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in - Vtu Notes, question Paper, books, Internship, Final Year Projects and many exciting offers for students
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n.
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RENEWABLE ENERGY
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SOURCES ol
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2
ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND
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STANDARD OF LIVING
n.
• Energy consumption of a country can be broadly classified into the following
sectors depending on energy related activities:
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– Domestic sector
– Transportation sector
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– Agriculture sector
– Industry sector
•
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Consumption of large amount of energy in a country indicates increased
activities in these sectors. This implies better comforts at home due to use of
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various appliances, better transport , agricultural and industrial output. Thus
enabling better quality of life. Thus per capita energy consumption is an
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n.
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1. Increasing Population
2. Increasing Energy Usage or consumption
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3. Uneven Distribution of energy sources
4. Lack of Technical knowhow
5. Wastage of available energy
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Minimizing population growth , Exploitation and harnessing the large
n.
utilization of known and unknown resources
Development of energy conversion techniques to convert basic
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energy available from energy reservoirs to usable form(primary
energy resources to secondary energy resources)
Usable energy form should be such that it is easy to generate,
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control transport and utilize. Eg: Electrical energy, heat
Energy Management
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Development of cheap and reliable energy resources. New energy
system should be pollution free so that it is acceptable to human
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beings
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RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
n.
Energy or fuel substitution or scale of shift
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Energy Density
Power Density
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Intermittency
Geographical energy distribution
ol
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CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES
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o Primary resources
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o Secondary resources
n.
o Conventional energy
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o Non-Conventional energy
Based on availability
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o Non-renewable Energy Sources
Based on origin
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o Fossil fuel energy, Nuclear energy, Hydro energy, Solar energy, Wind energy, etc.
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ol
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Advantages of conventional
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energy sources
n.
•
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COST: Is very relatively cheap
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quantity the energy availability can be ensured for certain period of
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time
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• Convenience: These sources are very convenient to use as
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sources
n.
• Pollution:
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– When used fossil fuels generate pollutants. Main pollutants are CO, CO2, Nox, Sox,
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particulate matter, heat etc
– These pollutants degrade the environment, pose health hazards and cause various
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other problems. CO2 is responsible for global warming.
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energy sources
n.
• Available abundantly in nature
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• They cause no pollution and hence environment friendly
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• They are inexhaustible ol
• Low gestation period
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energy sources
n.
• Though freely available cost of harnessing them is
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generally very high
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• Availability is uncertain, since it is dependent on
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natural phenomenon
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12
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How Long will fossil fuels last?
n.
• Oil: 42 years (depleted in 2059)
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• Natural gas:59years (depleted in 2076)
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• Coal: 115 years (depleted in 2132)
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n.
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ol
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ol
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15
RENEWABLE ENERGY
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n.
Energy sources such as sunlight ,wind, tides, and geothermal
Renewable or Naturally restored
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ol
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Potential for World Wide
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Renewable Energy
n.
Energy Resource Energy Amount
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Solar Energy 1600 Ej
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Wind Power 600 EJ
Geothermal
ol 500 EJ
Biomass 250 EJ
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Mini hydropower 50 E J
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Ocean Power 1 EJ
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17
Solar Energy
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Solar heating and Photovoltaic cells –potential sources of
n.
energy
Solar thermal Industry is growing rapidly
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22 solar thermal projects in Spain for 1037 MW
US plans for 5600 MW solar thermal projects
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Wind Power
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n.
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in
n.
Source Total Capacity (MW) Percentage
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Coal 134,388.39 58.75
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Renewable energy source ol 28,184.35 12.32
Total 2,28,721.73
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renewable energy
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ol
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ol
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Biomass
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ol
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24
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Energy From Sun
n.
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Primary Source of energy
Solar energy is derived from sun’s radiation
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If we could harvest energy from 10 hectors of suns
surface, that would be sufficient to supply the current
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energy demand
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Relationship
n.
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26
in
Elliptical orbit with a mean centre to centre distance 1.5 x
10^8 km
n.
Sun also rotates on its own once every month
Earths polar axis is inclined at angle 23.5
The distance from the sun to earth varies at +/- 1.7% over the
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average distance. Thus solar energy reaching earth will vary
+/- 3% per year
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Sun’s diameter =109 x Diameter of earth
The sun appears to move in arc from east to west owing to
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the earth’s rotation in north south axis
Viewing from the average miles,sun subtends an arc of 0.53
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degree
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in
n.
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28
in
Core
n.
Innermost layer
Highly dense
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40% suns mass in 10% volume
Gaseous state
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1,50,00000 degree celcius
Fusion reactions produce gamma rays and neutrinos
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Each high energy gamma ray that leaves the solar envelope
will become thousand low energy photons
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Neutrinos are non reactive
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29
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Solar envelope
n.
Radiative envelope surrounded by convective envelope
Temp is 4 million Kelvin
Less dense than core
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60% mass in 90% volume
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Puts pressure on core and maintains core temperature
Cooler and More Opaque than core
Energy movement in huge cells in convection zone only
ol
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30
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Photosphere
n.
Zone from which sunlight is seen and emitted
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Thin layer of low pressure gases
6000 degree celcius
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Chromosphere ol
A red circle can sometimes be seen outside the sun during
eclipse which is called chromosphere
Hydrogen abundant
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7000 K, hotter than photosphere
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n.
Corona
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The outermost layer of the sun
Thin and faint
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Visible during total solar eclipse
Outer layer is very dim
It is the hottest layer though
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Spreads over several million kilometers into space, lots of
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room for molecules to move
Causes Solar winds
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Earth Angles
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1.Hour Angle
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Hour angle is the angular distance between the meridian of
the observer and the meridian whose plane contains sun
n.
Hour angle is zero at solar noon
Increases by 15 degrees every hour
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ut
ol
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33
in
n.
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ω= −
= solar time
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ω = (1/4)
= time in minutes
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before or after solar noon
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2.Declination angle 35
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Angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of earth’s
equator
n.
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in
n.
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37
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3.Latitude Angle
Angle between line drawn on a point from earth’s surface to
n.
the center of earth and the earth’s equitorial plane
Intersection of earth’s equitorial plane with the surface of
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earth forms the equator and it is at 0 degree latitude
+90 degree– North Pole
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-90 degree –South Pole
+23.45 degree-Tropic of Cancer
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-23.45 degree –Tropic of Capricorn
66.55 degree- Artic Circle
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-66.55 degree -Antarctic Circle
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Sun Angle 39
in
n.
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40
in
Angle between the central ray of the sun and a horizontal
plane containing the observer
n.
Zenith Angle θ )
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Complement of solar altitude angle
θ =9 −
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Surface Angles
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41
in
n.
io
ut
ol
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Slope angle(β)
in
n.
Angle between tilted (collector)and horizontal surfaces
io
Surface Azimuth Angle( )
Angle between the line towards South and the projection of
ut
normal to the horizontal surface
Angle of Incidence(θ)
ol
Angle between sun’s ray and the normal to the tilted
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surface(collector)
vt
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43
in
Sun Earth Angle Relationships
n.
cos ∅𝑐 + 𝑖 ∅ 𝑖 𝑐 cos 𝑐 𝜔 + cos 𝑖 ω 𝑖 ∅ 𝑖 𝑖
𝑐 𝜃 =
+ 𝑖 𝑖 ∅𝑐 −𝑐 ∅ 𝑖 𝑐
io
Special cases:
ut
1.For a surface facing south, =0
𝑐 𝜃 = cos ∅ − cos 𝑐 𝜔 + 𝑖 sin ∅ −
ol
2. For a horizontal surface, =0, 𝜃 =𝜃
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𝑐 𝜃 = cos∅cos 𝑐 𝜔 + sin 𝑖 ∅
0
3. For a vertical surface facing due south, =0, =9
𝑐 𝜃 = −sin 𝑐 ϕ + cos 𝑐 ω 𝑖 ∅
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44
Solar Radiations
in
n.
Sun’s energy reaches earth in the form of electromagnetic
radiations
Sun converts its mass into light particles called photons
io
When a photon is absorbed ,it gets converted to electrical or
heat energy
ut
When solar energy travels from outer space to earth energy is
lost due to ol
Scattering
Absorption
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Cloud cover
Reflection
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Climate
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in
n.
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ut
ol
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vt
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46
in
Problems with harnessing solar
n.
energy
io
Only a small fraction of the energy leaving an area of the sun
reaches an equal area on earth
ut
Energy is available for only about half a day
Atmospheric conditions are unpredictable
ol
us
vt
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47
in
n.
Solar Constant(Isc)
io
It is the measure of energy density
Amount of solar electromagnetic radiation that would be
ut
incident on a unit area in a plane perpendicular to the rays of
sun at a distance of one AU
ol
Include all types of solar radiation ,not only visible light
World radiation Center (WRC) has adopted this as 1367
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W/m2
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48
in
Spectral energy distribution of
n.
solar radiation
io
Solar radiation has
ut
5% UV ol
43% visible
us
52% infrared
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49
in
n.
io
Radiation Wavelength(վm)
• Ultraviolet A • 0.1-0.28
ut
• Ultraviolet B • 0.28-0.315
• Ultraviolet C • 0.315-0.4
• •
•
Visible
IR A
ol •
0.4-0.78
0.7-1.4
• IR B • 1.4-3
us
• IR C • 3-100
vt
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50
in
n.
Intensity of solar radiation attenuates as it propagates
io
from the surface of the sun but wavelength remains
unchanged
ut
ol
Is the solar radiation incident on the outer
us
atmosphere of the earth
vt
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in
radiations
n.
1. Variation in the radiation emitted by the sun
- It is less than ±1.5%
io
2. Variation of the earth sun distance arising from the earths
slightly elliptical path
ut
- It is approximately ±3% ol
- Is specified as follows
us
2
𝐼 =𝐼 . + . cos 𝑊/
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52
in
Terrestrial radiations
n.
Is the solar radiations that reach the earth surface
io
after absorption and scattering in the atmosphere
ut
Solar insolation
ol
Is defined as the solar radiation per unit area
us
received on a flat horizontal surface on the earth
vt
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53
in
Solar Radiation
n.
