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TAXONOMIC STUDIES OF GRASSES OF SALT
RANGE OF PAKISTAN
BY
FAROOQ AHMAD
Department of Plant Sciences

Quaid-i-Azam University
Islamabad
Pakistan
2009
TAXONOMIC STUDIES OF GRASSES OF SALT
RANGE OF PAKISTAN
A Thesis Submitted to the Quaid-i-Azam University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
In
Plant Sciences
(Plant Taxonomy)
By
FAROOQ AHMAD
Department of Plant Sciences

Quaid-i-Azam University
Islamabad
Pakistan
2009
IN THE NAME OF ALLAH
The Most Merciful
The Most Beneficent
For those who believe in
Allah, no argument is necessary and
For those who do not believe in Allah
No argument is possible.
It is He Who sends down water (rain) from the sky, and with it We
bring forth vegetation of all kinds, and out of it We bring forth green
stalks, from which We bring forth thick clustered grain. And out of the
date-palm and its spath come forth clusters of dates hanging low and
near, and gardens of grapes, olives and pomegranates, each similar (in
kind) yet different (in variety and taste). Look at their fruits when they
begin to bear, and the ripeness thereof. Verily! In these things there are
signs for people who believe.
(Al-Quraan, Al-Anaam-99)
CERTIFICATE
This thesis, submitted by Mr. Farooq Ahmad, is accepted in its present

form by the Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University,
Islamabad Pakistan as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Plant Sciences (Plant Taxonomy).
SUPERVISOR ____________________________
(Prof. Dr. Mir Ajab Khan)
Co SUPERVISOR ____________________________
(Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad)
EXTERNAL EXAMINAR-1 ____________________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINAR-2 ____________________________
CHAIRPERSON ____________________________
(Department of Plant Sciences)
Date__________________
CONTENTS
TITLES Page No
CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Geography and Location of Salt Range 01
1.2 Geo climate 01
1.2.1 Temperature 04
1.2.2 Rain fall 04
1.2.3 Topography 04
1.2.4 Altitude 05
1.2.5 Water Resources 05
1.3 Plant resources of Salt Range 05
1.3.1 General Biodiversity 05
1.3.2 Flora 07
1.3.3 Fauna of the Area 07
1.3.4 Grasses of Salt Range 08
1.4 World wide overview of the grasses 10
1.5 Historical background and Previous work on grasses in the world 11
1.6 Work on grasses in Pakistan 18
1.7 Work on grasses in Salt Range 19
1.8 Background and justification of the present project 20
CHAPTER: 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Collection and preservation of grasses 23

2.2 Morphological Studies 23
2.2.1 Vegetative Characters 23
2.2.2 Reproductive Characters 24
2.3 Palynological Studies 24
2.3.1 Method of Pollen study by Light Microscopy 24
2.3.2 Formation of Glycerin Jelly 24
2.3.3 Pollen Parameters 25
2.3.4 Pollen studies by (SEM) Scanning Electron Microscopy 25
2.3.5 Pollen Fertility 25
2.4 Anatomical Studies 26
2.4.1 Leaf epidermal Anatomy 26
2.4.2 Studies of Transverse sections (T.S. ) of leaves 28
(a) Freezing Microtomy 28
(b) Ultra Microtomy 28
CHAPTER: 3 RESULTS
3.1 Synopsis of subfamilies and tribes of Family Poaceae in the Salt Range of Pakistan 30
3.2 Tribe wise check list of Grasses collected from Salt Range of Pakistan 31
3.3 Tribe: Arundineae 33
3.4 Tribe: Aristideae 41
3.5 Tribe: Chlorideae 45
3.6 Tribe: Eragrostideae 64
3.7 Tribe: Pappophoreae 93
3.8 Tribe: Zoysieae 96
3.9 Tribe: Andropogoneae 100
3.10 Tribe: Paniceae 151
3.11 Tribe: Aveneae 239
3.12 Tribe: Bromeae 262
3.13 Tribe: Hainardeae 270
3.14 Tribe: Poeae 273
CHAPTER: 4 DISCUSSION
4.1 Tribe: Arundineae 286
4.1.1 Morphology 286
4.1.2 Palynology 286
4.1.3 Leaf Epidermal Anatomy 287
4.1.4 T.S. of Lamina 288
4.2 Tribe: Aristideae 289
4.3 Tribe: Chlorideae 292
4.4 Tribe: Eragrostideae 296
4.5 Tribe: Pappophoreae 301
4.6 Tribe: Zoysieae 304
4.7 Tribe: Andropogoneae 306
4.8 Tribe: Paniceae 314
4.9 Tribe: Aveneae 323
4.10 Tribe: Bromeae 328
4.11 Tribe: Hainardeae 331
4.12 Tribe: Poeae 333
4.13 Pollen Fertility Estimation 337
Conclusion 338
CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES 341

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praises to Almighty ALLAH, the creator, dominant, self existing and sustainer,
who enabled me to accomplish this project and all respect is for his last Prophet
MUHAMMAD (Peace and Blessing of Allah Be Upon Him) who is forever a torch of
guidance and knowledge in our life.
I pay my humble gratitude to my worthy supervisor Prof. Dr. Mir Ajab Khan, Dean,
Department of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad for his absorbing
attitude, constant guidance, timely suggestions, and inspiration and encouragement
throughout my studies.
I am greatly indebted to my co-supervisor Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad, Assistant

