May our Lord bestow upon your Lordship His grace and spirit, so that in every step good

fortune may be yours; and upon every occasion may your Lordship deign to consider me
your humble servant, to be which would be the greatest satisfaction and favor that I could
receive. Nagcarlan, October 21, 1589.
Fray Juan de Plasencia [26]
Relation of the Worship of the Tagalogs, Their Gods, and Their Burials and Superstitions
In all the villages, or in other parts of the Filipinas Islands, there are no temples
consecrated to the performing of sacrifices, the adoration of their idols, or the general
practice of idolatry. It is true that they have the name simbahan, which means a temple or
place of adoration; but this is because, formerly, when they wished to celebrate a festival,
which they called pandot, or “worship,” they celebrated it in the large house of a
chief. There they constructed, for the purpose of sheltering the assembled people, a
temporary shed on each side of the house, with a roof, called sibi, to protect the people
from the wet when it rained. They so constructed the house that it might contain many
people—dividing it, after the fashion of ships, into three compartments. On the posts of the
house they set small lamps, called sorihile; in the center of the house they placed one large
lamp, adorned with leaves of the white palm, wrought into many designs. They also
brought together many drums, large and small, which they beat successively while the feast
lasted, which was usually four days. During this time the whole barangay, or family, united
and joined in the worship which they call nagaanitos. The house, for the above-mentioned
period of time, was called a temple.
Among their many idols there was one called. Badhala, whom they especially
worshiped. The title seems to signify “all powerful,” or “maker of all things.” They also
worshiped the sun, which, on account of its beauty, is almost universally respected and
honored by heathens. They worshiped, too, the moon, especially when it was new, at which
time they held great rejoicings, adoring it and bidding it welcome. Some of them also
adored the stars, although they did not know them by their names, as the Spaniards and
other nations know the planets—with the one exception of the morning star, which they
called Tala. They knew, too, the “seven little goats” [the Pleiades]—as we call them—and,
consequently, the change of seasons, which they call Mapolon; and Balatic, which is our
Greater Bear. They possessed many idols called lic-ha, which were images with different
shapes; and at times they worshiped any little trifle, in which they adored, as did the
Romans, some particular dead man who was brave in war and endowed with special
faculties, to whom they commended themselves for protection in their tribulations. They
had another idol called Dian masalanta, who was the patron of lovers and of
generation. The idols called Lacapati and Idianale were the patrons of the cultivated lands
and of husbandry. They paid reverence to water-lizards called by them buaya, or
crocodiles, from fear of being harmed by them. They were even in the habit of offering
these animals a portion of what they carried in their boats, by throwing it into the water, or
placing it upon the bank.

Witches in the Philippines, or Spanish propaganda?

An Introduction To “Evil”
Juan de Plasencia spent most of his missionary life in the Philippines, where he founded numerous
towns in Luzon and authored several religious and linguistic books, most notably, the Doctrina
Cristiana (Christian Doctrine), the first book ever printed in the Philippines. Among his various
documentation is a list of “distinctions made among the priests of the devil”, from 1589 in the paper
called “Customs of the Tagalogs”. Some of the 12 “devils” listed are very similar to the creatures of
Philippine mythology we know today – Manananggal, Aswang, and the Mangkukulam. Others
are horribly misclassified – the Catolonan and Bayoguin stand out most prominently. Another
problematic issue with the classifications are that some of these “devils” were actually considered
malevolent deities by early Tagalogs. We have to remember that many of these mythical beings
existed in the spirit realm and would, on occasion, appear in human form. Even though they were
considered harmful and the natives feared them, they were not considered “evil”. They just did what
they were supposed to be doing as malevolent beings.
Due to Plasencia’s Catholic mindset and the Spanish vengeance to cleanse the lands of “heathens”, early
Filipino’s were trained, forced, and convinced to associate some of these beings with the devil. The
Spanish were successful in eliminating the belief in deities and de-powering the spiritual leaders, but
they were no match for superstitions. Legazpi stated his mission soon after he arrived on the Islands.
” They easily believe what is told and presented forcibly to them. They hold
some superstitions, such as the casting of lots before doing anything, and
other wretched practices–all of which will be easily eradicated, if we have
some priests who know their language, and will preach to them.” – Miguel
Lopez de Legazpi (1565)

The distinctions made among the priests of the devil were as follows:
1. The first, called CATOLONAN, was either a man or a woman. This office was an honorable
one among the natives, and was held ordinarily by people of rank, this rule being general in all
the islands.
– We know today that the Catalonan were the Tagalog equivalent of the Visayan
Babaylan and functioned as a healer, shaman, seer and a community leader.
– No distinction as a witch exists today.