Received on the earth surface
io
ut
Direct or beam radiation (unchanged in direction)
ol
Diffuse radiation (direction changed after scattering and
us
reflection
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54
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Global radiation
n.
Is the total radiation at any location on the surface of the earth which is
io
the sum of beam radiation and diffused radiation
ut
and received at the earth surface without change of direction i.e in
ol
line with the sun
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55
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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56
in
Depletion of solar radiation
n.
1. Absorption
a. N2, O2 and other atmospheric gases absorb X rays and extreme ultraviolet
radiations
io
b. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiations (λ <0.38µm)
c. Water vapor and CO2 absorbs infrared radiations (λ > 2.3µm)
ut
d. Dust and air molecules absorb parts of solar radiant energy irrespective of
wavelength
2. Scattering
ol
Under normal atmospheric conditions
by dust particles and air molecules involves redistribution of incident energy
us
- part of it is lost and the remaining reaches the earth as diffuse radiation
In cloudy atmosphere
A major part of the incoming radiation is reflected back by the clouds
vt
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57
in
Air mass, m
n.
Defined as the ratio of the path length the solar beam traversed through the
io
atmosphere to ground to the vertical path length (min) through the
ut
atmosphere
=
𝑣
ℎ
𝑖
ℎ
ℎ
𝑣
ol ℎ ℎ
𝑖 𝑖
us
vt
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Air mass, m
in
AM0 => m=0,Zero atmosphere i.e. radiation in outer space
n.
AM1 => m=1 i.e sun is overhead (𝜃 =0)
io
AM2=> m=2 (𝜃 =600)
ut
= = sec𝜃 = cosec α ol
Where α= inclination angle
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𝜃 = zenith angle
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59
in
Irradiance on a tilted surface
n.
𝐼 ℎ=𝐼 𝑖
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin +
io
α= 90- +
ut
𝐼 = 𝐼0ℎ sin + /( 𝑖
𝐼 = Solar radiation on tilted surface
ol
𝐼0 =solar radiation measured
Perpendicular to sun
us
𝐼0ℎ = solar radiation measured
on a horizontal surface
vt
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Solar Thermal Energy -
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Applications
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Technologies for conversion of solar energy into usable form
includes
n.
Passive system
-- collects energy through the orientation, materials and construction of
io
collector
--suited for
ut
--- design of buildings
--- thermo siphoning solar hot water systems(refers to a method of
passive heat exchange based on natural convection, which circulates
ol
a fluid without the necessity of a mechanical pump)
Active System
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-- Use pumps to circulate water or any other absorbing fluid through
solar collectors
vt
61
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Thermosiphon system
n.
io
ut
ol
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62
in
n.
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63
in
n.
Solar energy can be collected to create high temperature steam
as well as low temperature heat
Low ,Medium, and high temperature collectors
io
Low and medium temperature collectors are flat plates
Low temperature collectors are used to heat swimming pools
ut
whereas Medium temperature collectors are used to heat water
or air for domestic and commercial purposes
ol
High temperature systems use mirrors or reflective surfaces to
concentrate sunlight and are used for electric power generation
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64
in
Systems
n.
Space Heating for Homes ,offices and green houses
Domestic and Industrial hot water
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Pool heating
Desalination
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Solar Cooking
Crop Drying
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in
SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY
n.
COLLECTORS
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ol
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Solar Collectors
in
Solar energy needs to be collected and then concentrated
n.
Residential panels collects below 60 degree celcius
In large scale systems ,the temperature is about 70 to 80
io
degree celcius
ut
Solar Collectors are special kind of heat exchangers that
converts solar radiation energy into the internal energy of
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the medium
Absorbs incoming solar radiation ,converts it to heat and
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then transfers this heat to a fluid flowing through the
collector
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in
Solar water heaters
n.
Solar space heating systems
Industrial process heat systems
io
Solar desalination systems
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Solar thermal power generation systems
ol
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n.
Flat Plate Collectors
Flat air plate collectors
io
Flat plate liquid collectors
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Concentrating Collectors
Stationary concentrating collectors
ol
Tracking concentrating collectors
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in
Referred to as the non concentrating type
n.
Same area for intercepting and absorbing solar radiation
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in
Dark flat Plate Absorber of Solar energy
---consists of thin absorber sheet of thermally stable materials such as
n.
Al,Cu,steel,etc..
Transparent Cover
io
---allows solar energy to pass through, but
reduces heat losses
---reduces covection and radiation losses from
ut
absorber plate
Heat Transport Fluid
--air,water or antifreeze
ol
--To remove heat from absorber, fluid is usually
circulated through tubing to transfer heat from
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absorber to an insulating tank
Heat Insulation Backing
Insulated casing of glass or polycarbonate cover
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Flat Plate Air Collector
Air is the transport medium
in
Air flows past the absorber by natural
covection or by blowers
n.
Less efficient than liquid type as
air does not conduct heat as easily as
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liquid
Flat Plate Liquid Collector
ut
Liquid is the heat transfer medium
Liquid gets heated as it passes through the tubes in or adjacent to the plates
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Concentrating collectors
in
Uses reflectors to concentrate sunlight
n.
Reduces the size of absorber
Reduce heat losses
io
Increases efficiency at high temperature
ut
Used for high temperature applications such as steam
production for electricity
ol
Best suited for climates that have abundance of clear sky days
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Parabolic reflector
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Concentrating Collectors
in
Stationary concentrating collectors
n.
Operated in stationary mode
Uses compound parabolic reflector & flat reflectors for
io
directing solar energy to an accompanying absorber or
operate through a wide acceptance angle
ut
Wide acceptance angle eliminates the need for sun tracing
ol
Tracking Concentrating Collector
Heliostats are tracking mirrors that reflect solar energy on to
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a fixed point
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Collector Configurations
in
Flat Plate Collector
---Liquid Flat plate
n.
---Air Flat plate
Commonly used configurations are
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1. Glazed flat Plate
2. Unglazed flat plate
ut
3. Unglazed perforated flat plate
4. Back Pass flat plate
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5. Batch Flat Plate
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6. Solar Cooker
7. Evacuated Flat Plate
8. Concentrating
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in
Glazed flat plate collector
n.
Commonly available as liquid or air
based collectors
io
Suited for moderate
temperature
ut
30-70 degree Celcius
Used for
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---Domestic and commercial
building
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---water heating
---Indoor swimming Pool
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in
Unglazed Flat Plate Collector
n.
Suited for low temperature applications below 30 degree
celcius
io
Made of black plastic which can withstand ultraviolet rays
ut
Since no glazing is provided, it can absorb more heat
But losses are also more
ol
They transfer heat so well to air so that they can even capture
heat from air even at night
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Used for heating outdoor pools, fish farming, pre heating
water for car washes, etc..
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in
n.
Industrial grade siding or cladding having perforated small
holes at a pitch of 2-5 cm
io
Mainly used for heating of buildings
ut
Air is passed through the collector before it is drawn into the
building to provide preheated fresh ventilation air
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Highly efficient and cost effective solution
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in
A large solar absorber is used to heat air
n.
Collectors that are coated with glaze can also be used to heat
air for space heating
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Batch Flat Plate Collector
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in
Earlier, black painted water tanks exposed to sun were used
n.
Modern batch collectors have a glazing to concentrate solar
energy on tank surface
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in
Addition of a reflector increases solar yield on the collector
n.
and the overall performance of the collector
Enhancement in solar yield is about 44% in winter and 15%
io
in summer
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in
Conventional flat plate collectors will be less efficient during
n.
cloudy, or cold weather conditions
Weather influences such as condensation and moisture will
io
deteriorate internal materials resulting in system failure
Evacuated tube collector will operate in a different manner
ut
which makes it suitable for adverse weather conditions as
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well
Can achieve high temperatures(75 to 180 degree Celcius)
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Suitable for industrial and commercial applications
Highly efficient with low thermal losses
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io
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ol
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Absorber Coatings
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Glazing
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in
Glazing for practical applications requires attention in the
following areas
n.
Cost
Longevity
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Absorptivity
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Ability to withstand wind conditions
Glazing Materials
ol
Glass and Fiberglass
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Tedlar bonded to fiberglass
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Insulating Shell
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Concentrating Collectors
in
Concave reflecting surface(shaped mirrors or lenses)
n.
Focus the sun’s beam radiation to a smaller receiver area
Provides high temperatures than flat plate collectors
io
Mirror requires a clean ,smooth reflecting surface
Selection of concentrating collector depends on the degree of
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concentration and hence the temperature to be achieved
Concentrating
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on a point-high to very high temperature
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on a line-moderate to high temperature
Non focusing –low to moderate temperature
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Classification of Concentrating
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Collectors
in
1. Based on means of concentration
n.
2. Based on reflecting surfaces used: parabolic, spherical ,or
flat
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3. Continuous or segmented
ut
4. Based on the formation of the image: imaging or non-
imaging ol
5. Imaging concentrator may focus on a line or at a point
6. On the basis of collector concentration degree or operating
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temperature
7. By the type of tracking
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1. Compound Parabolic Solar
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Collectors
in
Non Imaging Concentrating
Collector
n.
To make an image, all the
parallel light rays should be
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concentrated at a single point.
Non-Imaging collectors are the
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collectors which can’t make the
image (of sun). ol
Compound Parabolic Collector
(CPC) is a well-known kind of
non-imaging collector. In CPC,
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parallel light rays get focused at
two points instead of one
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in
The CPC is comprised of two
parabolic mirror segments with
n.
different focal points as indicated in
figure.
io
The focal point (B) of 1 st parabola
lies on 2 nd parabola, whereas the
ut
focal point (A) of 2 nd parabola lies
on 1st parabola.
The two parabolic surfaces are
symmetrical with respect to
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reflection through the axis of the
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CPC.
The receiver tube place is AB.
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2.Parabolic Trough Solar Collector
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U shaped reflectors
in
Made by bending a sheet of
reflective material
n.
