visual examination – during or after installation

Drilling, boring or probing – alongside, or into the pile

Indirect Examination Techniques:

Internal – utilising drillholes or pre-formed ducts within the pile, and includes sonic
logging and nuclear techniques
External – from top or side of exposed pile, and includes integrity and resistivity
techniques
Remote – alongside the pile where access to the pile head is not available, and includes
parallel seismic techniques

The following charts, taken from the CIRIA 144, give a useful overview of the above
techniques, and the suitability of the techniques to detect particular pile construction defects.

CIRIA 144 Figures 12. and 13.

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

CIRIA 144 Figure 1.3

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

CIRIA 144 Figures 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

CIRIA 144 Table 1.1

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Low Strain Integrity Tests

`Sonic Echo` Testing

The most commonly used integrity test is the `sonic echo` test, a form of low strain integrity
test. The pile head is struck by a light, hand-held hammer and a shock wave propagates down
the pile at a constant velocity – if the pile is homogeneous. The wave will be reflected at any
change of impedance, and the greater the change of impedance, the greater the proportion of
the wave that will be reflected. Changes of impedance may be caused by:

the pile toe

inclusions within the pile
cracks or pile joints
dimensional changes
variations in concrete quality
overlapping of reinforcement
(in unusually heavily reinforced piles)
variations in soil stiffness

CIRIA 144
A typical signal response is shown below

The length L to the point of

reflection is given by:
CIRIA 144
L = ct/2 where c is the velocity of propagation of the wave through the pile
(typically 4000m/s in sound concrete)
t is the total time for the wave to travel to the point of reflection and
return to the pile head

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

8 Tolerances, Pile Spacing, Pile Caps and Ground Beams

Tolerances
It is difficult to locate piles precisely. The contractor will be given a specification which states
acceptable tolerances.
eg. The pile must be placed within 75mm of the location shown on the drawings and be
within a slope of 1/100 from vertical.
If the top of the pile is not at ground level, the tolerance will be affected by both limits. eg. If
the top of the pile is to be 1m below ground level, the tolerance at the top of the pile will be
75 + 1000/100 = 85 mm.

The structure must be designed to be safe wherever the piles are within these tolerances. If the
piles are found to be outside these tolerances, the Contractor will be obliged to pay for
changes.

The structure supported by the pile (usually a pile cap or ground beam) must be large enough
so that the pile will always be under the structure so long as its position is within the given
tolerance. On small works, the structure is designed to extend 75mm beyond the nominal
edge of the piles, on larger work this is increased to 150mm.

Pile Spacing.
A pile in a group will have a lower load capacity than an isolated pile. To reduce interference
between piles, the centre-to-centre distances should be at least:
Friction Piles: 3 x pile diameter
End-bearing Piles 2 x pile diameter.

For groups of more than 4 piles the capacity may be reduced unless the pile spacing is much
larger: see later notes.

Columns on Single Piles N

e
Single piles should be designed for the axial load (N) plus a bending
moment due to tolerances (M = N*e). The lateral stability of this
arrangement is suspect, and so it is seldom used except on very A Column putting
large piles. an Eccentric Load
onto a Single Pile
Multi-Pile Groups
It is good practice to support each column on at least two and preferably
three piles. This evens out the effects of badly-positioned piles, gives
some protection against a single weak pile, and removes from the pile
any bending moment due to eccentricity of the load.
A Square Column on a
The piles will be connected by a pile cap which carries the column. The Square Pile Cap
supported by four Piles
pile cap is usually quite rigid (thickness = approx half of the pile
spacing), so differences between the settlement of the piles is evened
out.

To support loadbearing walls, it is more convenient to use a ground

beam, which spans between the piles and carries the wall. Ground
beams are often also used to support the ground floor slab.
A Small Building
supported on Nine Piles
and Ground Beams
Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010
Stability
Pile caps or connected ground beams give adequate stability to the top of the pile (ie prevent
the top of the pile from moving sideways).

If the piles are required to resist significant lateral loads (eg wind load in high buildings,
mooring forces in quaysides) then the piles should be specifically designed for this or raked
piles should be used. See later notes on the design of piles for lateral load.

9 Piles in Tension

Piles in tension are used to resist uplift or overturning, and raking tension piles are used to
resist horizontal loads. Clearly piles cannot resist tension by end bearing (though an under-
ream can be used to develop more strength) so the tension force must be carried by skin
friction. Tomlinson suggests that skin friction capacity in tension may be only 50% of the
compression capacity. In addition:
Short-term load (eg wind loads) will be sustained more easily than long-term sustained
loads.
A pull-out test made soon after installation may be a poor guide to long-term strength.
Despite this, designs should be confirmed by pull-out tests (which are much cheaper than
similar tests on compression piles).

As with compression piles, the tension capacity of a pile in a group may be less than the
capacity of a similar isolated pile.

Tension piles are also known as ground anchors.

