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Section 2-2
Frequency Distributions
and Their Graphs
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Section 2-2 Objectives
• Construct frequency distributions

• Construct frequency histograms, frequency polygons,
relative frequency histograms, and ogives
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Frequency Distribution
Frequency Distribution Class Frequency, f

• A table that shows Class width
1–5 5
classes or intervals of 6 – 1 = 5
6–10 8
data with a count of the
number of entries in each 11–15 6
class. 16–20 8
• The frequency, f, of a 21–25 5
class is the number of 26–30 4
data entries in the class. Lower class Upper class
limits limits
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Constructing a Frequency Distribution
1. Decide on the number of classes.

 Usually between 5 and 20; otherwise, it may be
difficult to detect any patterns.
2. Find the class width.
 Determine the range of the data.
 Divide the range by the number of classes.
 Round up to the next convenient number.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 of 149

3. Find the class limits.
 You can use the minimum data entry as the lower
limit of the first class.
 Find the remaining lower limits (add the class
width to the lower limit of the preceding class).
 Find the upper limit of the first class. Remember
that classes cannot overlap.
 Find the remaining upper class limits.
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4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the row of

the appropriate class.
5. Count the tally marks to find the total frequency f
for each class.

Example
• The heights (in feet) of the tallest dams in the United

States are 718, 754, 632, 725, 600, 636, 626, 708,
607, and 610. Display the data using a frequency
distribution with 4 classes.
Example: Constructing a Frequency
Distribution
The following sample data set lists the prices (in
dollars) of 30 portable global positioning system (GPS)
navigators. Construct a frequency distribution that has
seven classes.
90 130 400 200 350 70 325 250 150 250
275 270 150 130 59 200 160 450 300 130
220 100 200 400 200 250 95 180 170 150

Solution: Constructing a Frequency
Distribution
90 130 400 200 350 70 325 250 150 250
275 270 150 130 59 200 160 450 300 130
220 100 200 400 200 250 95 180 170 150
1. Number of classes = 7 (given)
2. Find the class width
max − min 450 − 59 391
= = ≈ 55.86
#classes 7 7
Round up to 56

Distribution
3. Use 59 (minimum value) Lower Upper

as first lower limit. Add limit limit
the class width of 56 to Class 59
get the lower limit of the width = 56 115
next class. 171
59 + 56 = 115 227
Find the remaining 283
lower limits. 339
395

Distribution
The upper limit of the Lower Upper
first class is 114 (one less limit limit
than the lower limit of the 59 114 Class
second class). 115 170 width = 56
Add the class width of 56 171 226
to get the upper limit of 227 282
the next class. 283 338
114 + 56 = 170 339 394
Find the remaining upper 395 450
limits.
Distribution
4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the row of
the appropriate class.
5. Count the tally marks to find the total frequency f
for each class.
Class Tally Frequency, f
59–114 IIII 5
115–170 IIII III 8
171–226 IIII I 6
227–282 IIII 5
283–338 II 2
339–394 I 1
395–450 III 3

Determining the Midpoint
Midpoint of a class
(Lower class limit) + (Upper class limit)
2
Class Midpoint Frequency, f

59 + 114
59–114 = 86.5 5
2
115 + 170
Class width = 56
115–170 = 142.5 8
2
171 + 226
171–226 = 198.5 6
2

Determining the Relative Frequency
Relative Frequency of a class
• Portion or percentage of the data that falls in a
particular class.
Class frequency f
• Relative frequency = =
Sample size n
Class Frequency, f Relative Frequency

5
59–114 5 ≈ 0.17
30
8
115–170 8 ≈ 0.27
30
6
171–226 6 = 0.2
30

Determining the Cumulative Frequency
Cumulative frequency of a class

• The sum of the frequencies for that class and all
previous classes.
Class Frequency, f Cumulative frequency
59–114 5 5
115–170 + 8 13
171–226 + 6 19

Expanded Frequency Distribution
Relative Cumulative
Class Frequency, f Midpoint frequency frequency
59–114 5 86.5 0.17 5
115–170 8 142.5 0.27 13
171–226 6 198.5 0.2 19
227–282 5 254.5 0.17 24
283–338 2 310.5 0.07 26
339–394 1 366.5 0.03 27
395–450 3 422.5 0.1 30
Σf = 30 f
∑ ≈1
n

