In the widest sense, grammar is the complex set of relations. Grammar isa device that specifies the infinite set of well-formed sentences and assigns to each of them one or more structural descriptions. Grammar may be practical and theoretical. The aim of practical grammar is the descriptiption of grammar rules that are necessary to understand and formulate sentences, Theoretical ideals with the language as a complex func. tional system, The grammatical structure of language comprises two major parts — morphology and syntax. ‘The two areas are obviously independent and together they constitute the study of grammar. a Morphology deals with pragmatic and syntagmatic properties of mor- phological units — morphemes and words. Itis concerned with the internal structure of words and their relationship to other words and word forms within the paradigm. Morphology studies the morphological categories and their realization. | MORPHOLOGY > UNIT 1. THE NOUN § 1. General Information ‘The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word. There are four kinds of nouns in English: ‘Common nouns: dog, man, table Proper nouns: France, Madrid, Mrs, Smith, Tom Abstract nouns: beauty, charity, courage, fear, joy Collective nouns: crowd, flock, group, team “The noun has the following morphological characteristics: 1. Nouns that can be counted have two numbers: singular and plural (a girl — girls) 2. Nouns denoting living beings (and some nouns denoting lifeless things) have two case forms: the com- mon case and the genitive case. 3. In Modern English grammatical category of gender is hardly ever expressed by means of grammatical forms 4. A noun can also be in a possessive case, (Tom’s books) “The noun has certain syntactical characteristics. The chief syntactical function of the noun in the sentence is that of the subject and the object. Eg: — Tomarrived. (the subject of the sentence) saw Tom. (the object of the sentence) It may also be used as an attribute or a predicative. Eg: Tom likes winter holidays. (an attribute) ‘Tom is an actor, (a predicative) A noun preceded by a preposition (a prepositional phrase) may be used as an attribute, prepositional indi- rect object, and adverbial modifier. Ege: The center of the town is very beautifl (an attribute) ‘The teacher explained to the students (prepositional indirect object) some difficult rules, ‘The teacher comes into the classroom at 8 o'clock. (adverbial modifier) ‘The noun is generally associated with the article. In some cases only articles can show that the word is noun.‘Anoun can be modified by an adjective, a pronoun, or by another noun. Bg: — Tomisagood student (modified by an adjective) This is his book. (modified by pronoun) He has no winter coat. (modified by another noun) § 2. The Category of Number English countable nouns have two numbers — singular and plural. 1. The plural of a noun is usually made by adding -s to the singular; -s is pronounced in different ways: [2] after voiced consonants and vowels: days, dogs; {s] _afier voiceless consonants: caps, texts, books; [iz] when--sis placed after -ce, -ge, -e,-2e (an extra syllable is added to the spoken word): houses, bridges, places. 2. Nouns ending in -0 or -ch, -sh, -8s, -x form their plural by adding -es: tomato— tomatoes brush — brushes church— churches box — boxes cargo — cargoes potato — potatoes 3. But words of foreign origin or abbreviated words ending in -o add -s only: Eg: dynamo —dynamos —_ kimono — kimonos piano — pianos kilo — kilos photo — photos soprano — sopranos solo — solos portfolio — portfolios ‘When -es is placed after -ch, -sh, -s8 or -x an extra syllable ({iz]) is added to the spoken word. 4. Nouns ending in -y following a consonant form their plural by dropping the y and adding ies Eg: baby—babies country—countries fly — flies Nouns ending in -y following a vowel form their plural by adding -s: Bg: — boy—boys day — days donkey — donkeys 5, Nouns ending in -f or -fe drop the -f or -fe and add -ves: Eg: calf—calves half — halves knife — knives life — lives leaf—leaves believe — believes. loaf — loaves self—selves sheaf — sheaves shelf — shelves thief — thieves wife — wives wolf — wolves, ‘The nouns hoof, scarf and wharf take either -8 or -ves in the plural: Eg: hoofsorhooves —scarfsor scarves wharfs or wharves Other words such as dwarf, giraffe, muff, proof, sheriff, elf, plaintiff tariff ending in -f/-fe add -s in the or dinary way: Bg: — dliff—cliffs handkerchief — handkerchiefs __safe — safes 6. A few nouns form their plural by vowel change: Eg: foot—feet mouse—mice — woman— women ox —oxen man—men goose—geese tooth —teeth child — children brother — brethren louce —lice 7. Nouns ending in -th add -s only: Eg: —bath—baths oath — oaths path — paths smith—smiths month—months myth — myths, 8, In some nouns the plural form does not differ from the singular one: Eg: deer sheep —swine_— fish — trout — fruit9. In compound nouns the plural is formed in different ways. Normally the last word is made plural: Eg: boy-friends —travelagents.