SAE TECHNICAL

PAPER SERIES 1999-01-0823

A New Approach to Assess the Accuracy of

Service Timing Devices for Injection
Pumps of Diesel Engines
Reinhard Doell
Robert Bosch GmbH

Klaus-Christoph Harms
AVL-LIST GmbH

Paul Henderson
Stanadyne Automotive Corp.

Fred McLeod
LucasVarity Diesel Systems

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A New Approach to Assess the Accuracy of Service Timing
Devices for Injection Pumps of Diesel Engines
Copyright © 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
ABSTRACT
The correct timing of the diesel injection pump on engine
is of major importance for all functions of the engine and
for its exhaust emissions, during production pass off as
well as in the field. Within the diesel service workshops a
variety of devices exist to test the timing of the injection
pump on engine. Most of them operate by clamp-on
transducer being fitted to the injection pipe.
A large uncertainty exists concerning the accuracy of
such timing systems. Most diesel engine manufacturers
do not have confidence in the timing devices capability
and, therefore, do not recommend their usage.
A working group within the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) adopted a method for the valida-
tion of these measurement systems, which usually is
used to judge the capability of measurement gauges for
industrial production processes.
The clamp-on systems fail marginally to fulfill the statisti-
cal demands of a production process but may be consid-
ered satisfactory for use as a service diagnostic
instrument, which generally needs not be verified against
the ambitious demands of production settings.
The dynamic timing systems have shown to be superior
to some conventional, static-mechanical timing proce-
dures, given the right conditions. They could well serve
as an in-service measurement system, if the nominal
errors in the readings between devices of different manu-
facturers could be avoided.
1
1999-01-0823
Reinhard Doell
Robert Bosch GmbH
Klaus-Christoph Harms
AVL-LIST GmbH
Paul Henderson
Stanadyne Automotive Corp.
Fred McLeod
LucasVarity Diesel Systems
INTRODUCTION
WORK GROUP – The ISO work group conducting the
work described in this paper had the designation ISO/
TC22/SC5-SC7/JWG1. This is defined by being a joint
working group (JWG) under the subcommittees (SC)
SC5 and SC7, responsible respectively for engine mea-
surements and diesel fuel injection equipment, under the
technical committee (TC) responsible for road vehicles.
The task allocated to the group was to define a procedure
and test devices to measure the dynamic relationship of
the injection process on diesel engines for road vehicles.
The work group was comprised of experts from Austria,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and the
United States.
SUBJECT – The optimum performance of a diesel
engine with respect to power, fuel consumption, exhaust
emissions and smoothness is dependent upon the cor-
rect timing of the fuel injection event which for conven-
tional engines this is normally stated in terms of the
angular relationship of the injection pump drive shaft to
the engine crankshaft.
This angular relationship as produced by the manufactur-
ing facility for new engines can change over the lifetime of
the product, such as through lengthening of the timing
belt/chain, and must therefore be checked occasionally.
One indication that it should be checked could be if the
vehicle fails emission tests or if there are complaints con-
cerning fuel consumption, noise, or loss of power.
The test method adopted was to fulfilll the following con-
ditions:
1. Be a quick & simple measurement process.
2. Fuel lines to the high-pressure or low-pressure sides
should not be disturbed.
3. The injection pump should not be disturbed.
4. A guaranteed overall accuracy of ± 1° engine timing
should be achieved.
5. Be a reliable operation.
6. Be of low cost.
Theoretically, there are many possible methods to mea-
sure this relationship. These have been summarized in
Figure 1. In this figure, 18 different measurement possi-
bilities concerning 9 different principles are shown along
with a series of existing test devices and their respective
measurement principles.
MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE SELECTION
When the 18 measurement possibilities shown in Figure
1 were examined to see if they fulfilll the given criteria,
only 2 methods potentially met the requirements.
1. Verify Static Method (Pump Shaft Position) - This
method uses fuel injection pump drive shaft or cam-
shaft reference of varying forms. The shaft position
is set by the injection pump relative to the pumping
function. The engine manufacturer uses this refer-
ence to set the pump on the engine. The method
can also be used in service for testing or setting pur-
poses. The device requires additional design
expense for the injection pump and is therefore only
installed on a portion of the inline injection pumps
(EURO I and II) as well as on a small portion of the
distributor injection pumps. The procedure cannot be
retrofitted and thus cannot be universally used.
2. Pressure Wave Method (indirect) - The most com-
mon example of this is the clamp-on transducer
method, by which a sensor is clamped on the
high-pressure pipe in order to measure the expan-
sion of the tube. The respective electronics transmits
a trigger signal for a chronological characterization of
the injection process.
All other processes require more changes to the engine,
for example, the measurement of the movement or the
closing noise of the nozzle needle. Some are only indi-
rectly connected to the injection process (e.g., combus-
tion noise or heat).
Thus, only the clamp-on transducer has found wide-
spread use in the repair workshops. Worldwide, almost
50,000 units have been sold, i.e., almost all diesel engine
workshops have this type of unit.