Graphs of Frequency Distributions
Frequency Histogram
• A bar graph that represents the frequency distribution.
• The horizontal scale is quantitative and measures the
data values.
• The vertical scale measures the frequencies of the
classes.
• Consecutive bars must touch.
frequency data values

Class Boundaries
Class boundaries
• The numbers that separate classes without forming
gaps between them.
• The distance from the upper
Class Frequency,
limit of the first class to the Class boundaries f
lower limit of the second 59–114 58.5–114.5 5
class is 115 – 114 = 1. 115–170 8
• Half this distance is 0.5. 171–226 6
• First class lower boundary = 59 – 0.5 = 58.5

• First class upper boundary = 114 + 0.5 = 114.5
Class Boundaries
Class Frequency,
Class boundaries f
59–114 58.5–114.5 5
115–170 114.5–170.5 8
171–226 170.5–226.5 6
227–282 226.5–282.5 5
283–338 282.5–338.5 2
339–394 338.5–394.5 1
395–450 394.5–450.5 3

Example: Frequency Histogram
Construct a frequency histogram for the Global

Positioning system (GPS) navigators.
Class Frequency,
Class boundaries Midpoint f
59–114 58.5–114.5 86.5 5
115–170 114.5–170.5 142.5 8
171–226 170.5–226.5 198.5 6
227–282 226.5–282.5 254.5 5
283–338 282.5–338.5 310.5 2
339–394 338.5–394.5 366.5 1
395–450 394.5–450.5 422.5 3

Solution: Frequency Histogram
(using Midpoints)

Solution: Frequency Histogram
(using class boundaries)
You can see that more than half of the GPS navigators are
priced below $226.50.

Frequency Polygon
• A line graph that emphasizes the continuous change
in frequencies.
frequency
data values

Example: Frequency Polygon
Construct a frequency polygon for the GPS navigators

frequency distribution.
Class Midpoint Frequency, f

59–114 86.5 5
115–170 142.5 8
171–226 198.5 6
227–282 254.5 5
283–338 310.5 2
339–394 366.5 1
395–450 422.5 3

Solution: Frequency Polygon
The graph should

begin and end on the
horizontal axis, so
extend the left side to
one class width before
the first class
midpoint and extend
the right side to one
class width after the
last class midpoint.
You can see that the frequency of GPS navigators increases

up to $142.50 and then decreases.

Relative Frequency Histogram

• Has the same shape and the same horizontal scale as
the corresponding frequency histogram.
• The vertical scale measures the relative frequencies,
not frequencies.
frequency
relative data values

Example: Relative Frequency Histogram
Construct a relative frequency histogram for the GPS

navigators frequency distribution.
Class Frequency, Relative
Class boundaries f frequency
59–114 58.5–114.5 5 0.17
115–170 114.5–170.5 8 0.27
171–226 170.5–226.5 6 0.2
227–282 226.5–282.5 5 0.17
283–338 282.5–338.5 2 0.07
339–394 338.5–394.5 1 0.03
395–450 394.5–450.5 3 0.1

Solution: Relative Frequency Histogram
6.5 18.5 30.5 42.5 54.5 66.5 78.5 90.5
From this graph you can see that 27% of GPS navigators are
priced between $114.50 and $170.50.
Cumulative Frequency Graph or Ogive

• A line graph that displays the cumulative frequency
of each class at its upper class boundary.
• The upper boundaries are marked on the horizontal
axis.
• The cumulative frequencies are marked on the
vertical axis.
cumulative
frequency
data values
Constructing an Ogive
1. Construct a frequency distribution that includes

cumulative frequencies as one of the columns.
2. Specify the horizontal and vertical scales.
 The horizontal scale consists of the upper class
boundaries.
 The vertical scale measures cumulative
frequencies.
3. Plot points that represent the upper class boundaries
and their corresponding cumulative frequencies.

Constructing an Ogive
4. Connect the points in order from left to right.

5. The graph should start at the lower boundary of the
first class (cumulative frequency is zero) and should
end at the upper boundary of the last class
(cumulative frequency is equal to the sample size).

