The Cell − Protein transportation

Anatomy of the Cell o Smooth ER

● Cells are not all the same − Lipid metabolism
● All cells share general structures ● Golgi apparatus
● Cells are organized into three main regions − Modifies and packages proteins
− Nucleus o Secretory vesicles – contain proteins for export
− Cell membrane o Lysosomes – contain hydrolytic enzymes
− Cytoplasm ● Lysosomes
− Suicide sac
2 types of cells in the human body − Contain digestive enzymes
1. Somatic/body/autosomal – diploid cell ● Peroxisomes
2. Germ/cell/gametes – haploid cell − Contains enzymes that detoxify substances
● Centrioles
The Nucleus − Directors of the formation of the spindle apparatus
● Control center of the cell during cell division
● Contains genetic material (DNA) − Formation of projectors
● Three regions ● Centrosome
1. Nuclear Membrane − Microtubule organizing center
− Barrier of the nucleus ● Vacuoles
− Consists of double phospholipid membrane − Eliminates water and stores food and wastes
− Contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange ● Cellular Projections
of material with the rest of the cell − Not found in all cells
2. Nucleoli o Cilia moves materials across the cell surface
− Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli o Flagellum propels the cell
− Sites of ribosomal (RNA) transcription ● Cytoskeleton
− RNA synthesis and formation − Responsible for the shape and structure of the cell
3. Chromatin − Network of protein structures that extend
− Composed of unwound DNA and protein throughout cytoplasm
− Condenses to form chromosomes in cell division o Microfilaments – actin and myosin subunits;
1nm
Cell Membrane o Intermediate filaments – fibrous subunits; 10nm
● Barrier for cell contents o Microtubules – tubular subunits; 25 nm
● Semi-permeable, double phospholipid layer
− Hydrophilic heads – water loving Cell Diversity
− Hydrophobic tails – water fearing ● Cells that connect body parts
● Also contains protein, cholesterol and glycoproteins − fibroblasts, erythrocytes
● Most indispensable part of the cell ● Cells that cover and line body organs
● Glycocalyx – external membrane coating made up of − epithelium
glycoproteins and polysaccharides ● Cells that move organs and body parts
● Specializations − skeletal and smooth muscle cells
1. Microvilli ● Cell that stores nutrients
− Finger-like projections that increase surface area − fat cell
for absorption ● Cell that fights disease
2. Membrane junctions − macrophage
− Tight or impermeable junction ● Cell that gathers information
− Desmosomes or anchoring junction − nerve cell
− Gap or communicating junction ● Cells of reproduction
− Connexon – separates neighboring cells − ovum and sperm cell

Cytoplasm Cell Life Cycle

● Materials inside the cell membrane but outside nucleus ● Interphase
● Cytosol – fluid containing nutrients dissolved in water − Cell prepares itself for division
that suspends other elements − Cell carries on metabolic processes
● Inclusions – non-functioning units o Gap 1 – cell growth
● Organelles – metabolic machinery of the cell o Synthesis – DNA replication
o Gap 2 – protein synthesis
Cytoplasmic Organelles and Inclusions ● Cell division
● Mitochondria − Cell replicates itself
− “Powerhouse” of the cell − Production of cells for growth, repair and
− Provides ATP for cellular energy development processes
● Ribosomes Events of Cell Division
− Sites of protein synthesis a. Nuclear Division - formation of 2 daughter nuclei
− Found free in cytoplasm and attached to rough ER Mitosis Meiosi
● Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) s
− Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances daughter cells 2 4
o Rough ER PMAT cycle 1 2
− Studded with ribosomes chromosomes per daughter cell 46 23
 Stages of Nuclear Division Active Transport
1. Prophase ● Movement is from low to high concentration, or ​against
● Chromatin material becomes chromosomes a concentration gradient
● Nuclear envelope (nucleus, nucleolus and ● Dependent on ATP
nuclear membrane) disappears
● Centromeres move to opposite sides of the cell Active Transport Processes
2. Metaphase ● Bulk transport
● Spindle apparatus fully develops − Exocytosis
● Chromosomes line up at the center of the cell o Moves materials out of the cell
3. Anaphase o Material is carried in a membranous vesicle
● Centromeres break apart two sister chromatids o Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane
● Cell begins to elongate o Vesicle combines with plasma membrane
4. Telophase o Material is emptied to the outside
● Nuclear envelope reappears − Endocytosis
● Chromosomes revert back to chromatin o Extracellular substances are engulfed by being
material enclosed in a membranous vescicle
● Cleavage furrow appears ● Phagocytosis – cell eating
b. Cytoplasmic Division (cytokinesis) – begins when nuclear ● Pinocytosis – cell drinking
division is near completion ● Solute pumping
− Na​+​ - K​+​ ATPase pump
Solutions and Transport o Na​+ ​– most abundant extracellular cation
● Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more o K​+​ – most abundant intracellular cation
components
● Solvent – dissolving medium
● Solutes – components in smaller quantities within a
solution
● Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol
● Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell

Cellular Physiology: Membrane Transport

● Membranes are selectively permeable – allows some
materials to pass while excluding others
● Membrane Transport – movement of substance into and
out of the cell
● Transport is by two basic methods
− Passive transport
− Active transport
Passive Transport
● Movement is from high to low concentration, or ​down​ a
concentration gradient
● Dependent on kinetic energy

Passive Transport Processes

● Diffusion
− Particles distribute themselves evenly within
solution
− Dependent on concentration gradient/difference
− Movement is affected by size and temperature
1. Simple diffusion
− Unassisted process
− Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small
enough to pass through membrane pores
2. Facilitated diffusion
− Facilitated by protein channels of the cell
− Lipid-insoluble
3. Osmosis
− Highly polar water easily crosses the membrane
o Isotonic/normotonic Tissues
o Hypotonic – bursting Body Tissues
o Hypertonic – cronation ● Groups of cells with similar structure and function
● Filtration − Epithelium – covering
− Dependent on hydrostatic pressure gradient A − Connective tissue – support
pressure gradient must exist − Muscle – movement
− Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high − Nervous tissue – control
pressure area to a lower pressure area
− Not very selective on what is filtered out – size Epithelial Tissues
● Found in different areas
 − Body coverings – skin − Gland – one or more cells that secretes a particular
− Body linings – tracts product
− Glandular tissue – exocrine and endocrine 1. Endocrine gland
● Functions − Ductless
− Protection − Filtration − Secretions are hormones
− Absorption − Secretion 2. Exocrine gland
− Empty through ducts to epithelial surface
● Characteristics − Include sweat and oil glands
− Cells fit closely together
− Tissue layer always has one free surface – apical Connective Tissue
− The lower surface is bound by a basement ● Found everywhere in the body
membrane ● Includes the most abundant and widely distributed
− Avascular tissues
− Regenerate easily if well nourished ● Functions
● Classification of Epithelium − Binds body tissues together
− Number of cell layers − Supports the body
o Simple – one layer − Provides protection
o Stratified – more than one layer ● Characteristics
− Shape of cells − Some tissue types are well vascularized
o Squamous – flattened − Some have poor blood supply or are avascular such
o Cuboidal – cube-shaped as tendons, ligaments, and cartilage
o Columnar – column-like − Extracellular matrix (non-living material that
surrounds living cells)
Simple Epithelium
● Simple squamous Connective Tissue Types
− Single layer of flat cells ● Bone (osseous tissue)
− Usually forms membranes − Composed of:
− Lines body cavities – serous membranes o Bone cells (osteocytes) in lacunae (cavities)
o Mesothelium – Peritoneum (abdominal wall), o Hard matrix of calcium salts
Pleural (lungs), Pericardium (heart) o Large numbers of collagen fibers
− Lines lungs and capillaries − Used to protect and support the body
● Simple cuboidal ● Hyaline cartilage
− Single layer of cubelike cells − Most common cartilage
− Common in glands and their ducts − Composed of:
− Forms walls of kidney tubules o Abundant collagen fibers
− Covers the ovaries o Rubbery matrix
● Simple columnar − Entire fetal skeleton, nasal bridge, ribs, larynx
− Single layer of tall cells that fit closely together ● Elastic cartilage
− Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus − Provides elasticity
− Lines digestive tract – stomach, small and large − External ear, epiglottis
intestines ● Fibrocartilage
● Pseudostratified columnar − Highly compressible
− Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others − Found in intervertebral discs
− Often looks like a double cell layer ● Dense connective tissue
− Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract − Main matrix element is collagen fibers
− May function in absorption or secretion − Cells are fibroblasts
o Tendon – attach muscle to bone
Stratified Epithelium o Ligaments – attach bone to bone
● Stratified squamous ● Areolar connective tissue (Loose/Ordinary)
− Cells at the free edge are flattened − Most widely distributed connective tissue
− Found as a protective covering where friction is − Soft, pliable tissue
common − Contains all fiber types
− Locations: skin, mouth, esophagus, vagina − Can soak up excess fluid
● Stratified cuboidal ● Adipose tissue
− Two layers of cuboidal cells − Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules
● Stratified columnar predominate
− Surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in − Many cells contain large lipid deposits
size and shape − Functions
*Stratified cuboidal and columnar are rare in the human body o Insulates the body
and are found mainly in ducts of large glands o Protects some organs
● Transitional epithelium o Serves as a site of fuel storage
− Shape of cells depends upon the amount of ● Reticular connective tissue
stretching − Delicate network of interwoven fibers
− Lines organs of the urinary system – bladder, − Forms stroma (internal supporting network) of
urethra, ureters lymphoid organs – lymph nodes, spleen, bone
● Glandular Epithelium marrow
● Blood
 − Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix – plasma ● Regeneration of surface epithelium just below the scab
− Fibers are visible during clotting
− Functions as the transport vehicle for materials Regeneration of Tissues
● Tissues that regenerate easily
Muscle Tissue − Epithelial tissue
● Function is to produce movement by contracting or − Fibrous connective tissue and bone
shortening ● Tissues that regenerate poorly
● Three types − Skeletal muscle
− Skeletal muscle ● Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
− Cardiac muscle − Cardiac muscle
− Smooth muscle − Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
● Properties
− Contractility Developmental Aspects of Tissue
− Irritability ● Epithelial tissue arises from all three primary germ layers
● Muscle and connective tissue arise from the mesoderm
Muscle Tissue Types ● Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm
● Skeletal muscle (voluntary) ● With old age there is a decrease in mass and viability in
− Can be controlled voluntarily most tissues
− Cells attach to connective tissue
− Cells are striated
− Cells have more than one nucleus
● Cardiac muscle (heart)
− Found only in the heart
− Function is to pump blood (involuntary)
− Cells attached to other cardiac muscle cells at
intercalated disks (branching cells)
− Cells are striated
− One nucleus per cell
● Smooth muscle (visceral)
− Involuntary muscle
− Surrounds hollow organs
− Attached to other smooth muscle cells
− No visible striations
− One nucleus per cell
− Circular and longitudinal

Nervous Tissue
● Neurons and nerve supporting cells
● Function is to receive and send impulses to other areas
of the body
● Properties
− Irritability
− Conductivity

Tissue Repair (wound Healing)

● Regeneration
− Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of
cells
● Fibrosis
− Repair by dense fibrous connective tissue (scar
tissue)
● Determination of method
− Type of tissue damaged
− Severity of the injury

Events in Tissue Repair

● Capillaries become very permeable
− Introduce clotting proteins to make clot
− Wall off injured area to prevent blood loss and
infection
● Formation of granulation tissue
− Contains capillaries and phagocytes