10 Downdrag (Negative Skin Friction)

Applies when piles are constructed through recently placed unconsolidated fill, or soils that
may consolidate after the pile is placed.. In addition to the working load on the head, a
downdrag force is transmitted by `negative skin friction`. If the fill is placed over
compressible material, negative skin friction may increase through consolidation.

Tomlinson (1995) states that, for mobilisation of maximum negative skin friction, the soil (or
fill) must move downwards relative to the pile by around 1% x pile dia. The unit negative skin
friction force at any depth can be estimated from the equation
Fsneg = 0 where 0 = effective overburden pressure
= factor = 0.3 for piles up to 15m long
= 0.2 for piles up to 40m long
= 0.1 for piles up to 60m long
(Tomlinson 1995)

The negative skin friction becomes and additional load on the pile, so

FoS = Ultimate bearing capacity

Working Load + neg. skin friction

In extreme cases (long piles through unconsolidated fill) it may be worth sleeving the piles,
surrounding them with a soft asphalt coating that will limit the downdrag. This is expensive,
and it is difficult to be sure that the coating will survive the driving process, so it is more
usual to take account of the extra load in the design of the loadbearing part of the pile.

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

11 Laterally-Loaded Piles

If it is necessary to use piles to resist lateral loads, they must be designed for the shear forces
and bending moments that will develop. Laterally loaded piles should be checked for strength
under factored loads and for serviceability under working loads.

Reference: “Design of laterally-loaded piles” CIRIA Report 103,1984.

12 Capacity of Pile Groups.

Bearing piles are seldom used alone because of overturning and eccentricity effects. Instead
groups of piles are often used, with thick reinforced pile caps to spread loads between the
piles.

Centre-to-centre distances s for piles are normally taken as three diameters for friction piles
and two diameters (or two pile base diameters if under-reamed) for end-bearing piles.

If the pile spacing is more than necessary, a large and expensive pile cap will be needed. If
the piles are too close, the soil between the piles will be disturbed and the load-bearing
capacity reduced.

The stressed zone around a single pile is much smaller than the stressed zone around and
beneath a pile group. As a result:
Group capacity is not greatly dependant on installation method.
A compressible layer beneath a pile group may produce more settlement than it would
beneath a single pile.
It follows that:
The capacity of a group of N piles may not be N times the capacity of one pile.
Tests on a single pile may not adequately predict the performance of a pile group.

Model piles in clay tested by Whittaker (1957) showed that

Under a rigid pile cap, the piles do not all carry the same load. Outer piles carry more
load than inner piles (this effect is reversed in sand). See figure 10.15 (Barnes, 1995)
If the efficiency of a pile in a pile group is defined as:

= average load per pile at failure of group

failure load of a single isolated pile

the efficiency decreases as the pile spacing decreases. See figure 10.16 (Barnes 1995)

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

 Figure 10.15 Figure 10.16
Ultimate Capacity
The results above apply only to Whitaker’s experiments. For a generally-applicable rule:

Pile Group Capacity is the lesser of:

1. the sum of the failure loads of the individual piles
Pult = n(Qs + Qb)
2. the bearing capacity (including side friction) of a block of soil defined by the
perimeter of the pile group.
Pult = cuNcscdcBgLg + 2(Bg + Lg)Lc

If the bottom of the pile cap is in contact with the supporting soil, then the first of these can be
increased by the failure capacity of this contact surface.
1. The sum of the failure loads of the individual piles plus the failure bearing
capacity of the reminder of the pile cap.
Pult = n(Qs + Qb) + cuNcscdc(BcLc – nAp)

Pile Cap Pile Cap

Individual Pile Failure Block Failure

End

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Laterally-Loaded Piles
Ultimate lateral resistance

Near the surface, passive pressures may be developed.

At depth, local flow of soil around the pile limits the lateral resistance.

Broms simplification for piles in clay

For a pile with a diameter D, ignore the passive pressure down to a depth of 1.5D.

Then take a limiting lateral pressure of 9cu.

LH D
e
1.5D
B LH

L A Ha
9(cu/ m) D
Ha

Providing the pile is strong enough, the whole pile will rotate about the point A.

Normally the pile is not strong enough and the horizontal force is limited by the moment
capacity of the pile at B.
Example

Calculate the ultimate moment capacity required for a long pile of 600 mm diameter if a
lateral force of 100 kN (short-term) is to be applied 1 m above ground level.

Assume the clay has cu = 100 kN/m2.

Partial safety factor on loads = 1.6

Partial safety factor on cu = 1.6

Design load = 1.6*100 = 160 kN

Ignore top 1.5*0.6 = 0.9 m.