2. The second they called MANGAGAUAY, or witches, who deceived by pretending to heal the
sick. These priests even induced maladies by their charms, which in proportion to the strength
and efficacy of the witchcraft, are capable of causing death. In this way, if they wished to kill at
once they did so; or they could prolong life for a year by binding to the waist a live serpent,
which was believed to be the devil, or at least his substance. This office was general throughout
the land.
– We know today that Mangagauay was the Tagalog goddess of sickness and one of Sitan‘s
helpers (Sitan was the guardian of the underworld and keeper of souls). The description that
Father Plasencia gave isn’t all that different from what was discovered when mapping Tagalog
deities. However, it was the Catolonan who were to give guidance and help to those affected by
her.
– No distinction as a witch exists today.

3. The third they called MANYISALAT, which is the same as mangagauay. These priests had
the power of applying such remedies to lovers that they would abandon and despise their own
wives, and in fact could prevent them from having intercourse with the latter. If the woman,
constrained by these means, were abandoned, it would bring sickness upon her; and on account
of the desertion she would discharge blood and matter. This office was also general throughout
the land.
– Today we know Manyisalat was considered another malevolent deity by early Tagalogs. She
was the second agent of Sitan, she was tasked to destroy and break every happy and united
family that she could find.
– No distinction as a witch exists today.

4. The fourth was called MANCOCOLAM, whose duty it was to emit fire from himself at
night, once or oftener each month. This fire could not be extinguished; nor could it be thus
emitted except as the priest wallowed in the ordure and filth which falls from the houses; and he
who lived in the house where the priest was wallowing in order to emit this fire from himself,
fell ill and died. This office was general.
– We know now that Mangkukulam was another malevolent deity to ancient Tagalogs. The only
male agent of Sitan, he was to emit fire at night and when there was bad weather. Like his fellow
agents, he could change his form to that of a healer and then induce fire at his victim’s house. If
the fire were extinguished immediately, the victim would eventually die. His name remains
today as witch
– A “witch” Mankukulam is a person employing or using “Kulam” -a form of folk magic
practised in the Philippines. It puts emphasis on the innate power of the self and a secret
knowledge of Magica Baja or low magic. Earth (soil), fire, herbs, spices, candles, oils and
kitchenwares and utensils are often used for rituals, charms, spells and potions.
5. The fifth was called HOCLOBAN, which is another kind of witch, of greater efficacy than
the mangagauay. Without the use of medicine, and by simply saluting or raising the hand, they
killed whom they chose. But if they desired to heal those whom they had made ill by their
charms, they did so by using other charms. Moreover, if they wished to destroy the house of
some Indian hostile to them, they were able to do so without instruments. This was in
Catanduanes, an island off the upper part of Luzon.
– We know that Hukluban was considered the last agent of Sitan and could change herself into
any form she desired. She could kill someone by simply raising her hand and could heal without
any difficulty as she wished. Her name literally means “crone” or “hag.”
– Today, the Hukloban is also considered a “witch” who could kill anyone simply by pointing a
finger at him and without using any potion. It could destroy a house by merely saying so. The
Hukloban appear as a very old, crooked woman.

6. The sixth was called SILAGAN, whose office it was, if they saw anyone clothed in white, to
tear out his liver and eat it, thus causing his death. This, like the preceding, was in the island of
Catanduanes. Let no one, moreover, consider this a fable; because, in Caavan, they tore out in
this way through the anus all the intestines of a Spanish notary, who was buried in Calilaya by
father Fray Juan de Merida.
– Today, Silagan are considered “witches” in Catanduanes who preys on anyone who is dressed
in white. They tear the liver and eat it afterwards.