—_lady-bird — lady-birds But where man and woman are prefixed both parts are made plural: Eg: mendrivers women drivers ‘Some compound nouns form the plural by adding -s to the head-word: | Eg. editor-in-chief — editors-in-chief brother-in-law — brothers-in-law looker-on —lookers-on If there is no noun-stem in the compound, -s is added to the last element: Eg: forget-me-not — forget-me-nots merry-go-round — merry-go-rounds 10. Initials can be made plural by edding -s Eg: MPs (Members of Parliament) OAPs (old age pensioners) UFOs (unidentified flying objects) VIPs (very important persons) 11. Words with the meaning of garments, tools, and instruments consisting of two parts are always plural and take a plural verb. Translate these words into Ukrainian, Eg: breeches, binoculars pants, pliers Pyjamas. scissors, = trousers spectacles As well as some other words: Eg: — police pains (trouble / effort) arms (weapons), earnings goods savings wares outskirts clothes premises valuables, surroundings greens (vegetables) stairs 12. Some words with the meaning of certain diseases and games are plural in form but singular in meaning: Eg: mumps billiards _ rickets darts. shingles, draughts bowls, news, dominoes, Itis interesting to know ‘A. Some words which retain their original Greek or Lat of Greek and Latin. ‘Translate them into Ukrainian, crisis — crises hypothesis — hypotheses ‘oasis — oases parenthesis — parentheses basis — bases, analysis — analyses forms make their plural according to the rules 10thesis — theses erratum —errata__ nucleus — nuclei ‘memorandum — memoranda fungus — fungi, curriculum — curricula aa stimulus — stimuli ca ‘medium — media terminus — termin bacterium — bacteria__ = radius — radii datum — data a criterion — criteria syllabus — syllabi / syllabuses ae formula — formulae (is used by scientists), cactus — cacti / cactuses_ Yet others follow the English rules: dogma —dogmas formula—formulas gymnasium — gymnasiums Sometimes there are two plural forms with different meanin; appendix — appendixes or appendices (medical term) appendix — appendices (addition / s to a book) index — indexes (in books), indices (in mathematics) Musicians usually prefer Italian plural forms for Italian musical terms. But -8 libretto — libretti,librettos tempo — tempi, tempos B. Names of certain creatures do not change in the plural. Fish is normally unchanged. Fishes exists but is uncommon. Some types of fish do not normally change in plural: carp pike salmon trout cod plaice turbot mackerel but if used in a plural sense they would take a plural verb. Others add -s: crabs herrings sardines eels lobsters, sharks C. Sportsmen who shoot duck, partridge, pheasant, etc. use the same form for singular and plural, but other people normally add -s for the plural: ducks, partridges, pheasants. also possible: ‘The word game, used by sportsmen to mean an animal / animals hunted, is always in singular, and takes a singular verb. Exercises Exercise 1. Write the plural form of each noun. 1. foot _ 10. thief = 2. flash 11. chief. 3.hero 12. custom 4, knife _ 13. donkey____ S.wolf 14, mouth, 6. quiz, 15, memo, 7.wideo__ 16, mystery 8. deer _ 17. potato, 9.0%. 18. quality. Wee Exercise 2. Write the correct singular or plural form. Model: mouse mice SINGULAR PLURAL, 1. pocket teeth tomatoes women 5. branch 6.friend 7.duty 8. highway 9. belief 10. radio LL offspring 12, season 13. business 14 centuries, 15, sheep 16. 17. family loaves 18, roof 19, wharf Exercise 3. Write the plural of each word from the box in the correct category. baby sheep apple daffodil daisy fox potato grape lily mouse bean aunt daughter deer pea child husband cow wolf pear rose cherry wife son horse banana hare Model: Common fruits include pears, apples, cherries, grapes, bananas 1. Common vegetables include. 2. Common farm animals include 3. Common flowers include. 4, Family members include, 5. Common wild animals include. Exercise 4. Use the correct plural forms of the nouns in the list to complete the sentences. Use each word only once. bacterium datum ‘oasis crisis hypothesis phenomenon criterion ‘medium stimulus curriculum ‘memorandum thesis 12Model: Graduate students are often required to write long papers in which they state an opinion and give evidence to support it. These papers are often referred to as thesis. 1, Thunder and lightning are of nature, 2, Before the students began their chemistry experiments, they stated theories to explain what was going to happen in their experiments. In other words, they made 3. The government ofthat country is unstable. The country has faced many political _ __in the last ten years. It has had to face one problem after another. 4, The office supervisor, Ms, Hall, is well known for the large number of. she sends to her staff She believes it is necessary to write many notes to remind the staff of things that need to be taken care of, 5. The mass __ include radio, television, newspapers, magazines, and the Internet. 6. The teacher wanted to make sure the students understood the standards by which she would make her judgments. She carefully explained the she would use to judge the students’ work. 7. All of the departments at the university provide descriptions of their in the school catalog, Look there to find out what courses each department offers. 8. Certain factors cause plants to grow. These are light, water, and fertile soil. 9. Very small living things that can cause disease are called getms. Germs are forms of _ 10. In a desert, there are places where water is available and a few plants grow. These areas are called 11. ‘The researcher assembled numerous facts through months of investigation. She used the __ she had gathered to write a report for a scientific journal. g Exercise 5. Translate from English into Ukrainian. Pay attention to using of the nouns. The road to ruin ‘The M25, the motorway around London, opened in 1986. Today people call it the biggest car park in Eu- rope. Every morning on the radio we hear about jams, and road repairs, and crashes, and which parts of the ‘M25 to avoid. One day soon we will hear “There isa traffic jam all the way round the M25 in both directions. Ifyou are driving to work, we advise you to go back home.’ ‘Winston Churchill described the car as the curse of the twentieth century. This will probably be true of the next century, too. It can be very funny to compare advertisements for cars with the reality of driving them. Cars are symbols of freedom, wealth, and masculinity. But when you are stuck in a traffic jam, all cars are just little metal boxes to sit in. Cities and towns all over the world have a huge problem, and no government really knows what to do. For ‘once it is not a matter of technology which is stopping us. If we want to build two-level roads, we can do it. If we want trains which can travel at hundreds of miles an hour, we can build them. The problem is a ques tion of principle. Should we look to road or rail for our transport needs? Should the government, or private companies, control them? And either way, who should pay? ‘The people who believe in roads say that cars represent a personal choice to travel when and where you want to. But on trains and busses — public transport — you have to travel when the timetable says you can. "These people think that if you build more roads, the trafic will move more quickly, but research shows that if there are more roads, there will be more cars to fill them. Inthe next decade, the number of cars on our roads will double, Environmentalists are saying that we should put more money into public transport. Cars often carry just one person. Ifthe public transport system works, more people will use it, If trains carry more people, the roads won't be so crowded, and cars pollute the air more than trains. ‘One characteristic of the people of our century is that we are a race on the move. But itis just possible that soon we won't be able to move another inch, and we will have to stay exactly where we are! 13| Exercise 6. Translate from English into Ukrainian. halt knives leaves __ lives loaves sheaf shelves thief baths - oaths path smiths myths brother-in-law editors-in-chief a ookers-on crises hypothesis oases parentheses breeches — spectacles valuables outskirts analyses thesis, = erratum - - fungi curricula ‘memorandum media termini bacteria S data criteria phenomena - Exercise 7. Match the word to its translation. Pay attention to using of the nouns. 1. minister without portfolio 2, forwarding agent 3. chemical agent 4, crisis legislation 5. criterion of taxation 6. parenthesis, 7. curriculum 8. memorandum 9. data 10. data bank 11, data processing 12. appendix 4. ximisia pevonitia, peakras . soarox (x0 noxystenra) & xpyrni ayant nani, pigomocri, inpopmanin €. o6po8nexia aamx; po6ora inxbopmauicio £ nagsnievaiine saxonopancro0 {g Kphtepiit ononarxynannis fi, waBsanpnici nan, nporpavena i mpminomarisHa HOTA je Save namex K. otinictp 6es noprdpenn 1. excnesperop Exercise 8. Translate from Ukrainian into English. Pay attention to using of the nouns. ni6pero mpucara, KnaTBa. opens. omicKa, ininexc; noxasnnx ante popmyma__ ‘oceneneut, ery nibkama, Ginoxne, ‘counika (saxBopIonaHii) rmiamxxt (rpa), ariraxk KopaGns. mopripenp, nama, catim o6epemox, BasannKa, TansHMns, GyxaHKa, x76. psicrans; npuvat TpHG; nricHaBa, ABI, CHIMCOK APYKaPCbKUX HONHITOK_ Gnigo-KoBTiit HapUne. fee aherne oer eat oxommti, nepenmicta, yamicea. posyKri« BupOGHHNTBA, Gyainns 3 npinernow pinaHKoW, xomrropxocti, yinnocti, nist pest g Exercise 9. Translate from Ukrainian into English. NepuoxypcHukam nontaschknx enue posqaBaTumyTe nytiBH¥KH A6st1onaxst Ta pipsata opientyBamica y supi MononDKHorO xGtrTA TlonTaBs, creniambHO AYIA HX crBOpIE rw nyrinnnk, Y Hhomy — nce: noMmnaiosn Big Mepenixy Ta anpec sakranis BinTOwsMKy, AosBintA Ta chopty 14no nikapenb ra paisisainis mininii. «lllo6 nepmoxypenuk, skit anepiie npwixas no Tomrans, 11a, ux0 xpi "UUAIKK roABa i raBH, Ha KE He THMMO MOXKHA KTH, € AY>Ke Gararo HhikaBOTO, Iho MME MO>KeMO samportortyBArH. Bynp-nacka — «llontasa — vepurtopin snopos's: pci nauti cranion, wci Hani Gacefir, KopaaHiKit, 10 pes, — ici, ne Moxxita saitwaritca dpiskynbrypor i crioprom. [Je Mo>ki.a rapHo BigINO“HTX: IHCKOTEKI, GyRUIIKIC KY Ab~ 1PM, PosBarkarbH NHTPH, MAHIPyBATH TE Ne €: My3ei, AMCTARKH, — ckasan mep TlonTanHt ANpilk Markon- coxa Taxi 6pomypst orproiac Kooxext nepwwOoKypeH. Bria, NyTIBHIK KYABTYpHM NOTABCDKIIM OKITTAM — rime opin 8 wanpantin, zxyoe wicexa Braga 6epersca OKYMEIYpIOBATH OKPEMIK NpeACraBHKn MOROROCO noxoninsia. Tpygotepantia ra 6ouycu y Burnsii GesKOMITOBHNX MpeCTIOKHNX JMCKOTEK — HACTYHi KPOKHK. (O6nacne Komynanone indiopmauiiine azenmemeo «Hosur Honmasuunu» — Hosur) Exercise 10. Listen to the song. Copy out the nouns from the song and write their plural form where it is possible. Happy Nation is the debut album of Ace of Base, a pop music group based in Sweden. It was released in early 1993 in Europe, Af rica and Latin America on Festival Records. "The album is the third highest-selling debut. album by a group after Guns N’ Roses and Linkin Park. It reached the number one posi- tion in at least 14 countries, and it has sold somewhere in the region of 21 million copies worldwide. Happy Nation Laudate omnes gentes laudate fh Ideas by man and only that will last Magnificat en secula Et anima mea laudate Magnificat en secuiala Happy nation living in a happy nation“ pe Where the people