Pump Advance
Position
Emissions
Spill C ut Of f
Ba ck P ressur e Trade Off Pump
Pump Shaft
Dynamic Position
Pumping Pump
Plunger Posn Conventional
Static Very Static Pressure
Method Transducer
Needle
Closure Piezo Strain
Vibration Combustion Gauge
METHOD Noise/Press
Cylinder Head
Movement
Bolt Strain
Transducer
(FM) Highspeed
Thermocouple
Proximity Injector Combustion
Transducer Needle Lift Heat
(Hall) Ultrasonic
/Press Pressure Wave Thermometry

Switching Ionisation Photodiode

Injector Leak Off Probe Electro Magnetic
Pressure Direct Indirect Radiation

On P ump On Pipe
On Pipe
Methods in use
0002.ppt

Figure 1. Potential methods for engine timing measurement

2
DESCRIPTION OF THE CLAMP-ON
TRANSDUCER
Only a brief description of this process will be given
because this type of system has been used in the mar-
ketplace for almost 20 years.
SENSOR – The sensor is clamped to the high-pressure
line by using a screw or bracket clamp. The measure-
ment position must be defined with an accuracy of
around ± 10 mm and must be positioned on a straight
piece of the line, the length of the straight section being
greater than 20 mm. The pipe at this position must be
free from surface errors such as burrs and free from dirt.
Depending on the design, the sensor picks up either the
expansion of the perimeter of the tube or the increase in
the diameter and changes this into an electrical signal.
Both types of sensors use a piezo-electrical effect for the
measurement element, sensing changes in the element
tension, producing an electrical charge.
Two sensor examples from current production are shown
in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Examples of clamp-on sensors
The pressure trace in the high-pressure pipe is accu-
rately portrayed with this type of clamp-on transducer.
Figure 3 shows a comparison of the pressure measured
inside a tube with this method and with a precision pres-
sure pickup.
Naturally, this type of clamp-on transducer cannot be
absolutely calibrated nor can it precisely measure the
zero point of the pressure. It can only transmit relative
changes in pressure. For the purposes of this applica-
tion, however, this is sufficient.
EVALUATING THE SIGNAL – The following procedure is
usually used to evaluate the signal from the clamp-on
transducers:
3
A trigger threshold is defined as a percent of the signal
difference between the zero level and the maximum
amplitude, which when attained gives out a trigger mark.
The zero level for this is defined as an arithmetic mean
value over the entire signal curve (this equates approxi-
mately to the pressure level in the pipe in the dwell
between the injections). The maximum amplitude is the
peak value from the previous injection.
1400
70807
1200 Clamp-On Transducer
Inline Pressure Transducer
1000
800
bar
600
400
200
0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
degree cam angle
Figure 3. Pressure trace comparison
The value assigned for the trigger threshold depends
upon the engine manufacturer but is normally either 11%
or 15% . The percentage should be set as low as possi-
ble, because this will reduce any interference variables
due to uneven increases in line pressure.
The electronic signal processing activates a lockout when
the trigger threshold is reached, which prevents a
renewed incorrect signal trigger at the end of the injec-
tion, e.g., due to afterwaves in the line pressure. This
lockout is removed just prior to the next injection.
MEASUREMENT VALUE OUTPUT – In order to be able
to output a measurement value, a reference signal for the
crankshaft position is needed in addition of the signal
taken from the injection.
Some of the engines manufactured are equipped with a
sensor, which can be connected to the measurement
unit. From the time intervals between both signals, the
unit calculates an angle based upon the speed. This is
transmitted as an angular difference to top dead center
(TDC) position of the reference cylinder. Types and char-
acteristics of TDC sensors are defined in ISO 7432.
Most of the diesel engines in operation, especially older
ones, do not have a TDC sensor, but instead have a TDC
mark on the flywheel or V-belt pulley which corresponds
to a mark on the engine block. In this case, a timing stro-
boscopic light is needed. The light pulse is thus con-
trolled by the trigger signal of the injection pulse and set
