ARTICLE IN PRESS

Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418

www.elsevier.com/locate/cageo

Spatial targeting using queries in a 3-D GIS environment with

application to mineral exploration
Kevin Spraguea,, Eric de Kempa, Winston Wonga, John McGaugheyb,
Gervais Perronb, Tucker Barriec
a
Natural Resources Canada, Earth Sciences Sector, 615 Booth St. Ottawa, Ont., Canada K1A 0E9
b
Mira Geoscience Ltd., 310 Victoria Ave, Suite 309, Westmont, Qué., Canada H3Z 2M9
c
C.T. Barrie and Associates, Inc., 23 Euclid Avenue, Ottawa, Ont., Canada K1S 2W2

Received 18 October 2004; received in revised form 13 July 2005; accepted 13 July 2005

Abstract

A query framework for spatial targeting within a 3-D geographic information system (GIS) software environment is
introduced. Input to a query consists of parameters relevant to the query type together with a set of Common Earth
Modelling objects represented as point sets, polygonal lines, surfaces, and grids or a region set (subset) thereof. The
result of a 3-D GIS query is a region within each of the input objects that consists of nodes or grid cells where the query
criteria was satisfied. We provide example scenarios, drawn from mineral exploration, where 3-D queries are used to
guide spatial targeting within a near-mine or regional map scale setting. Query types supported are: proximity query (to
a ‘‘probe’’ object), property query (numeric attribute), shell query (containment within a closed surface), meta-data
query, feature query (dome, depression, curvature), trend query (dip plane, vector) and intersection query (with a
‘‘probe’’ object). Queries can be specific for a given object type but in general transcend object types. Standard set
theoretical operations for a query results in newly defined regions and are supported within the Gocadr development
environment. This development focuses on queries relevant in the 3-D data integration and interpretation stages of
mature geological model development as well as early analysis, typically undertaken before a fully partitioned and
attributed 3-D topological model is available.
Crown Copyright r 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: 3-D; GIS; Spatial targeting; Query; Mining; Mineral exploration; Gocad

1. Introduction elemental trends characterize the ore distribution. In

Spatial targeting of some kind is a key objective for
geographic information system (GIS) users. In particu-
lar, within the mining and mineral exploration commu-
nities, major targeting objectives often include the
determination of spatial locations where high-grade
ore is likely to be found and what mineralogical and
Corresponding author. Tel.: 613 995 5097; fax: 613 995 9273.
E-mail address: ksprague@nrcan.gc.ca (K. Sprague).
addition, spatial information characterizing where sig-
nificant environmental or geological hazards could
present themselves during mineral extraction, such as
active seismic regions, waste containment and construc-
tion, is vital to the optimization of the mining process.
This kind of spatial knowledge is used to guide decision-
making processes, such as where to look for viable
targets, where to build a mine, and how best to
implement engineering infrastructure. To optimally
support these activities, one requires an environment

0098-3004/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright r 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cageo.2005.07.008
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K. Sprague et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418 397

Fig. 1. An example of a 3-D GIS spatial query for selecting geochemical data points proximal to an irregular geologic body (i.e.,
Quartz-porphyry (yellow contoured body)). A 3-D buffer (white transparent enveloping surface) is used to query proximal data points.
Closer inspection of high grade ore zones within host body and proximal geochemical values (red spheres) could yield important clues
for characterizing ore signatures and relationships between geology and ore.

where geologic data can be accurately registered,
integrated, attributed, interpreted, visualized and quer-
ied in three full dimensions (3-D). In this article, we
address spatial targeting via queries within a software
system capable of representing and interacting with 3-D
data. As part of a collaborative project (Mira
Geoscience Ltd, 2004),1 we present a novel package of
methods and software tools conducive to spatial
targeting as expressed by a cross-section of the Canadian
mining and mineral exploration community. The work
focuses on queries relevant in the early 3-D data
exploration stages of model development such as data
integration and interpretation, typically before a full 3-
D topological model that partitions and attributes all
space of interest has been constructed. Fig. 1 illustrates
the idea behind a typical spatial query where data
proximal to a surface is selected for inspection.
1
Ontario Mineral Technologies Exploration Program
(OMET), the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC), Mira
Geoscience, Laurentian University, and several major Cana-
dian Mining Companies.
Data typically used in mines and near-mine regions
for exploration purposes includes drill core information,
descriptive logs, lithologic classifications, metal assay
values, whole rock and trace element geochemistry,
surface maps, plan and section interpretations and a
range of continuous geophysical data. Mine infrastruc-
ture, topographic features and surface imagery are often
required as a contextual reference to be incorporated
into 3-D models. With all this varied data, it becomes
desirable to look at spatial and property relationships
across different data sets and to use these tools for a host
of operations that would normally be cumbersome data
management tasks, and most importantly to get more
value out of them through intense data exploration
exercises.
The paper is structured as follows: after providing an
overview of the GIS-3D plug-in (Section 2), we describe
the query tools developed in this project (Section 3) and
then a case study that utilizes them (Section 4). In
Section 5, we discuss the utility of the plug-in with
reference to the case study and in general. Conclusions
are drawn in Section 6.
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398 K. Sprague et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418
Fig. 2. (a) GIS-3D query interface within Gocadr and (b) editing and shell creation toolbars.
2. GIS-3D plug-in overview
What constitutes a 3-D GIS for earth scientists? A
simple working definition might be:
3-D GIS is an interpretive environment in which 3-D
spatial data can be queried, manipulated and
represented in a meaningful manner, so as to provide
insight into geologic problems. (de Kemp, 2004)
With this in mind, we have developed a software
extension to Gocadr2—the GIS-3D plug-in.3 It effec-
tively extends the 3-D GIS capabilities of Gocadr to
meet mining and mineral exploration needs by aiding
spatial targeting through queries. In addition, it
supports the introduction of meta-data to Gocadr
objects and presents property data in a display format
2 r
Gocad is an advanced 3-D earth modelling software
product of Earth Decision Sciences, Houston, TX, USA
(www.earthdecision.com). Version 2.0.8, patch 1 was used as
part of our development platform.
3
For a copy, contact Mira Geoscience Ltd (www.mirageo
science.com).
that is familiar to mining exploration and modelling
experts.
In an effort to make the software environment
‘‘query-friendly’’, a set of components identified by
project participants as crucial, convenient, or simply
expected were developed for the GIS-3D plug-in. They
are separated into the following main features:

Common query interface and engine—spatial and
attribute-based questions about where and/or what
features exists in 3-D space (Fig. 2a).

Region legend—an interface to synchronize the
colour and symbology of regions across various
kinds of vector and raster objects.

Sphere-swept proximal shells—a spatial selection tool
for buffering around irregular shaped objects.

Meta-data editor—a method for queryable object
level descriptive information to be implemented.

Tabular property editor—A spreadsheet-like viewer/
editor for managing numerical property values
(Fig. 3).

Single atom property editor—A simple point-by-point
property display and editing tool
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K. Sprague et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418 399

Fig. 3. Tabular property editor. Query results region in yellow.

Fig. 4. Example of a series of queries applied to Kidd Creek Mine whole rock data. Data has been kriged from drill core whole rock
samples to form a continuous Voxet grid. Results of two property queries for K2O42% and Na2Oo0.3% are combined with a
Boolean operator. Images provided by Dave Richardson, Falconbridge Exploration.

Synchronization of the query engine with 3-D
graphical plus numerical tabular display of query
results.
Some of the above features provide a convenient wrap
around or extension of existing Gocadr entities, such as
the region legend, property editors and proximal shells,
while others, notably the query interface/engine, provide
functionality not previously available.
Gocadr objects are capable of storing properties,
which are double precision values defined for each node
in a vector object and grid point or cell for a grid object,
and also named regions consisting of a subset of nodes
or cells within the object. Both are central to our
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Fig. 5. Results (yellow) of a proximity query on drill core data near a chillipepper-shaped, copper-rich bornite zone (red).
methods of computation. For queries geared towards
spatial targeting, it seems reasonable to use the region
concept to represent the results of a query or series of
queries. This means that query results lie within the
spatial extent of the input objects, that is, the query does
not in-and-of-itself probe into areas where data are not
present. One could conceivably construct queries that
cover the relevant ‘‘data-empty’’ space utilizing back-
ground objects for computation and then dumping the
results into a new object. However, this does not fit with
our intuitive notion that it is not the space we are
querying here, but rather the objects that we have chosen
to represent relevant features within the space. What is
missing from the current query architecture is explicit
characterization of uncertainty or viability within the
query results, i.e., the results of our spatial queries are
Boolean in nature—each element is either ‘‘in’’ or ‘‘out’’
(see Fig. 1, red is ‘‘in’’ and blue is ‘‘out’’). To reiterate,
there is nothing built-in to distinguish that, for instance,
‘‘cell A satisfies the target criteria better than cell B’’
without further (independent) analysis of the query
results and comparison of individual elements within the
results set.
Input to a query is a set of Gocadr objects that
characterize geologic objects and associated attributes
(VSets, PLines, TSurfs, Voxets, SGrids—see Appendix
A) together with a specification of the query criteria. The
input data can be limited to a specific region common to
all of the input objects. The output of the query is a
results region that is defined within each object queried.
The results region is composed of atoms or cells where
the query was true (Figs. 3, 4). It is directly analogous to
the ‘‘selection set’’ in 2-D GIS. The query region could
be empty, could comprise the entire object, or be
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anything in-between. Set theoretical operations on
regions such as intersect, union, subtract and comple-
ment are supported in the interface.
There are many different kinds of queries, both spatial
and non-spatial, that can be used individually or in
Fig. 6. Cages (red) within a Voxet (black) proximal to a curve
(blue). This is typical of an intermediate step of a proximity
query using octree approach. Red cages are found to be
proximal to bounding cage of curve (not shown), not actual
curve.
Fig. 7. Kidd Creek mine location map (Falconbridge, 2004).
401
combination to address elaborate exploration questions.
Query types supported are as follows: proximity (to a
‘‘probe’’ object), property, shell (containment within a
closed surface), meta-data, feature (dome, depression,
curvature), trend (dip plane, vector) and intersection
(with a ‘‘probe’’ object). Not all queries are possible, nor
make sense, with all object types. For example,
estimating the curvature of a point cloud is non-sensical
without defining some topological structure. Querying
for a curvature range of a map trace or stratigraphic
surface, on the other hand, is appropriate.
One of the most common characteristics of a GIS is
the separation of graphics representations of spatial
objects from their attached attribute information. GIS
technology capitalizes on this by providing the possibi-
lity of separate examination of attribute values and
spatial characteristics of features of interest. Through
the use of nested queries, a dense and deeply attributed
data set can be thoroughly interrogated and reclassified
by an expert with local knowledge of a deposit. This is
now possible in Gocadr through nested property and
proximity-based queries using GIS-3D. For example, a
complex procedure to compare gold values from several
stratigraphic horizons that are proximal to a fault
surface could be performed quite quickly. In addition, to
help facilitate this kind of interrogation, the separate or
simultaneous display of properties (attributes) and 3-D
locations of the associated objects can be undertaken
with the tabular (Fig. 3) and atomic property editors.
The tabular property editor shows point-by-point
property records in a selected region of a point set,
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402 K. Sprague et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418
Fig. 8. Detailed at-surface geology of Kidd Creek mine. From Hannington and Barrie (1999).
curve or surface (vector objects) and is graphically
synchronized with the 3-D viewer and query engine (e.g.,
click on an atom in the viewer to see its properties in the
table, or click on a table row to see where it lies within
the viewer). Complex queries can be examined in a
tabular format with access to a range of statistical
reporting tools for comparing those results.
To organize the display characteristics of regions
across multiple objects, a region legend has been
provided. The region interface allows one to manipulate
display settings (graphic symbol and size, colour
selection, visibility), name changes, and region deletion
for all selected objects.
3. GIS-3D queries
The following query types are supported within the
GIS-3D plug-in: property, proximity, shell (i.e., contain-
ment within), meta-data, feature, trend and intersection.
Here we outline the role and function of each query
type.
3.1. Property
Recall that a property of an object is represented as a
double precision value attached to every cell of a grid
object or node of a vector object. One of the most
important and simplest to implement, property queries
can be performed on any object that supports numeric
properties. The query is characterized as an expression
with a Boolean outcome that typically addresses a
question concerning property value ranges or cutoffs.
For example, one might ask, ‘‘Show me all data points
where K2O42% and Na2Oo0.3%.’’, where K2O and
Na2O are properties describing the percent concentra-
tions of potassium oxide or ‘‘potash’’ (K2O) and sodium
oxide or ‘‘soda’’ (Na2O), respectively within analysed
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samples. In the property query interface, the question