understand. And dream of perfect man A situation lead to sweet salvation For the people for the good For mankind brotherhood ‘We're travelling in time ‘And over time we've turned to the past ‘That no man’s fit to rule the world alone ‘Aman will die but not his ideas Happy nation.. ‘We're travelling in time ‘Travelling in time ‘Tell them we've gone too far ‘Tell them we've gone too far Happy nation come through And Iwill dance with you Happy nation Happy nation, 15e OT Oe § 3. Countable and Uncountable Nouns ‘Nouns can be divided into countable and uncountable. A countable noun is one that can be counted: Eg.: book — one book, two books, three books, four books, student — one student, two students, three students, person — one person, two people, three people, ... child — one child, two children, three children, ... Countable nouns may be preceded by a/an in the singular and they take a final -s/-es in the plural. Uncountable nouns are also known as non-count nouns or mass nouns. An uncountable noun is one that } cannot be counted: Eg milk — you cannot say one milk, two milks, Uncountable nouns are not immediately preceded by a/an and have no plural form. Many non-count nouns refer to a ‘whole’ that is made up of different parts: Eg: furniture — represents a whole group of things that is made up of similar but separate items sugar — represent whole masses made up of individual particles or elements It is possible, however, to count some uncountable nouns if the substance is placed in a countable con- tainer: Ey glass of milk — one glass of milk, two glasses of milk, ... It is very important to know if a noun is countable or uncountable. It helps to avoid mistakes. To decide if noun that you are not sure of is countable or uncountable, decide if you can say: one____ ora For example, you can say ‘one book’so it isa countable noun. You cannot say “one money’ s0 itis uncount able noun. The following nouns are considered uncountable: 1. Names of substances considered generally: | Eg: — bread gold wine cloth cream wood gin soap butter stone coffee ice jam paper beer water | oil glass tea dust | 2. Many abstractions: | pity horror advice experience | fear death beauty information relief ‘mercy courage suspicion | help work hope knowledge 3. Also considered uncountable in English: Eg: baggage camping weather shopping luggage parking damage furniture 4. Languages: Eg: Arabic Chinese English Spanish 5. Fields of stud) Eg: chemistry engineering history mathematics literature psychology 6. Recreations: Eg: baseball ‘soccer tennis chess bridge 7. Activiti Eg: — driving studying swimming _tavelling 168, Natural phenomena: Ege Uncountable nouns are always singular and are not used with a/an: Eg. ‘These nouns are often preceded by some, any, no, ali Ege fog hail heat humidity rain thunder sunshine —_lightning snow sleet darkness electricity She doesn’t want any advice or help. She needs (some) information. Thave no experience in this sort of work. le, etc. or by nouns such as bit, piece, abit of news agrain of sand a drop of oil a pane of glass a sheet of paper a cup of coffee apiece of advice apiece of chalk It is interesting to know ‘A. Many of the nouns in the above groups can be used in a particular sense and are then countable. They can take a/an in the singular and can be used in the plural. Some examples are given below. Eg: Eg: hair — all the hair on one's head is considered uncountable, but if we consider each hair sepa- rately, we say one hair, two hairs, ete. Her hair is black. Whenever she finds a grey hair she pulls it out. ‘We drink tea, coffe, beer, but we can ask for a (cup of) tea / coffee, a (glass of) beer, ete. We drink wine, but we enjoy a good wine. We can walk in a wood / woods. experience — meaning ‘something which happened to someone’ is countable: He had an exciting experience / some exciting experiences. The word time can be either countable or non-countable depending on the context. When it ‘means an occasion, it is countable. When it means a number of hours, days, years, etc. itis non- countable: We have spent too much time on this homework. (non-count) She has been late for the class six times this semester. (countable) B. Some abstract nouns can be used in a particular sense with a/an: ahelp: My children are a great help to me. A good map would be a help. arelief: Eg: Itwasareliefto sit down. aknowledge of Eg: She had a good knowledge of mathematics. alove / hatred of: Eg: —alove of music a hatred of violence pity / a shame can be used with that-clause introduced by it: Eg. Ttsa pity you weren't here. It’sa shame he wasn't paid. It-+ be + a pity / shame + infinitive is also possible: Bg: Tt would be a pity to cut down these trees 7ee a fear / fears, a hope / hopes, a sus ‘These can be used with that-clauses introduced by there: Eg: There isa fear | There are fears that he has been murdered. We can also have a suspicion that... Something can arouse a fear / fears, a hope / hopes, a suspicion / suspicions. €. Collective nouns crew, family, team, etc., can take a singular or a plural verbs singular if we consider the word to mean a single group or unit: 2g. Our team is the bes oor plural if we take it to mean a number of individuals: ‘Our team are wearing their new T-shirts. ‘When a possessive adjective is necessary, a plural verb with their is more usual than a singular verb with its, though sometimes both are possible: ‘The jury is considering its verdict. ‘The jury are considering their verdict. § 