10 minutes QUIZ

1. What area of chemical Analysis do answer our question, “How much of

substance X is in the sample?”
2. What area of chemical Analysis do answer our question, “What is the
identity of the substance in the sample?”
3. What is Analytical chemistry. (Answer must be at least 3 Sentences)
4. Give the three classifications of Quantitative Methods of Analysis.
5. What instrumental method will we use if we want to measure the
electrical properties such as voltage, current, resistance, and quantity of
electrical charge of a certain compound.
6. What are the considerations or factors you need to consider upon selecting
a method for Analysis. (3pts.)
7. Why do you think that replicating the samples plays a great role in your
Analysis? Why is it so necessary to do such? (Answer must be at least 3
Sentences)(6pts.)
8. What is the Complete Name of your teacher (2pts.)
II. Significant Figures
 A numerical result is worthless to users of the data unless they
know something about its accuracy. Therefore, it is always
essential to indicate the best estimate of the reliability of the data.
 One of the best ways of indicating reliability is to give a confidence
limit at the 90% or 95% confidence level.
 Another method is to report the absolute standard deviation or the
coefficient of variation of the data
 A less satisfactory but more common indicator of the quantity of
data is the significant figure convention.
2.1 Uncertainties
 A simple way of indicating the probable uncertainty associated with
an experimental measurement is to round the result so that it
contains only significant figures. 4
Significant Figures -2
2.2 Significant Figures
 All certain digits and the First uncertain digit

2.3 Rules to Determine the Number of Significant Figures

 1. Disregard all initial zeros
 2. Disregard all final zeros unless they follow a decimal point.
 3. All remaining digits including zeros between nonzero digits are
significant.

2.4 Significant Figures in Calculated Results:

a. In Addition and Subtraction: The sum and the Difference
The results should contain the same no. of decimal places as the number
with the smallest no. of decimal places 5

Ex: 3.4 + 0.020 + 7.31 = 10.73 = 10.7

Significant Figures -3
 b. In Multiplication and Division:
The answer should be rounded so that it contains the same no. of
significant figures as the original number with the smallest number of
significant figures.
example: (2.4 x 4.52)/100.0 = 1.08= 1.1
2.5 In Logarithms and Antilogarithms:
1. In a logarithm of a number, keep as many digits to the right of the
decimal point as there are significant figures in the original number.
example:
log (9.57 x 104 ) = 4.981
2. In an antilogarithm of a number, keep as many digits as there are
digits to the right of the decimal point in the original number.
example:
antilog 12.5 = 3 x10 12 6
 Rounding Data and Results from Chemical Computations

 1. In rounding-off a number ending in 5, always round-off so that the

result ends in an even number.
 2. Perform calculations with data whose precision is indicated only by
significant figure convention.
 3. Common-sense assumptions must be made as to the uncertainty in
each number.
 4. Finally, the result is rounded-off so that it contains only significant
digits. It is especially important to postpone rounding until the
calculation is completed. At least one extra digit beyond the significant
digit should be carried through all the computations in order to avoid a
rounded-off error.

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 III. EVALUATION OF ANALYTICAL DATA

What is ERROR?

It is impossible to perform a chemical analysis that is

totally free of errors or uncertainties. We can only
hope to minimize these errors and estimate their size
with acceptable accuracy.

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 Errors in chemical analysis
 Every measurement is influenced by many uncertainties that
combine to produce a scatter of results. Measurement uncertainties
can never be completely eliminated, so the true value for any
quantity is always unknown.
 Chemists usually carry 2-5 portions (replicates) of a sample through
an entire analytical procedure.
 Individual results from a set of measurements are seldom the same,
so a central or “best” value is used for the set.
 The central value of a set should be more reliable than any
individual result

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 Mean (arithmetic mean, or average), x
- arithmetic mean or average
- the quantity obtained by dividing the sum of replicate
measurements (xj)
by the number of measurements (n)
Mathematically speaking, x= [(x1 + x2 + x3 + … + xn)] / n

Median, M
- middle value of a sample of results arranged according to
increasing or decreasing value.
For odd number of data → take the middle value
For even number of data → take the mean of 2 middle values
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Mode – the value occurs most frequently in a set of determinations.

 Precision – describes the reproducibility of measurements or the closeness

of results that have been obtained in exactly the same way
3 widely used terms to describe the precision of a set of replicate data:
standard deviation, variance, and coefficient of variation
 Accuracy – indicates the closeness of the measurement to the true or
accepted value and is expressed by the error.

High accuracy, high High accuracy, low Low accuracy, high precision Low accuracy, low
precision precision precision

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 Accuracy is expressed in terms of either absolute or relative error
 Absolute error, E
- the difference between the measured value and the true value
E = xi – xt
sign of absolute error: tells whether the value in question is high or low.
negative sign: measurement result is low
positive sign: measurement result is high

Relative error, Er - The most useful one

- the absolute error divided by the true value
Er = (xi – xt)/ xt x 100 % ( in per cent)
Er = (xi – xt)/ xt x 1000 ( in parts per thousand)

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 Sample Problem
 1. Calculate the mean, median, absolute error immediately to
the left and to the right of the true value and relative error for
the mean in ppt, for the results from six replicate determinations
for iron in aqueous samples of a standard solution containing
20.00 ppm of iron(III):
19.4, 19.5, 19.6, 19.8, 20.1, 20.3 ppm iron (III)

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Example for absolute Error
Types of errors
Types of Erros
Assignment
1. A method of analysis yields for gold that are low by 0.4 mg. Calculate
the % error caused by this uncertainty if the weight of gold in the
sample is
a) 700 mg b) 450 mg c) 250 mg d) 40 mg
2. The method described in Prob. 1 is to be used for the analysis of
ores that assay about 1.2% gold. What minimum sample weight should
be taken if the relative error resulting from a 0.4 mg loss is not to
exceed
a) -0.2% ? b) - 0.5% ? c) - 0.8% ? d) -1.2 %?
3. The color change of a chemical indicator requires an overtitration of
0.04 mL. Calculate the percent relative error if the total volume of
the titrant is
a) 50.00 mL. b) 25.00 mL. c) 10.0 mL. d) 40.0 mL.