Professar, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad for his co-
operation, valuable suggestions, and guidance during the compilation of my thesis.
I offer my cordial and profound thanks to Prof. Dr. Asghari Bano, Chairperson,
Department of Plant Sciences, Q.A.U, Islamabad, for providing me all the possible research
facilities during the present studies. Many thanks to Mr. David Lazario for his help during
microtomy and photography in Anatomy Lab. of Botanical Garden, University of Valencia,
Spain.
Sincere thanks are extended to Muhammad Zafar, Herbarium Botanist,

Department of Plant Sciences, Q.A.U., for his encouraging behavior, co-operation and
support, he rendered for completing my thesis.
Special thanks are due to my all lab fellows for their friendly behaviour and
cooperation during research work and I pay my heartiest thanks to M. Zafar, Abdul Nazir,
Jabir, Imran, Yaseen, and Ali for their good company.
Special thanks are extended to Sufian and Farooq Lab. attendants Dept. of Plant
Sciences, Q.A.U. for their prayers. Words always seem to shallow whenever it comes to my
dearest and loving mother. I am absolutely nothing without her encouragement and especially
her prayers. I feel privilege to express deep love for my spouse for her patience and moral
support during my studies, and cute daughters Sajal and Amal whose tiny hands always raised
in prayer for me.
My appreciation and great thanks are extended to my sisters, bhabi, nephews and
nieces and all other family members who prayed for me. I am highly indebted to my elder
brother Dr. Ghulam Sarwar Malik for his support and guidance during my studies and who
enabled me to reach at this stage. Last but not the least thanks are extended to Higher Education
Commission of Pakistan for their financial support during this project.
FAROOQ AHMAD
LIST OF PLATES
Plate # Title Page
Plate 1 (a) Panorama of scrub vegetation in Salt Range (b) A view of grasses near Kallar 06
Kahar lake
Plate 2 (a) Author collecting grasses from the study Area. (b) A view of grasses 09
Plate 3 (a) Author collecting grasses from the field (b) A view of the hills and grasses in 27
the fields near Kalar Kahar
Plate 4 A- Arundo donax, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface(LM- 36
200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of Leaf showing margins
(LM-200x), F- T.S. of Leaf showing bulliform cells (LM-400x)
Plate 5 A- Pharagmites karka, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface(LM- 40
200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x ), E- T.S. of leaf (LM-200x), F- T.S. of
leaves showing Chlorenchyma cells, vascular bundles & bulliform cells(LM-
400x)
Plate 6 A-Aristida adscensionis, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial 44
surface(LM-200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-400x ), E- T.S. of leaf showing
ribs and furrows(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundle (LM-400x )
Plate 7 A- Chloris barbata, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 48
200x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x ), E- T.S. of leaves showing vascular
bundles and Chlorenchyma cells (LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing midrib
(LM-100x )
Plate 8 A-Chloris dolicostachya, B-Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C-Leaf abaxial 51
surface(LM-200x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x ), T.S. of leaf showing mid
rib (LM-200x ), T.S. of leaf showing bull form cells & vascular bundles(LM-
200x)
Plate 9 A- Cynodon dactylon, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 54
(LM-200x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x ), E- T.S. of leaf showing large
vascular bundles in mid rib region (LM-400x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing bulliform
cells (LM- 200x )
Plate 10 A- Tetrapogon cenchriformis, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial 58
surface (LM-200x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-400x ), E- T.S. of leaf showing
mid rib (LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles, Chlorenchyma
cells and prickles (LM-200x )
Plate 11 A- Tetrapogon villosus, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 63
(LM-200x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x ), E- T.S. of leaf showing mid rib
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaves showing Chlorenchyma cells and vascular bundles
(LM-400x )
Plate 12 A- Acrachne racemosa, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 68
(LM-400x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM- 200x ), E- T.S. of leaf showing mid rib
(LM- 200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing bulliform, Chlorenchyma cells and vascular
bundles (LM-200x )
Plate 13 A- Dactyloctinium aegyptium, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial 72
mid rib (LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf at the margins (LM-200x )
Plate 14 A- Dactyloctinium scindicum , B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial 75
mid rib (LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing bulliform cells (LM-400x )
Plate 15 A- Desmostachya bipinnata , B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial 79
mid rib (LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles (LM-200x )
Plate 16 A- Eleusine indica , B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 82
200x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x ), E- T.S. of leaf showing mid rib
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing bulliform cells and vascular bundles (LM-
200x )
Plate 17 A- Eragrostis cilianensis, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 86
(LM-200x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x ), E- T.S of leaf showing mid rib
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing margins (LM-200x )
Plate 18 A- Eragrostis papposa, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 89
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing bulliform cells (LM-100x )
Plate 19 A- Octhochloa compressa, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 92
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing bulliform cells and prickles (LM-400x )
Plate 20 A- Enneapogon persicus, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 95
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing bulliform cells and prickles (LM-200x )
Plate 21 A- Tragus roxburghii, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 99
(LM-200x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x ), E- T.S. of leaf showing
vascular bundles and sclerenchyma strands (LM-400x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing
bull form cells, vascular bundles, sclerenchyma strands and girders (LM-200x )
Plate 22 A-Bothriochloa bladhii, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 103
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf near margins (LM-400x )
Plate 23 A- Chrysopogon serrulatus, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial 107
mid rib (LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing margins (LM-200x )
Plate 24 A- Cymbopogon jwarancusa, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial 111
mid rib (LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing prickles adaxially (LM-200x)
Plate 25 A- Dicanthium annulatum, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 115
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles & bulliform cells (LM-
200x)
Plate 26 A- Dicanthium foveolatum, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 119
(LM-400x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles & prickles (LM-400x)
Plate 27 A- Eulaliopsis binata, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 123
(LM-400x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-400x ), E- T.S. of leaf showing bulli
form cells and prickles (LM-400x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles
(LM-200x)
Plate 28 A- Heteropogon contortus, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 127
(LM-200x ),F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles & bulliform cells(LM-
200x)
Plate 29 A-Imperata cylendrica, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial 131
surface(LM-200x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x ), E- T.S. of leaf showing
vascular bundles and bulliform cells (LM-400x ),F- T.S. of leaf at the margins
(LM-200x)
Plate 30 A- Saccharum bengalense, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 135
vascular bundles and bulliform cells (LM-400x ),F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular
bundles near margins (LM-400x)
Plate 31 A- Saccharum ravennae, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 138
vascular bundles and bulliform cells (LM-400x ),F- T.S. of leaf near margins
(LM-200x)
Plate 32 A- Saccharum spontaneum, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 142
(LM-400x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing air cavities (LM-400x)
