INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Volume 2, No 4, 2012
© Copyright 2010 All rights reserved Integrated Publishing services
Research article ISSN 0976 – 4399

Cyclic inelastic buckling of steel braces

Supratik Bose
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Student, M. Tech, Civil Engineering Department
supratik.bose1@gmail.com
doi:10.6088/ijcser.00202040011

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the results from an experimental program on cyclic inelastic buckling of
steel braces. The objective of the experiment is to determine the force deformation
characteristics, critical buckling load, axis of failure and failure mode. The brace (single
angle section of 40 * 40 * 6 and length 1220 mm) is mounted in a shear loading frame (pin
connected at its ends) and a servo-hydraulic actuator is used to apply the lateral cyclic load to
the test specimen. The load applied was displacement controlled with the displacement
applied increasing from 0.5 mm to 30mm (with three trials for each displacement). Strain
gauges and LVDTs were attached at various points to obtain the experimental results. The
buckling load is obtained analytically from IS 800:2007 (both for flexural and flexural torsion
buckling) and compared with the experimental results. There was an evidence of flexural
torsion buckling as anticipated in IS 800 for single angle sections with one leg connected.
There was also an evidence of shear lag effect in the brace member which leads to non
uniform distribution of stresses.

Keywords: Steel braces, cyclic loading, buckling, backbone curve, shear lag.

1. Introduction

In engineering, buckling is a failure mode characterized by a sudden failure of a structural

member subjected to high compressive stresses, where the actual compressive stress at the
point of failure is less than the ultimate compressive stresses that the material is capable of
withstanding.

Braced steel frame structures are popular in regions of high seismicity. The steel braces
improve the lateral strength and stiffness of the structural system and contribute to seismic
energy dissipation by deforming inelastically during an earthquake. Steel braces can be
designed to resist only tensile forces, or to resist both tensile and compressive axial forces.
Tension-only braces are thin structural members that buckle early under compressive load,
and hence their compressive capacity is ignored in design. Buildings that include tension-
only braces have performed rather poorly during strong earthquakes. Experiments have
shown that, in general, tension–compression braces provide better performance during an
earthquake, but their behaviour under severe cyclic loading is complicated and not yet well
understood

Flexural buckling: This type of buckling can occur in any compression member that
experiences a deflection caused by bending or flexure. Flexural buckling occurs about the
axis with the largest slenderness ratio, and the smallest radius of gyration.

Torsion buckling: This type of buckling only occurs in compression members that are
doubly-symmetric and have very slender cross-sectional elements. It is caused by a turning

Received on March, 2012 Published on May 2012 1129

 Cyclic inelastic buckling of steel braces
Supratik Bose

about the longitudinal axis. Torsion buckling occurs mostly in built-up sections, and almost
never in rolled sections.

Flexural-torsion buckling: This type of buckling only occurs in compression members that
have unsymmetrical cross-section with one axis of symmetry. Flexural-torsion buckling is
the simultaneous bending and twisting of a member. This mostly occurs in channels,
structural tees, double-angle shapes, and equal-leg single angles (H.T. Zhu, Michael C.H.
Yam, Angus C.C. Lam, V.P. Lu (2009)).

In steel construction, hot-rolled structural shapes such as angles, tee-sections and channels are
often used as tension members and as braces. These members are either bolted or welded to
the connecting elements (e.g. a gusset plate) as shown in Figure 1. It is common practice with
these sections to connect only part of the cross-section at the connections. Because of this,
only part of the section is effective in carrying the loads, and this leads to the phenomenon
known as shear lag. Shear lag results in the non-uniform distribution of stress in tension
members (Figure 1). In addition, since the line of action of the load usually does not coincide
with the centroidal axis of a tension member section, loading eccentricity is also created and
hence secondary bending of the member is induced. The combined effects of shear lag,
connection eccentricity and stress concentrations at the connected region would initiate
premature fracture of the section and the capacity of the member is significantly reduced
(Patxi Uriz, Filip C. Fillippou,Stephen A Mahin (2008)). This phenomenon is most common
in tensile members but is also possible in members where only one leg is connected (as in our
experiment).