over a manually adjusted time-delay switch so that the
respective marks on the engine are aligned. The time
delay is converted into an angle and displayed.
ACCURACY
PRELIMINARY REMARKS – In defining the accuracy
required for the devices, it is necessary to first define
what is to be measured.
With respect to the dynamic timing tester, a decision
must first be made as to whether the static beginning of
delivery, the dynamic beginning of delivery, or the begin-
ning of injection from the nozzle is to be measured. This
decision depends on the goal that is to be reached.
The purpose of the procedure is to adjust the fuel injec-
tion pump setting on all engines, so that a consistent tim-
ing of fuel injection from the nozzle is achieved relative to
an engine crank angle reference. For this, the measure-
ment procedure must fulfill the following conditions:
1. The measurement variables used must represent the
engine function.
2. The measurement unit used must show repeatability
and reproducibility, which are clearly better than the
tolerances allowed for the characteristics being mea-
sured.
Regarding point 1, it was determined that the pressure
increase measurement method is clearly an accurate
representation of the relation between the pump and the
engine independent of whether or not it more closely rep-
resents beginning of delivery from the pump or begin-
ning of injection from the nozzle.
The repeatability and reproducibility mentioned in point 2
are the subject of the work herein described and are
closely examined.
COMPARISON WITH OTHER MEASUREMENT PRO-
CEDURES – Often the accuracy of a measurement pro-
cedure is assessed by comparing it with other existing
procedures and a correlation is searched for. In relation
to the high-pressure pipe pressure rise device, this meant
checking the correlation to the normal static measure-
ment procedure for the installation position of the pump
to the engine.
The static measurement method (e.g., linear plunger
travel of the injection pump) is however, in principle, so
different from a dynamic measurement method on an
operating engine that a correlation cannot be expected if
the measurement is to be made in tenths of a degree. In
addition, the static method itself is known to have rela-
tively poor reproducibility.
Thus, a comparison with the static measurement method
is not a suitable process in order to assess the accuracy
of the dynamic timing tester.
NEW EVALUATION PROCEDURE FOR ACCURACY –
For industrial measurements, new evaluation procedures
for accuracy of the measurement procedure have been
developed and introduced in the last few years. With
these procedures, the repeatability and reproducibility of
4
a procedure is determined and set into a ratio for the tol-
erances of the measurement values to be checked.
Upon reaching a defined value, the procedure is suffi-
cient for the task at hand.
It makes sense that this procedure is also used for
assessing the accuracy of the dynamic timing tester.
GAUGE CAPABILITY – Capability assesses the repeat-
ability of a measurement procedure. This ability to repeat
a test or the precision of the repetition is determined by
repeating the testing under constant conditions until a
statistically relevant number is attained (i.e.,≥ 25). The
results are statistically evaluated and applied to the fol-
lowing formula:
where:
T = overchecking tolerance of the product. The allowed
tolerance for the beginning of delivery desired by engine
manufacturers is the most frequently mentioned value 2°
crank (± 1° crank).
sw = standard deviation of the repeat measurements.
The term cgm is designated as the gauge capability. Its
value should be ≥ 1.33, so that the accuracy is good
enough for the measurement unit to guarantee the pro-
duction process taking into account high-volume produc-
tion. However, this value implies initially only that the
random errors are small enough and does not indicate
anything concerning a systematic deviation. This must
also be checked and guaranteed.
For the beginning of delivery test, gauge capability values
were determined from measurements made on three dif-
ferent vehicles: vehicle 1 (2.5l DI), vehicle 2 (1.6l Turbo
IDI), and vehicle 3 (2l IDI). The results and the respec-
tive evaluation of the gauge capability (cgm) is shown in
Figure 4.