4. The Category of Case Case is the form of the noun indicating the relations of the noun (or pronoun) to the other words in the sentence. ‘There are two cases of nouns in English: the Common Case and the Possessive/ Genitive Case. English nouns denoting living beings (and some nouns denoting lifeless things) have two cases: the Com mon Case which has no special case endings and the Possessive / Genitive Case which has the case ending with singular and plural nouns not ending in ‘The Common Case. The Common Case is an uninflected form so the relation of the noun in the Common Case to other words in the sentence is indicated by its position and by means of prepositions (to, for; by, with, of Eg. Toften write letters to my sister. We have a present for you. ‘The novel is written by a famous writer. like writing with a pencil. ‘The cover of the book attracted my attention, ‘Anoun in the Common Case with the preposition to or for may express the relations which are expressed by the Ukrainian Dative Case. The combination of a noun in the Common Case with the preposition of expresses the relations which are expressed by the Ukrainian Genitive Case. A noun in the Common Case preceded by prepositions by or with may express the relations which are expressed by the Ukrainian Instrumental Case. ‘The Possessive / Genitive Case. ‘We normally use ~’s for people or animals: Eg: thegitl’sname the horse’s tail Mr Evan's daughter awoman’shat the manager's office __Sarah’s eyes ‘Where is the managers office? (not ‘the office of the manager’) What colour are Sarah's eyes? (not ‘the eyes of Sarah’) “The Possessive / Genitive Case is formed by adding ”’s (the apostrophe s) to the noun in the singular and to the plural form not ending in Eg: aman'sjob the people's choice woman's intuition women’s clothes child’s toy children’s toys oe (the apostrophe) is added to plural form ending in -s: Eg: the students’ hostel a boys’ school 18‘Classical names ending in -s usually add only the apostrophe: Eg. Pythagoras’ Theorem Archimedes’ Law Other names ending in -s can take -’s or the apostrophe alone: Eg: Mr. Jones's (or Mr. Jones’) house is very comfortable. Dickens’ (or Dickens's) novels are popular. ‘With compounds, the last word takes the ~’s Eg: Mybrother-in-law’s car is expensive. ‘Names consisting of several words are treated similarly: Eg: Henrythe Fight’s wives the Prince of Wales's helicopter scan also be used after initials: Eg: the MP’sbriefcase the VIP's escort ‘When the Possessive / Genitive Case is used, the article before the person or thing ‘possessed’ disappears: Eg: the daughter or the politician = the politician's daughter the invention of America = America’s invention the plays of Shakespeare = Shakespeare's plays As to its use, the Possessive / Genitive Case falls into: © the Dependent Geni © the Absolute Genitiv “The Dependent Genitive is used with the noun it modifies and comes before it. Eg: men’s work a child’s voice It is used in some set expressions: Eg: for heaven's God's) sake to one’s heart’s delight at one’s wit's end astone’s throw ‘The Absolute Genitive may be used without any noun or be separated from the noun it modifies: Eg: — Youcan buy itat the chemist’. She is going to the dentist's. We had dinner at my granny’s, (at my gram ’s house) Note that we say a woman’s hat (= a hat for a woman), a boy's name (a name for a boy), a bird's egg (an egg laid by a bird), etc. For things, ideas, etc, we normally use of (... of the book/ ... of the restaurant, etc.) g, the door of the garage (not the garage’s door) the name of the book the owner of the restaurant We normally use of (not noun + noun) with the beginning / end / top / bottom / front / back / middle / side, etc. E, the back of the car (not ‘the car back’) the beginning of the month You can usually use ’s or of for an organization (=a group of people) Eg. the government's decision or the dec »n of the government the company’s success or the success of the company Itis also possible to use ~’s for places. You can say: Eg: thecity’snew theatre the world’s population _ Italy's largest city You can also use -’s with time expressions (yesterday / next week, etc.) Eg. Have you still got yesterday's paper? Next week's meeting has been cancelled. 19In the same way you can also say today’s / tomorrow's / this evening’s / Monday's, etc. We also use -’s (or -’s with plural words) with periods of time: Eg: — Pve gota week’s holiday starting on Monday. Jill has got three weeks’ holiday. I live near the station — it’s only about ten minutes’ walk. Itis interesting to know |A. The Possessive Case is chiefly used when talking of people, countries or animals as shown above. It can also be used when talking of ships and boats (the ship’s bell); of planes, trains, cars and other vehicles, though the “of construction” isused more often (a glider’s wings or the wings ofthe glider: the train's heating system or the heating system of the train); in time expressions (a week’s holiday, today’s paper, ten minutes’ break, two hours’ delay), though a one-week holiday, a ten-minute break, a two-hour delay are also possible. B. We can say either a winter’s day or a winter day and a summer's day or a summer day, but we can not make spring or autumn possessive, except when they are personified: Autumn's return, Names of owners of some business can be used in the possessive case without the second noun: Sotheby's, McDonald’. some well: known shops call themselves by the possessive forms