115« NATURE June 22, 1963 VOL.

193
the period in question certain difficulties arose in measur- ing which station 'error' is the combined effect of fluctuations in the frequency of
threw some doubt on the validity of the measure- ments, and the stations atomic standard and actual measurement error. The novel
adjustments were made to the atomic standard. feature of the analysis is the assignment of an error value to an
individual measuring station.
The analysis has been applied to experiments where the
(4) Signlficance ofa, P and T The statistical
transmission distances range between a hundred to several thousand
significance of the estimâtes of a, 3 and T derived from the experimental
miles. Calculated station errors for S.R.D.E., L.S.R.H., N.B.S. and
results has not yet been calculated but in this article appeal has been
N.P.L. were 0-5, 0-6, 0-7 and 1-1 X 10-‫؛‬٠ (root mean square)
made to the consistency of the results obtained. The reality of the
respectively. Transmission fluctuation values for MSF, GBR and NBA
effects assumed in the model has been established by calculation of
were 0-8, 1-1 and 0-7 X 10-‫؛‬٠ (root mean square). It can be inferred
corrélation coefficients.
that, for the measurements considered, fluctuations in transmission time
If the resuit of a simultaneous measurement at stations A and B is A were not appréciable. Thus the present précision of intercomparison of
and B respectively then the corrélation of {B-A) with A over an atomic standards by very-low-frequency radio link seems mainly limited
extended series of measurements is given by: by the combined effect of station errors. In the GBR experiment’’ where
a trans-Atlantic comparison of cæsium- controlled oscillators via GBR
(‫ع‬٠‫هه‬2٠)/(‫هق‬٠ - ‫عل‬٠ + ‫اق‬،‫ع‬٠) - : pa Similarly the corrélation of (B-A) with )8(
was made, the contribution of transmission time fluctuations was also
B is given by: small and estimated at 0-2 X 10-1٠ (root mean square). A know- ledge
of the magnitude of the contribution of measurement errors would thus
(2٠٠٥٠٥)/(٠٥٥ - ‫؛‬٠٥ t ‫؛‬٠a٥) = P٥ Thus pa and po can )9( enable a more refined estimate of the stability of atomic standards to be
be found from the experimental data and the significance of these obtained.
The results of the analysis described here also show consistent
coefficients may be différences between the frequencies of the atomic standards at
found from tables of Student's ، by calculating: L.S.R.H., N.B.S. and N.P.L. of about 0-5 to 1-0 X 10-1٠, over an 18-
month period. This presumably reflects some différence in operating

Student’s ،= s P (٠ ‫ ل‬، conditions.

Pinally, the excellent stability and reproducibility of atomic standards
should not be overlooked. This article is concerned with analytical
and entei'ing the tables at (N — 2) degrees of freedom. The
techniques by which the stability and reproducibility may be more
application of these calculations to ail the data tested lead in most cases
precisely deflned from experimental data.
to signiflcant corrélation
I thank E. Fitch (S.R.D.E.) for discussions on the statistical aspect of
.coefficients
the work and for devising a computei- programme for analysing the
data. The S.R.D.E. meas- urements were carried out by R. Hammond.
(S) Conclusions
I also thank the N.P.L., L.S.R.H. and N.B.S. for permission to
A simple analysis has been presented for the case where two
analyse their experimental results and in particular to Drs. Essen,
measuring stations, each operating an atomic fre- quency standard,
Bonanomi and Crow for helpful advice on the work.
make repeated simultaneous measure- ments of the frequency of a
common transmission. The différence between a pair of simultaneous ٠ Watt-Carter, D. B., and Corke, E. L., Nature, 1«1,128« (1981).
٠ Mitchell, A. M. J., Corke, E. L., and steele, J. McA.,-٥’١،«r«,197, 580 (1983)
measurements is a measure of the frequency différence between the » Esaen, L." and steele ‫ ل‬McA., Proc. Inet. Elect.108,.‫د‬, Part B, 43 (1962)
atomi.c standards but will include a contribution due to measurement ‘ Esaen, L., Hope, E. G., and Morris, K., Notes ٠„ Applied Science, No. 28
errors at the two stations. Considering a simple model which seems to (H.M.S.O., 1961).
be generally justified by results, three parameters can be calculated ٠ Essen, L., and Parry, J. v., Phil. Trane. Boy, ■Soe.,250, 45 (1957).
from the experi- mental data, namely, the 'error' at each measuring ‫( ا‬Prlvate communication).
‫ ا‬Plerce, J. A., Wlnkler, G. M. E., and Corke, E. L., Nature, ni, 914 (1960).
station and the frequency fluctuation of the common transmis- sion. A