simply appears as ‘‘K2O42.0 && Na2O40.3’’, and the
results region represents the ‘‘answer’’. See Fig. 4 for an
example of a series of property queries shown first
separately and then as a single, combined query (from
Kidd Creek Mine4).

3.2. Proximity

Proximity is measured with respect to a selected

‘‘probe’’ object. The user indicates a range (minimum to
maximum distance) and a collection of objects to test
against. If a node or cell of a queried object is found to
be within the specified distance range to the probe
object, or region thereof, then it is included within the
results region.
A typical proximity query addresses questions such as
‘‘Where is all the drill data within 300 m of the high-grade
ore?’’ (Fig. 5).
The optimal implementation algorithm for a proxi-
mity query depends on the size5 (number of nodes or
cells) of the probe, the size of the objects queried, the
topology of objects, the region (if any) and the selected
distance range. A mixture of three methods of proximity
query is utilized within the GIS-3D plug-in: brute force
Fig. 9. Composite stratigraphy of Kidd Creek mine. From
for light objects, sphere-swept containers or ‘‘shells’’,
Hannington and Barrie (1999).
and an octree (Foley et al., 1992) approach for grids that
employs a method similar to the V-Clip algorithm
(Mirtich, 1998) for distance computations. Obviously,
coupling large probe and/or queried objects requires compute a minimally sized cage bounding the probe. By
more sophisticated techniques than brute force. For computing the distance between each of the eight cage
such couplings we implemented the latter two methods, boundaries and the probe cage boundary, we seek to
‘‘shell’’6 and ‘‘octree’’.7 eliminate overly distal or proximal cages of the queried
The octree method incorporates a divide and conquer object and all cells within it. If any of the eight cages
strategy to proximity queries involving Voxet grids. belonging to the queried object are in range, they too are
Consider a proximity query where the probe consists of divided and the process repeats until a termination
a few points and at least one of the queried objects criteria is reached (e.g., a target ‘‘cells per cage’’ is
involved is a Voxet with a large number of cells of equal attained, or the cage exactly bounds a cell). See Fig. 6.
dimension. Computing the distance between the probe Better still, it is desirable to also divide the probe cage
points and the distance to every cell is a wasteful way to into smaller cages for proximity testing.
determine which cells belong to the results region. The V-Clip algorithm is utilized to compute cage-to-
Remember, we do not need to know the exact distance cage and point-to-cage distances within the procedure.
of each cell to the probe points, but rather whether it is Cages can be of any relative orientation. Computing the
in-range or out-of-range. With this in mind, we instead distance relies on finding the pair of nearest features
divide the Voxet cube into eight smaller cages, and (e.g., vertex, edge, or face) between the two cages and
then calculating the minimum distance between these
4
Kidd Creek Mine is a large base metal mine in Ontario, features. To find this nearest feature pair, it is sufficient
Canada (see Section 4). to find the two features which lie within each others’
5
In what follows, small in this context means ‘‘light’’ with
voronoi region. The algorithm iterates over feature pairs,
respect to the computational limitations of the computer being
updating features to reduce inter-feature distance, and
used, and large refers to ‘‘heavy’’ or overly dense objects with
respect to the same.
guarantees convergence to an appropriate solution.
6
Some of these are based on existing Gocadr property Penetration cases are also handled. Algorithm efficiency
isoshell creation methods. is reported in Mirtich (1998) to compare well against
7
The octree algorithm was not implemented in initial version predecessors such as the Lin-Canny algorithm (Lin,
of the GIS-3D plug-in. 1993) (on which it is based) and the Enhanced GJK
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404 K. Sprague et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418