and some drop the apostrophe: Foyles, Harrods. C. Nouns can be used as modifiers. When a noun is used as a modifier, it is in its singular form: Eg: The soup has vegetables in it. — Itis a vegetable soup. “The building has offices in it. — It is an office building, When a noun used as a modifier is combined with a number expression, the noun is singular anda hyphen (is used: Eg ‘The test lasted two hours. — It was a two-hour test. Her daughter is four years old. — She has a four-year old daughter. § 5. The Category of Gender It is doubtful whether the grammatical category of gender exists in Modern English, for it is hardly ever expressed by means of grammatical forms. There is practically only one gender-forming suffix in Modern English, the suffix -ess, expressing the feminine gender. Itis not widely used. Eg: _ heir —heiress lion — lioness poet — poetess conductor — conductress actor — actress ‘manager — manageress waiter — waitress steward — stewardess host — hostess tiger — tigress But nowadays -person is used instead of -man, -woman: salesperson, spokesperson, salesman (saleswoman) ‘We can divide the words into three groups according to the things they denote / objects they name: Masculine: men, boys and male animals (pronoun he/they) Feminine: women, girls, female animals (pronoun she/they) ‘Neuter: inanimate things, animals whose sex we don’t know and sometimes babies whose sex we don't know (pronoun it/they) Exceptions: ships and sometimes cars and other vehicles when regarded with affection or respect are con- sidered feminine. Countries when referred to by name are also considered feminine. 20can ugh nor not sof ell- en Bg: The ship struck an iceberg, which tore a huge hole in her side. Scotland lost many of her bravest men in two great rebellions. Masculine / feminine nouns denoting people have different forms: Eg: —boy—girl gentleman — lady nephew — niece bridegroom — bride son — daughter king — queen husband — wife bachelor — spinster prince — princess man — woman widower —widow duke — duchess father — mother uncle — aunt earl — countess Some main exceptions are: Eg: — baby infant relative child parent spouse cousin relation teenager ‘The majority of nouns indicating occupation have the same form: E artist cook driver assistant dancer doctor Domestic animals and many of the larger wild animals have different forms: Eg: bull—cow — duck—drake stag — doe cock—hen gander — goose stallion — mare Exercises Exercise 1. Add final -s/-es to the italicized noun if necessary. Do not add, omit, or change any other words. Model: Jackie has brown hair and gray eyes. Chair’ — unchanged; eye — eyes) My parents gave me some good advice. . 1 always drink water when I’m hot and thirsty. We ate some sandwich for lunch. A gambler needs alot of Thave a lot of homework to do tonight. Maria took some good photograph at the wedding party. Our country has made a lot of progress in the last 25 years. : That book has a lot of good idea. 9. An encyclopedia contains a lot of information. 10, I've learned a lot of new vocabulary. 11. Olga knows @ lot of American slang. 12. Every day, I learn some more new word in English. 13, We bought some new clothing. 14, Lbought a pair of leather glove. 15. At rush hour there are a lot of car on the highway. Although normally it takes us twenty minute to drive from home to work, at rush hour it can take an hour because of the heavy traffic. 16. Ann likes to wear jewelry, Today she is wearing four ring, six bracelet, and a necklace. 17. [had meat, rice, vegetable, and some tea for dinner. 18. Butterfly begin as caterpillar and then are transformed into beautiful insect with vividly colored swing. PNOVAYNE 21fr a | 19, Traveling can impart a great deal of education as well as enjoyment. When people travel to another country, they can learn about its history, economy, and architecture, as well as become acquainted with its various custom. 20, Although everyone believed the accused man was guilty of murder, he was acquitted. The prosecut- ing attorney did not have enough evidence to convict him, nor even any proof that he had been able to enter the murdered man's house. 21. You need more calcium in your diet, Mrs. Abbott. Itis found in milk and milk product, in dark green vegetable such as broccoli, and in fish such as sardine. You need vitamin, too. Do you take vitamin pill? | 22, Last night we heard about a new political crisis in our country. Do you have any more information about it? Are there any reports of violence? We've heard a lot of rumors about what may be happening, but we're anxious to know the truth. We need fact, not gossip. 23, We received a:postcard from Melissa today. She’s on vacation in the country, staying in a f dred-year-old inn. She says that the area has fantastic scenery and a wonderful golf course. She's hav- ing a lot of fun. | Exercise 2. Make the italicized nouns possessive by adding apostrophes and final -s/-es. Model: He puts the mail in the secretary's mailbox. 1. There are three secretaries in our office. The secretary mailboxes are in the hallway. ‘Tom has two cats. The cat food and water dishes are on a shelf in the laundry room. Thave one cat. My cat feet are white, but the rest of her is black. |. My child name is Olaf. "Their children names are Pablo and Gabriella. 