GEOMAGNETIC DYNAMO: A LABORATORY MODEL

By Ci F. J. IOWES and I. WILKINSoN
Department of Physics, King's College, Newcastle upon Tyne

W E have b٩‫؛‬t here a very simple e٩ample of the type of self-

m‫؛‬intaining dynamo which has been sug- gested as the origin of
the Earth's magnetic fleld.
maintain a magnetic fleld indefinitely, and it appears that an asymmetric
velocity fleld of some sort is necessary.
Probably the most realistic mechanism proposed so far is that of
This field is due to electric currents flowing inside the Earth, mainly Bullard and Gellman‫ ؛‬in 1954. They found that single-stage Systems
in the liquid conducting core. As the fleld has existed for a time much were not favourable, and used two superimposed motions, one a
longer than the electromag- netic decay time of the currents, the differential rotation and the
currents must be maintained by some process. Probably the most
reason- able process so far suggested is that the liquid conductor is
moving in such a way that the current induced by its motion in the
magnetic field is such as to provide the initial magnetic field-a self-
exciting dynamo.
Self-exciting dynamos are very common on the surface of the Earth,
but these rely on the insulation between wires to direct the induced
currents into an appropi-iate path; they are multiply connected. In the
Earth's core.
however, there is no insulation, and the whole conductor is simply
connected; any induced currents will flow along paths determined by
the nature of the induced E.M.F.'S.
Larmor‫ ؛‬in 1920 was the first to suggest such a process in the
Earth's core. In common with ail workers since, he had to assume the
presence of some particular System of motions, and to ignore the effect
of the electromagnetic forces on the motions. He suggested a simple
axially symmetric velocity field, but Cowling‫ ؛‬showed that this could not