Example: Ogive
Construct an ogive for the GPS navigators frequency

distribution.
Class Frequency, Cumulative
Class boundaries f frequency
59–114 58.5–114.5 5 5
115–170 114.5–170.5 8 13
171–226 170.5–226.5 6 19
227–282 226.5–282.5 5 24
283–338 282.5–338.5 2 26
339–394 338.5–394.5 1 27
395–450 394.5–450.5 3 30

Solution: Ogive
6.5 18.5 30.5 42.5 54.5 66.5 78.5 90.5
From the ogive, you can see that about 25 GPS navigators cost
$300 or less. The greatest increase occurs between $114.50 and
$170.50.
Section 2.2 Summary
• Constructed frequency distributions

• Constructed frequency histograms, frequency
polygons, relative frequency histograms and ogives

A frequency distribution is a table that shows classes or
intervals of data with a count of the number in each class.
The frequency f of a class is the number of data points in
the class.
Class Frequency, f
1–4 4
Upper 5–8 5
Lower
Class
Class 9 – 12 3 Frequencies
Limits
Limits 13 – 16 4
17 – 20 2
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 35

The class width is the distance between lower (or upper)
limits of consecutive classes.
Class Frequency, f
1–4 4
5–1=4 5–8 5
9–5=4 9 – 12 3
13 – 9 = 4 13 – 16 4
17 – 13 = 4 17 – 20 2
The class width is 4.
The range is the difference between the maximum and

minimum data entries.
Example:
The following data represents the ages of 30 students in a
statistics class. Construct a frequency distribution that
has five classes.
Ages of Students
18 20 21 27 29 20
19 30 32 19 34 19
24 29 18 37 38 22
30 39 32 44 33 46
54 49 18 51 21 21
Continued.
Example continued:
1. The number of classes (5) is stated in the problem.
2. The minimum data entry is 18 and maximum entry is

54, so the range is 36. Divide the range by the number
of classes to find the class width.
Class width = 36 = 7.2 Round up to 8.

5
Continued.
Example continued:
3. The minimum data entry of 18 may be used for the
lower limit of the first class. To find the lower class
limits of the remaining classes, add the width (8) to each
lower limit.
The lower class limits are 18, 26, 34, 42, and 50.
The upper class limits are 25, 33, 41, 49, and 57.
4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the

appropriate class.
5. The number of tally marks for a class is the frequency

for that class.
Continued.
Example continued:
Number of
Ages students
Ages of Students
Class Tally Frequency, f
18 – 25 13
26 – 33 8
34 – 41 4
42 – 49 3
Check that the
50 – 57 2 sum equals
the number in
∑f =
30
the sample.

Midpoint
The midpoint of a class is the sum of the lower and upper
limits of the class divided by two. The midpoint is
sometimes called the class mark.
Midpoint = (Lower class limit) + (Upper class limit)

2
Class Frequency, f Midpoint

1–4 4 2.5
Midpoint = 1 + 4 = 5 = 2.5
2 2

Midpoint
Example:
Find the midpoints for the “Ages of Students” frequency
distribution.
Ages of Students
Class Frequency, f Midpoint
18 + 25 = 43
18 – 25 13 21.5
43 ÷ 2 = 21.5
26 – 33 8 29.5
34 – 41 4 37.5
42 – 49 3 45.5
50 – 57 2 53.5
∑f =
30
Relative Frequency
The relative frequency of a class is the portion or
percentage of the data that falls in that class. To find the
relative frequency of a class, divide the frequency f by the
sample size n.
Class frequency f
Relative frequency = =
Sample size n
Relative
Class Frequency, f
Frequency
1–4 4 0.222
∑f = 18
Relative frequency = f = 4 ≈ 0.222
n 18
Relative Frequency
Example:
Find the relative frequencies for the “Ages of Students”
frequency distribution.
Relative Portion of
Class Frequency, f Frequency students
18 – 25 13 0.433 f = 13
26 – 33 8 0.267 n 30
34 – 41 4 0.133 ≈ 0.433
42 – 49 3 0.1
50 – 57 2 0.067
f 1
∑f =
30 ∑ =
n
Cumulative Frequency
The cumulative frequency of a class is the sum of the
frequency for that class and all the previous classes.
Ages of Students
Cumulative
Class Frequency, f Frequency
18 – 25 13 13
26 – 33 +8 21
34 – 41 +4 25
42 – 49 +3 28
Total number
50 – 57 +2 30 of students
∑f =
30