Resistance = 9*(100/1.6)*0.6 = 337 kN/m

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Depth to resist lateral force = 160/337
= 0.475 m

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

 0.6 m
160 kN
1.0 m
0.9 m
0.475 m 160 kN

337 kN/m
Depth to point of maximum moment

= 1.0 + 0.9 + 0.475 = 2.375 m

Maximum moment

= 160*2.375 - 160*0.475/2

= 342 kNm

Note: Serviceability should also be checked because the passive pressures develop only with
substantial movements.

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Example to show the implications of design to EC7.

In the following case, design the length of pile required

i) to BS 8004, with an overall FoS of 2.5
ii) to EC7, to the ULS, assuming case C to be critical.

Details :

Pile dia 450 mm

Dead load 550 kN
Variable load 300 kN

Ground conditions :

0 – 5m Clay Cu = 90 kN/m2
5 – 30m Clay Cu = 120 kN/m2

Assume the top metre of the clay does not support load
Adhesion factor = 0.45, bearing capacity factor Nc = 9

Revision Sheet Pile Design

1. a) A closed end steel tubular pile, 0.6m dia, is driven into stiff clay with a penetration
of 35m. The undrained shear strength of the clay is 130 kN/m2 and the submerged unit
weight is 13 kN/m3. Assuming a bearing capacity factor, Nc, of 9, determine the
allowable pile working load assuming an overall factor of safety of 2.5.
(2414 kN)

Relevant charts and expressions are given on Fig. Q6(a) and (b)
(9 marks)

With reference to Figs Q6(a) and (b), explain why

(i) the peak adhesion factor p reduces as the soil strength ratio increases
(ii) the length factor F reduces as the length/diameter ratio increases
(5 marks)

2. A 750 mm dia bored pile is to support a dead load of 900 kN and a variable load of
300 kN. Ground conditions involve two layers of clay. The upper layer is 8m thick
and has an undrained shear strength of 50 kN/m2. The lower layer is of considerable
thickness and has an undrained shear strength of 120 kN/m2.
The top metre of the shaft does not support any load.
The adhesion factor is 1.0 for the upper clay layer and 0.5 for the lower clay.
The bearing capacity factor, Nc, is 9

Determine the required pile length :

(i) in accordance with BS 8004 assuming factors of safety of 1.5 and 3.0 are
applied to the shaft load and base load respectively (8 marks)

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

(ii) in accordance with Eurocode 7, to the ultimate limit state, assuming case C to
be critical. Relevant clauses and tables from EC 7 are provided
(8 marks)

(i) 13.2 m
(ii) 17.2m

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

3. A precast concrete pile, 0.4m dia., is to be driven through a deposit of stiff clay 6m
thick and into a thick deposit of dense sand. The water table lies at 2m below ground
level. Properties of the soils and relevant parameters are as follows :

CLAY

Undrained shear strength increases from 90 kN/m2 at ground level to 126 kN/m2 at the
base of the deposit.

Bulk unit weight b = 21 kN/m3

Adhesion factor = 0.35

SAND

Angle of friction = 37

Bulk unit weight b = 19 kN/m3

kstan = 1.5

For a working load of 1600 kN, determine the length of pile required assuming:

(i) no adhesion occurs over the top metre of the pile

(ii) the factor of safety on adhesion in the clay is 2.0
(iii) the factor of safety on skin friction in the sand is 2.5 and on the base it is 3.0
(iv) there is a critical depth within the sand only, and measured below the top of the
sand (Use the Meyerhof curve for determination)

Design charts, tables and expressions are given in Fig Q5

(15 marks)

(13.5m)

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Elastic Pile Settlement Example:
12m long concrete pile, diameter 450mm
Working load = 600 kN
Load is carried 65% by skin friction and 35% by end bearing
E value of soil beneath base is estimated to 250 MN/m2
E value for concrete is estimated to be 10,000 MN/m2

Using equation:

WS L WB B
WB
2 AS EP 2 AB EB

WS = 0.65 600 = 390 kN, WB = 0.35 600 = 210 kN

AS = AB = 0.452/4 = 0.16 m2

390 12 210 0.45

210 0.003 0.0012 0.004m, or 4mm
2 0.16 10,000 103 2 0.16 250 103

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010

Example of Pile Capacity from Static Test: to EC7

Three CFA piles tested. Estimate that 80% of capacity is in shaft friction and 20% in end
bearing. Use the EC7 method to determine the Design Ultimate Bearing Capacity a pile
similar to those tested.

Static Load Test Results:

Pile Number 1 2 3
Test Load at Failure 145 kN 120 kN 115 kN

Calculation:
Average test strength = 127 kN
Minimum strength = 115 kN
From the table of values
Characteristic Bearing Resistance is the lesser of:
127/1.3 = 98 kN (adopt this)
115/1.1 = 105 kN

Estimate of shaft friction resistance is 0.8 98 = 78 kN

Estimate of end-bearing resistance is 0.2 98 = 20 kN

Ultimate Design Bearing Resistance = 78/1.45 + 20/1.3 = 69 kN

Bearing Piles and Groups – October 2010