Fig. 10. Vertical view looking north of Kidd Creek massive sulphide body (red surfaces) with infrastructure (blue) and 100 m contours
(white lines). Inset diagram from Hannington and Barrie (1999).

algorithm (Gilbert et al., 1998; Cameron, 1997) (a
simplex-based algorithm).
Ideally, it would be advantageous to employ a similar
approach for vector objects such as using an octree
method with respect to the object’s bounding cage or by
utilizing a bounding volume hierarchy (BVH) (Ehmann
and Lin, 2001; Larsen et al., 1999 and references
therein). The former is planned for future development
since it fits better with our current scheme.
3.3. Shell
By a shell we mean a container represented as a closed
surface. The shell query simply aims to find all points
within a container shell. The shell can be constructed
using a variety of supplied tools (Fig. 2b). Of particular
interest for proximity queries are the surface boundaries
of sphere-swept volumes (SSV) (Larsen et al., 1999) that
we refer to as proximal shells, the boundary of which are
equidistant from the ‘‘probe’’ object.
Once a closed shell has been created, Gocadr has
built-in methods to compute containment that are quite
fast even for heavy objects. For lighter objects,
proximity is best tested using the methods mentioned
above because of the time taken to create a shell on-the-
fly and possible accuracy considerations stemming from
the resolution of the algorithm used to compute the
shell. The method of proximal shell creation is hidden
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Fig. 11. 3-D semi-variogram plots of Cu assay values. Variogram model shown as a red line on all plots is used in subsequent kriging
and simulation experiments.
from the user and depends on the type of base (probe)
object. One method creates a Voxet in the background
and computes a rough distance map from the probe. The
sphere-swept surface is estimated using the isoshell at the
range r specified by the user. This method can actually
be applied to any of the supported objects; however,
more efficient methods exist for some. For example, with
polygonal lines (PLines) we create a tube by connecting
circles of radius r at each point, and then cap the ends
with hemispheres of radius r. For many surfaces, we can
employ an SGrid instead of a Voxet to compute the
isoshell since SGrids closely follow the shape of the
surface and hence less space, and consequently compu-
tation time, is wasted (on average) on isoshell creation.
Fig. 1 illustrates a typical shell query around a surface.
3.4. Meta-data
Meta-data is essentially summary information de-
scribing aggregate features of a data set. For example,
Author, Date Created and Company Name could
potentially represent meta-data fields of a data object
(e.g., point set of structural measurements). Meta-data
consisting of string field-value pairs can be added to
Gocadr objects using the GIS-3D plug-in through the
405
meta-data editor. The user may opt to fill a set of
predefined fields or add custom fields. Meta-data can
also be queried through a separate interface in the query
tool. Since meta-data is attached through the object-
level style interface, the results region must either
compose the entire object, or be null.8 An example
question that a meta-data query could answer might be,
‘‘Show me all of the assay data from Lab A’’. The result
would be a display of all objects containing the meta-
data field ‘‘Lab’’ set as ‘‘A’’.
3.5. Feature
Features in this context refer to shapes or shape
attributes that might be significant when analysing or
interpreting the structural geometry of geological
objects. Three kinds of feature query are supported:
dome, depression and curvature. The selection criterion
for examining undulating surfaces for domes and
depressions was introduced as an aid to exploration
for structurally controlled mineralization. This could be
used for targeting of local paleo-depocentres in magma
8
At the time of writing, Gocadr object parts and nodes do
not support a style interface.
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406 K. Sprague et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418

Fig. 12. Best fit 3-D variogram (white spheroid) not surprisingly fits with a down plunge distribution to reconstructed ore zone (red
contoured surface).

