THE AIRLINE PILOTS FORUM & RESOURCE

Combustion Chamber (Combustor):

Final stator stage feeds air into a diffuser section (velocity about 150 m/sec).

Diffuser converts air's kinetic energy into pressure energy.

Gas exits the diffuser at higher pressure and lower velocity (110 m/sec).

About 20% of the air (primary air) goes into the flame tube.

80% air (secondary air) is introduced after combustion has begun.

Even now the gas velocity is high (100 m/sec) for stable combustion because kerosene
burns with a flame rate of 3 metres per second only.

A swirler at the entrance of the flame tube swirls the air into a recirculation vortex, slowing
the air for continous combustion.

The area in which this recirculation occurs is called the "primary zone".

Fuel injector sprays fuel into the re-circulating air.

Fuel spray pattern and turbulent air helps to atomise the fuel.

Electric igniter starts combustion and is switched off once combustion is self sustaining.

Air and fuel are burned at the stoichiometric ratio of 15:1 (detonation not an issue).
Combustion temperature may peak at 2100 deg c.

Temperature of the hot combustion gases needs to be lowered to protect the material
limits.

Thus secondary air (remaining 80%) enters the flame tube into the "secondary zone" to
dilute the hot gases.
More air is added in the the "dilution zone" (last third of the flame tube).

Gas temperature leaving the combustion chamber is thus lowered to be between 1000-
1500 deg C.

So engine power is limited by the maximum temperature that turbine section can
withstand.

Multiple Combustion Chamber:

Individual chambers are arranged around the engine.

Chambers are interconnected to equalise pressure.

Flame propagates to all chambers.

Tubo-Annular (Canannular) Combustion Chamber:

A number of individual flame tubes fitted inside a single air casing.

Annular Combustion Chamber:

A single annular flame tube contained within an inner and outer air casing.

It is shorter than a multiple tube design.

It gives a more even distribution of the thermal loads on the turbine.

Amount of cooling air required is reduced (since the wall area is reduced).

Thus more air can be used in combustion.

It may be lined with ceramic tiles to protect the flame tube from the high temperatures.

Flame tube may allow cooling air to enter a network of passages in its walls which
provides a protective barrier between combustion gases and flame tube wall.

Combustion chambers have drain valves to remove un-burnt fuel.

Reverse Flow Annular Combustor:

Air exiting the compressor is first ducted around the combustor and then fed in from rear
to front.

Thus compressor and turbine sections can be placed closer together to create a shorter
engine.

Fuel Spray Nozzles:

Mounted around the circumference of the air casing.

Introduce finely atomised spray of kerosene into the turbulent air in the primary zone of
the flame tube.

Two types are:

1) Pressure Jet Injector:

"Simplex" nozzle: Fuel is delivered under high pressure through a swirl chamber and then
out through the nozzle. Inefficient at low RPM.

"Duplex" nozzle: Fuel is delivered under pressure to two orifices. Smaller orifice supplies
fuel at low RPM and larger at high.

2) Air Spray Injector:

Air from the compressor is chanelled through an inner swirl chamber and outer swirl
vanes.

An annular fuel nozzle sits between the two turbulent air stream.
Operate at lower fuel pressures than pressure jet injectors.

Ignition System:

A separate ignition source is usually required only during the start.

Ignition system can be powered by either AC or DC.

There are two types of AC igniters:

- High-energy (25,000 volt) type uses a capacitance High Energy Ignition Unit (HEIU) to
store and deliver about 60-100 sparks per minute during start.

- Surface Discharge Igniter uses an iridium electrode and silicon carbide semiconductor
to create a high intensity flashover from the electrode to the body. It requires only 2000
volts.

Ignition system can operate at two different energy outputs.

- High power (12 joule) output. Used for short periods (starting).

- Low power (3-6 joule) output. Used for continuous ignition.

DC ignition systems use a "vibrator" or "tumbler" mechanism to feed pulsed DC to a step-

up transformer or a "Transistorised Chopper Circuit".

Turbine:

Each stage comprises a set of fixed nozzle guide vanes (stator) and a rotating disc with
turbine blades.

The entire assembly is located within a divergent duct.

Gas leaves the combustion chamber and enters the nozzle guide vanes (NGVs).
NGVs direct the gas onto the turbine blades.

Turbine blades cause the turbine disc to rotate.

Impulse Turbine:

Nozzle guide vanes form convergent ducts.

Convergence accelerates the gas and reduce its pressure.

Gas strikes turbine blades.

Impulse force drives the turbine.

Reaction Turbine:

Nozzle guide vanes form convergent ducts.

Convergence accelerates the gas and reduce its pressure.

Turbine blades are arranged to form convergent ducts.

Air accelerates though the duct creating a reaction force which drives the turbine.

Impulse-Reaction Turbine:

It is a combination of impulse and reaction turbine blades.

Half the turning force comes from the impulse and half from the reaction.

The nozzle guide vanes form a convergent duct.

The turbine blade is shaped to capture impulse force at its root and generate reaction
force at its tip.
Turning force is not derived from the aerofoil shape of the blade so axial flow turbine
cannot stall.

Turbine blades and NGVs are twisted along their length to ensure gas flows with uniform
axial velocity along the entire length of the blade or vane.

The amount of twist (defined by its stagger angle) is greatest at the tip.

Turbine Blades:

Blade Creep: It is the increase in length of turbine rotor blades during their operating life
due to heat and stress.

Most turbine blades are cast from high temperature nickel alloy which is resistant to
creep.

Ceramic thermal barrier coating is also used.

Blade cooling mechanisms:

1) Convective Cooling: Vented cooling voids created inside the blade.

2) Impingement Cooling: Air jets onto the internal surfaces of the blade faces which are
then exhausted from holes in the blade's trailing edge.

3) Film Cooling: High pressure air fed to internal air passages exits through holes in blade
face forming a protective film across the surface.

The air for cooling is drawn from the HP compressor.

Turbine blades are attached to the disc using a fir tree root.

Turbine blade tips are usually shrouded to prevent tip losses.

Active Clearance Control:

It is a method for controlling turbine blade tip clearance in the turbine section.

Bleed air is played onto the turbine casing.

By adjusting the flow of bleed air the internal circumference of the casing can be
controlled.

Fatigue:

High Cycle Fatigue:

When large number of small stresses (above 10,000) lead to a component failure.

For turbines, it is caused by high frequency engine vibrations.

Low Cycle Fatigue:

When lower number of larger stresses cause the damage.

For turbines, it is caused by stress changes, tensile strain, and thermal stress.

It is reduced by operating at cooler temperatures and minimising turbine load changes.