The troughs concentrate the
sunlight onto the receiver tube
which is placed along the focal line
io
Receiver Tube is a metal black tube
often covered with glass tube to
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reduce heat losses
They often use single axis or double
axis tracking
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50 to 400 degree Celcius is
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achievable
It can be used to produce steam for
electricity generation
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in
Linear Fresnel Reflector(LFR) relies on an array of linear
n.
mirror strips that concentrate light onto a fixed receiver
mounted on a linear tower
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in
Cheaper compared to parabolic reflectors
n.
Structural Requirements are minimal as they are mounted
close to ground
io
In order to avoid shading and blocking between adjacent
reflectors ,increased spacing is required
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in
Biggest advantage of cylindrical trough collector is that it
n.
does not require tracking of sun
For high rim angles there will be a focal plane instead of focal
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line
Design should be done with low rim angles
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in
Similar to a large satellite dish in appearance
n.
Mirror like reflectors and Absorber at focal point
Uses dual axis sun tracker
io
Receiver absorbs solar
energy and converts it to
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thermal energy in the
circulating fluid
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This thermal energy can be
converted to electricity
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Temperature upto 1500
degree Celcius can be achieved
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in
Most efficient of all collector systems as they are always
n.
pointing the sun
Concentration ratio in the range of 500-2000,and thus are
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highly efficient at thermal energy absorption and power
conversion systems
ut
Modular collector and receiver units that can function either
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independently or as a part of a large system of dishes
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6.Heliostats
in
Mirror based system used to continuously reflect sunlight to a
n.
central receiver
The collected solar energy is then converted to electrical energy
io
Uses a two axis solar tracking mirror that directs solar energy to a
large absorber located on a tower
ut
Power Tower-A field of large mirrors that follow the suns path
across the sky and concentrate sunlight on to a receiver on top of a
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high tower
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A computer keeps the mirrors aligned so that the reflected rays
are always aimed at the receiver
Temperature wee above 1000 degree Celcius can be achieved
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in
A practical solar heliostat is a mirror that makes movements
n.
up or down and left or right to reflect sunlight onto a fixed
point
io
The relative angular position of the receiver is input to the
computer
ut
The computer commands the heliostat motor drive system to
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position the mirror exactly midway(angularly) between the
sun and thermal receiver
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Each heliostat is given a unique command
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in
1. Solar dish Concentrator
n.
2. Power Conversion Unit
3. Tracking System
io
Power Conversion Unit
• Includes thermal receiver and the heat engine
ut
• Thermal receiver absorbs the concentrated beam of solar energy,
converts it to heat and transfers the heat to heat engine
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• Heat engine takes heat from the thermal receiver and uses it to
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produce electricity
• Heat engines use fluids such as Hydrogen and Helium for their
working
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The Engine Generator components are
1. A receiver to absorb the concentrated sunlight to heat the
working fluid of the engine
in
2. The engine itself which converts the thermal energy into
mechanical work
n.
3. An alternator attached to generate electricity
4. A waste heat Exhaust System
io
5. A control system to match the engine operation with the
available solar energy
ut
Stirling Engine is the most common type used
The parabolic dish heat engine system lacks thermal storage
capabilities
ol
It can be hybridised to run on fossil fuels during periods without
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sunshine
Tracking System
Computers are used to track the sun for maximum output
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io
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Solar Collector Systems into Building
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Services
in
Low operating cost, but high installation cost
n.
The most economical way is to have
io
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The solar system meets the energy demand while operating
at its full capacity
ol
Auxillary or back up system should be provide to carry peak
and unusual load
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in
The major components are
1. Air handling Unit: a fan and two motor driven dampers
n.
2. Heat storage unit(rock bed)
3. Temperature Control System
io
4. Solar collectors
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Depending on position of dampers there are 3 modes of operation
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in
Normal day time solar heating mode.
The storage unit is bypassed.
n.
If the temperature is below a limit ass measured by sensor place in
the top of collector, auxillary furnace is turned on automatically
io
Damper A open, B closed:
This mode is used when solar energy is collected ,but no heating
ut
is required
It gets collected in the rock bed(heat storage)
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Damper A closed ,B open:
Used for cloudy periods or at night
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The return air from the building is passed through rock bed,
where it picks up solar heat
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in
Two main parts
n.
1. Solar Collector
2. Storage tank
io
Types
1.Active Systems
ut
Rely on pumps to move the fluid between the collector &
storage tank
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2.Passive System
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Rely on Gravity and tendency for water to naturally circulate
as it is heated
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in
It can be for
n.
Water heating
Space Heating
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Parts of Water Heating Systems
ut
1. Collectors
2. Circulation System
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3. Storage tank
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4. Backup Heating System
5. Control System
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in
Uses the same components as the active solar water heating
n.
system along with a heating distribution system
The heated water is used as the heat source for air heating
io
The distribution system can be either of the three types
ut
1. Air distribution System
2. Hydronic system with radiators
ol
3. Hydronic system with in slab heat
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n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
Hydronic system with radiators
n.
The heated water is circulated in series with a boiler into
radiators located in living spaces
io
Using solar heated water for boiler will reduce boiler’s
energy consumption
Temperature upto 140 degree Celcius
ut
ol
Hydronic system with in slab heating
The heated water is pumped through distribution piping
us
within the floor of the home
Temperatures upto 80 degree Celcius
vt
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n.
Types :
1. Batch System
io
2. Thermosiphon system
ut
ol
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n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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n.
io
ut
ol
us
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n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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Solar Drying
in
Used for domestic as well as Industrial applications
n.
Advantages
Hygienic and eco-friendly method
io
Economical compared to dryers which uses conventional
ut
fuels or electricity
Limitations
Comparatively Slow Process
ol
us
Intermittent availability of sun
Upto 40 -50 degree Celcius
vt
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n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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n.
io
ut
ol
us
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Solar Cookers
in
Basic principles are
n.
1. Concentrating Sunlight
2. Converting light to heat
io
3. Trapping the heat
ut
4. Green House effect
Types
ol
1. Box Type
us
2. Reflector Cookers
3. Solar steam and Convection Cooker
vt
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n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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n.
io
ut
ol
us
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n.
io
ut
ol
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Components
n.
1. Absorber
2. Generator
io
3. Solar Collector
ut
4. Condenser
5. Expansion valve
ol
6. Evaporator
us
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Absorber
in
Used to store mixture of ammonia and water in a fixed proportion
Function is to produce required aqua ammonia solution for the
n.
generator using pumps
io
Low pressure Ammonia vapour is absorbed by solution of
ammonia and water in the absorber
ut
Generator
Collects thermal energy from sun and heats the strong aqua
ol
ammonia solution to boiling point and converts it to pure
ammonia vapours of high pressure
us
It also separates dissolved ammonia from water using analysers.
vt
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Solar Collectors
in
Provides heat to the generator
n.
Condenser
Used to condense the ammonia vapour to high pressure
io
liquid form
Expansion valve
ut
Used to convert high pressure ammonia liquid to low
pressure and inputs it to the evaporator
ol
Evaporator
us
Absorbs heat from the space to be cooled and converts the
low pressure liquid ammonia to low pressure vapour
vt
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Solar Pond
in
n.
io
ut
ol
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in
A pool of water that collects and also stores solar energy
n.
It has three different layers of water which differs by their
density
io
Density difference is achieved by adding salt solutions of
different concentration
ut
Relatively cold top layer with low salt content
ol
Intermediate layer with salt gradient that maintains the
density gradient , acts as the thermal insulator
us
Hot bottom layer (up to 100 degree Celcius ) with high salt
content
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Difference in densities prevent convection currents which
n.
would have transferred heat to the surface of pond and then
to air
io
Heat is trapped in the highly dense , salty bottom layer
which can be used
ut
But low solar to electricity conversion efficiency -15%
ol
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in
Advantages of solar pond
n.
Low cost per unit area of collection
Inherent capacity for storage purposes
io
Great source for production of electricity
ut
Reduced Pollution
Will help in saving conventional energy sources
ol
Since it is coupled with desalting units ,it can be used for
us
purification of water
vt
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io
ut
ol
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Solar Cells
in
n.
Solar cell
io
An energy conversion device that converts sunlight to electricity
by using photovoltaic effect
Photovoltaic effect
ut
Generation of electromotive force as a result of absorption of
ionizing radiation
ol
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Solar Photovoltaic
in
Sunlight contains energy packets called photons
n.
The amount of energy depends on the wavelength of solar radiation
io
When this sunlight falls on a semiconductor material they impart enough
ut
energy to the electrons in the valence band to jump to the conduction band
ol
These highly excited electrons when accelerated by the built in potential
us
creating an electromotive force
vt
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in
electrical conductivity
n.
io
ut
ol
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Energy of a photon
in
n.
Solar radiations reach the earth in the form of electromagnetic waves
io
They contain packets of energy called photons
ut
The amount of energy depends on the wavelength of the radiations
ol
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Energy of photon
in
n.
Solar radiations available to us has energy in the range of 1.8eV to 3.1eV
io
As a result semiconductors are used to make the cells whose band gap energy is in this
ut
range
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io
ut
ol
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vt
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io
ut
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io
ut
ol
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in
Cells
n.
Substrate:
io
Unpolished p type wafer
referred to as the p region base
ut
material
Thickness:180-300 վm
ol
Typical resistivity values are
1-2 Ωcm
us
Doping: 5x 1 /cu.cm –
1 x 1 /cu.cm
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n.
Emitter:
io
Involves the doping of silicon with
penta valent impurities like phosphorous
Doping is done by the process of
ut
diffusion
The silicon wafer is placed in ol
a phosphorous rich environment
at high temperatures(850 degree Celcius)
The phosphorous diffuses in due
us
to the concentration gradient
Thickness:0.2-1վm
Doping: 1 x 19 /cu.cm
vt
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in
n.
Electrical Contacts
io
Essential to connect to the external load
Back Contact
ut
Metallic Conductor completely
covered in black
Located on the sideway from
the incoming sunlight
ol
Consists of aluminium
us
or Molybdenum metal
Front Contact
Located on the side facing the sunlight
vt
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n.