7. The seventh was called MAGTATANGAL, and his purpose was to show himself at night to
many persons, without his head or entrails. In such wise the devil walked about and carried, or
pretended to carry, his head to different places; and, in the morning, returned it to his body –
remaining, as before, alive. This seems to me to be a fable, although the natives affirm that they
have seen it, because the devil probably caused them so to believe. This occurred in
Catanduanes.
– Today we know this creature as the self-segmenting Manananggal. There are similar myths
of creatures with almost exactly the same features throughout SE Asia. In Malaysia it is called
the Penanggalan (Penanggal). In Thailand it is called the Krasue, in Laos it is the Kasu or Phi-
Kasu and in Cambodia it is the Ap. According to the folklore of that region, it is a detached
female head capable of flying about on its own. As it flies, the stomach and entrails dangle below
it, and these organs twinkle like fireflies as the Penanggalan moves through the night. It preys on
pregnant women with an elongated proboscis-like tongue.
8. The eighth they called OSUANG, which is equivalent to ” sorcerer;” they say that they have
seen him fly, and that he murdered men and ate their flesh. This was among the Visayas Islands;
among the Tagalogs these did not exist.
– In the Visayas there are many classes of Aswang . Some think this was an invention of the
Spanish, but I don’t. I say this because it is not an unusual being to exist in the minds of
societies evolving from animists beliefs and from the same migration as the people of the
Philippines. Malaysia has the Raksaksa– humanoid man-eating demons, often able to change
their appearance at will. The Indonesian Leyak are said to haunt graveyards, feed on corpses,
have power to change themselves into animals, such as pigs, and fly. In normal Leyak form, they
are said to have an unusually long tongue and large fangs. In daylight they appear as an ordinary
human, but at night their head and entrails break loose from their body and fly (also similar to
the above mentioned Manananggal). Most of the belief in these beings stem from the
introduction of Hindu demons (asura) being absorbed into animist beliefs.

9. The ninth was another class of witches called MANGAGAYOMA. They made charms for
lovers out of herbs, stones, and wood, which would infuse the heart with love. Thus did they
deceive the people, although sometimes, through the intervention of the devil, they gained their
ends.
– Today the Gayuma is known as a Filipino love spell to help the love lives of those with lonely
or broken hearts.
– No distinction as a witch exists today.

10. The tenth was known as SONAT, which is equivalent to ” preacher.” It was his office to help
one to die, at which time he predicted the salvation or condemnation of the soul. It was not
lawful for the functions of this office to be fulfilled by others than people of high standing, on
account of the esteem in which it was held. This office was general through- out the islands.
– Today we know that a Sonat was essentially like “bishop” who worked under the Catalonans
and Babaylans.
– No distinction as a witch exists today.

11. The eleventh, PANGATAHOJAN, was a soothsayer, and predicted the future. This office
was general in all the islands.
– I have not been able to find any additional information about the Pangatahojan. No distinction
as a witch exists today.

12. The twelfth, BAYOGUIN, signified a ” cotquean,” a man whose nature inclined toward that
of a woman.
– Ignorance at its finest. The Spanish certainly left their mark with this one.

Spanish documentation is littered with examples of how they abused their power over the people
and stripped them of their beliefs in deities. They destroyed the village structure that circled
around the babaylan, but they did not have as much success in dispelling the belief that mythical
beings were responsible for everyday ailments and misfortune. Comparative studies with
surrounding countries indicate that the concept and practice of what we could call “witchcraft”
existed in the precolonial Philippines, but the most popular names for these beings in Philippine
Folklore, particularly among the Tagalogs, almost certainly came from the displacement of
deities into the realm of superstition.
Zhu Fan Zhi (simplified Chinese: 诸蕃志; traditional Chinese: 諸蕃志; pinyin: Zhū Fān Zhì; Wade–
Giles: Chu-fan-chi), variously translated as A Description of Barbarian Nations, Records of
Foreign People, or other similar titles, is a 13th-century Song Dynasty work by Zhao Rukuo. The
work is a collection of descriptions of countries and various products from outside China, and it is
considered an important source of information on the people, customs and in particular the traded
commodities of many countries in South East Asia and around the Indian Ocean during the Song
Dynasty.
An annotated partial English translation was published in 1911 by Friedrich Hirth and William W.
Rockhill.