Figure 1: Shear Lag of an angle

Backbone Curve: Relationship between the generalized force and deformation (or generalized
stress and strain) of a structural component or assembly that is used to characterize response
in a nonlinear analysis model (Waltario A Lopez and Rafael Sabelli (2004)). Slow-cyclic
testing technique provides a consistent and reliable set of experimental data on strength,
stiffness, energy dissipation potential, and failure mode of structures. As a result, the ability
of structures to resist earthquake loads is often assessed using this method.

In this article an experiment is conducted with a steel brace of single equal leg angle section
subjected to lateral cyclic load. The objective of this study is to investigate the force
deformation characteristics, lateral strength and stiffness, energy dissipation capacity, and
failure mode.
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2. Materials and method

2.1. Test specimens

Figure 2: Experimental Set-up for Cyclic Buckling Test

The brace (single angle section) is mounted in a shear loading frame in which four members
of hot-rolled steel sections of ISMB150 @ 149.0 N/m forming a rectangular loading space,
are pin connected at ends (Figure 1). A servo-hydraulic actuator (MTS make) of capacity 100
KN and stroke 75 mm is used to apply the lateral cyclic load to the test specimen. The
displacement and the corresponding lateral load applied to the specimen can be monitored by
the in-built load cell and LVDT of the actuator. Length of the brace between end connections
is 1220 mm. As seen in the figure the brace was welded to the gusset plate which was
connected only to the beams of the loading frame.

2.1.1 Description of the sensors

The location and purpose of the various sensors used in this experiment are as follows:

In addition to the sensors attached to the actuator, two types of sensors, namely, two strain
gauges and LVDT are used to monitor the behaviour of the brace specimen under the applied
lateral cyclic loading. Two strain gauges were used at about 300 mm distance from the base
(i.e., one-quarter of total length) to monitor the state of strain of brace at different
displacement levels. The two strain gauges were attached near the bottom corner of the brace
member with one attached to the connected leg and the other to the unconnected leg. Two
strain gauges are attached in order to find out whether the two legs of the equal angle section
are carrying equal strains (and consequently equal stresses) or not, so that the shear lag effect
can be examined.

2.2. Material properties

Properties (both physical and mechanical) of the angle section used as brace are as follows:

Equal Angle section: 40 * 40 * 6 (measured during the experiment)

Area = 444 mm^2., Rxx = Ryy = 11.9 mm., Ruu = 14.9 mm, Rvv = 7.7 mm
Yield strength: 375:0 MPa, Ultimate strength: 520:0 MPa.
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The load was applied in cyclic manner such that in alternate cycles the brace member
undergoes compression (where buckling is possible) and in the other cycles it undergoes
tension. The displacement amplitudes were varied from an initial value of 0.5 mm to 30 mm.
Each displacement excursion level is repeated for three times to study the behaviour of
specimen with repetitive cyclic loading (total 24 scan sessions were performed until buckling
failure was observed).

Figure 3: Schematic plot of a equal angle section used as brace with its axes

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Analytical prediction of flexural and flexural torsion buckling from IS 800

The brace was found to be welded to the gusset plate. Since in our experiment the ends of the
brace are welded to the gusset plate hence analytical results are calculated for fixed
connection case from IS 800: 2007.
Considering fixed end connections,
For both the ends fixed the effective length factor, K = 0.65.
λ = 1.385, Φ = 1.75.
fcd = 132.99 N/mm^2 (without considering the factor of safety)
So, flexural buckling load = 59.04 kN.
Now for torsion flexure buckling, from table 12 for fixed ends with no. of bolts at the end
more than 2, k1 = 0.20, k2 = 0.35, k3 = 20
λvv = 2.131, λφ = 0.08967.
λe = 1.396, so Φe = 1.768.
fcd= 131.41 N/mm^2 (without considering the factor of safety)
So, flexural torsion buckling load = 58.35 kN.
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3.2. Experimental evaluation of the buckling load

