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Outline
Definitions
Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics
The t-test
- One-sample t-test
- Dependent (related) groups t-test
- Independent (unrelated) groups t-test
Comparing means
• Correlation and regression look for
relationships between variables
• Tests comparing means look for differences
between the means of two or more samples
• General null hypothesis: the samples come
from the same population
• General research hypothesis: the samples
come from different populations
Choosing a statistical test: normality
• There are two sets of statistical tests for
comparing means:
– Parametric tests: work with normally distributed
scale data
– Non-parametric tests: used with not normally
distributed scale data and with ordinal data
Choosing statistical tests:
how many means?
• Within parametric and non-parametric tests
– some work with just two means
– others work with more than two means
Choosing statistical tests:
research design
• Most statistical tests have at least two
versions:
– one for related (within-subjects, repeated
measures) design
– and one for unrelated (between subjects) designs
The t-test
• Parametric: works on normally
distributed scale data
• Compares TWO means
• There are different versions for different
designs
Types of t-test
• One sample:
– compare the mean of a sample to a predefined
value
• Dependent (related) samples:
– compare the means of two conditions in which
the same (or closely matched) participants
participated
• Independent (unrelated) samples:
– compare the means of two groups of participants
Beer and Statistics: A Winning Combination!
Examples:
1. A study investigating whether stock brokers differ from the general population on
some rating scale where the mean for the general population is known.
2. An observational study to investigate whether scores differ from chance.
Note: The one-sample t test is generally considered robust against violation of this
assumption once N > 30.
SPSS Output
( D M D ) 2 SS D
SDD
N 1 N 1
SDD
SED
N
Calculating
One-Sample t and Paired-Samples t Statistics
Single Sample t Statistic Paired Sample t Statistic
( X M ) 2 SS Standard ( D M D ) 2 SS D
SD Deviation SDD
N 1 N 1 of a N 1 N 1
Sample
Standard Deviation of Sample
Standard Error of a Differences
SD
SE Sample
( M D D ) (7914.333 0)
t 18.04
SED 438.333
• Step 6 Decide
Exercise: selfhelpBook.sav
A researcher is interested in assessing the
effectiveness of a self-help book (“Men are from
Mars, Women are from Venus”) designed to
increase relationship happiness. 500
participants read both the self-help book and a
neutral book (statistics book). Relationship
happiness is measured after reading each book.
The order in which the books are read in
counterbalanced and there is a six month delay
between the two. (selfhelpBook.sav)
Effect sizes
Cohen’s d r
𝑡 2
𝑀2 − 𝑀1 𝑟2 = 2
𝑑= 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑓
𝑆𝐷1
( M 2 M 1 ) comparisonvalue
t
SE
2 2
𝑆𝐷1 𝑆𝐷2
𝑆𝐸𝐷𝑀 = +
𝑁1 𝑁2
The formula
When sample sizes are equal:
𝑀1 − 𝑀2
𝑡=
2 2
𝑆𝐷1 𝑆𝐷2
+
𝑁1 𝑁2
When sample sizes are not equal, the variances are weighted by their degrees
of freedom, the same way as in a pooled SD for Cohens’s d:
M1 M 2
( N 1 1) SD1 ( N 2 1) SD 2
2 2
t
2
SD p SD p 2 SD p 2
N1 N 2 2 N1
N2
Equal variances
• There are two ways of calculating the
significance value for t for unrelated samples
– Equal variances assumed: when the variances of
the two sets of scores are approximately equal
– Equal variances not assumed: when the two
variances are quite different
• Testing the equality (homogeneity) of
variances: Levene’s test (SPSS automatically
calculates it)
• Degrees of freedom: N1 – 1 + N2 – 1
(the degrees of freedom of the two groups added
together)
Example: SATpassage.sav
The SAT performance of the group of students
who did not read the passage was compared to
the performance of a group of students who did
read the passage.
Look at distributions.
Outliers?
Draw graph.
Plotting the results
SPSS Output: Independent-Groups t test
M 2 - M1
d=
SD1
71.06 - 46.57
d= = 3.58
6.83
Reporting the Results
The SAT performance of the group of students who did
not read the passage (N = 28) was compared to the
performance of a group of students who did read the
passage (N = 17). An independent samples t test revealed
that the students who read the passage had significantly
higher scores (M = 71.06, SD = 11.06) than the No-
passage group (M = 46.57, SD = 6.83), (t(43) = -9.21, p <
.001). While people may show better than chance
performance without reading the passage, their scores
will not approximate the scores of those who read the
passage. This effect was very large (Cohen’s d = 3.58).