The author Zhao Rukuo (1170-1231) was a member of the Song Dynasty imperial clan. He was
posted to Fujian as a supervisor of the maritime trade in Quanzhou. While working in Fujian, he had
the opportunity to meet merchants from various countries from whom he gathered information on
various countries around the world. He also took note of the various products traded, studied the
maps of the period, and together with the information he had learnt he wrote the book which he
finished around 1225 CE. Zhao wrote: "Assigned to this post recently, I spend all day reading
various maps... I listed names of these countries and their customs... I removed hearsay and kept
facts. I thus name this book Zhu Fan Zhi."
Many entries of the Zhu Fan Zhi take information from other older works, such as Zhu Yu's Pingzhou
Ketan (萍洲可談) from 1116,] Duan Chengshi's 9th century Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang,
and other works.[11] In particular it borrowed heavily from the 1178 work Lingwai Daida by another
geographer, Zhou Qufei. However, a significant part of the book came from information Zhao
gathered from foreign and Chinese traders. As he himself had not travelled overseas, the
information he collected is necessarily secondhand, unlike other works such as Daoyi Zhilüe written
by Wang Dayuan of the Yuan Dynasty who had travelled overseas to observe other countries at
firsthand. Nevertheless, the book contains valuable information on various countries and traded
products of the 13th century to modern scholars.
Though the original book was lost, extracts were found in other compilations and annals, and its
content was also incorporated into the 15th century Yongle Encyclopedia. Extracts from the Yongle
Encyclopedia were then recompiled by Li Diaoyuan (李調元) for inclusion in his collection known
as Han Hai (函海) in 1781.

The book is divided into two volumes. The first volume gives a description of various countries and
the customs of the local people, the second volume provides information on trade goods available
from those countries. Some of the information given in the book are fanciful tales, for example the
description of the giant bird of Madagascar as being so big that it can swallow a camel whole,[15] and
he may have incorporated inaccurate information from other Chinese written sources (for example,
tales of the giant bird of Madagascar may have come from Lingwai Daida), but much of his own
sources appear to be generally accurate.

Volume 1
In volume 1, 58 countries and regions are given
The countries recorded include places and kingdoms in South East Asia, such as Jiaozhi (交趾,
northern Vietnam), Champa (占城), Zhenla (眞臘, Cambodia), Langkasuka (凌牙斯加), Sanfoqi (三佛
齊, Srivijaya). Java (闍婆), Bagan (蒲甘, Burma), and Mayi (麻逸, the Philippines). Japan, Korea and
Taiwan in East Asia, and countries in the Indian subcontinent such as Huchala (胡茶辣, Gujarat),
Nanpi (南毗, Malabar) and Zhunian (注輦, Chola) are also mentioned It also gives more information
than previously available in Chinese sources on the Islamic world and their products. The country of
Dashi (大食, the Arabs) is described as an extensive realm covering many territories (24 given in the
book) with its capital in Egypt, and included Baida (白達, Baghdad); Wengman (甕蠻 Oman); Majia (
麻嘉, Mecca); Jilani (吉慈尼, Ghazni) and others.
The book further listed countries and places in Africa, these include Wusili (勿斯里, Egypt) and its
city of Egentuo (遏根陀, Alexandria), Bipaluo (弼琶囉, Berbera), Zhongli (中理, Somalia), Cengba (層
拔, Zanzibar), Binouye (Tunisia and the Tripoli region in Libya), and Tuopandi (Damietta in Egypt). In
this book, he described places such as the famed Lighthouse of Alexandria:
The country of O-kön-t'o (Alexandria) belongs to Wu-ssï-li (Egypt). According to tradition, in olden
times a stranger, Tsu-ko-ni (Alexander the Great) by name, built on the shore of the sea a great
tower under which the earth was dug out and two rooms were made, well connected and very well
secreted. In one vault was grain, in the other were arms. The tower was two hundred chang high.
Four horses abreast could ascend to two-thirds of its height. In the centre of the building was a great
well connecting with the big river ... On the summit there was a wondrous great mirror; if war-ships of
other countries made a sudden attack, the mirror detected them beforehand, and the troops were
ready in time for duty.
The furthest western state described is Mulanpi (木蘭皮, Al-Murabitun) which included
southern Spain. The Mediterranean island of Sicily (斯加里野, Sijialiye) is also mentioned.