5. My supervisor names are Ms. Anderson and Mr. Johns. ‘Your supervisor name is Mrs. Wright. I'm interested in other people ideas. . This month issue of that magazine has several interesting articles. All of the performers in the play did well. The audience applauded the actor excellent performances. ‘An actor income is uncertain. ES eeuaneen 1 | | Exercise 3. Add apostrophes, if necessary, fo mark a possessive noun or a contraction with | a pronoun. | Model: Mary’s father works at the Northgate Medical Center. (a possessive noun) | ‘He's a dentist. (a contraction with a pronoun: He is a dentist.) | 1. Jacks parents live in Georgia. His parents home is in Atlanta. | 2. Our teachers last name is Wells. Shes one of the best teachers in the school. 3. Our teachers last names are Wells, Hunt, and Moore. Theyre all good teachers. 4, Ms, Wells husband is also a teacher. Ms, Hunts husband is an engineer. 5, Its well known that a bear likes sweet food. Its favorite food is honey. 6, Anns telephone number is 555-8989. Ours is 555-8998, People often confuse hers with ours, so we get frequent calls for her. 7. The tiger is a beautiful animal, Its coat is orange and white with black stripes. Although its found in the wild only in Asia, people throughout the world appreciate its beauty and power. Even though ti- gers are protected by laws, many scientists predict their extinction within twenty to thirty years. How much poorer our childrens and grandchildrens lives will be when the earth no longer has a place for | tigers, elephants, wolves, and numerous other animals whose fates rely upon the wisdom and com- passion of humankind. 22| Exercise 4. Think of common expressions in which the given nouns are used to modify other nouns. Model: flower —a flower vase, a flower garden cotton . grammar birthday. chicken airplane telephone -. mountain . government__ 9. football a bedroom i Exercise 5. What do you call the following? Model: someone who rob banks — a bank robber someone who fights bulls —a bullfighter |. someone who collects stamps _ someone who train animals . someone who tells stories someone who collects taxes >. something that opens cans something that wipes a windshield . someone who earns wages someone who manages an offic . someone who programs computers 10. someone who keeps books __ 11, something that removes spots 12, something that holds pots_ 13, someone who makes troubles 14. someone who reads minds __ 15, something that dries hair 16, something that peels potatoes_ 17. someone who plays tennis 18. someone who fights fires 19. someone who carries mail Exercise 6. Complete the sentences with the nouns in the parentheses. Use the singular or plu- ral form if appropriate. Include hyphen (-) as necessary. Model: They sell toys at that store. It is a toy store. (toy) 1. Hike salads. [ike salads that contain__. (tomato) 2. Thave a garden. I grow many different kinds of. __.. (vegetable) 3. Some people are addicted to _. They are addicts. (drug) 4, We drove down an old, narrow highway that had only __ We drove down a ___ highway. (two + lane) 235. Igavea speech in class. My speech lasted for _ (five + minute) 6. TheWatkinsliveina__ house. Anyhousethati usually needs a lot of repairs. (sixty + year + old) Exercis 7. Add final -s/-es where necessary. Do not change, add, or omit any other words in the sentences (except verbs) Model: A bird cares for its feathers by cleaning them with its beak, 1. There are many occupations in the world. Doctor take care of sick people. Pilot fly airplane, Farmer raise crop. Shepherd herd sheep. 2. An architect design buildings. An archeologist dig in the ground to find object from past civilizations. 3. The first modern computer were developed in the 1930s and 1940s, Computer were not commercially available until the 1950s. ‘There are several factory in my hometown. The glass factory employ many people. Kangaroo are Australian animal, They are not found on any of the other continent, except in z00. Mosquito are found everywhere in the world, including the Arctic. " Atone time, many people believed that tomato were poisonous. . Bird, fish, insect, and mammal are different species. Each group of these life form shares physical characteristic. 9. Most of the creature in the world possess the five sense of sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. However, these sense are often more highly developed in one species than another. Bird have a highly developed sense of sight. For instance, an eagle can spot a small lizard from high in the air. the lizard ‘would be undetectable by a human being from the same distance. Animal that hunt by following a trail on the ground may have poor eyesight but a keen sense of smell. For example, dog see a blurred, gray world because they are nearsighted and cannot see colors. However, they can smell thousands of times better than human being can. exes Exercise 8. Write the correct form of the nouns in parentheses. Model: I met some interesting men at the meeting last night (man) 1. Ineed some _ to light the fie (match) 2. The baby got two new, (tooth) 3. The farmer loaded his cart with _ of ftesh vegetables to take to the market. His cart was pulled by two. (box, ox) 4, Alex saw some. ce __ running across the floor (mouse) 5. The north side of the island has no There are only steep No one can climb these steep walls of rock (beach, cliff) 6. Ifa house plant is given too much water. Its lower = turn yellow (lea!) 7. Before Marie signed the contract, she talked to two __ (attorney) 8, New scientific are made every day in _ _ throughout the world (discov- ery, laboratory) 9. On our trip in the mountainous countryside, we saw some Sees