©1963 Nature Publishing Group

 No. 4886 June 22, 1963 N A T U R E 1159
other a four-cell convection System. (Aswellasthe observed dipole
magnetic field there would be much larger 'toroidal' magnetic fields
confined to the conducting core.) The équations could not be solved
analytically, and though plausible numerical solutions were obtained
they were not able to prove rigorously that the solutions would converge
in higher order approximation.
In 1958, Herzenberg‫ ؛‬was able to prove rigorously that a
particularly simple set of motions would give steady State dynamo
action. In his model two separate spherical régions of the core rotated
as rigid bodies, the rest of the core being stationary (Fig. 1). Although
Herzenberg did not claim that these motions were at ail realistic, they
can be thought of as a simplified two.cell convection System.
Fig.]. The Herzenberg dynarriu
The mechanical model we have made is based on the Herzenberg
model, except that for mechanical convenience we have used cylinders
instead of spheres, and that to improve the efficiency we have eut his
model in half.
The primary induction process is one in which a cylinder rotates in
an axial applied field (Fig. 2). Radial E.M.F.'S are induced in the cylinder,
and if this is in eleetrical contact with the surrounding stationary
conductor these E.M.F.'S lead to current flows in axially symmetric
toroidal surfaces. This current System gives a 'toroidal' magnetic field,
with lines of force which are closed circles about the axis. 'The induced
field is proportional to the applied field and the velocity. (If both ends of h
the cylinder are active there is an oppositely directed field at the top
end, giving quadrupole-type rather than dipole-type behavi- our.)
In our mechanical model the two cylinders are side by side (Fig. 3)
with their axes at right-angles so that the induced field of each is
directed along the axis of the other. The cylinders rotate in cylindrical
cavities in a block of the same material, eleetrical contact over the
bottom ends and curved surfaces being made by a thin layer of
mercury.
Fig. 2. Induced currents in surrounding conductor
given by cylinder rotating in axial applied field
©1963 Nature Publishlng Group
Fig. 3. Schematio diagram of cuir dynamo model If tho directions
of rotation are appropriate, then any applied field along an axis of
rotation will lead, after two stages of induction, to a parallel induced
field. If the velocities are large enough the induced field will be as large
or larger than the applied field, and the applied field is no longer
needed, the System now being self-maintain- ing. (In some respects
this System is like a two-stage amplifier with positive feedback, the
amplifier becoming unstable when the loop gain is greater than 1‫؛‬.)
Because of the asymmetry of the surrounding block, the induced
currents and magnetic fields are distorted to some extent, and there is
some induced field outside the block.
For cylinders of radius ٠ each rotating at velocity G) the System h
(‫؛‬cornes self-maintaining when the non-dimen- sional pai'ameter ٠pma‫؛‬
is equal to some critical value deterinlned by the geomotry. In the
steady State, and for constant LI, the velocities cannot exceed this
critical value; any attempt to drive the System faster would simply
increase the induced currents and fields until ail the available power
was converted into Joule heating.
For the laboratory model we have used an iron alloy (‘Perminvar’)
for which P = 250 (and is constant for small fields), ٠ : 5 X 10-‫ ؛‬B.M.O.,
and have made a = 3-5 cm. Unfortunately the size of the available
casting limited the spacing between cylinder axes to 8 ‫؟‬m. It appeared
that because of this the field induced by one cylinder was sufflcicntly
non-uniform at the other for quadrupole-tj^e rather than dipole-type
fields to be produced. By observation of its behaviour at lower speeds it
was deduced that its critical specd was 9,000 r.p.m., which was un-
attainable.
The reverse current Systems near the tops of the cylinders were
inhibited by non-conducting layers covering t.he upper parts of the
curved surfaces, and this modified model had a critical speed of 1,800
r.p.m. Fig. 4 shows how the induced field observed outside the block
increased as the speed of one of the cylinders was increased, the other
rotating at constant speed; the block was initially nominally
demagnetized and in nominally zero field.
External induced field from modified model as velocity is increased
Fig. 4.
 1160 NATURE June 22, 1963 VOL، 198
The initial slow increase of field is due to slight remanence, and the
sudden large increase t,o the onset of dynamo action. At large fields ‫ل؛‬
decreases, and the velocity is therefore allowed to increase.
For either of the correct combinations of direction of rotation ( t t or -
- ) the model is self-maintaining for fields of either sign, and the
magnitude of the induced field is independent of any external field and
is limited only by the available power; fields of 1,000 gauss can easily
be obtained in the block. The incorrect combinations of rotation (t- or -()
give only small induced fields, dépendent on external fields.
Oui’ laboratory model is inevitably somewhat inhomo- geneous
because of the mercury layer; however, this is not significant (except in
reducing the effective ٠ and P). The addition of the insulating layer is
perhaps more opon to objection; however, it was done only t'O reduce
the critical speed to an attainable value, and there was ample evidence
that the unmodifled System would in fact behave as a dynamo with a
higher critioal speed. Even with the insulation the laboratory model is
simply connected, as is the Earth’s cors.
We thereforo claim to have made a working model of what is
effectively a homogeneous self-maintaining dynamo. This is an
experimental vérification of the very elab'orate proof which Herzenberg
had to use, and makes even more plausible a dynamo mechanism for
the main- tenance of the Earth's magnetie field, such as that dis-
cussed by Bullard and Gellman.
This work was supported in part by the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research, and in part by the U.S. Air Force Cambridge
Research Laboratories.
’ Larnior, J., I. Rev., 85. ،12 (1819).
٠ Cowling, T. J., Mon. Not. Roy. Astro. Soc., 91, 39 (1931).
٥ Bullard, B. c., and Gellman, H., Phil. Tram. Roy. «٠٠٠, A, 247, 213 (1954). *
Herzenberg, A., Phil. Tram. Roy. Soc., A, 250, 513 ،1958).