Anti Reflective Coating
io
To reduce reflection and maximize efficiency
Helps to reduce reflection of desirable wavelengths
ut
from the cell allowing more light to reach the
semiconductor film layer
ol
Silicon dioxide and Titanium dioxide is commonly
us
applied
3-4% increase in efficiency is observed due to the use
of anti reflective coating
vt
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system
n.
io
ut
ol
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n.
Silicon
io
Mono crystalline or single crystal Silicon
Multi crystalline Silicon
ut
Poly crystalline Silicon ol
Amorphous Silicon
Thin Film
us
A few micro meters thickness
vt
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n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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io
ut
ol
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in
n.
HYDROGEN
io
ENERGY
ut
ol
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in
Hydrogen Energy
n.
O Simplest element
io
O Available in combination with other
elements, eg: Water, hydro carbons, etc..
ut
O Hydrogen energy can be thought of usable
form, next to electrical energy in future
ol
us
vt
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Benefits of Hydrogen Energy
n.
O Use of Hydrogen greatly reduces pollution
io
O Hydrogen can be produced locally from
numerous sources
ut
O A sustainable production system if hydrogen
is produced from water
ol
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Hydrogen Production
in
technologies
n.
O The choice of production method depends
io
on the required purity of hydrogen
O The methods are
ut
O 1.Thermochemical production
O 2.Electrolytic production
ol
O 3.Photolytic Production
us
vt
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1.Thermochemical Production
in
Technologies
n.
O Hydrogen bound in water and organic matter
io
constitutes 70% of it on the earths surface
O Different Thermochemical production
ut
methods are
O A. Steam Reforming
O
ol
B. Partial Oxidation or Ceramic Membrane
Reactor
us
O C. Biomass Gasification and Pyrolysis
vt
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O Steam Reforming
in
O This process uses thermal energy to
separate hydrogen from methane and
n.
methanol
O Involves the reaction of these fuels with
io
steam on catalytic surfaces
O Steam reforming of natural gas is normally
ut
used
O Natural gas is cleared from sulphur
components
ol
O It is mixed with steam and send over a
us
Nickel Aluminia Catalyst inside a heated
tubular reactor
vt
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O The two steps involved in Steam reforming are
O Step 1:Decomposition of fuel into CO and H2
n.
io
O Step 2:Shift reaction changes CO and water to
CO2 and H2
ut
ol
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in
Membrane Reactor
n.
O Natural gas (or other hydrocarbons) and oxygen
are injected into a high pressure reactor
io
O The oxygen to carbon ratio is optimised to
minimise soot
ut
O The large amount of heat generated is removed
ol
O The next step is shift reaction to combine CO
and water to form CO2 and H2
us
O Since the reactions are exothermic, there is no
need to supply external heat
vt
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Membrane Reactor
n.
O The process needs oxygen which is usually
io
provided by a distillation plant
O Partial Oxidation helped by a oxidation
ut
catalyst is called as catalytic partial
oxidation ol
O Less energy efficient than steam reforming
us
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in
Pyrolysis
n.
O Biomass pyrolysis produces a liquid product
io
(bio-oil)
O Bio oil consists of a wide spectrum of highly
ut
reactive oxygenated components that can
be separated into valuable chemicals and
ol
fuels including hydrogen
us
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Electrolytic Production
in
Technologies
n.
O Separates the hydrogen and oxygen from
water by passing electrical current in an
io
electrochemical cell
O Addition of electrolyte improves efficiency of
ut
process by enhancing conductivity
O The charge breaks the chemical bond
ol
between the hydrogen and oxygen and
creates ions
us
O Hydrogen ions gets collected at cathode and
oxygen ions at anode
vt
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O 1.Alkaline Electrolyser
n.
O A solution of sodium or potassium chloride is
used
io
O 2.Proton Exchange Membrane(PEM)
ut
ol
O Electrolyte is a proton conducting membrane
us
O Mobile ions are protons
vt
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Methods of Electrolytic
in
Production
n.
O Water Electrolysis
io
O Steam Electrolysis
O Photo Electrolysis
ut
O Thermochemical water splitting
O By product of KCl and NaCl Electrolysis
ol
O Reversible Fuel Cells
us
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1.Water Electrolysis
O Splits water into hydrogen and oxygen by
n.
current passage
2.Steam Electrolysis
io
O Variation of conventional process
O Energy needed to split the water is provided by
ut
heat instead of electricity
O More efficient
ol
O At 2500 degree Celcius,water decomposes
into hydrogen and oxygen
us
O Chance of recombination is high at high
temperatures
vt
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O 3.Thermochemical water splitting
O Uses bromine or iodine assisted by heat
n.
O Causes water molecules to split
io
ut
ol
us
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O 4. By product of KCl and NaCl Electrolysis
n.
io
O 5.Photo Electrolysis
ut
O Uses solar power for providing necessary
current for electrolysis
O 6.Reversible Fuel Cell
ol
O Operating PEM fuel Cell in reverse mode will
us
yield hydrogen
vt
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Fuel Cell
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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Photolytic Production Process
n.
O There are two methods
O 1.Photo electrochemical cell(PEC)
io
O Using soluble metal
O As the metal dissolves in water ,it will absorb solar energy
and produces an electric charge which drives water
ut
splitting to produce hydrogen
O Using semiconductor electrode(anode)
O A semiconductor metal is used as anode
O
ol
It absorbs photons of sufficient energy
O Electrons are transferred from valence band to conduction
us
band producing current flow to split water
O Light induced corrosion limits useful life of the
semiconductor
vt
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O Uses algae and bacteria to produce
n.
hydrogen
O Under specific conditions the pigments in
io
certain types of algae absorb solar energy
O The enzyme in the cell acts as catalyst to
ut
split the water molecules
O Bacteria requires substrate to grow on
ol
O These organisms can clean up pollution as
well
us
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in
Hydrogen Energy Storage
n.
O Hydrogen can be stored in
io
O 1.Compressed Gas and liquid hydrogen Storage
tanks
ut
O Liquefied hydrogen is denser than gaseous
hydrogen ol
O Tanks are required to be insulated to prevent
hydrogen loss
O 2.Material based storage
us
O Hydrogen can be stored on the surface of
solids(adsorption) or within them(absorption)
vt
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O 1.Compression
O Hydrogen can be compressed into containers or reservoirs
n.
O Higher the pressure higher the energy density
O Simple technology, but low energy density and efficiency(65-70%)
O Most common method for transport industry(at 700 bar)
O The energy required for compression is a major drawback
io
O 2.Liquefied Hydrogen
O Can be liquefied by pressurising and cooling
O Here energy density is improved ,it is still less than conventional petrol
ut
O It must be kept below 20.27K
O 3.Metal Hydrides
O Certain metal hydrides and several types of carbon can absorb hydrogen
O
O
ol
By absorbing, hydrogen can be easily transported and stored
Once required, the hydrogen is removed from parent metal
O The extra material required to store is the major issue here
us
O Both metal hydride an carbon based absorption need to use thermal energy
which could be obtained from the waste heat of other processes, such as
electrolyzer or fuel cell , to improve efficiency
vt
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Applications
n.
O At home sector
io
O Fuel cells are Ideal for residential zones
O Silent operation
ut
O No moving parts
O Provide reliable power ol
O At work sector
O Fuel cells can be used to power up office
buildings
us
O No need of backup power generators as fuel cell
power does not rely on transmission lines
vt
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in
n.
O Transport and industrial sector
io
O Fuel cells can power cars ,buses, airplanes,
cell phones, laptops, and more.
ut
O Can replace conventional power generators
such as combustion engines or even large
ol
batteries in cars, submarines,etc..
us
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Advantages of Hydrogen
in
Energy
n.
O Uncoupling of primary energy source and utilization
O It is easier to store than to store electricity
io
O It can be obtained fro any primary energy source ,
including renewable energy source
O Decentralized production is possible. Hydrogen is
ut
viewed as capable of providing services where
electricity is not available, in particular as a fuel for
vehicles and energy storage in remote areas
O
ol
Very efficient when used in fuel cells
O Very good experience of hydrogen as a chemical
us
reactant
O Very good safety records
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Disadvantages of Hydrogen
in
Energy
n.
O Poor overall energy efficiency
io
O Very low density and poor specific volume
energy density
Need for high pressures and very low
ut
O
temperatures when stored in liquid state
O Specific safety problems and poor public
acceptance
ol
O No existing infrastructures for transport ,
us
distribution and storage
O Rather high cost(till today)
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in
Hydrogen Energy
n.
O Hydrogen Storage
O Should be stored under high pressure and low temperature
io
O A container with such specifications are larger than a storage tank
O High Reactivity of Hydrogen
O Hydrogen is extremely reactive .It is combustible and flammable.
ut
O Cost and methods of hydrogen fuel production
O Current methods of production of hydrogen involves usage of fossil
fuels
O New clean technology or hydrogen production methods will need to be
O Consumer Demand
ol
developed for hydrogen vehicles to make sense
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in
n.
io
Geothermal Energy
ut
ol
us
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Geothermal Energy
in
n.
Utilize temperature of the
earth’s core.
io
• 70% comes from the decay of
radioactive nuclei like uraniu
ut
m with long half lives that are
embedded within the Earth ol
• Some energy is from residual
heat left over from Earths for
mation.
us
• The rest of the energy comes
from meteorite impacts.
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Geothermal Systems
n.
Under the earths crust there is a layer of hot and molten rock
called magma
io
Heat is continuously produced here
The amount if heat within 10 km of the earths surface contain
ut
s 50,000 times more energy than all oil and natural gas reserv
oirs in the world.
ol
us
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Geothermal Systems
n.
The temperature gradient between magma and earths surface causes mag
ma’s heat to flow slowly towards the surface where it is lost to atmospher
io
e
The cooled magma forms the crust
ut
If magma breaks through weak spots in the crust ,the result is a volcano
In some places, the crust permits surface water to come into contact with
the hot magma
ol
The molten magma itself contains water which it releases as it solidifies
The heated water or steam rises to the surface forming hot springs and
us
geysers
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in
Geothermal Reservoirs
n.
io
ut
ol
us
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Locations
in
n.