Plate 33 A- Sorghum halepense, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 146
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles near margins (LM-200x)
Plate 34 A- Vetiveria zizanoides, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 150
(LM-400x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing air cavities (LM-200x)
Plate 35 A- Brachiaria deflexa, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 154
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles, bulliform cells and
macrohairs (LM-200x)
Plate 36 A- Brachiaria distachya, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 158
(LM-200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf (LM-200x), F-
T.S. of leaf near margins (LM-200x).
Plate 37 A- Brachiaria eruciformis, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 162
(LM-200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf showing vascular
bundles and bulliform cells (LM-400x), F- T.S. of leaf showing sclerenchyma
girders a axially (LM-200x).
Plate 38 A- Brachiaria ramosa, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 166
(LM-200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf showing bulliform
cells (LM-400x), F- T.S. of leaf showing bundle sheath cells (LM-200x).
Plate 39 A- Brachiaria reptans, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 170
bundle (LM-200x), F- T.S. of leaf near margins (LM-100x).
Plate 40 A- Cenchrus biflorus, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 174
400x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf showing mid rib (LM-
200x), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles and bulliform cells (LM-100x).
Plate 41 A- Cenchrus ciliaris, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 178
400x), F- T.S. of leaf near margins (LM-200x).
Plate 42 A- Cenchrus setigerus, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 182
(LM-200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf showing mid rib
(LM-200x), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles & bulliform cells (LM-
200x).
Plate 43 A- Digitaria nodosa, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 186
200x), F- T.S. of leaf showing long macrohairs adaxially (LM-200x).
Plate 44 A- Digitaria sanguinalis, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 190
(LM-400x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf (LM-200x), F-
T.S. of leaf showing sclerenchyma cells at the margins (LM-200x).
Plate 45 A- Echinochloa colona, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 194
(LM-200x), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles (LM-400x).
Plate 46 A- Panicum antidotale, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 198
(LM-400x), F- T.S. of leaf showing arrangement of vascular bundles (LM-400x).
Plate 47 A- Panicum maximum, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface 202
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles (LM-400x).
Plate 48 A- Paspalum paspaloides, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 206
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing bulliform cells (LM-400x).
Plate 49 A- Paspalidium flavidum, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 210
Plate 50 A- Pennisetum orientale, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 214
(LM-200x), F- T.S. of leaf showing arrangement of vascular bundles (LM-400x).
Plate 51 A- Setaria glauca, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 218
200x), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles and bulliform cells (LM-200x).
Plate 52 A- Setaria intermedia, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 222
(LM-200x), F- T.S. of leaf showing prickles with bulbous base (LM-400x).
Plate 53 A- Setaria italica, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 226
200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf (LM-200x ), F- T.S. of
leaf showing vascular bundles and prickles (LM-100x).
Plate 54 A- Setaria verticillata, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 230
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf showing bulliform cells (LM-400x).
Plate 55 A- Setaria viridis, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 234
200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf showing vascular
bundles (LM-400x), F- T.S. of leaf showing bulliform cells (LM-200x).
Plate 56 A- Urochloa panicoides, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 238
(LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf with vascular bundles & bulliform cells (LM-200x).
Plate 57 A- Agrostis viridis, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 241
200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf (LM-200x) F- T.S. of
leaf showing vascular bundles at the margins (LM-200x).
Plate 58 A- Avena fatua, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM-400x), 244
D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-400x), E- T.S. of leaf showing mid rib (LM-200x),
F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles and Chlorenchyma cells (LM-200x).
Plate 59 A- Avena sterelis, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 248
bundles (LM-400x), F- T.S. of leaf (LM-400x).
Plate 60 A- Koeleria argentia, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 251
bundles (LM-400x), F- T.S. of leaf showing sclerenchyma girders (LM-200x).
Plate 61 A- Phalaris minor, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM ), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 254
200x ), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x ), E- T.S. of leaf showing vascular
bundles (LM-200x ), F- T.S. of leaf near margins (LM-400x).
Plate 62 A- Polypogon fugax, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 257
200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf (LM-400x), F- T.S. of
leaf showing vascular bundles (LM-200x).
Plate 63 A- Polypogon monspeliensis, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial 261
surface (LM-200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-400x), E- T.S. of leaf showing
vascular bundles and sclerenchyma girders (LM-200x), F- T.S. of leaf showing
arrangement of vascular bundles (LM-100x).
Plate 64 A-Bromus catharticus, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 265
bundle and bulliform cells (LM-400x), F- T.S. of leaf showing mid rib region
(LM-200x).
Plate 65 A-Bromus pectinatus, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 269
200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf showing prickle (LM-
400x), F- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundles (LM-200x).
Plate 66 A-Parapholis strigosa, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface 273
Plate 67 A-Lolium persicum, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM- 275
200x), D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf (LM-200x), F- T.S. of
leaf showing vascular bundle and sclerenchyma girder (LM-200x).
Plate 68 A-Poa annua, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM-200x), 279
D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundle
(LM-400x), F- T.S. of leaf (LM-200x).
Plate 69 A-Poa infirma, B- Pollen sculpturing (SEM), C- Leaf abaxial surface (LM-200x), 282
D- Leaf adaxial surface (LM-200x), E- T.S. of leaf showing vascular bundle
(LM-400x), F- T.S. of leaf (LM-200x).
LIST OF TABLES
Table # Title
1. Quantitative characters of pollen in different tribes of Poaceae
2. Diagnostic Leaf epidermal characters in different tribes of Poaceae
3. Leaf anatomical characters in T.S. of leaf of different tribes of Poaceae
DEDICATED
TO
MY PARENTS
ABSTRACT
The research work was conducted during May 2005-2009 in the taxonomy lab of
Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad. The project involves the morphological,
palynological and anatomical studies of 66 species of grasses belonging to 43 genera and
12 tribes within 4 sub families collected from Salt Range of Pakistan. Paniceae is the
largest tribe having 10 genera and 22 species followed by Andropogoneae and
Eragrostideae with 10 and 6 genera and 13 and 8 species respectively. Taxonomic studies
of grasses are of prime importance from systematic point of view and proved helpful in
delimitation of the taxa at the species, genus and tribe level. It is the first time, that a
comprehensive study of grasses of any area is conducted from taxonomic point of view in
Pakistan after Cope, (1982) who classified the grasses from Pakistan on the basis of
morphological characters and in many species some characters are not examined which are
valuable taxonomically and has not mentioned, such as shape, length and width of
caryopsis and length of stigma and anther. The objective of the study was to assess the
potential of grasses in the area and to identify and classify the grasses on the basis of above
mentioned studies and to study the differences among the species of the same and different
genera of the same tribe and among the different tribes.
Morphological markers are helpful in the identification, differentiation and