chambers, sedimentary basins, local isochemical depres-
sions or culminations, synformal or antiformal struc-
tures, isolated depressions or prominences of
unconformity surfaces and paleo-topographic features.
The dome/depression query tool acts as a simple
morphology identifier with some basic parameters for
deciding ‘‘way up’’ direction and the resolution of the
feature. The results set is a region where domes or
depressions were detected within the queried surfaces.
The curvature query identifies regions of high or low
curvature through an examination of local spatial
derivatives using a percentile-based method at the object
level (curves or surfaces). The result is a region defining
the selected range in absolute curvature. The application
domain is similar to that of the above dome and
depression queries, but could more easily be suited for
targeting fold hinges and high deformation zones.
3.6. Trend
The trend query examines planar and linear trends of
objects. The natural coordinate system of the object is
utilized to judge ‘‘direction’’ based on the main
directional axis alone (vector) or the main and
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Fig. 13. Kidd Creek high-probability isosurfaces (90% probable) of simulated 3% Cu distribution (yellow surfaces) extracted from
SGS model. Reasonable probability (75% probable) of simulated 3% Cu distribution (red points), ore body outline (light grey lines) at
mine levels and mine infrastructure (blue) (see Fig. 10 for reference). Simulation probability results from 20 iterations. Inset (red
outlined box) indicates present-day known massive sulphide envelope, grey surface and high-probability regions (red points) for 3%
Cu. Both images are paleo-stratigraphic plan views.

secondary axes (dip plane or medium plane). It is
supported at the object, part, node (see Appendix A) or
region level for an atomic, and region level only for a
grid. The result of this query is a region of points
corresponding to the given planar or vector trend. The
application of the trend query is in detecting regions that
correspond to features of interest with known orienta-
tions. For example, a productive sulphide stringer zone
with a mapped linear trend or a productive zone along a
specific dip-slope. It could also be used to classify a data
set into various orientation classes, which could then be
examined separately for correlation to other important
properties. It answers questions such as ‘‘Show me,
within 10 degrees tolerance, objects with strike 135
degrees and dip 45 degrees’’.
3.7. Intersection
The intersection query examines objects for collisions
between a specified ‘‘probe’’ object and one or more
‘‘data’’ objects. It produces a region that may consist of
objects, object parts, or nodes, depending on the
context. The intersection query is implemented for
curves and surfaces only and it takes advantage of
existing Gocadr commands for computation. An
example application of the intersection query would be
the identification of all faults that are pierced by a
specific drill core path. Another would be to display all
lithologic boundaries that cross an ore zone or a
geochemical envelope.
4. Case study: Kidd Creek mine
4.1. Background
The Kidd Creek deposit is located in the south-
western part of the Abitibi greenstone belt and is hosted
in an Archean suite of metavolcanic rocks known as the
Kidd Volcanic Complex. Kidd Creek, located in Tim-
mins, Ontario, Canada (Fig. 7), produces copper, zinc,
indium, cadmium, silver and sulphuric acid. The deposit
lies near the top of an overturned, steeply dipping
rhyolitic volcaniclastic pile (Fig. 8). Simplified stratigra-
phy includes basal ultramafic rocks, overlain in turn by a
thickened pile of felsic flows and breccias, which are in
turn overlain by a relatively thick sequence of mafic
flows and volcaniclastic rocks (Fig. 9). The massive
sulphides are positioned within the felsic volcanics, near
their upper contact. Mafic sills and dikes have intruded
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Fig. 14. Detailed results of single grid slice of sequential Gaussian simulation (SGS with 20 iterations), with areas of predicted 43%
Cu as red grid cells. These red squares indicate a favourable (90% probability) target area. Grid coloured proportional to probability
for this class. Cluster of yellow balls indicates results of a proximity query 20 m from simulation slice of 43% Cu as indicated from
assays of drill core samples. Red surfaces are 3-D isoshells extracted from entire simulated model (same as yellow isoshells in Fig. 13).
Known ore envelope shown as yellow curves.

the entire volcanic pile. Structural deformation has had
a profound influence on the deposit. A minimum of
three phases of folding and significant brittle fault
structures has considerably affected the distribution of
the sulphide lenses (Falconbridge, 2004; Gibson et al.,
2003; Hannington and Barrie, 1999).
The deposit is oriented as a linear body trending
north–northeast and plunging approximately 751 and
extends for roughly 3.5 km down plunge (Fig. 10).
Stratigraphically, the deposit is younging to the west and
a paleo-geographic plan view would best be seen by a
vertical section looking roughly to the east. Several of
the perspective views of the Kidd model that follow are
taken with this in mind and are views looking up or
down section.
4.2. Focus of queries
The purpose of applying 3-D queries to the Kidd
Creek deposit was twofold. The first was to assess the
ease by which routine methods of spatial investigation
and data management can be accomplished in compar-
ison with 2-D, non-GIS or manual methods. The second
was to gain new knowledge about geological relation-
ships that impact on exploration criteria and ultimately
in targeting new ore. This secondary application takes
on a more complex set of queries, as there is no single
recipe for acquiring insight of this kind. Ultimately,
the exploration team needs to be fully engaged in
deciding which exploration model to test and if a specific
query stream will actually produce insight into ore
distribution.
The majority of techniques used in investigating the
Kidd data set focused on the characterization of
relationships, spatial and otherwise, between the strati-
graphic thickness of the rhyolite, geochemistry and
copper metal values. As a precursor to any targeting
exercise, it is of utmost importance to characterize the
spatial continuity of the data set. With this in mind,
we spent considerable time using geostatistical ana-
lysis techniques to inspect, characterize and simulate
features of the Kidd ore zone and then subsequent-
ly apply GIS-3D query functions to visually compare
known and modelled elements. The new query appa-
ratus presented here complements these property
modelling tools. Combining geostatistical and query
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K. Sprague et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418 409