Ring of Fire
Over 20 countries:
io
Iceland, U.S., Italy,
ut
France, China, Japan,
ect. ol
The United States is
us
the country with the
greatest geothermal
energy production
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Classifications
n.
Dry Steam geothermal Systems(Vapour Dominated)
:In this case a hole dug into the ground can cause steam to come to t
he
io
surface.
Hot Water Geothermal Systems(Liquid Dominated)
ut
As the name implies these are reservoirs of hot underground water.
Water under pressure will be found in liquid state ,but when it comes t
ol
o the low pressure surface, will vapourise into steam
These systems were found in countries like New Zealand and in Mexico
us
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Geothermal Energy Utilization
n.
Direct Use of Low grade Geothermal Energy
Aquaculture and horticulture
io
Fish farming, green houses, etc..
ut
Industry and Agriculture
Drying fruits, vegetables, wood, drying wool, extraction of g
ol
old and silver from ore, etc..
Food Processing
us
Sterilizing of equipment
Residential use
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Electricity Generation
in
n.
Dry Steam Power Plant: Uses the
superheated, pressurized steam (180°-
io
350°C)
ut
ol
us
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in
n.
Steam produced directly from the reservoir runs the turbines t
hat power the generator
io
Dry steam systems are simple
Requires
ut
steam condensate injection piping
ol
minimal steam cleaning devices
Rock catcher to remove large solids
us
Centrifugal separator to remove condensate and small solid
particulates
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Final scrubber
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Electricity Generation
in
n.
Flash Steam Power Plant: use hot water
above 182°C (360°F) from geothermal
io
reservoirs.
ut
ol
us
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in
n.
The fluid is sprayed into a flash tank, which is held at a much lower pressure than
the fluid, causing it to vaporise (or flash) rapidly to steam.
The steam is then passed through a turbine coupled to a generator as for dry steam
io
plants.
ut
ol
us
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Electricity Generation
in
n.
Binary Cycle Power Plant:
Insufficiently hot resource to efficiently
io
produce steam
ut
Too many chemical impurities to allow
flashing. ol
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in
n.
In the binary cycle process, the geothermal fluid is passed through a heat
exchanger.
io
The secondary fluid, which has a lower boiling point than water (eg
isobutane or pentane), is vaporised, and expanded through a turbine to
generate electricity.
ut
The working fluid is condensed and recycled for another cycle.
All of the geothermal fluid is reinjected into the ground in a closed-cycle
system.
ol
Binary cycle power plants can achieve higher efficiencies than flash steam
us
plants, and they allow the utilisation of lower temperature resources.
In addition, corrosion problems are avoided.
However, binary cycle plants are more expensive, and large pumps are
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Heat Pumps
in
n.
Utilizes constant
temperature of upper
io
10 feet of the Earth’s
ut
surface.
Similar to ordinary
ol
heat pumps, but they
us
rely on more stable
source than air.
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in
Resources
n.
Steam separated in a conventional manner and used to supply
cheap water
io
CO2 extracted from the gases are used for refrigeration and fo
od processing
ut
Hydrogen Sulphide refined to obtain sulphur
Hot waters could supply a desalination plant
ol
The hot water would also provide air conditioning and
us
refrigeration
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in
Global Geothermal Energy Scenario
n.
io
ut
ol
us
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Prospects of Geothermal Energy in India
n.
More than 300 hotsprings scattered all over the country
Mostly in Bihar, Bombay, Ratnagiri, Himachal Pradesh and
io
Ladakh
ut
Indian geothermal field is mainly a liquid dominated field(hot
water)
Streams of water under depths 11 – 32m
ol
Studies are essential to determine whether such low temperat
us
ure and low pressure water could be used for electricity gener
ation
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in
n.
Major ones are
io
Puga(Ladakh,50-110 degree celcius,25MW),
Manikaran(HP,69-93 degree Celcius),
Rajgir(35-42.5 degree Celcius)
ut
ol
Surajkund(87 degree Celcius)
us
Ratnagiri..
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in
Problems Associated with Geothermal Energy
n.
Estimation of power life of the reservoir
Separation of steam from steam water mixture and its
io
transport through pipelines to power houses
ut
The origin of geothermal systems that yield dry steam and wh
y they differ from hot water systems are unknown
ol
Selection of materials suitable for geothermal systems
us
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Environmental Effects
n.
Gaseous and Particulate Emission
Emits CO2,H2S,CH4,NH3,Mercuric components, lead 210 and radon 222,a
io
nd dissolved arsenic ,boron, and antimony
Contributes to global warming, acid rain, and noxious smells if released
ut
Land Pollution
Degradation of usable soil ol
Disposition of pollutant on surface may harm plant, soil sterility and may
enter into the food chain
us
Subsidence Effect
Lowering of ground level when fluids are removed
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in
n.
Seismic Hazards
Geothermal resources are mostly associated with the regions of high geolo
io
gic activity, which is manifested commonly as earthquakes
Researches are directed towards the effects of geothermal fields on the
ut
seismic hazards
Water Pollution ol
Contamination of surface water and ground water by geothermal fluid is a
big risk
us
Specific research is required to identify those chemical constituents,
which may have adverse effect
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in
n.
Biological Effects
Numerous unknown effects exists regarding the impact of ge
io
othermal operation on the bionature
It is considered that the delicate balance of environment may
ut
be affected due to the chemical changes in soil and water caus
ed by geothermal fields
ol
Social Effects
us
Problems of noise and land use
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
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in
n.
Heat energy generation
Bioenergy generation
io
Recycling
ut
Fuel and energy generation from agricultural
and municipal waste
ol
us
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in
n.
Residential wastes
Municipal services wastes
io
Industrial and commercial wastes
ut
Building and construction demolition
Agriculture
ol
us
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in
n.
1. Incineration
2. Pyrolysis
io
3. Anaerobic digestion
ut
4. Recycling
5. Bioenergy Conversion
ol
us
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in
A furnace where waste is burnt to produce energy
n.
Incinerator combustion temperature is about 1000 degree
Celsius
io
Burning of waste in incinerator will only reduce its
ut
volume, but does not dispose the toxic substances in the
waste and creates the largest source of dioxins
ol
Modern incinerators are equipped with pollution control
systems
us
To remove dangerous chemicals flue gases are sent
through scrubbers
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n.
1. Auditing of waste
2. Proper incinerator selection
io
3. Proper operation of incinerator
ut
4. Removal of dangerous chemicals and toxic
gases
ol
5. Safe handling and disposal of incinerator
us
residues
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in
n.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Minimizes high transport costs of • Generates hazardous gases such as
waste to landfills furans and dioxins, which causes
io
• Large reduction in volume of waste cancer, affects hormones an damages
• Cost effective solution immune system
ut
• Can be used for electricity generation • Generates CO2 and odour
• Used for Hazardous and clinical waste • Requires high energy
treatments • Expensive to build
• Can be operated under any weather
ol
conditions
• Long life span
us
• Cheaper in operation
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in
n.
Process:
Organic waste is burnt at relatively low temperature
Chemical mining of waste
io
Chemical decomposition of waste materials by heat in the absence
of oxygen under pressure and operating temperature above 430
degree Celsius
ut
Transforms organic materials into gases, small quantities of liquid
and a solid residue containing carbon and ash
ol
By Products :
Combustible gases, including CO, Hydrogen and methane and other
hydrocarbons
us
If the off gases are cooled ,liquids condense producing an oil or tar
residue and contaminated water
Pyrolysis liquids can be used directly or refined for high quality
fuels, chemicals, adhesives and other products
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n.
Advantages Disadvantage
• Significant reduction in volume of • Generates possible toxic residues such
waste as inert mineral ash, inorganic
io
• By Products are very useful compounds and unreformed carbon
• Storable and transportable fuel or • Possible toxic air emissions such as
ut
feedstock is obtained acid gases, dioxins , furans, nitrogen
• Environment friendly than incineration oxides,SO2,and particulates
• Environmental Problem is reduced • Requires a certain amount of materials
• More efficient than incineration
ol to work efficiently
• Sustainable process
• Modular plants, Hence easy to operate
us
• Easy to control the contaminated air
emissions
• Replaces coal and natural gas as viable
vt
fuel sources
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in
n.
Pyrolysis Incineration
• Thermal degradation in the absence of • Requires oxygen in the form of air
oxygen • Carried out at higher temperatures
io
• Carried out at lower temperatures, and combustion takes place
and there is no combustion • Produces energy as heat that can be
ut
• Produces liquid fuel of useful high used to create steam for power
quality although the syngas is rich in generation
CO and hydrogen as well • It is done to reduce the volume of
• Controlled chemical Process in order
ol waste
to produce valuable secondary raw • Produces toxic gases
material
us
• Excellent Performance in controlling
the emission of harmful substances
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in
n.
Series of processes in which microorganisms break
down biodegradable material in the absence of
io
oxygen
Anaerobic digester is an airtight chamber in which
ut
organic waste is decomposed and transformed into
ol
biogas
One of the end products is biogas ,which is
us
combusted to produce electricity and heat,or can be
processed into renewable natural gas and
vt
transportation fuels
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in
n.
Conversion of biomass or biogas to usable form
Electricity
io
Liquid Fuels(ethanol or methanol)
The production of usable energy through algal and similar
ut
crops include the following steps
1. Photosynthesis production of organic matters
ol
2. Collection and processing of plant materials
3. Fermentation leading to liquid and gaseous fuels and storage
us
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n.
The following issues must be investigated before the
economic viability of a RDF(Refuse Derived
io
Fuel)scheme
Collection of waste
ut
The volume and nature of waste to be processed
The type of efficient RDF process required and
market for fuel products
ol
Potential users and Revenue obtainable
us
Utilization of solar thermal energy for increasing the
temperature of digesters
vt
in
n.