classification of the species at species, genus and tribe level. Variations in different
morphological characters are observed in different genera of the same tribe and among the
species of the same genus. There are few characters that are constant in the different genera
of the each tribe and are helpful in identification and classification of the species to the
tribe level. In the present studies there are two new reports from the area. Tetrapogon
cenchriformis is identified by its spatheolate inflorescence while Parapholis strigosa is
identified by the length of anthers and straight spikes. Previously only one species of
Parapholis (P. incurva) is reported from Pakistan, but the studies showed that another
species of Parapholis (P. strigosa) is also present in the Salt Range of Pakistan.
Quantitative characters of pollen are also helpful in distinguishing different taxa.
Maximum polar and equatorial diameter is recorded in Bromeae followed by
Andropogoneae and Paniceae, while maximum polar diameter is also observed in tribe
Bromeae. Maximum exine thickness is shown by tribe Eragrostideae. SEM of pollen
showed four types of sculpturing patterns that are scabrate, verrucate, rugulate and striate.
Variations are also observed in features regarding leaf epidermal and transverse section
studies at the species, genus and tribe level and by correlating with morphological
characters are valuable in the identification and classification of different taxa. There are a
few problematic species that are identified and differentiated from the resembling species
by studying their anatomy. Pennisetum orientale is confused with Cenchrus ciliaris, but it
can be differentiated by the presence of short cells with rounded papillae, which are absent
in Cenchrus species. Distinct type of microhairs with hemispherical distal cell are found in
genera of the all tribes belonging to subfamily Chloridoideae, and bulliform cells make a
girder to the abaxial side that is the distinguishing character of this subfamily. In
Enneapogon persicus of tribe Pappophoreae special type of macrohairs with narrow stalk
cell are observed that are absent in other tribes of subfamily chloridoideae making this
tribe peculiar from other tribes of subfamily Chloridoideae. In Andropogoneae and
Paniceae, a complexity in structure of silica bodies is seen and distal cell is thin walled in
bicellular microhairs which can be used as a tool in identification. Bulliform cells are in
fan shaped or irregular groups. Most species belonging to tribes of subfamily Pooideae are
distinct in having long cells with straight walls, and length of long cells is also recorded
more in these tribes. Microhairs are absent and subsidiary cells are mostly parallel sided
and chlorenchyma cells are diffused around the vascular bundles. There are some species
that are present in the area but not mentioned previously during the vegetation study of the
area due to improper identification and collection from the area. It is concluded that
morphological, palynological and anatomical studies help in proper identification and
classification of grasses, and to classify the previously identified vegetation of Pakistan.
Introduction Chapter 1
1.1 Geography and location of Salt Range
Pakistan is located between 24 – 370 North Latitude and 610 – 75.5 East
Longitude. It covers an area of 796095 sq. km. Out of this area 46, 8000 sq. km is in north
and west in the form of mountains lands and plateau, while the remaining 3, 28000 km
comprises the plains. Environmental variations in Pakistan range from high snow fall areas
of Himalaya in the north to hot humid climate of shores of Arabia Sea in the South
(Ahmad et al., 2007). The country is mostly arid with 75% of its parts receiving an annual
precipitation of less than 250 mm and 20% of its less than 125mm. Only 10% of the area
in the northern mountains ranges receives in between 500 mm and 1500 mm rainfall
(Ahmad and Waseem, 2004).
Geographically the Salt Range is located between 320 23 – 330 00 N and 710 30 –
730 30 East. This area is of prime importance as it is located between the Thar Desert in
the west and the Potohar plateau in the north east (Mc Kerrow et al., (1992), Yeats et al.,
(1984). Salt Range covers an area of 150 miles from east to west. It takes its name from
important salt deposits, which are present at Khewra, Khatha, Warcha and Kala Bagh
(Ahmad 1964, Ahmad et al., 2007). The range of hills extends in irregular arc from east of
Jhelum River in the Tilla Jogian and Bakrala ridges. It runs southwards to the north of
Jhelum River for some distance before turning North West to cross the River Indus near
Kala Bagh. On the west of river Indus Salt Range continuous southwards to the districts of
Bannu and D.I.Khan (Ahmad and Waseem, 2004).
1.2 Geo Climate
Salt Range has relatively low annual precipitation about 50 cm annually. Mostly
there is rain fall in months of July, August and September (Ahmad, 1964). There are great
extremes in temperature between summer and winter. Drought persists for a long time in
the area and hot dry winds are frequent. The length of winter season is longer and is
accompanied by frost. Summer and winter both are cooler than those of adjoining plains
(Ahmad et al., 2007).
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Taxonomic studies of Grasses of Salt Range of Pakistan 1
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1.2.1 Temperature
Average minimum temperature is 1Co (January) and average maximum temp is