Fig. 15. Sequential Gaussian simulation reconstruction of Kidd Creek rhyolite using lithology classification from drill core alone.
Yellow volume is result of a query selecting greater than 80% probability for occurrence of Kidd rhyolite. Single lithology probability
maps can be combined with threshold queries to make a composite lithology probability map for deposit based on lithologic
information from logged drill core.

functionality in the same environment proved a power-
ful means for data inspection and characterization of
georelationships.
The Kidd Creek deposit, as with most mature mines,
is spatially biased in that a high concentration of data is
located where there is known ore. Data density rapidly
drops off just outside the ore body to produce a strong
density peak at the ore envelope. Much of the traditional
geochemical analysis has been conducted with little or
no attention paid to this fact. It is also important to note
that the Kidd Creek rhyolite is the host rock to most of
the ore. This fact needs to be taken into consideration
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Fig. 16. Reconstructed upper surface of Kidd Creek rhyolite using SPARSE plug-in (de Kemp and Sprague, 2003). Colour based on
modelled stratigraphic thickness of Kidd Creek rhyolite (red ¼ thick, blue ¼ thin).
when interpolating geochemical property values which
need to be treated with this spatial and lithologic bias in
mind.
4.3. Use of queries: methods, results and speculations
We performed 3-D variogram analysis and detailed
kriging of properties proximal to the ore zone, along
with simulation experiments of copper grades above 3%
(Fig. 11–14) and a lithological prediction of the Kidd
rhyolite distribution (Fig. 15) to estimate stratigraphic
thickness, using sequential Gaussian simulation (SGS)
(Deutsch and Journel, 1992) (Fig. 16).
By simulating the distribution of the ore-bearing
rhyolite (Fig. 15), it was possible to make a crude
estimation of the stratigraphic thickness of the unit
(Figs. 16, 18). This can also be accomplished by direct
kriging or other interpolation means. As we were
interested in obtaining more potential targets for ore,
to spatially identify where the Kidd Creek rhyolite might
reside, we employed a simulation approach that has a
random component for increasing local variance,
whereas a smoother interpolator would tend to just
confirm existing ore occurrences. We constructed a shell
around the simulated rhyolite and then measured the
closest distance from the top horizon to the stratigra-
phically lower surface of that lithology shell. Alterna-
tively, the top of the ultramafic pile, which is the
interpreted rhyolite–ultramafic volcanic interface repre-
senting the base of the deposit, could have been used
as a stratigraphic datum to estimate thickness. Compar-
ison and cross-validation of the simulated thickness
to the interpreted result would be a beneficial exercise
to aid in characterizing the uncertainty of the ore
model. Unfortunately, the interpreted geologic surfaces
do not extend to the deeper parts of the model and
contain numerous geological inconsistencies such as
self-intersections and older units crossing into younger
bodies.
There is a general relationship between distance to
known ore and rhyolite thickness along the top horizon
of the Kidd Creek rhyolite (Fig. 17). This simple inverse
relationship could be used to define favourable targets
on the thicker parts of the rhyolite top surface which is
proximal to simulated ore (Fig. 18). This is a straight-
forward property query for a threshold of high ratio
values of these properties (Fig. 19). Alternatively, the
simulated ore zones can act as targets directly or
validated with known ore, but in this example a more
detailed target could be defined as well, assuming that
the rhyolite surface represents a favourable element in
the exploration model.
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K. Sprague et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418 411

Fig. 17. XY plot of properties mapped on stratigraphic top of Kidd Creek rhyolite horizon. Thickness of rhyolite plotted on vertical
axis and 3-D distance to known ore on horizontal axis. Distance for both in metres and plotted at same scale.

The same target result could be generated more
directly from a query defining rhyolite surface intersec-
tions with the simulated ore (Fig. 20). Drill hole pierce
points at the horizon could also be examined for copper
and other geochemical properties and queried in detail
(Fig. 21). Geometric characteristics of the stratigraphic
surface such as specific strike/dip ranges or linear trends
of ridges and basins could be compared with 3-D
geochemical or ore trend maps along the same or
proximal structures (Figs. 22, 23).
5. Discussion
5.1. Query assessment
Much effort has been undertaken to construct a
detailed structural geological model for the Kidd
Creek deposit, and many questions persist: Was it
worth the effort to construct this structural model?
What more can be done to ensure that important
geological information is used to capitalize on the
new query tools ability to discern relationships in 3-D?
These are questions best answered by the explora-
tion staff. The most obvious question for application
of the 3-D tools would be: What is the relationship
of the coarse geology to ore distribution? Clearly,
the model confirms the primary exploration criteria
that the Kidd Creek rhyolite is controlling the ore
distribution. There are, however, many other rhyolite
occurrences that do not have ore-grade metal distribu-
tions. Furthermore, a wide range of metal values
throughout the Kidd Creek rhyolite have yet to be
explained. For instance, determining what controls the
high-grade Cu distribution (i.e., the bornite zone). Other
factors must be at work that contribute significantly to
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Fig. 18. Paleo-stratigraphic plan view of top of Kidd rhyolite horizon. Upper image depicting colour contoured (metres) distance to
simulated 43% Cu ore and lower image of same horizon colour contoured for stratigraphic thickness. Contour interval is 25 m in both
cases.