On vehicle 1, the values for cgm, are far above 1.33,
which are very good values, except at higher speeds.
The reason for the good values may be that the crank-
shaft position is measured with an increment angle sen-
sor, which is thus very accurate.
On vehicle 2, the values lie in the range of 1.03 to 1.25;
again with the exception of higher speeds. Even though
the value 1.33 is not quite attained, this is also however
considered a good result and the measurement proce-
dure is thus useable.
On vehicle 3, the cgm values for the three low speeds lie
between 0.67 and 0.83. These values indicate that the
repeatability is not as good, the requirement is thus only
fulfillled when higher tolerances are permitted. The poor
repeatability is probably because the angular determina-
tion occurs on the V-belt pulley, thus on a smaller diame-
ter than on a flywheel, which is not good for accuracy.
 Figure 4. Vehicle test results
It is obvious that on all three engines that were tested,
the repeatability of the beginning of delivery measure-
ment above 1500 RPM was worse by a factor of 2-3. The
reason for this is that above this speed, the timing
advance device on the injection pump starts functioning.
These normally have hysteresis effects, which influence
the ability to accurately measure in tenths of a degree
crankshaft angle.
On one of the three vehicles tested the rules of the gauge
capability are adequately fulfillled within the high
demands and statistical rules for industrial measurement
technology; the second vehicle just barely failed. On the
third vehicle the gauge capability was inadequate and
could only be fulfillled if higher tolerances are allowed.
5
At medium or high speeds, where the timing device for
the injection system functions, the repeatability is clearly
worse and the capability of the measurement unit is no
longer guaranteed. This is however not caused by the
measurement device.
To summarize, the dynamic timing testers can basically
fulfill the criteria of the gauge capability. However, in indi-
vidual situations this can be negatively influenced by spe-
cific conditions of the engine or the injection equipment.
A corresponding test is required for each individual situa-
tion in order to make sure that dynamic timing systems
are applicable.
REPRODUCIBILITY – Reproducibility is a measure of
the repetition of a complete measurement (including the
entire measurement setup) at a different time, in contrary
to the repeatability where the measurements occur
immediately one after the other.
In order to be able to guarantee that the results are statis-
tically significant, 25 test specimens, for example, are
each evaluated for repeatability (for comparison: for
repeatability there would be 25 measurements on the
same test specimen).
The evaluation occurs thus:
First the difference between the second and first mea-
surement is calculated for each test unit. Afterwards, for
the differences, the normal statistical deviation is calcu-
lated, which is designated here as s∆. Thus, it is clear
that this value s∆ is a measure for the quality of reproduc-
ibility: the smaller the value is the better the reproducibil-
ity.
Further, the following calculations are needed:
Standard deviation of the measurement equipment: To
calculate s∆ two measurements are used, the standard
deviation is however referenced to only one measure-
ment; therefore for standard deviation s:
Variance range for the measurement equipment SM [%]:
In this case, the spread determined is compared to the
allowed variance for the characteristics in order to be
able to assess how the procedure works.
The assessment criteria for variance range is stated in
qualitative terms such that SM [%] up to 20% is consid-
ered well suited, 20% - 30% suggests limited suitability
with improvement needed, whilst over 30% is not suit-
able.
6
Variance range is used in parallel to gauge capability.
While the gauge capability concerns, in principle, con-
stantly maintained peripheral conditions (lab conditions),
the “spread of the measurement equipment” is more like
the behavior under real-life conditions, i.e., with continu-
ally different test units.
The use of this methodology involving a large-scale test
on numerous vehicles and with a number of test units is
described in the following.
VEHICLE TESTING
PREPARATION – The Adam Opel AG had been kind