36Co (June). Temperature falls below freezing during winter, and summer is
comparatively pleasant as compared to adjoining areas (Hussain, 2002).
1.2.2 Rainfall
Most of the rain is confined to the months of July, August and September. A much
lesser amount is received in January and February. The summer rains are due to moon
soon, while winter rains are associated with the western disturbances. Sakesar hill and the
adjoining areas of soon valley receive maximum rain fall because of their height. (Ahmad,
1964). Winter rain is generally well distributed as compared to summer rain (Ahmad et al,
2007).
1.2.3 Topography
Sand stone and lime stone are the common rock types of Salt Range (Khan,1960 &
Chaudhary et al., 2001). The sand stone is laminated by white or cream, dark red or purple
brown colors. Most of the soil of Salt Range is heavily salt infested, as the water from
brine springs deposits salts on the soil, all along its route. According to Said (1951) the
weathering of pure lime stone leaves no perceptible soil as Calcium Carbonate is carried
away in solution by rain water. The weathered surface of the rock is left with sharp
projections and numerous hollows and is exceedingly irregular, so sheet rock and boulders
are found on the hill sides. In places where lime stone is not so pure, being mixed with
shale, and clay or sand and produces some amount of soil. The soil in the weathered lime
stone portions forms the thin and shallow layer and is very fertile (Ahmad, 1964). Most of
the soil present in valleys between Range Mountains is water eroded soil. Soil lying
between the Salt Range and river Jhelum is heavily saline due to run off water during
rainy season (Qadir et al., 2005) and most of the areas are rich in salinity (Afzal et al.,
1999).
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1.2.4 Altitude
Area of Salt Range is located in subtropical region, its height ranges from 250 to
1520 m (Chaudhary, 1969). The highest point of range is Sakesar (5010 ft). Throughout its
length the Salt Range has steep cliffs to the south (Ahmad, 1964).
1.2.5 Water Resources
Salt Range runs in two parallel lines of hills separated by a distance of about 5
miles. These hills consist of a number of parallel ridges. These ridges include several high
level valleys. The water from these hills finds no outlet and is collected in the valleys
forming salt lakes. There are four lakes i.e. Kallar Kahar Lake which lies close to northern
slope of range in District Chakwal. Uchali, Khabaki and Jahlar lakes are present in soon
valley, District Khushab (Ahmad, 1964). These lakes are of prime importance as these wet
lands are the winter sites of rare or vulnerable water fowls, specially the white headed
duck (Nawazish et al, 2006).
The wells situated with a short distance of these salt lakes have sweet drinking
water, showing that the saline water of lakes does not effect the under ground water
(Ahmad, 1964). There are streams in the area, which flow between the mountains, near
Sodhi and Kanhati. The nearby areas are irrigated by this water.
1.3 Plant Resources of Salt Range