Figure 4: Plot of load (kN) taken by the brace member both in tension and compression for
all the scan sessions

Figure 5: Plot of load (kN) taken by the brace member both in tension and compression till
scan session 12 where buckling has occurred

Since the actuator was applying cyclic load, the brace was buckling only in the alternate
cycles (for our experiment the even cycles are under compression) when it was under
compression. In other cycles it was undergoing tension and hence no buckling is possible
(only yielding was possible). From analysis of the experimental results it has been seen that
the brace has started buckling only after the maximum displacement applied by the actuator
has increased 7.5 mm i.e for scan session 12 (also discussed in point no 2) and hence after
scan session 12 the maximum value taken by the compression member has decreased as the
member has already buckled. From Figure 4, 5, it can be seen that the maximum value taken
in compression is 37.8 kN. Hence this load can be taken as the load where buckling failure of
the member has occurred (as it is the absolute maximum value of the loads taken by the brace
under compression considering all the scan sessions). So, from experiment, the buckling
strength of the member is 37.8 * cos α = 31.62 kN.

3.3. Shear lag effect

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It has already been discussed in the introductions that shear lag results in non-uniform
distribution of stress. The values of the two strain gauges (one attached to the connected leg
and the other to the unconnected leg) show a huge difference.

Figure 6: Comparison of the strain gauge readings at the two legs (session 22)

Figure 7: Comparison of the strain gauge readings at the two legs (session 15)

The strain gauge 1 is attached to the connected leg while the strain gauge 2 is attached to the
unconnected leg (showing much lesser values compared to the strain gauge 1). Since the two
strain gauges are showing different values, it can be said that the stress in the two legs are
unequal. Obviously the stress in connected leg is greater. So there is an unequal distribution
of stress in the two legs of the angle section as evident from the values measured from the
strain gauges which is possibly an effect of shear lag. So it can be conferred the shear lag
effect is observed in measurement of the two strain gauges.

3.4. Analytical Prediction of the backbone curve

Figure 8: Envelope of Load (kN) Vs Displacement (mm) obtained analytically

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Backbone curve from experimental values: The load measured by the load cell of the actuator
for all the 24 scan sessions are plotted whose envelope of the hysteresis plot thus obtained
gives the backbone curve.

Figure 9: Backbone curve (load (kN) Vs displacement (mm) envelope) from the experiment

Comparison of analytical and experimental backbone curve

Figure 10: Analytical (dashed line) and experimental backbone curve (normal line)

So it can be seen from figure 10 that analytically a good prediction of the observed behaviour
of the backbone curve can be obtained.

3.5. Comments on the observed behavior

Axis of Buckling: The brace was observed to buckle along the vv axis (as shown in Figure 3
in the experimental setup section). The radius of gyration along this axis minimum and hence
the slenderness ratio is maximum (λ α 1/r). Also experimentally it was seen that the brace has
buckled along this axis.

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Buckling Mode: The brace has buckled in its 1st mode which was clearly evident from the
experiment. It is known that the load required for the structure to buckle in its first mode is
the least. Hence it is natural that the 1st mode of buckling will occur.

Inelastic Activities: As the displacement applied by the actuator has increased, the stress
strain plots (or load strain plots) has entered into the nonlinear zone as it is evident from the
plot in Figure 9.

Failure: Total failure of the brace member is seen at the end of the experiment. Permanent set
was observed and hence not possible to be used further. The member failed due to flexural-
torsion buckling. The ends of the bracing were seen to have twisted due to the torsion effect.
The bracing member was welded at the ends (which could be considered as a partial fixed
end connection.) Due to the fixity at the ends and only one leg connected, the member (equal
angle section) has twisted at its end which is evident from comparison with the analytical
results and also from the figure given below (Figure 25 and 26).