Fig. 19. Up-section view through simulated ore (43% Cu) red surfaces and top of Kidd Creek rhyolite. Rhyolite surface is contoured
by stratigraphic thickness with 25 m contour interval. Property query of ratio of rhyolite stratigraphic thickness over distance to
simulated copper ore (Thickness/Distance). Query results for high value ratios are shown as coloured cubes.
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K. Sprague et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418 413

Fig. 20. Example of an intersection query; intersection of favourable strata (top of Kidd rhyolite) with modelled VMS systems,
alteration envelopes or in this case simulated ore zones (red isoshells).

ore genesis and should be included into the exploration
model.
The simple example presented above using the top of
the rhyolite body is meant as a demonstration of how
GIS-3D queries can be applied to practical scenarios.
Hopefully, other more important features such as
favourable volcanic facies, alteration zones or miner-
alogical distributions can also be used in the ore
vectoring processes. For example, they could be used
in creating detailed isopachs and 3-D volumetric models
of rhyolite flows and gabbro sills in an effort to
reconstruct the paleo-environment of deposition for
the Kidd Creek deposit. If it can be determined what
parts of the stratigraphy were at shallower water depths,
this may have an influence on the degree of precious
metal enrichment; precious metals are preferentially
associated with shallower seafloor hydrothermal sys-
tems. The reconstruction could also entail a 3-D
restoration of clast/fragment sizes and compositions in
the rhyolite lapillistone and fragmental units (Fig. 24)
that are host to much of the ore (Hannington and
Barrie, 1999).
A great deal of the query potential available in the 3-
D tools is circumvented by the fact that specific
geological knowledge was not encoded in the observa-
tional data sets. For example, very little structural
information other than that incorporated into plan and
section interpretations of the ore zones was used in
building the Kidd Creek case data set. It is clear from
detailed previous work that local complex early folding
can repeat and invert stratigraphy (see Fig. 25), which
could dramatically alter methodology required to
reconstruct present day geometries or depositional
paleogeography.
Special projects to re-attribute the drill logs at a
reasonable data density could be helpful in discerning
metal-depositional environment relationships. Detailed
three dimensional metal zonation maps could lead to
new discoveries of fluid pathways related to precious
metal enrichment in the ore bodies or in the surrounding
strata that may not have been exploited to date.
Finally, as mentioned earlier, most information is
spatially biased around the ore body, which hinders
near-mine or regional model development. Attention
could be paid to assessing the benefits of drilling beyond
the ore zone for non-resource-based validation and
model estimation purposes.
The goal of the case study was to generate possible ore
targets through a combination of interpretive modelling,
property modelling and GIS queries. In general, GIS
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414 K. Sprague et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418

Fig. 21. Intersection query (yellow cubes) of pierce points of a horizon (colour contoured surface) with drill paths (red lines).

Fig. 22. Shell constructor used to outline a zone of interest around main simulated ore (red surfaces) trend line (blue curve). Actual ore
outlined as yellow curves. Deposit gets deeper to lower right of image.
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Fig. 23. Trend query (yellow cubes) indicating areas on Kidd Rhyolite surface that have dip direction 31 and dip 801. Simulated 3% Cu
as red isoshells and general simulated trend depicted as blue curve.

Fig. 24. Tightly folded fragmental rhyolite and copper ore from bornite zone, South Ore Body, Kidd Creek mine (Bleeker, 1999). Field
of view approximately 1 m wide and perpendicular to fold axes and strong lineation. Photo provided courtesy of Wouter Bleeker,
Geological Survey of Canada.
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416 K. Sprague et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 396–418

Fig. 25. Second generation isoclinal folds in copper stringer ore and host rhyolite from 4600 Level, in ‘‘back’’ of 46–104 Fringe Drive,
Central Ore Body, Kidd Creek mine (Bleeker, 1999). Dashed line highlights trace of folded foliation in rhyolitic host rock. Square
metal rock bolt plates are approximately 10 cm wide. Photo provided courtesy of Wouter Bleeker, Geological Survey of Canada.