Involves the collection of used and discarded
materials in order to process them and make
io
them into new products
ut
Results in waste reduction
It is a tool for economic development as well
ol
as for environment
us
Reuse , recycling and waste reduction offer
direct development opportunities for
vt
communities
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n.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Reduced damage to environment • High cost of recycling
• Reduced energy consumption • Durability and small life span of
io
• Reduction in pollution recycled items
• Mitigate global warming • Unsafe and unhygienic process
ut
• Promotes sustainable utilization of
resources
ol
us
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n.
Recycling rate for different types of plastics differ greatly
Plastics are very good asset to recycling program
io
Two categories
Thermosets: Solidifies or sets irreversibly when heated.
ut
durable and strong.
Uses : automobiles, construction,adhesives,inks
Thermoplastics:
ol
Softens when exposed to heat and returns to original condition
us
at room temperature
Can be easily shaped
Uses: milk jugs, floor coverings, credit cards, etc
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n.
Important agenda in the three R’s
Process:
io
1. Collection of plastic wastes
2. Collected waste goes to material recovery facility where
they are sorted by type and baled
ut
3. Sent to reclaiming facility, where any trash or dirt is sorted
out , plastics are washed and ground into small flakes
4.
ol
A flotation tank may be used to separate contaminants based
on their densities
us
5. Flakes are then dried , melted ,filtered and formed into
pellets
6. Pellets are then shipped into manufacturing plants,where
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
n.
Energy and natural resource conservation
Environmental protection
io
Reducing the dumping spaces
ut
Energy conservation ol
us
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n.
Method to convert waste plastics into usable form
A catalytic pyrolysis process to convert waste plastic to
io
liquid hydrocarbons, coke and gas, which then can be
used as boiler fuel for power generation
ut
Complex organic materials are reduced into light crude
oil
ol
Under pressure and heat , long chain polymers of
us
hydrocarbons ,oxygen and carbon decompose into short
chain petroleum hydrocarbons
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in
n.
Essential steps in the pyrolysis of plastics
1. Evenly heating the plastic to a narrow
io
temperature range without excessive
temperature variations
ut
2. Purging oxygen from pyrolysis chamber
ol
3. Managing the carbon rich char by product
before it acts as a thermal insulator
us
4. Careful condensation and fractionation of
the pyrolysis vapours to produce distillate of
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in
n.
Surat will be the first in the state of Gujaratto
convert plastic waste into crude oil and pellets
io
Process:
1. Forced air, heated by a gas burner is used to
ut
indirectly heat the feedstock inside the process
vessel ol
2. The process vessel is isolated from oxygen and
exposed to vacuum
us
3. The energy from the burner is used for
depolymerisation
4. The oil obtained is refined for use
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in
n.
Double tank combustor design
Plastic waste is first processed in an upper
io
tank through pyrolysis which converts solid
ut
plastic into gas
The gas flows to a lower tank where it is
ol
burned with oxidants to generate heat and
us
steam
The heat sustains the combustor and the
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
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in
n.
BIOMASS ENERGY
io
ut
ol
us
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Biomass
in
Biomass is organic matter produced by plants – terrestrial
n.
and aquatic – and their derivatives.
The term biomass refers to those organic matters that are
io
stored in plant and trees in the form of carbohydrate
(sugar).It is then transferred through food chains in humans
ut
,animals, and other living creatures and their waste.
ol
It includes all plant life: trees, agricultural plants, bush, algae,
and their residues after processing
us
It may be obtained from forest woods, agricultural lands, arid
lands, and even waste lands
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Biomass Energy
in
The energy stored in biomass is called bioenergy.
n.
Bioenergy is very versatile: It can be used to provide heat, make
fuels, and generate electricity.
io
Many bioenergy sources are replenished through the cultivation of
fast growing grasses, trees, and agricultural residues like vegetable
ut
oils, wheat straw, or corn.
Biomass energy, or bio energy is the conversion of biomass
ol
(organic material originating from plants, trees, and crops and
essentially the collection and storage of the sun’s energy through
us
photosynthesis) into useful forms of energy such as heat,
electricity, and liquid fuels
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Photosynthesis Process
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in
dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the
energy from sunlight
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS PROCESS
in
Biomass is produced in the photosynthesis process which
n.
converts the solar energy into biomass energy.
Photosynthesis process only occurs in green plants.it is the
io
process of combining the carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere with water plus light energy to carbohydrates
ut
produce(sugars , starches, celluloses etc.)and oxygen.
ol
6CO2 + 6H2O +solar light energy C6H12O6 + 6O2
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1. Direct Methods
n.
Biomass is available in the following forms
1. Forest wood and wastes
2. Agricultural crops and residues
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3. Residential food wastes
4. Industrial waste
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5. Human and animal waste
6. Energy crops ol
These raw biomass has a low energy density
Their direct uses are burning them for cooking
The problems with direct usage are energy inefficiency and excessive pollution
us
This necessitates some kind of pre processing and conversion technology for
enhancing the usefulness of biomass
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2.Indirect Methods
n.
Biomass can be used indirectly by converting it to electricity
or heat or into a convenient fuel in solid ,liquid or gaseous
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form
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The Conversion processes are
Thermo electrical Conversion ol
Biomass conversion to fuel
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Direct combustion of biomass material in the boiler produces steam
n.
That steam is used to drive a turbine coupled with a generator to
produce electricity or to provide heat for residential and industrial
system
io
But the boiler equipment are expensive and energy recovery is low
Emissions from burning biomass are less compared to that of fossil fuels
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The efficiency of this process is influenced by
Biomass moisture content
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Combustion air distribution and amount
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Operating temperature and pressure
Flue gas temperature
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Two main types
n.
Thermochemical conversion includes processes such as
destructive distillation, pyrolysis and gasification
io
Biological conversion includes processes such as fermentation
ut
and anaerobic digestion
Gasification: produces synthesis gas with usable energy
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content by heating biomass with less oxygen than needed for
combustion
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Pyrolysis:Yields bio oil by rapidly heating in absence of
oxygen
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Biomass Gasification
in
Process of partial combustion
n.
Solid biomass is converted to combustible gas mixture
Incomplete combustion process
io
Biomass+airCO+CO2+CH4+H2+N2+water vapour
ut
The gas produced is a mixture of CO, CO2,CH4,H2,N2
Producer gas can be used
ol
To run IC engines
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As a substitute for furnace oil
To produce methanol economically
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Gasification processes involved with biomass are:
n.
1. Drying of fuels: Process of drying biomass before it is fed into
gasifier
io
2. Pyrolysis: Breaking down of biomass into charcoal by applying
heat in the absence of oxygen
ut
3. Combustion: All the heat required for gasification process are
available from combustion ol
4. Cracking: Breaking down of large complex molecules when
heated
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5. Reduction: Oxygen atoms are removed in this process from
combustion products and returning them to combustible form
again
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Gasification Processes
in
Low temperature gasification
n.
Process temperature:750 to 1100 degree celcius
The gas produced has high level of hydrocarbons
io
It can be directly used for steam production and electicity
generation or it can be cleaned and used for IC engines
ut
The gas mixture composition depends on type of gasifiers
High temperature gasification
ol
Carried out at high temperature 1200-1600 degree celcius
The product gas is known as syngas
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It has high proportion of CO and Hydrogen which can be
converted to bio fuel compatible for diesel engines
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Theory of gasification
in
Gasification is an incomplete or partial combustion process
n.
where the biomass is decomposed by heat and converted to
charcoal ,oils, tars , dusts and a combustible producer gas
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It takes place at a temperature of about 1000 degree Celcius
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Gasification
in
In a typical combustion process , generally the oxygen is
n.
surplus, while in a gasification process, the fuel is surplus.
The combustion products mainly CO , water vapour,
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hydrogen ,nitrogen, carbon dioxide passes through a glowing
layer of charcoal
ut
During this stage both Carbon dioxide and water vapour
oxidise the char to form CO, Hydrogen and Methane
ol
The key to gasifier design is to create conditions such that
1.Biomass is reduced to charcoal
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2.Charcoal is converted at a suitable temperature to produce
CO, Hydrogen and Methane
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in
Four distinct processes are taking place in a gasifier
n.
1.Drying Zone of fuel:
In this zone moisture content of biomass is removed to obtain the dry
biomass.
io
Some organic acids also comes out during the drying process. These
acids give rise to corrosion of gasifiers
ut
2.Pyrolysis zone:
In this zone tar and other volatiles are driven off.
ol
(a) Upto 200 degree Celcius, only water is driven off
(b)Between 200 -280 degree Celcius,CO2 ,acetic acid and water are
driven off
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(c) Between 280 and 500, large quantity of tar and gases containing
carbon dioxide is produced. Besides, methyl alcohol is also formed
(d)Between 500-700,the gas production is small and contains hydrogen
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in
Combustion (Oxidation) zone:
C+O2CO2+Heat
n.
Reduction Zone:
The hot gas passes through the reduction zone after the combustion zone
io
No free oxygen in this zone.
The carbon dioxide gas reacts with carbon in the fuel forming carbon monoxide
ut
gas
1.C+CO2+heat2CO(endothermic)
Water gas shift reaction:
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2.C+H2O+HeatCO+H2 (endothermic)
Surplus water vapour reacts with CO to liberate CO2 and hydrogen
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3.CO+H2O-HeatCO2+H2 (exothermic)
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Classification of Gasifiers
in
Two types:
n.
1.Fixed bed gasifier:
In this type biomass fuels move either counter current or
io
concurrent to the flow of gasification medium which is air, steam
or oxygen
ut
They are further classified according to the way in which air flow
is introduced in it. ol
2.Fluidized bed gasifier:
In fluidized bed gasifier inert materials like sand ,ash , or char is
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utilized to make bed and act as heat transfer medium
It makes use of excellent mixing characteristics and high reaction
rates of gas solid mixture
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Updraft gasifier
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The air intake is at the bottom and gas leaves at the top (counter current
flow)
in
The reactive agent is injected at the bottom of the reactor and ascends to
the top ,while the fuel is introduced at the top, and descends to the
bottom
n.