Class Boundaries
Example:
Find the class boundaries for the “Ages of Students” frequency
distribution.
Ages of Students
Class
Class Frequency, f Boundaries
The distance from 18 – 25 13 17.5 − 25.5
the upper limit of
the first class to the 26 – 33 8 25.5 − 33.5
lower limit of the 34 – 41 4 33.5 − 41.5
second class is 1.
42 – 49 3 41.5 − 49.5
Half this 50 – 57 2 49.5 − 57.5
distance is 0.5.
∑f =
30

Frequency Histogram
Example:
Draw a frequency histogram for the “Ages of Students”
frequency distribution. Use the class boundaries.
14 13 Ages of Students
12
10
8
8
f 6
4
4 3
2 2
0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Broken axis
Age (in years)
Frequency Polygon
A frequency polygon is a line graph that emphasizes the
continuous change in frequencies.
14
Ages of Students
12
10
8 Line is extended
to the x-axis.
f 6
4
2
0
13.5 21.5 29.5 37.5 45.5 53.5 61.5
Broken axis
Age (in years) Midpoints

Relative Frequency Histogram
A relative frequency histogram has the same shape and
the same horizontal scale as the corresponding frequency
histogram.
0.5
0.433
(portion of students)
Relative frequency
0.4 Ages of Students

0.3
0.267
0.2
0.133
0.1
0.1 0.067
0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Age (in years)
Cumulative Frequency Graph
A cumulative frequency graph or ogive, is a line graph
that displays the cumulative frequency of each class at
its upper class boundary.
30 Ages of Students
Cumulative frequency
(portion of students)
24
18
The graph ends
at the upper
12 boundary of the
last class.
6
0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Age (in years)
Section 2-4
Statistical Graphics
51
Section 2-4 Objectives
• Graph quantitative data using stem-and-leaf plots and

dot plots
• Graph qualitative data using pie charts and Pareto
charts
• Graph paired data sets using scatter plots and time
series charts

Graphing Quantitative Data Sets
Stem-and-leaf plot
• Each number is separated into a stem and a leaf.
• Similar to a histogram.
• Still contains original data values. 26
Data: 21, 25, 25, 26, 27, 28, 2 1 5 5 6 7 8

30, 36, 36, 45 3 0 6 6
4 5

Example: Constructing a Stem-and-Leaf
Plot
The following are the numbers of text messages sent
last week by the cellular phone users on one floor of a
college dormitory. Display the data in a stem-and-leaf
plot.
155 159 144 129 105 145 126 116 130 114 122 112 112 142 126
118 118 108 122 121 109 140 126 119 113 117 118 109 109 119
139 139 122 78 133 126 123 145 121 134 124 119 132 133 124
129 112 126 148 147

Solution: Constructing a Stem-and-Leaf
Plot
155 159 144 129 105 145 126 116 130 114 122 112 112 142 126
118 118 108 122 121 109 140 126 119 113 117 118 109 109 119
139 139 122 78 133 126 123 145 121 134 124 119 132 133 124
129 112 126 148 147
• The data entries go from a low of 78 to a high of 159.

• Use the rightmost digit as the leaf.
 For instance,
78 = 7 | 8 and 159 = 15 | 9
• List the stems, 7 to 15, to the left of a vertical line.
• For each data entry, list a leaf to the right of its stem.

Solution: Constructing a Stem-and-Leaf
Plot
Include a key to identify

the values of the data.
From the display, you can conclude that more than 50% of the
cellular phone users sent between 110 and 130 text messages.
Graphing Quantitative Data Sets
Dot plot
• Each data entry is plotted, using a point, above a
horizontal axis.
Data: 21, 25, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 36, 36, 45
26
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