1.3.1 General Biodiversity
The Salt Range of Pakistan has retained rich floral diversity of the low lying sub
tropical forests, and different plant species have evolved drought and salinity tolerance
(Akram et al., 2008 ). It is exposed to severe habitat losses resulting in accelerated
depletion of physical and biological resources (Ahmad and Waseem, 2004). Bio diversity
is a key feature of properly functioning grazed ecosystem. The vegetation of Salt Range
comprises of both legumes and non legumes. Little is known about geological history of
the Salt Range vegetation. Fossil record indicates that angiosperms date back to tertiary
period, while pre tertiary fossils have no angiosperm affinities (Ahmad et al., 2007). The
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Plate 1: (a) Panorama of Scrub vegetation in Salt Range
(b) A view of Grasses near Kalar Kahar Lake
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vegetation of Salt Range is under the division, sub tropical dry evergreen forests. Olea
ferruginea Royle and Acacia modesta are recorded to be two characteristic trees of the
area (Champion, 1936). Due to macro and micro environmental variations, large plant and
animal diversity of the area is expected to be endemic to it. Scanty reports are available
about vegetation of this area. Vegetation of plants of Salt Range consists of an open low
forest in which thorny, usually hard woody species pre dominate, the trees usually have
short trunks and low branching crowns. Soil is generally saline, but trees grow well, as
ground water in most places is not salty. Climbers are relatively numerous and usually
exhibit xerophytic adaptations.
1.3.2 Flora
Perennials like Kochia indica weight, Suaeda fruticosa Forsk, Salsola foetida Del,
Haloxylon multiflorus Bunge, Herniaria hirsuta L. and grasses like Sporobolus arabicus
Boiss and Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. dominate in saline soil (Ahmad, 1964, Ahmad
et al., 2009 and Hameed et al., 2008). Acacia modesta is the dominant tree species.
Dodonea viscose, Justica adhatoda, Lantana indica, Lespedeza floribunda and Opuntia
monocantha are the dominant shrubs. Dodonea viscosa occupies the steep hills and is
frequent where there is high soil erosion. Dicliptera bublenroides and Pupalia lappacea
are the dominant herbs and grasses like Chrysopogon serrulatus, Heteropogon contortus
and Dicanthrium aunnlatum (Chaudhry et al., 2001).
1.3.3 Fauna
Urial (ovis orientalis), wild boar (Sus scrofa), Golden jackel (Canis aureus) Indian
grey Mongoose (Herpertis edwardsi) and wild hare (Lepus nigricollis) are common
mammal species of Salt Range. Urial and wild hare are the important game animals of the
area and indiscriminate hunting is effecting their present status. The populations of Urial
are vulnerable to many threats in Salt Range and other areas of Pakistan (Awan et al.,
2004).
The common bird species are Black Kite (Milvus migrans), Black Partridge
(Frncolinus francolinus), Grey Partridge (Francolinus pondicerianus), Indian ring dove
(Streptopelia decaocto), Red turtle dove (Streptopelia tranquebarica), House swift (Apus
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affinis), Golden oriole (Oriolus orivolus) (Chaudhary et al., 2001). Game birds like
Chakor, black and grey Partridges, common quail and black breasted rain quail are needed
to be conserved in the area. All these species are common except the rain quail, which
occurs frequently (Roberts, 1991).
1.3.4 Grasses of Salt Range
The Salt Range of Pakistan has rich floral diversity of the low lying sub tropical
forest (Ahmad et al., 2004) and there are various habitats for the development of plant
communities and grasses that form dominant vegetation over extensive area and show
great adoptability for life under very diverse ecological conditions. Grasses form the major
source of fodder. It is observed that Cynodon dactylon shows maximum resistance to
grazing out of all the fodder species, while other species are suppressed in the constant
grazing areas (Ahmad et al., 2009).
Cynodon dactylon is present throughout the area and is considered a first class
fodder grass (Cope, 1982) .Dactyloctenium aegyptium is present in cultivated fields, shady
places and moist soil and is more abundant and diverse species. It is adapted to soils of
wide range of texture, and it is one of the most drought resistant grasses, because of its
rapid growth and seedling in each wet season, even a short duration (Skerman and
Riveros, 1990). Chrysopogon serrulatus is the most dominant species, in the low grazing
and protected areas. In the saline soil species like Cenchrus ciliaris, Sporobolus arabicus,
Dicanthium and Polypogon sp. are found. Saccharum spontaneum is very common along
stream banks and margins of ponds. Grasses like Eulaliopsis bipinnata and Cymbopogan
jwarancusa are abundant on mountains and rocky slopes and near sand stones (Ahmad et
al ., 2009). It is an excellent soil binder that consolidates the soil particles and sand left
bare by retreating floods. It has an extensive root system and acts as an effective soil
binder (Skerman and Riveros, 1990).
Saccharum spontaneum and Saccharum bengalense that are large tussock forming
grasses are only recorded along water channels. Tussocks of Saccharum are useful for the
nesting of animals and birds (Chaudhary et al., 2001). Grass species with strong rhizomes
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Plate2: (a) Author collecting grasses from the area
Plate2 : (b) A view of grasses
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hold the sides and cuts of banks of water tributaries and protect them against erosion
(Saini et al., 2007). Sand stone and lime stone are the common rock types of Salt Range
(Ahmad et al., 2004).
Other important grass species are Dactylocteniun scindicum, Dactyloctenium