The combustion reactions occur near the grate at the bottom followed
by reduction reaction somewhat higher up in the gasifier
io
Drying and Pyrolysis happens at the upper part
In the upper part ,gases ,tar and other volatile compounds are dispersed
at the top part
ut
Ash is removed at the bottom
The producer gas or syngas will have high ash content which should be
removed before direct use.
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Slagging and ash content can be severe if high ash fuels are used
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Unsuitable for use with fluffy, low density fuels
Applications:
Packaged boilers, thermal fluid heaters, Aluminium melting/annealing
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Downdraft Gasifier
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Air is introduced at ,or above the oxidation zone in the gasifier and the producer gas is
removed at the bottom
Fuel and gas move in the same direction
in
Biomass fuel is admitted at the top similar to the updraft gasifier
As the feed progresses down through the gasifier,it dries and its volatiles are pyrolysed.
n.
The char is directed into a reduced diameter cylindrical throat section at the bottom of the
gasifier
io
Gasification air is injected into the throat through openings in the throat wall.
Due to the high temperature existing at the throat section , tars and oils could be cracked ,
ut
which tend to form the producer gas, particularly when the biomass has more than 20%
moisture content
The producer gas leaves at the bottom of the gasifier.
Applications:
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Continuous baking ovens, Batch type baking ovens, Drying and curing, Thermal fluid
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heaters, Annealing furnaces, Direct fired rotary klins, Boilers,IC engine
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Crossdraft Gasifier
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Here the biomass is fed through one side of the gasifier and the
n.
producer gas leaves through the other side
In crossdraft gasifier, the ash bin, fire and reduction zone and
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reduction zone in crossdraft gasifiers are separated
Air enters the gasifier through a water cooled nozzle mounted on
ut
one side of the firebox
Confines its combustion and reduction near the air nozzle
ol
High operating temperature
The high operating temperature will affect the gas composition
us
such as high CO, and low hydrogen and methane content when
dry fuels like charcoal is used
Operates well with low ash ,dry biomass feed fuels.
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in
Improved version of fixed bed gasifiers
n.
The bed is made of an inert material (such as sand ,ash,or char) is heated
initially and the fuel is introduced when the temperature has reached the
appropriate level.
io
The bed material transfers heat to the fuel
Fluidized bed gasifiers have no distinct reaction zones and drying,
ut
pyrolysis and gasification occur simultaneously
The fuel particles are introduced at the bottom of the reactor ,very
ol
quickly mixed with the bed material and almost instantaneously heated
up to the bed temperature
us
As a result fuel is pyrolysed fast resulting in a component mix with a
relatively large amount of gaseous materials
Further gasification and tar conversion reactions occur in the gas phase
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High overall efficiency
n.
Fuel flexibility
Highly reliable
io
Low purchase and installation costs
ut
Flexible operation
Low emission
ol
Reduced costs for boilers, additional steamers
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Reduced dependency on external fuel sources.
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The following will dictate the feed characteristics of gasifier
n.
1.Energy content of fuel and Bulk density
Higher the energy conent and bulk density, higher will be the volume of
gasifier
io
2.Moisture content
Low moisture content is desirable
ut
Should be less than 20%
3.Dust content ol
The undesirable dust produced by gasifier fuels can clog IC engines and
hence should be removed
us
The gasifier design should be such that it should not produce dust
beyond limits
Higher the dust produced higher will be the load on the filters
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4.Tar content
n.
Tar is one of the most unpleasant components
It tends to get deposited on carburator and intake valves
io
causing sticky and troublesome operations
ut
By product of pyrolysis process
Filters and cleaners are used to remove tar content
ol
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5.Ash and slagging characteristics
n.
The mineral content in the fuel that remains in the oxidised state after
complete combustion is called ash.
io
Ash interferes with gasification process in two ways:
1.it fuses together to form slag and this clinker stops or inhibits the flow
of biomass feed
ut
2.Even if it does not fuse together, it shelters the points in fuel where
ignition is initiated, thus lowering the fuel reaction response
ol
Slagging can be overcome by two types of gasifier operations
Low temperature operation with temperature below the flow
us
temperature of ash
High temperature operature that keeps the temperature above the
melting point of ash
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1.Motive Power
n.
2.Direct heating Applications
3.Electrical Power generation
io
4.Chemical Production
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The types of filters are:
n.
1.Cyclone filters:
Useful for particle size 5 micrometer and above
Due to the combined effect of Cyclonic movement of the gas and the
io
effect of gravity ,the dust particles sediment at the bottom and are
removed
ut
2.Wet scrubber
Here gas is washed by water in countercurrent mode
ol
The scrubber also acts like a cooler
3.Cloth filters
us
Fine filter
For many gasifiers the hot gases passes through cyclone filter ,then to
cloth filter and finally through wet scrubber
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in
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BIOGAS
ENERGY
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BIOGAS
n.
Biogas is a clean and efficient fuel
io
It is a mixture of
Methane
ut
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen ol
Nitrogen
Hydrogen Sulphide
Moisture
us
The chief constituent of biogas is methane(50-
70%)
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COMPOSITION OF BIOGAS
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BIOGAS PRODUCTION
n.
Biogas is produced by anaerobic
io
digestion
It is a biological process in which
ut
microorganisms breaks down organic
matter into simpler chemical components
ol
in the absence of oxygen
us
The digestion process itself takes place in
a digester
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Anaerobic digestion
n.
Ithas a series of processes where
microorganisms break down biodegradable
io
material in absence of oxygen
Step1:Organic matter is decomposed to
ut
break down into usable sized molecules
such as sugar ol
Step2:Conversion of decomposed matter
into organic acids
us
Step 3:Organic acids are converted to
biogas
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Process Stages of anaerobic
digestion
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1.Hydrolysis
in
The process of breaking down large biomass organic chains into
smaller constituent parts such as sugars ,fatty acids and amino acids
and dissolving the smaller molecules into solution
Assists the bacteria in the anaerobic digester to access the energy
n.
potential of the material
2.Acidogenesis
io
The products of the hydrolysis process are broken down by
fermentative (acidogenetic) bacteria
The products are ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and other by
products
ut
3.Acetogenesis
The products of acidogenesis are further digested to produce acetic
4.Methanogenesis
ol
acid, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
us
Here the methanogens use the products of preceding stages and
convert them into biogas rich in methane and carbon dioxide
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Construction of biogas plants
n.
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n.
Itis a brick and cement structure with the
io
following five sections:
1.Mixing tank
ut
2.Digester tank ol
3.Gas holder or dome
4.Inlet chamber
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5.Outlet chamber
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1.Mixing tank:
In mixing tank ,the water and cattle dung are mixed in equal proportion to form
the slurry
2.Inlet chamber:
n.
The cow dung slurry is supplied to the digester tank via inlet chamber
It is made at the ground level for easy inlet of the slurry
Made of bricks, cement and sand
io
The outlet wall of the inlet chamber is made inclined so that slurry easily flows
into the digester
3.Digester tank
ut
Most important part of any biogas plant where all the important chemical
processes takes place
Deep underground well like structure of cylindrical shape made of brick,
cement and sand built on a solid foundation
ol
It is divided into two chambers by partition wall in between
Also called as fermentation tank
Two long pipes are used:
us
1.Inlet pipe opening into inlet chamber for slurry input to digester
2.Outlet pipe opening into the outlet chamber for the removal of used slurry
from the tank
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The hemispherical top portion of the digester is called dome.
The biogas formed after anaerobic digestion in the digester gets collected in the dome
It can be either fixed or floating type
n.
Cements and bricks are used in the construction of fixed dome and is made
approximately at the ground level
For floating type, an inverted steel drum resting on the digester above the ground
io
surface is used.
The drum floats over the digester and moves up and down with biogas pressure
5.Outlet chamber
ut
The digested slurry from the biogas plants is removed through the outlet chamber .
The opening of the outlet chamber is also at the ground level
6.Gas outlet pipe and valve
ol
The gas holder has an outlet at the top which could be connected to gas stoves for
cooking or gas lighting purpose .
Flow of the gas from the dome via gas pipe can be controlled by valve
us
7.Foundation
Forms the base of the digester
Provides stability and should be able to sustain the full load of slurry filled in it.
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in
Working of biogas Plants
n.
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Types of biogas plants
n.
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1. Fixed Dome type
ut
2. Floating Dome type
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Fixed Dome type
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Fixed Dome type
n.
The parts of the fixed dome biogas plants are
io
1.Mixing tank
2.Digester
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3.Inlet chamber
4.Outlet chamber
5.Fixed Dome
ol
6.Overflow tank
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7.Gas pipe & Gas control
valve
vt
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
Contd..
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
Fixed dome type
n.
Advantages:
Low cost compared to floating dome type
io
Simple construction as there is no moving dome
Long life can be expected(20 yrs or so)
ut
Underground and almost ground level dome construction
prevents damage to plant ol
The anaerobic digestion inside digester is less influenced by
temperature variations during day and night
Disadvantages:
us
Porosity and cracks in walls of the plant may occur
Difficult to maintain
vt
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in
Types of fixed dome plants
n.
• Chinese fixed-dome plant is the arch type fixed dome plants..
io
The digester consists of a cylinder with round bottom and top.
Janata model
• was the first fixed-dome design in India. It is not constructed
ut
anymore. The mode of construction lead to cracks in the
gasholder - very few of these plant had been gas-tight.
• Deenbandhu,
•
ol
the successor of the Janata plant in India, with improved design,
was more crack-proof and consumed less building material than
the Janata plant,with a hemisphere digester
us
• CAMARTEC model:
• Simplifies structure of hemispherical dome shell based on a
rigid foundation ring and was developed in tanzania
vt
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in
Floating Dome Type
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
Floating dome type
The different parts are:
n.
1.Mixing tank
2.Digester tank
io
3.Inlet pipe & inlet tank
4.Floating dome
ut
5.Outlet pipe & overflow tank
6. Gas outlet pipe ol
7.Gas control valve
us
vt
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in
Working
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
Contd.
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
Floating dome type
n.