Figure 11: Buckling failure of the brace member twisting of the brace member near its
support showing evidence of flexure torsion buckling
There is an evidence of the flexural torsion buckling as anticipated in IS 800 for single angle
struts. After the buckling failure of the brace it was observed that not only there is flexure
buckling of the member but also it has twisted which is only possible due to torsion.

3.6. Comparison of the theoretical and experimental values

Flexural Torsion Experimentally Error from Error from torsion

Buckling load Buckling load obtained Flexure flexure
(theoretical) (theoretical) Buckling load buckling load buckling load
(kN) (kN) (kN) (%) (%)
59.04 58.35 31.62 46.44 45.81

So, the value of the buckling load obtained experimentally is slightly closer to the torsion
flexure buckling load (for both the cases) which again confirmed that the member was
twisted.

4. Conclusion / Suggestions/ Findings

1. The buckling strength obtained experimentally is considerably less than the value
obtained analytically.

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2. There was an evidence of shear lag effect in the brace member which leads to non
uniform distribution of stress and reduction of strength of the member under
compression (i.e. buckling).
3. There were also evidences of flexural torsion buckling as anticipated in IS 800 for
single angle sections with one leg connected.
4. The load measured by the actuator and the load calculated from the strain gauge
attached to the connected leg are giving more or less similar values as long as the
material is within the linear zone.

Acknowledgement

This article is written based on the experimental work performed in Structural Engineering
Lab, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur as a part of the course, CE 623, "Experimental
Methods in Structural Engineering". The author would like to acknowledge the course
instructor, Dr. Samit Ray Chaudhuri, and Dr. Durgesh C. Rai who has designed the original
experimental setup for the testing program. The author would also like to acknowledge Dr.
K.K. Bajpai, teaching assistants Harikrishnan Panikkaveettil and Varun Singla and other
students of the course CE 623. The author has found the results of the experiment interesting
and the article contains his own interpretation of the results.

5. References
1. B. V. Fell, A. M. Kanvinde, G. G. Deierlen, A. T. Myers., (2009), Experimental
Investigation of Inelastic cyclic buckling and Fracture of steel braces, Journal of
Structural Engineering, 135(1), pp 19-32.
2. H.T. Zhu, Michael C.H. Yam, Angus C.C. Lam, V.P. Lu., (2009), The shear lag
effects on welded steel single angle tension members, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 65(5), pp 1171-1186.
3. Jun Jin and Sherif el Tawil, Inelastic Cyclic Model for Steel Braces, ASCE
4. IS 800: 2007- General Construction in steel-Code of Practice
5. Luis F. Ibarra, Ricardo A. Medina and Helmut Krawinkler., (2005), Hysteretic models
that incorporate strength and stiffness deterioration, International Association of
Earthquake Engineering,34(12), pp 1489-1511,
6. Patxi Uriz, Filip C. Fillippou Stephen A Mahin., (2008), Model for Cyclic Inelastic
Buckling of Steel Braces, Journal of Structural Engineering, 134(4), pp 9-12.
7. Waltario A Lopez and Rafael Sabelli., (2004), Seismic Design of Buckling Restrained
Braced Frames, Structural Steel Education Council, pp 5-7.
8. Jun Jin and Sherif El-Tawil., (2003), Inelastic Cyclic Model for Steel Braces, Journal
of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 129(5), pp 548-557.
9. Buckling of Steel Elements., available at www.Eurocode-resources.com.
10. Gregory G. Deierlein, Andrei M. Reinhorn and Michael R. Willford., (2010),
Nonlinear Structural Analysis for Seismic Design, A Guide for Practicing Engineers,
Applied Technology Council (ATC), NEHRP Seismic Design Technical Brief No. 4,
National Institutes of Standards and Technology, US Department of Commerce.
11. Lutfi Al-Sharif., (2010), Euler’s Buckling Equation, Mechatronics Engineering,
STM_File, pp 1-2.
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