enough to agree to test a large number of diesel-engine
vehicles at its Bochum facility.
Prior to testing, the suitability of the injection system for
this engine had to be checked to see if the clamp-on
transducer process was suitable. It would be, for exam-
ple, unfavorable if the injection pressure would increase
in the lower range in a stepped form.
The pressure trace measurement resulted in a favorable
continuous pressure increase within the required speed
range.
TEST COMPLETION – In order to be able to have the
largest possible overview of the behavior of the dynamic
timing testers, five different units from four different man-
ufacturers were used.
The measurements were completed in Factory 1 of the
Adam Opel AG, Bochum.
Vehicle, engine: Opel Astra, X 1,7 DTL, 50 kW
Load points: no-load speeds of 930 rpm and 3000 rpm
Two measurements per vehicle were completed on every
unit within a time interval of around one half hour. The
second measurement was completely independent of the
first, i.e., the clamp-on transducer was reinstalled.
Because this type of engine is not equipped with a TDC
sensor, a timing light was used to spot the markings on
the flywheel.
Before the measurements were taken, the engines were
warmed up until the pre-conditioning temperature of the
coolant was reached.
EVALUATING THE SPREAD OF THE MEASUREMENT
EQUIPMENT – A total of 16 different vehicles were mea-
sured as described. During evaluation of the first four
vehicles, anomalies were noticed during testing which
were caused by the engines not being completely
warmed up. Thus, the warmup time was lengthened for
subsequent testing and only the remaining 12 vehicles
were included in the evaluation.
Results for the low-idle speed are shown in Table 1. The
average deviation between both measurement proce-
dures was 0.14° crank, the extreme was at 0.4° and -
0.5 ° crank.
Table 1. Difference between measurement 1 and 2 for 5 All of these statements concern the measurement in the
test units and 12 vehicles, all values in ° crank low-idle range. Measurements were also made at in-
creased speeds of 3000 rpm at zero load. The results
Veh. Equipment number
however indicate that reproducibility is poor and any sta-
no. 1 2 3 4 5 tistical evaluation does not appear sensible. The reason
5 -0,1 -0,2 0,0 0,0 -0,1 for this is not due to begin-of-delivery measurements but
rather because it is very difficult to precisely maintain a
6 -0,1 -0,1 -0,2 -0,2 0,0 constant speed when the engine is running freely using a
7 0,0 -0,1 -0.5 -0,3 -0,4 tachometer and the accelerator pedal. This causes a
variation in the position of the timing device and subse-
8 -0,2 -0,2 0,0 -0,2 -0,3 quent in the begin-of-delivery measurements.
9 0,1 -0,1 -0,2 0,0 -0,2
Measurement of the begin-of-delivery at medium speeds
10 0,3 -0,3 -0,1 0,0 -0,1 and thus within the operating range of the timing device
11 0,1 -0,4 -0,1 -0,2 -0,1 does not appear to make a lot of sense. Thus a
cross-evaluation of all vehicles and all testers has
12 0,0 -0,1 - -0,3 -0,1 resulted in interesting results.
13 0,1 -0,3 0,0 0,1 0,2
INDIVIDUAL RESULTS – The results for the five testers
14 0,1 -0,3 0,0 -0,2 0,1
on all vehicles for the low-idle tests are shown in Figure
15 0,0 0,0 0,1 0,0 -0,1 5.
16 0,4 -0,1 -0,1 -0,1 0,1 The diagram indicates the following:
1. The angular relation for the injection pump differs
A reproducibility of an average of 0.14° is determined to from engine to engine, with a maximum variation for
be rather good, considering that this value was created the 12 engines around 1.5° crank. Statistical evalua-
with a timing light pickup and a manual adjustment to tion results in a 6s value of 2.7° crank.
agree with the marks.
2. All five testers indicated these differences from
Representing the results of reproducibility, the values are engine to engine in a similar manner.
as found in Table 2. 3. There are systematic differences among the five
testers; average variation 0.5° crank.
Table 2. Reproducibility results 4. The statistical deviation of the testers (6 s = 0.5° -
Equipment number 0.7° crank) as well as the systematic deviation in the
test units from each other (0.5° crank) are less than
1 2 3 4 5 the statistical deviation of the beginning of delivery
6s∆[°cr] 1,0 0,7 0,9 0,8 1,0 on the engines (6 s = 2.7° crank, see above).