Example: Constructing a Dot Plot
Use a dot plot organize the text messaging data.
155 159 144 129 105 145 126 116 130 114 122 112 112 142 126
118 118 108 122 121 109 140 126 119 113 117 118 109 109 119
139 139 122 78 133 126 123 145 121 134 124 119 132 133 124
129 112 126 148 147
• So that each data entry is included in the dot plot, the

horizontal axis should include numbers between 70 and
160.
• To represent a data entry, plot a point above the entry's
position on the axis.
• If an entry is repeated, plot another point above the
previous point.
Solution: Constructing a Dot Plot
155 159 144 129 105 145 126 116 130 114 122 112 112 142 126
118 118 108 122 121 109 140 126 119 113 117 118 109 109 119
139 139 122 78 133 126 123 145 121 134 124 119 132 133 124
129 112 126 148 147
From the dot plot, you can see that most values cluster
between 105 and 148 and the value that occurs the
most is 126. You can also see that 78 is an unusual data
value.
Graphing Qualitative Data Sets
Pie Chart
• A circle is divided into sectors that represent
categories.
• The area of each sector is proportional to the
frequency of each category.

Example: Constructing a Pie Chart
The numbers of earned degrees conferred (in thousands)

in 2007 are shown in the table. Use a pie chart to
organize the data. (Source: U.S. National Center for
Educational Statistics)
Number
Type of degree (thousands)
Associate’s 728
Bachelor’s 1525
Master’s 604
First professional 90
Doctoral 60
Solution: Constructing a Pie Chart
• Find the relative frequency (percent) of each category.
Type of degree Frequency, f Relative frequency
Associate’s 728
≈ 0.24
728
3007
Bachelor’s 1525
1525 ≈ 0.51
3007
Master’s 604
604 ≈ 0.20
3007
First professional 90
90 ≈ 0.03
3007
Doctoral 60
60 ≈ 0.02
3007
Σf = 3007
• Construct the pie chart using the central angle that

corresponds to each category.
 To find the central angle, multiply 360º by the
category's relative frequency.
 For example, the central angle for associate’s
degrees is
360º(0.24) ≈ 86º

Relative
Type of degree Frequency, f frequency Central angle
Associate’s 728 0.24 360º(0.24)≈86º
Bachelor’s 1525 0.51 360º(0.51)≈184º
Master’s 604 0.20 360º(0.20)≈72º
First professional 90 0.03 360º(0.03)≈11º
Doctoral 60 0.02 360º(0.02)≈7º

Relative Central
Type of degree frequency angle
Associate’s 0.24 86º
Bachelor’s 0.51 184º
Master’s 0.20 72º
First professional 0.03 11º
Doctoral 0.02 7º
From the pie chart, you can see that over one half of the
degrees conferred in 2007 were bachelor’s degrees.

Graphing Qualitative Data Sets
Pareto Chart
• A vertical bar graph in which the height of each bar
represents frequency or relative frequency.
• The bars are positioned in order of decreasing height,
with the tallest bar positioned at the left.
Frequency
Categories
Example: Constructing a Pareto Chart
In a recent year, the retail industry lost $36.5 billion in

inventory shrinkage. Inventory shrinkage is the loss of
inventory through breakage, pilferage, shoplifting, and
so on. The causes of the inventory shrinkage are
administrative error ($5.4 billion), employee theft
($15.9 billion), shoplifting ($12.7 billion), and vendor
fraud ($1.4 billion). Use a Pareto chart to organize this
data. (Source: National Retail Federation and Center for
Retailing Education, University of Florida)

Solution: Constructing a Pareto Chart
Causes of Inventory Shrinkage
Cause $ (billion)
20
Millions of dollars
Admin. error 5.4 15
Employee 10
15.9
theft
5
Shoplifting 12.7
0
Vendor fraud 1.4 Employee Shoplifting Admin. Error Vendor
Theft Cause fraud
From the graph, it is easy to see that the causes of inventory

shrinkage that should be addressed first are employee theft and
shoplifting.

Graphing Paired Data Sets
Paired Data Sets

• Each entry in one data set corresponds to one entry in
a second data set.
• Graph using a scatter plot.
 The ordered pairs are graphed as y
points in a coordinate plane.
 Used to show the relationship
between two quantitative variables.
x

Example: Interpreting a Scatter Plot
The British statistician Ronald Fisher introduced a

famous data set called Fisher's Iris data set. This data set
describes various physical characteristics, such as petal
length and petal width (in millimeters), for three species
of iris. The petal lengths form the first data set and the
petal widths form the second data set. (Source: Fisher, R.
A., 1936)

Example: Interpreting a Scatter Plot
As the petal length increases, what tends to happen to

the petal width?
Each point in the

scatter plot
represents the
petal length and
petal width of one
flower.