THEORIES OF LATTICE SUBSTITUTIONS

By DR. THEIMA ISAACS
Department of Geology, Uniersity of Sheffield

I T l‫؛‬،s long been kncnvn t‫؛‬at n‫؛؛‬t,irai minerais rardy are pure end-
membors, but usually eoiltain varying amounts of ‘foreign’ elements.
This inclusion of other atoms follows a pattern, that is to say not any
the substitution of cei'tain transition metals can also be cited.
In garnets, several ions will compete for different sites during their
formation, and certain ones appear to be preferred. The minerai,
element can substitute for any other one, but only certain ones for each uvarovite, usually is a solid solution between grossularite and uvarovite
other in the lattices. rathor than one between andradite and uvarovite. It would appear that
Orders of crystallization and lattice substitutions were first Al3' is preferred to Fe3* in substitution for Cr3+, yet Al3‫ ؛‬has a smaller
investigated by Goldschmidt‫ ؛‬and he formulated his now famous set of ionic radius than Fe3‫؛‬, although its electro-negativity is somewhat
rules based on the supposition that minerai structures were ionic. But closer to that of Cl’3‫؛‬. It is hoped that investigations on the mineralogy
these rules were eventually found to be inadéquate because of this of uvarovite at present being conducted by me will show roasons for
assumption of ionic bonding. Non-ionic bonding also had to be this apparent preference, these explanations to be based on ligand
considered. Where much covalent bonding is present, tho structure will field theory.
bo dotermined mainly by the direetional properties of these bonds. The We must also find explanations for such a phenomenon as the
number and types of oi’bitals available for the formation of bonds will différentiation in carbonatites. It would appear that the order of
determine the type of covalent bond. Fyfe3 stated that, in ionic fomiation is calcium-magnesium iron carbonates”.
compounds, two atoms are mutually replaceable if their sizes are Further, a t'heory must take into account the kinetics of reactions as
similar, and in covalent compounds if the nurnbor and direetional well as the thermodynamics. Where two atoms of approximately equal
properties of tho bonds are similar. Further investigations3-‫ ؛‬led to electro-negativities and ionic radii compete for a lattice position, that
considérations of electro-negativities and their influence on with the higher lability will be preferentially incorporatod. Lability is
substitutions and orders of crystallization. A now set of rules, based in related to electron configuration in the bonding shell.
part on Goldschmidt’s old rules which were altered t'O conform to the We must remember t,hat electro-negativity is a derived property not
results of these investigations, was formulated‫؛‬. Both the non-complex a fundamental one. It would be better to look at the electronic
and the complex- forming ions were considei’cd in their rolationship to configuration of the elements for explanations of crystal Chemical
magmatic condit'ions. These rules are not universal in their application phenomena. Perhaps a. stop backwards to Goldschmidt might not bo
however, as non-magmatic phenomena were essentially ignored. inappro- priate. Let us recall that he States that the partition of the
Thoro aro situations also which camiot be explained by them, aird elements is according to their Chemical affinity, this
some which are in direct contradiction to them.
According to Ringwood's rules, cobalt should be enriched in late
stages but this has not been observed3.
Investigations of transition metal carbonates’ show that the rate of
formation of these compounds varies; there is an increase in time
required for the formation of anhydrous carbonates as we go from Mn3‫؛‬
through to Ni3*, and CuCOa was never synthosized. As the electro-
negativity values of these metals are the same, with the exception of
Mn3‫؛‬, and the ionic radii are similar3, Ringwood's rirles cannot be used.
A satisfactory explana- tion has been made using ligand field theory.
A set of rules should also explain distortions caused by the
substitution of one element for another in a structure. It is well known,
for example, that distortions in spinels occur when transition metals are
substituted aird that inverse structures often are formed. ‫ل‬0‫ه!ااا‬
forms a. normal spinel while Fe٥0i an inverse One. From ligand field
theory, we can see that Mrf1‫ ؛‬is stabilized by a crystal field and
therefore will go into the site which provides the maximum crystal field
stabilization, which is t.he octahedral site. Fe3‫ ؛‬is also sensitive to
crystal fields whereas Fe3+ is not, so that Fe‫ '؛؛‬will go into the
octahedral sites. Site preference energies for various ions can be
determined if the values of delta are known». In spinel structures we
should expect a large déviation from cubic symmetry when dl and d”
ions are in octahedral sites and d3, d,1, ds, and d'1 ions in tetrahedral
sites because of the Jahn-Toller effect on the ligand field splittings‫»؛‬.
Oxides with the perovskite structure containing transition metals, and
monoxi des of transition metals also show distoi'tions from ideal
structures. Other examples of distortions in analogous compounds with

©1963 Nature Publishing Group