foveolatum, Sporobolus arabicus, that are palatable and contribute to urial forage
(Chaudhary et al., 2001). Dactyloctinium. Scindicum Boiss and Aristida sp. are frequent in
places where wind blown soil has accumulated (Ahmad, 1964). Vetiveria zizanoides is
almost near extinction in the area are requires conservation in Salt Range. Some grass
species i.e. Paspalidium flavidum, Enneapogon persicus, Lolium sp and Chloris
dolicostachya are restricted to specific area, due to over grazing and poor management
practices, are more vulnerable. Saccharum spontaneum and Saccharum bengalense are
used for thatching huts for cattle and hollow internodes of Arundo donax are used for
making pens and musical pipes. Large and stiff leaves of Eulaliopsis binata are used for
making brooms, mats and ropes in the area. Some grasses i.e. Saccharum spontaneum and
Cymbopogon jwarancusa are used for medicinal purposes in the area (Ahmad et al, 2009).
There are various factors, which are deteriorating the habitat of grasses i.e. growth in live
stock population and unrestricted grazing.
1.4 World wide overview of Grasses
Poaceae is one of the largest families among the angiosperms, and is represented in
every phytogeographic region in the world. It comprises about 10,000 species and 651
genera. It is divided into six sub families (Clayton and Renvoize, 1986). It ranks 3rd in
number of genera after Compositeae and Orchidaceae and 5th in number of species after
Compositeae, Orchidaceae, Leguminoseae and Rubiaceae (Good, 1953). Grasses form one
of the most fascinating families of flowering plants and have a wide range of diversity and
play significant role in the lives of human beings and animals. The value of grasses to
mankind has been recognized since the dawn of human civilization, and culture of cereal
grasses dates back to period when man was emerging from wild beast stage. (Mitra and
Mukherjee, 2005). Grasses inhabit the earth in greater abundance than any other
comparable group of plants, some are present in warm, humid and tropical climates, while
others have adopted the polar regions, where the growing season is two months or less and
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direct sunlight is absent for many months of the year. Some are important elements of
marsh and swamp vegetation, while others inhabit desert regions when the annual
precipitation is 5 inches or less (Gould, 1968). Poaceae is the most important family of
plants to human from commercial and nutritional point of view (Jones, 1999).
Even before the time of recorded history, the grains of grasses undoubtedly
provided a staple food supply for human race. Grasses are used as food for human and
forage for domesticated animals. A high proportion of the world’s most fertile and
productive soil is developed under the vegetation cover of grasses. Roots, stolons,
rhizomes and littler form the annual replacement of leafy culms, not only are soil builders
but also are effective soil stabilizers. Wild life is also dependent upon grass and grassland
habitats for food, shelter and normal completion of their life cycle (Gould, 1968).
1.5 Historical background and previous work on grasses in the World
When man came in contact with different kinds of plants for his need and desire, to
differentiate; it resulted in plant classification. The plants with food or medicinal values
were first plants to be named and grouped in different categories. The naming of
agricultural grasses must have antedated the first historical records by many thousands of
years. With the increase in scientific knowledge, the classification of plants developed into
the science of taxonomy. Grasses are thought to have a tropical origin, evolving in the
tropical forest - savannah ecotone (Clayton and Renvoize, 1986). Bambusiodeae was
thought to be the most primitive (Stebbens, 1982) but phyllogenetic analysis shows that
the sub families Pooideae Bambusoideae, Panicoideae and possibly Chloridoideae are
monophyletic and may be derived from polyphyletic Arundinaideae (Kellog and
Campbell, 1987). Most tribes of grasses are widespread (Hartley, 1964) but the major
proportion of genera (76%) are restricted to a single land mass (Clayton and Renvoize,
1986). This suggests that the major subfamilies named above have evolved by the early
tertiary and become wide spread before the major break up of the super continents, during
the tertiary periods as shown by the relatively low endemism of grasses compared to other
plant groups (Hartley, 1964). Endemism is most common at the southern tips of continents
__________________________________________________________________________
and in restricted environments where relict vegetation has been allowed to survive
(Clayton and Renvoize, 1986).
In the classification system of Bentham (1881), 13 grass tribes were grouped in

two subfamilies, the Festucoideae and Panicoideae. Bews (1929) used the Bentham system
as a basis for his treatment of the world’s grasses. Hitchcock (1920, 1935, 1951) followed
it with minor modifications in the classification of united states grasses. Hitchcock
recognized 14 tribes, 10 in the Festucoideae (Bambuseae, Festuceae, Hordeae, Aveneae,
Agrostideae, Phalarideae Chlorideae, Zoysieae, Oryzeae, and Zizanieae) and four in the
Panicoideae (Paniceae, Melinideae, Andropogoneae and Tripsaceae). In the Bentham
system, differentiation of subfamilies, tribes and genera was based almost exclusively on
morphological characters of the inflorescence.
Prat (1960) phylogenetically arranged tribes and subfamilies on the world basis,
while Stebbins and Cramption (1961) grouped the grasses in six subfamilies
(Festucoideae, Bambusoideae, Oryzoideae, Arundinoideae, Panicoideae and
Eragrostoideae.
There are striking differences between grasses of Festucoideae and those of

Panicoideae, these groups have been used as a general standard of comparisons of all the
grasses. By the 1980s, usually five to seven subfamilies were recognized based either on
phenetic analysis or presumed evolutionary relationships. Festucoideae contains most of
the temperate grasses and the Panicoideae and Chloridoideae, contain most of the tropical
and subtropical grasses of economic importance. The Panicoideae includes many high
productive grasses and cereals which follow C4 type of photosynthesis.
From the early efforts of Theophrastus, 300 years before the Christian era, to the
middle of the eighteenth century, plant taxonomy was relatively disorganized. Early
taxonomic publications were mainly list of names with short descriptive phrases. In 1708
first paper related to grasses was published by Johann Schenchzr, under the title
Agrostographiae Helvetica Prodromus. This paper is considered the start point of
Agrostology (Gould, 1968).
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In first edition of Species Plantarium (1753) by Linnaeus, he listed 40 grass genera,

including Andropogon, Cenchrus, Panicum, Hordium, Triticum and Phalares and this was
the base of binomial nomenclature of flowering plants.
Robert Brown (1810) recognized the two main sub divisions of Gramineae,
Panicoideae and Festucoideae and described the spikelet characteristics of these groups. In
1812, Palisot de Beauvois named and described a large number of genera and stated that
grass family is best known of higher plant groups.
In 1881 Bentham grouped 13 tribes of grasses in two subfamilies. Tribe Paniceae,