Solution: Interpreting a Scatter Plot
Interpretation
From the scatter plot, you can see that as the petal
length increases, the petal width also tends to
increase.

Graphing Paired Data Sets
Time Series
• Data set is composed of quantitative entries taken at
regular intervals over a period of time.
 e.g., The amount of precipitation measured each
day for one month.
• Use a time series chart to graph.
Quantitative
data time
Example: Constructing a Time Series
Chart
The table lists the number of cellular

telephone subscribers (in millions)
for the years 1998 through 2008.
Construct a time series chart for the
number of cellular subscribers.
(Source: Cellular Telecommunication &
Internet Association)

Solution: Constructing a Time Series
Chart
• Let the horizontal axis represent

the years.
• Let the vertical axis represent the
number of subscribers (in
millions).
• Plot the paired data and connect
them with line segments.

Solution: Constructing a Time Series
Chart
The graph shows that the number of subscribers has been

increasing since 1998, with greater increases recently.

Section 2.4 Summary
• Graphed quantitative data using stem-and-leaf plots

and dot plots
• Graphed qualitative data using pie charts and Pareto
charts
• Graphed paired data sets using scatter plots and time
series charts

MORE EXAMPLES
Suppose thirty people live in an apartment
building. These are the following ages:
• 58, 30, 37, 36, 34, 49, 35, 40, 47, 47,
• 39, 54, 47, 48, 54, 50, 35, 40, 38, 47,
• 48, 34, 40, 46, 49, 47, 35, 48, 47, 46
79
Make a line plot of the ages.
80
• This graph shows all the ages of the
people who live in the apartment
building. It shows the youngest
person is 30, and the oldest is 58.
Most people in the building are over
46 years of age. The most common
age is 47.
81
• Line plots allow several features of
the data to become more obvious. For
example, outliers, clusters, and gaps
are apparent.
82
• Outliers are data points whose values are
significantly larger or smaller than other
values, such as the ages of 30, and 58.
• Clusters are isolated groups of points, such as
the ages of 46 through 50.
• Gaps are large spaces between points, such as
41 and 45.
83
Dot Plot.
Cluster
Outliers Outliers
84
Dot Plot
• Example: Use a dot plot to display the ages of the 30

students in the statistics class
.
Ages of Students
18 20 21 27 29 20
19 30 32 19 34 19
24 29 18 37 38 22
30 39 32 44 33 46
54 49 18 51 21 21
Continued.
85
Dot Plot
Ages of Students
15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57
From this graph, we can conclude that most of the

values lie between 18 and 32.
Airline Training Program
In an airline training program, the students are

given a test in which they are given a set of tasks
and the time it takes them to complete the tasks is
measured. The following is a list of the time (in
seconds) for a group of new trainees.
61, 61, 64, 67, 70, 71, 71, 71, 72, 73, 74, 74, 75,
77, 79, 80, 81, 81, 83
Display the data in a dot plot.

87
Solution
Airline Training Program Test

New Trainees
= 1 person
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83
Time in Seconds
88
Are there any clusters?

New Trainees Yes!
= 1 person
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83
Time in Seconds
89
Are there any gaps?