tools are particularly valuable for extracting spatial
information from exploration data sets, e.g. proximity
measures, specific geological contacts, lineaments se-
lected by orientation, in addition to more conventional
tools for geophysical data processing and spatial
interpolation by geo-statistical methods. Statistical and
expert system modelling tools are increasingly being
embedded in GIS, e.g. Arc-WofE, Arc-SDM, GeoDAS
systems (Bonham-Carter and de Kemp, 2003). In the
Kidd Creek case study, advanced property modelling,
coupled with the 3-D GIS query tools, provided
predictions or ‘‘targets’’ of ore body extensions and
specific properties within complex structures. Mine
personnel are left with the task of generating their own
spatial targets and conducting the much needed ranking
and cross-validation from other data sources with their
own up-to-date exploration models.
Many other kinds of queries useful for spatial
targeting were discussed over the course of the GIS-3D
plug-in development project, but were not implemented
for various reasons: topological queries (how objects
connect, adjacency), surface ‘‘side’’ queries (partitioning
a set of points into two classes, on class per side of a
surface), embedded node, cell or feature attribute
queries, and speculative queries that involved the
automated extension and analysis of existing data into
unknown regimes. There are cumbersome work-arounds
to these types of queries that generally involve object
partitioning, redundant attribution and some writing of
new spatial functions. With these types of queries,
spatial and topological queries in particular, we believe
it will be much simpler to encode and more efficiently
interrogate a complete geological model for detailed
geologic content. For example, queries isolating the
average metal content and its distribution within a
specific formation block in a complexly folded and
faulted stratiform-hosted ore.
5.2. Next steps
Clearly, there is much work to be done in the area of
3-D spatial targeting. Obvious is the ongoing need for
integration smoothing necessary to make multi-type
data modelling less arduous. At present, it is not unusual
to spend 90% of a spatial targeting exercise in data
conversion, levelling, model construction and quality
checking.
A natural extension of the presented query framework
is integration with decision-making systems and/or
advanced search techniques appropriate for spatial
targeting in the face of uncertain data and/or unknown
parameters. For example, when magnetic and structural
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data conflict at a point, how does one proceed to define Acknowledgements

appropriate property values or interpolate them to
neighbouring points (Jessell and de Kemp, 2003)?
Optimized search algorithms such as genetic program-
ming (GP) (Banzhaf et al., 1998) could address questions
like ‘‘What multi-property query will reproduce, as a
high-confidence results region, the locations where high-
grade metal was ALREADY found?’’—the solution to
which could be applied to similar data to speculate on
the spatial locations of regions with good high-grade
prospects. This kind of query is conceptualized to
operate in a framework where search operators manip-
ulate a spatial query language so as to evolve a
population of candidate solutions closer to the max-
imization of high confidence (the fitness function) within
the selected spatial extent.
6. Conclusion
In summary, we have demonstrated the utility of a
software extension to Gocadr, the GIS-3D plug-in, that
effectively extends the 3-D GIS capabilities of Gocadr
to meet mining and mineral exploration needs by aiding
spatial targeting through queries and ease of attribute
representation and analysis. Although the query tools
have general utility, they seem to be most useful for 3-D
modelling tasks common in data integration and
interpretation stages, prior to the creation of a full 3-D
model. Combining the capabilities of property model-
ling with queries has proven to be a powerful aid for
cross-validation, understanding the data and quality-
checking interpretations.
We are grateful to Marcus Apel (Apel 2001) for
discussions concerning 3-D GIS at the onset of this
project, Earth Decision Sciences for software support,
Don Desnoyers for managerial support, and the
Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) for logistical and
technical support through the Northern Development
Program. Damien Duff of Falconbridge provided
managerial support for use of the 3-D Kidd data set.
Dave Richardson of Falconbridge Exploration Group
worked extensively on the Kidd model and he along
with Lisa Gibson, Inco Technical Services are both
thanked for their ongoing input into the development of
the 3-D GIS tool kit. We would also like to thank Robin
McLeod, Chrissy Williston, and others involved in
software scoping, evaluation, packaging and/or testing.
Furthermore, we acknowledge internal and external
reviewers of this manuscript. This work was made
possible through funding by the Ontario Mineral
Exploration Technologies Program (OMET) project
23, 3D Data Integration Methodology and Tools for In-
mine and Near-mine Exploration in collaboration with
Mira Geoscience Ltd., Natural Resources Canada,
Laurentian University, Queen’s University, and several
leading Canadian mining companies. ESS contribution
number 2004163.
Appendix A
The terminology used throughout this manuscript is
largely borrowed from the Gocad 2.0 User’s Manual
(EDS, 2003) and is summarized in Table A1.

Table A1
Glossary of terms

Atom (vertex) Atoms are points in space defined by their (X,Y,Z) coordinates.
Node For vector objects, synonymous with ‘atom’. For grid objects, a voxel is reference point (centre or corner) in
(X,Y,Z) coordinates.
Object One of following Gocadr objects: VSet, PLine, TSurf, Voxet, SGrid.
Part Many Gocadr objects can be divided into parts. For example, a TSurf is composed of a list of separate surfaces.
Each surface is a part.
PLine A PLine is a set of atoms connected by segments to form polygonal lines. An atom cannot belong to more than
two segments.
Query In context of this paper, a query is a spatial or attribute-based question posed to a data set that results in
creation of a region (see below).
Region In context of this paper, region is a subset selection resulting from a query. In general, it is any subset of a
supported object (PLine, VSet, TSurf, SGrid, Voxet). A region may span multiple objects and may consist of
atoms, voxels, or both depending on data types of queried objects.
SGrid An SGrid, or ‘stratigraphic grid’, is a grid object for modelling volumes that are non-rectangular in shape.
TSurf A TSurf is made of connected (and/or disconnected) triangles that form surfaces. Each triangle is composed of 3
atoms.
Voxel (cell) A voxel is basic 3-D volumetric element of a grid.
Voxet A voxet is a 3-D regular grid composed of voxels.
VSet A VSet is a set of atoms that are not connected in any way.
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