6s[°cr] 0,7 0,5 0,6 0,6 0,7 CORRELATION OF BEGINNING OF DELIVERY AT

SM[%] 35 25 32 28 35
The values for SM are about 30% and thus, based on the
assessment criteria, lie somewhere between “can be
used to a limited degree” and “not suitable”.
The procedure is thus at the lower limits of usability in
order to guarantee the tolerances for beginning of deliv-
ery of ±1.0° crank on a statistical basis.
If a statistic guarantee of ±3s would not be necessary
(i.e., factor 6 in the above table corresponding to the for-
mula for reproducibility), the procedure could be consid-
ered good.
The reference to ±3s means statistically that 99.7% of all
measurements must lie within the range. This is a wide
statistical band, which makes sense when guaranteeing
a production process. For a service tester it is possible
that a lower statistical guarantee may be used.
DIFFERENT SPEEDS – The test results indicate that at
increased speeds of 3000 rpm reproducibility is poor,
caused by a variation of the speed with the engine run-
ning freely. However, a cross evaluation of all test results
on individual vehicles produced some interesting results,
see Figure 6.
A correlation of the measurement values has been
shown between both these speeds, i.e., when for an
engine in low idle an advanced beginning of delivery was
measured, then this advanced beginning of delivery also
is measured at high speeds.
This is proof that the measured results using the begin-
ning of delivery tester have a real background and are
actually affected by the difference in the position of the
pump drive shaft to the crankshaft of the engine.

7
 Dynamic Timing Devices at Opel Astra
Results of 5 devices at low idle
12,0

11,5
Degree crankshaft

11,0

10,5

10,0

1 2 3 4 5

9,5
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Car-No.

Figure 5. Low idle test results

Relation of timing at low idle and 3000 rpm

16
3000 rpm-value; [°crankshaft]

15,5

15

14,5
10 10,5 11 11,5 12
low idle-value; [°crankshaft]

Figure 6. Relation of timing at two speeds

8
ASSESSMENT
1. The repeatability precision and the variance range of
the dynamic timing tester is, judged by the stringent
statistical rules of the industrial production measure-
ment technology, just at the limits of usability.
2. Under normal, less stringent statistical measure-
ments, the repeatability of the dynamic timing tester
is good enough to attain an accuracy of ± 1° crank
for the beginning of delivery on the engines.
3. The variance range of the measurement process is
clearly less than the effective variance in the begin-
ning of delivery on new engines, set with help of the
lift measurement on the plunger of the injection pump
(in the interim, however, more exact procedures are
used for engine production).
4. Because, in principle, the measurement process is
capable of determining differences on new engines
with a sufficient degree of accuracy, it is also capable
to record deviations and errors during testing with a
used engine.
5. Systematic differences between the equipment pro-
duced by the different manufacturers are disturbing.
6. The statements above are valid for low idle and with
normal, continuously rising pressures at the injection
lines.
FURTHER PROCEEDINGS
Based on these results, the ISO working group men-
tioned here has recommended that an injection equip-
ment simulation unit shall be created in order to equalize
the test results received from different manufacturer’s
testers and to permit standardization.
Examples of such a test rig already exist but have to be
redesigned in order to make use of the newest technol-
ogy in electronic recording.
At the same time, standards are being developed and are
currently in the concept stage which includes the follow-
ing:
ISO/DIS 13555-1:1998 Road Vehicles - Dynamic proce-
dure for checking the timing of diesel fuel injection - Part
1: Preconditioning.
ISO/DIS 13555-2:1998 Road Vehicles - Dynamic proce-
dure for checking the timing of diesel fuel injection - Part
2: Test method.
ISO/WD 13555-3:1998 Road Vehicles - Dynamic proce-
dure for checking the timing of diesel fuel injection - Part
3: Validation of test equipment.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The requirement within the ISO organization to stan-
dardize the beginning of delivery measurement pro-
cedures for the service area, resulted in the forming
of a special work group.
2. The only practical procedure is the already known
clamp-on transducer that is widely used in service
workshops.
3. In order to assess the capability of the procedure,
numerous tests of the units from different manufac-
turers were completed according to the specifications
in the assessment procedure for units for industrial
measurement technology.
4. Because of the stringent statistical requirements, the
testers are just below the limits of usability, which for
a service unit produces respectable results. Under
normal, non-statistical requirements, the clamp-on
transducer is, in principle, suitable.
5. The differences between the units produced by vari-
ous manufacturers is disturbing, and in order to be
able to standardize these testers, an injection system
simulation unit is to be made.
6. The ISO work group is to continue their work until the
aforementioned standards are established.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the permission of
Adam Opel AG to test vehicles at its Bochum facility.
Also, the authors acknowledge AVL-LIST GmbH, Lucas-
Varity Diesel Systems, Robert Bosch GmbH, and Stana-
dyne Automotive Corp., and the respective technical
support staff at each company for completing and pub-
lishing this work.