Yes!
New Trainees
= 1 person
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83
Time in Seconds
90
Stem-and-Leaf Plot
In a stem-and-leaf plot, each number is separated into a
stem (usually the entry’s leftmost digits) and a leaf (usually
the rightmost digit). This is an example of exploratory data
analysis.
Example:
The following data represents the ages of 30 students in a
statistics class. Display the data in a stem-and-leaf plot.
Ages of Students
18 20 21 27 29 20
19 30 32 19 34 19
24 29 18 37 38 22
30 39 32 44 33 46
54 49 18 51 21 21 Continued.
Stem-and-Leaf Plot
Ages of Students
Key: 1|8 = 18
1 888999
2 0011124799 Most of the values lie
3 002234789 between 20 and 39.
4 469
5 14
This graph allows us to see
the shape of the data as well
as the actual values.
92
Stem-and-Leaf Plot
Example:
Construct a stem-and-leaf plot that has two lines for each
stem.
Ages of Students
1 Key: 1|8 = 18
1 888999
2 0011124
2 799
3 002234
3 789 From this graph, we can
4 4 conclude that more than 50%
4 69 of the data lie between 20
5 14 and 34.
5
93
Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circle that is divided into sectors that represent
categories. The area of each sector is proportional to the frequency of
each category.
Accidental Deaths in the USA in 2002
Type Frequency
Motor Vehicle 43,500
Falls 12,200
Poison 6,400
Drowning 4,600
Fire 4,200
Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900
(Source: US Dept. of Firearms 1,400 Continued.
Transportation)
94
Pie Chart
To create a pie chart for the data, find the relative frequency
(percent) of each category.
Relative
Type Frequency
Frequency
Motor Vehicle 43,500 0.578
Falls 12,200 0.162
Poison 6,400 0.085
Drowning 4,600 0.061
Fire 4,200 0.056
Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900 0.039
Firearms 1,400 0.019
n = 75,200
Continued.
Pie Chart
Next, find the central angle. To find the central angle,
multiply the relative frequency by 360°.
Relative
Type Frequency Angle
Frequency
Motor Vehicle 43,500 0.578 208.2°
Falls 12,200 0.162 58.4°
Poison 6,400 0.085 30.6°
Drowning 4,600 0.061 22.0°
Fire 4,200 0.056 20.1°
Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900 0.039 13.9°
Firearms 1,400 0.019 6.7°
Continued.
Pie Chart
Ingestion Firearms
3.9% 1.9%
Fire
5.6%
Drowning
6.1%
Poison
8.5% Motor
vehicles
Falls 57.8%
16.2%
97
Pareto Chart
A Pareto chart is a vertical bar graph is which the height of
each bar represents the frequency. The bars are placed in
order of decreasing height, with the tallest bar to the left.
Accidental Deaths in the USA in 2002
Type Frequency
Motor Vehicle 43,500
Falls 12,200
Poison 6,400
Drowning 4,600
Fire 4,200
Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900
(Source: US Dept. of Firearms 1,400 Continued.
Transportation)
Pareto Chart
Accidental Deaths
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
Poison
Motor Firearms
Falls Poison Drowning Fire
Vehicles
Ingestion of
Food/Object
Times Series Chart
A data set that is composed of quantitative data entries taken at regular intervals over a period
of time is a time series. A time series chart is used to graph a time series.
Example:
Month Minutes
The following table lists the number of
minutes Robert used on his cell phone
for the last six months. January 236
February 242
March 188
April 175
May 199
Construct a time series chart for the
number of minutes used.
June 135
Continued.
Times Series Chart
Robert’s Cell Phone Usage
250
200
Minutes
150
100
50
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
Month

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Section 2-2

• Construct frequency distributions

Frequency Distribution Class Frequency, f

1. Decide on the number of classes.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 of 149

4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the row of

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• The heights (in feet) of the tallest dams in the United

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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9 of 149

3. Use 59 (minimum value) Lower Upper

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Class Midpoint Frequency, f

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Class Frequency, f Relative Frequency

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Cumulative frequency of a class

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frequency data values

• First class lower boundary = 59 – 0.5 = 58.5

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Construct a frequency histogram for the Global

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Construct a frequency polygon for the GPS navigators

Class Midpoint Frequency, f

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The graph should

You can see that the frequency of GPS navigators increases

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Relative Frequency Histogram

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Construct a relative frequency histogram for the GPS

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6.5 18.5 30.5 42.5 54.5 66.5 78.5 90.5

Cumulative Frequency Graph or Ogive

1. Construct a frequency distribution that includes

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 30 of 149

4. Connect the points in order from left to right.

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Construct an ogive for the GPS navigators frequency

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6.5 18.5 30.5 42.5 54.5 66.5 78.5 90.5

• Constructed frequency distributions

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Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 35

The range is the difference between the maximum and

1. The number of classes (5) is stated in the problem.

2. The minimum data entry is 18 and maximum entry is

Class width = 36 = 7.2 Round up to 8.

4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the

5. The number of tally marks for a class is the frequency

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 40

Midpoint = (Lower class limit) + (Upper class limit)

Class Frequency, f Midpoint

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 41

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 45

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 46

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 48