and wild _ wolf fox, deer, sheep) 10. When we spoke in the cave, we could hear ___ of our voices (echo) 11. The music building at the university has 27 Students need to sign up for practice times (piano) 12, Thunder and lightning are _____ of nature (phenomenon) 24eee f 13. People get most of their news about the world through the mass that is, through radio, television, the Internet, newspapers, and magazines (m ium) Exercise 9. Make the nouns plural where necessary. Do not change any other words. Model; Bacterium are the smallest living thing, — wrong, Bacteria are the smallest living thing. — right 1. Bacterium are the smallest living thing, They are simple organism that consist of one cell. 2, Bacterium exist almost everywhere. They are in the air, water, and soil, as well as in the body of a liv. ing creature, 3. There are thousand of kind of bacterium. Most of them are harmless to human beings, but some cause diseases such as tuberculosis and pneumonia. 4, Virus are also microscopic organism, but virus live in the cell of other living thing, By themselves, they are lifeless particle that cannot reproduce, but inside a living cell they become active and can multiply hundred of time. 5. Virus cause many disease. ‘They infect human being with such illness as influenza, the common cold, measles, and AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) 6. Virus are tiny. The virus that causes AIDS is so small that 2300 million of them could fit on the period at the end of this sentence. . Today health official are expressing great concern about our health in the future. They feel that today there is an epidemic of infectious condition that are difficult or impossible to treat, such as AIDS, 8. In addition to this concern about new life-threatening viral infections, health official have discov- ered that bacterial infection that were once easily handled developed resistance to antibiotics and are evolving into form that are unaffected by all known medications. 9. In a world where antibiotics don’t work, the simplest infection are capable of escalating into fatal ill- nesses. Every year more people are dying of infection that every drug doctor try to prevent. The potential ineffectiveness of antibiotics is a frightening prospect. Exercise 10. Complete the sentences with the possessive form of the nouns in parentheses. ‘Model: (Mrs. Smith) Mrs. Smith's husband often gives her flowers. 1. (boy) “The hat is red, 2. (boys) ‘The __ hats are red. 3. (children) The a e toys are all over the floor. 4, (child) I fixed the bicycle 5. (baby) ‘The = x toys are in the crib, 6. (babies) ‘The z toys are in their cribs. 7. (wives) ‘Tom and Bob are married. Their names are Cindy and Judy, respectively. 8. (wife) ‘That is my = = coat 9. (Sally) = a last name is White. 10. (Phyllis) last name is Young. 11, (boss) ‘That's my : office. 12. (bosses) ‘Those are my rae “offices 13, (woman) Thisisa _ purse 14, (women) “That store sells clothes. 15, (sister) Do you know my ae husband? 16, (sisters) Do youknow my __ husbands? 17, (yesterday) Did you read ___ newspapers? 25(= a | 18, (today) ‘There are many problems in E ___ world. 19. (month) It would cost me a _ salary to buy that refrigerator Exercise 11. Correct the mistakes in the use of the possessive nouns by adding apostrophes and final -s/-es necessary. Model: I enjoy visiting friend houses. — wrong enjoy visiting friends’ houses. 1, When I was in Chicago, I stayed at a friend house. 2. My uncle is my father brother. 3. Ihave four aunts. All of my aunt homes are within walking distance of my mother apartment. 4 5. Mike's aunt oldest son is a violinist. Five astronauts were aboard the space shuttle. The astronaut safe return to earth was a welcome sight to millions of television viewers. 6. The children favourite part of the circus was the trapeze act. | 7. When the child toy broke, I fixed it. 8, Iborrowed the secretary pen to fill out the application form. 9. Its the people right to know what the city is going to do about the housing problem. 10. Bill wife isa factory worker. 11, Bess husband is a housepainter. 12. Quite a few diplomats are assigned to our city. Almost all of the diplomat children attend a special school. 13. A diplomat work invariably involves numerous meetings. Exercise 12. Complete the sentences with the nouns in the parentheses. Use the singular or plural form as appropriate. Include hyphen (-) as necessary. Model: (shoe) They sell shoes at that store, It isa shoe store. 1. (flower) My garden has init. Itisa__ garden 2. (bean) This soup is made from black Itisa soup. 3. (baby) People can buy special food in small jars for — It is called food. 4. (child) Dr. Adams is trained as a psychologist for She is a__ psychologist. 5. (salad) ‘Ata formal dinner, there are usually two forks on the table. The smaller fork is | for ie a | 6. (fax) In our office we have a machine that sends and receives__. It is called a | machine. | 7. (can) A kitchen tool that opens iscalled a opener. 8. (potato) A tool that peels iscalleda__ pele. 9. (airplane) Seats on ___ are uncomfortable. seats should be made more comfortable and convenient for the passengers. 10, (mosquito) In tropical climates, sometimes it is necessary to hang a net over a bed to protect the sleeper from Itis called a___ net 11, (two+hour) The plane was late. We had a_______ wait. We had to wait for 12, (ten + year + old) My brother is brother. 13. (ten+ speed) Joe can shift his bicycle into i Hehasa bike. 26