Advantages:
io
Efficient
ut
Easy maintenance
Disadvantages: ol
Expensive
Steel drum may rust
us
Requires regular maintenance
vt
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in
Types of floating drum plants
n.
KVIC model
io
Pragati Model(with hemisphere digester)
ut
Ganesh Model(angular steel and plastic
foil) ol
Arati Model(low cost, made of plastic
water containers and fiberglass drums)
us
BORDA Model(with hemispherical
digester, has longer life and stability)
vt
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in
Benefits of biogas:
Production of energy
n.
1.
2. Transformation of organic waste into high quality
organic fertilizer
io
3. Health benefits of biogas and the improvement
of hygienic conditions(reduction of pathogens,
ut
worm eggs and flies)
4. Reduction of workload for collecting firewood
and cooking
5.
ol
Environmental advantages through protection of
forests ,soil, water and air
us
6. Reduced emission of carbon dioxide through the
use of biogas than fossil fuels will reduce global
warming
vt
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in
Selection of biogas plants
n.
Principal and maintenance cost
io
Simplicity of design
Durability
ut
Suitability of use with available raw inputs
Frequency of utilization of biogas as well
ol
as the frequency of fresh slurry input
influence the selection of a particular
us
plant model and the size of various
components
vt
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in
Biogas feed
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
The most important characteristics of biogas feed is amount of carbon to
n.
nitrogen ratio present in the organic matter
A C/N ratio of 20 to 30 in the organic matter is considered optimum for
anaerobic digestion
io
For very high C/N ratio
The nitrogen will be consumed rapidly by methanogens and the remaining
carbon will not have any reaction process.This will reduce biogas
production
ut
For very low C/N ratio
Nitrogen will be liberated and accumulated to form NH4 (ammonia) which
will increase the pH of the content in the digester. A pH >8.5 will be toxic
ol
for the methanogens population
The animal wastes particularly cattle dung has an average C/N ratio of 24
The plant materials(Straw, sawdust,etc..) have much higher C/N ratio(60-
us
70)
In order to balance the C/N ratio ,normally the feed will be a composite mix
of high C/N ratio materials and low C/N ratio materials
vt
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Biogas
in
Advantages:
Clean fuel
n.
High calorific value
Convenient ignition temperature
No residue , smoke,dust
io
Non polluting
Economical
ut
High quality nutrient rich manure for plants
Limitations:
High initial cost ol
Inadequcy of raw materials and continuity of supply
Social acceptability
Maintenance and repair
us
Uses:
Domestic fuel for cooking, Electricity generation , fuel for
motive power
vt
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in
n.
io
Introduction
Tidal Energy Resources
ut
Tidal Energy Availability
Tidal Power Generation In India
ol
Leading Country In Tidal Power Plant Installation
us
vt
Sumit Raj
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1MV15EE105
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Introduction
in
Tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts
n.
io
The tide is created by gravitational effect of the sun
ut
and the moon on the earth causing cyclical
movement of the seas.
ol
Commonly plant for tidal power facilities involved
us
erecting a tidal dam, or barrage, with a sluice across
a narrow bay.
vt
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Introduction
in
As the tide flows in or
n.
io
side of the barrage, the
ut
sluice is opened and
ol water flows through low
head hydro turbines to
generate electricity.
us
For a feasible barrage,
the difference between
vt
in
pull of the moon and the sun. The rise of seawater is
called high tide and fall of seawater is called low
n.
tide.
io
This process of rising and receding of water waves
happen twice a day & cause enormous movement of
ut
water. ol
When the moon, the Earth and the sun are in a
straight line, the highest tides called spring tides
us
occur.
When the earth, moon and the Sun are at right angles
vt
in
Commercially ocean energy can be used to generate
n.
io
1. Tidal energy :- using dams
ut
2. wave energy :- using the kinetic energy of the
ocean. ol
3. Ocean thermal energy :- It focus on the
temperature difference
us
between warm ocean
surface water and deep
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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Tidal Energy Availability
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in
the earth cause the rhythmic rise and fall of ocean
waters throughout the world.
n.
The moon exerts more than twice as great force on
io
the tides as the sun due to much clear position to the
earth.
ut
So tides closely follows the moon during rotation
ol
around the earth.
Rise of water in ocean due to moon's gravitational
us
in
The amplitude or height of the tide wave is very
n.
io
of KM.
ut
However, the tide can increase dramatically when it
reaches continental shelves, bringing huge masses of
ol
water into narrow bays, and river estuaries along a
us
costline.
The tides in the Bay of Fundy in Canada are the
vt
in
Site Location Tide Height (m) Estimated Power
n.
Potential (MW)
io
The Gulf of Cambay, 11 (6.7 av) 7000
Gujrat
ut
Gulf of Kutch, 8 (5.23 av) 12,000
Gujarat ol
The Ganges Delta in 5 (2.97 av) 8,000
the Sundarban,
us
West Bengal
vt
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in
Country Site Location Installed Capacity (MW)
n.
io
France La Rance 240 MW
ut
UK The Severn Barrage 8,560 MW
Russia
ol Kislaya Guba 0.4 MW
us
Canada Annapolis 18MW
vt
China 3.9 MW
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in
n.
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY
io
CONVERSION
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
About 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by oceans,
n.
which are continuously heated by sun
OTEC extracts this solar thermal energy from oceans
io
OTEC is a method to produce electricity by using the
temperature differences between warm ocean surface and
ut
cool deep ocean water to run a heat engine coupled to a
generator
More the temperature difference ,more energy is
produced
ol
Ocean water with more than 5 degree temperature
us
gradient is known as ocean thermal energy
OTEC sites are normally located between tropic of Cancer
and tropic of Capricorn
vt
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PRINCIPLE OF OTEC
in
n.
The warm water in the ocean surface is collected and
pumped through the heat exchanger to heat and
io
vapourise a working fluid ,and it develops pressure in a
secondary cycle
The working fluid vapour expands through a heat engine
ut
coupled to an electrical generator
Working fluid vapour coming out of the heat engine is
ol
condensed back by a condenser which uses the cold deep
sea water
us
The vapour is cooled to liquid state and is recycled .
This is known as closed cycle OTEC.
vt
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PRINCIPLE OF OTEC
in
n.
Normally used working fluids are
Propane for high temperature ocean surface water
io
Low boiling point liquid ammonia for low temperature
ocean surface water
ut
In open cycle OTEC, warm ocean surface water is
pumped into a low pressure boiler to boil water and
produce steam.
ol
Then, the steam is used to drive steam turbine to
us
produce electricity
To condense steam, cold deep sea water is used
vt
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OTEC Plants
in
n.
Two different types:
1. Land Based Power Plant
io
2. Floating Power Plant
Land Based Power Plant
ut
Will consist of a building constructed on the shore
It requires laying of pipes
ol
One pipe to collect warm ocean water
Second pipe lay down on the slope deep into the ocean to
us
collect cold water
Third pipe is used as outlet to discharge used water again to
deep down ocean
vt
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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n.
Built on a ship platform
Same principle as that of land based power plant
io
Cost savings on piping,but electricity transmission is
difficult
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
n.
Basic Rankine cycle consists of the following
1.An evaporator
io
2.A turbine expander
ut
3.A condenser
4.A pump ol
5.A working fluid
1. Steam Rankine Cycle
us
2. Organic Rankine cycle
vt
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n.
Chemical Stability and compatibility
Heat transfer coefficient
io
High Flash point to reduce flammability
ut
Low specific heat to reduce the load on condenser
Safety(non-toxic, non corrosive, and non- flammable)
ol
Environmental acceptability
Low cost
us
Availability
vt
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
n.
Major Components
1. Evaporator: A flash evaporator is used in which the warm
io
sea water instantly boils or flash in the chamber that has
reduced pressure than the atmosphere
ut
2. Turbine coupled to a generator ol
3. Condenser
4. Non condensable gas exhaust
us
5. Pumps
6. Marine culture ponds
vt
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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HYBRID OTEC
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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HYBRID OTEC
in
n.
Hybrid cycle combines the features of both open and closed
cycle OTEC s
io
Warm sea water is pumped into vacuum chamber where it is
flashed to steam
The steam produced will vapourise a working fluid
ut
The vaporized working fluid will rotate the turbine and drive
the generator to produce electricity
ol
The fluid vapour will be condensed by cold sea water in a
condenser and re circulated in a closed cycle
us
The condensed steam or desalinated water is used for marine
culture plants
Non condensable gases are exhausted
vt
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Carnot Cycle
in
Carnot cycle is the most efficient thermo dynamical
n.
cycle which can use the warm surface sea water and
cold deep sea water
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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Carnot Cycle
in
Carnot efficiency is given by
n.
io
W=work done by the system
ut
QH =heat input
Tc =temperature of the cold sea water
ol
TH = temperature of the hot surface sea water
us
vt
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Carnot cycle
in
The four stages are:
n.
1. Isothermal expansion: The vapourized fluid(for closed
cycle OTEC) or steam(for open cycle OTEC) is allowed to
io
expand at constant temperature TH . Here volume
increases, Pressure falls down (From P V Diagram shown)
ut
2. Adiabatic Expansion: Here the volume increases, pressure
falls down and the temperature of the vapourised fluid or
steam falls down to Tc
ol
3. Isothermal compression: Here the fluid or steam is
compressed at constant temperature Tc .Pressure
us
increases, Volume decreases
4. Adiabatic compression: The fluid is compressed again
increasing the temperature to TH and the cycle repeats
vt
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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APPLICATIONS OF OTEC
in
n.
1. Electricity generation
2. Hydrogen Production
io
3. Ammonia and methanol production
ut
4. Desalinated water
5. Aquaculture ol
6. Chilled soil agriculture
7. Air conditioning
us
vt
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ADVANTAGES of OTEC
in
n.
Renewable , clean natural resource
Available in abundance
io
Pollution free
ut
No green house effects
Good source of fresh water ol
Used for marine culture plants
us
vt
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DISADVANTAGES OF OTEC
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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BENEFITS OF OTEC
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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