Volume 2
In volume 2, 47 products were listed, 22 of which came from Central Asia and Africa.[9] Zhao gave
information on the various traded products of the early 13th century, for example, on the origin
of Frankincense (Ruxiang) being traded into China from Arabia (Dashi):
"Ruxiang or xunluxiang comes from the three Dashi countries of Murbat (Maloba), Shihr (Shihe),
and Dhofar (Nufa), from the depths of the remotest mountains.The tree which yields this drug may
generally be compared to the pine tree. Its trunk is notched with a hatchet, upon which the resin
flows out, and, when hardened, turns into incense, which is gathered and made into lumps. It is
transported on elephants to the Dashi (on the coast), who then load it upon their ships to exchange it
for other commodities in Sanfoqi This is the reason why it is commonly collected at and known as a
product of Sanfoqi."

Dowry and Marriage in the Philippines

The years of colonization have influenced how Filipina women behave in society. Many women
are pious and have a strong connection to their families. Globally, the Filipina woman is
perceived to be kind and loving, the type of woman that many foreigners fall for. That is the
charm of the Pinay. They are excellent homemakers. Traditionally, their place was in the home,
taking care of their families, but now many hold managerial positions. They manage to juggle a
tough career with a balanced family life. It is common to meet Filipina women who have been
heavily influenced by Western culture. They are not afraid to speak their mind. The modern

Filipino family is a mix of the influence of traditional and modern culture.

When a Filipina decides to get married, she and her partner will have to go through a series of
consultation with their parents and relatives. And preparation does not only involve setting up
the venue, deciding on the food to serve and souvenirs to give, inviting the guests, and the like.
There’s something her soon-to-be-husband has to do before they can walk down the aisle—and
that’s giving dowry.
Dowry and marriage in the Philippines has become more than just a form of paying respect to the
woman and her family. Here’s why.

What Is Dowry?
Dowry and marriage in the Philippines is a strong testament to how dear and valued a Filipino
woman is. In the Middle East and India, the dowry system is common. The dowry is the act of
offering something valuable to the bride’s family by the groom. It could be jewelry, cash, land,
or other valuable items. It is given as payment for raising a daughter. In the Philippines, this
practice is different than in other countries. A dowry here in the Philippines is given to the
daughter before the marriage to provide the couple something to start their life with. In the
Philippines, the Bagobos and Muslim tribes are the ones who usually practice giving dowries
during marriages.

The giving of a dowry is more commonly practiced among the more affluent people. In India, the
women give dowry to the males, which impose a financial burden on those with daughters. This
is one reason families in India prefer to have sons over daughters. Marriage for a Filipino is one
of the greatest things. Divorce and abortion are abhorred in this Catholic country.

For Filipinos, courtship takes months or years. Parents who are traditional prefer that the suitor
visits their home so that they are able to assess the attitude and behavior of the prospective suitor.
The close family ties of the couple greatly influence their choice in who to marry. For many
Filipinos, marriage is forever and that is why many are against divorce and separation.
The Philippines is known to be a patriarchal country, and many women lobby for equal status in
society. Females are given prime importance now. Despite the Western influence on the country,
in the context of marriage and the Filipino home, the woman is still expected to be tender, caring,
and loving to her husband and children.

The Filipina woman knows how to balance a work life and a great family atmosphere. Any man
that marries a Filipina is lucky. It is a source of pride for a Filipina to be noted as having a kind
and loving attitude.