Andropogoneae, Maydeae (Tripsaceae), Trisetegineae (Melinideae), Zoysieae and
Oryzeae were placed in sub family Panicoideae and Bambuseae, Festuceae, Hordeae,
Aveneae, Agrostideae, Chlorideae and Phalarideae were grouped in Sub family
Festucoideae. Kunth (1833) described 13 tribes but recognized no sub Families, his system
of classification was adopted by Endlicher, Palatore and Stendel. The arrangement of
Benthem was again presented in Genera Plantarium by Bentham and Hooker (1883) and
was used with modifications by Haeckel (1887, 1889), Stapf (1917 – 1934), Hitchcock
(1920 – 1935) and Bews (1929).
A.S. Hitchcock, in the genera of grasses of the United States with special reference
to economic species (1920) and manual of grasses of United States (1935, 1951) shifted
the tribes Oryzeae to the Festucoideae and added another small tribe by splitting off the
Zizaneae from Oryzeae. North American grasses and grasslands were treated ecologically
and taxonomically on the basis of Hitchcock manual for more than 30 years. Audulov
(1931) grouped the grasses in two sub Families, the Poateae (Festucoideae) and
Sacchariferae (Panicoideae), he carried out chromosomal studies of about 232 grasses in
correlation with leaf anatomy.
Prat (1932) pointed out the significance of grass leaf epidermis and discussed in
detail their differences and in 1936, he published a 93 page treatise entitled La
Systematique des Graminess. He recognized three sub Families, the Festucoideae,
Panicoideae and Bambusoideae and correlated characters of leaf epidermis and anatomy,
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cytology and morphology of seedlings, Audulov (1931) and Prat (1936) recognized two
types of leaf blade anatomy, one associated with the festucoid leaf and other with panicoid
leaf. Prat (1932, 1936) discussed in detail the difference in shape of silica bodies of
Festucoid, Panicoid, Chloridoid and Oryzoid grasses, observed the absence of microhairs
in festucoid grasses and differences between typical panicoid and chloridoid microhairs.
Hubbard (1948 - 1954) worked on the “new taxonomy” and followed the lines established
by Avdulov and Prat. Phyllogenetic arrangements of major grass groups were made from
decade 1950 – 1960. New sub family groupings were proposed by Pilger (1954), Jacques
– Felix (1955), Beetle (1955), Stebbens (1956) and Tateoka (1957). Differences in typical
Festucoid and Panicoid root epidermis, cell division and the position of root hairs in the
epidermal cell were pointed out by Reader and Von Maltzalen (1953) and Row and
Reeder (1957). Row and Reeder found that the alternation of long and short cells
(Festucoid) versus equal sized cell (Panicoid) is a much more reliable character than either
the position or angle of the root hairs.
Brown (1957) and Emery (1958) made a comprehensive survey of apomixis in the
tribes Paniceae, Andropogoneae, Chlorideae, Eragrosteae, Papophoreae, Zoysieae and
Aristideae. They also reported Paniceae and Andropogoneae are characterized by
Apospory and Agamospory is more frequent in these two tribes.
Brown (1958) suggested four additional types (Bambusiod, Arundinoid, Aristidoid

and Chloridoid) of leaf blade anatomy. Sub family and tribal differences involve mainly
the number and type of vascular bundles, sheath cells, the arrangement and type of cells of
mesophyll and the type and location of plastids in cells of mesophyll and of the
Parenchyma bundle sheath. Metcalfe (1960) noted diagnostic sub family differences in the
shape of subsidiary cells of the stomata and arrangement of long cells and short cells over
the veins.
Grasses of Festucoideae and those of Panicoideae have numerous differences

between them and are used as a general standard of comparison for all grasses (Gould,
1969). Grasses are considered to be originated from tropical region, evolving in the
tropical forest – Savannah ecotone (Clayton and Renvoize, 1986). Bambusoideae was
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thought to most primitive by Stebbins (1982) and Clayton and Renvoize (1986), but
Kellog and Campbell (1987) stated that it is shown by phyllogenetic analysis that sub
families Pooideae, Bambusoideae, Panicoideae and possibly Chloridoideae are
monophyletic and may be derived from prolyphylletc Arundiniodeae. Most tribes of
grasses are widely distributed and major sub Families i.e Pooideae, Bambusiodeae,
Panicoideae. Arundinoideae and Chloridioadeae had evolved by the early tertiary and
become wide spread before the major breakup of super continents during the tertiary
(Hartley, 1964).
Metcalfe (1960) published a comprehensive work on the anatomy of family

Gramineae that is considered a guideline by the researchers working on this line. Dube et
al., (1987) studied 32 populations of Festuca rubra L. Sensu lato from salt marshes,
coastal rocks, coastal sand, and anthropogenic sites in eastern Quebec and observed
variations in their morphological and anatomical characters and concluded that character
variation patterns are mainly related to ecological rather than geographical factors.
Chromosome number and morphological studies of 260 populations, belonging to 32 taxa
of the genus Brachiaria from Indian Subcontinent were carried out by Basappa et al.,
(1986). Chaudhary (1989) worked on the grasses of Saudi Arabia and gave a synopsis of
Sub-families tribes, Sub tribes and genera of the family Gramineae following Clayton and
Renvoize, 1986.
Lazarides et al., (1991) described and illustrated a new monotypic genus

(Clausospicula) from the Darwin and Gulf district, Northern Territory Australia on the
basis of its cleistogamous spikelets, reduced panicles, racemes and spikelets. Jones (1999)
worked on the Biogeography of the grasses and low land grass lands of Southern Eastern
Australia and observed that most wide spread of the endemic Australian grasses are the
Triodinae subtribe of which Triodia is widespread in arid environments. Many other
grasses appear to have migrated from Asia, such grasses present in temperate grass lands
of South-eastern Australia include Themeda, Dicanthium and Bothriochloa of the
Andropogoneae tribe, within Sub family Panicoideae.
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Katewa et al., (2001) pointed out ethnomedicinal and obnoxious grasses of India
on the basis of local knowledge and information by local tribes. Sahebi et al., (2001)
carried out investigations regarding quantitave, and morphological characters of 350
herbarium specimens from 35 Iranian populations of Hordium murinum S.L using
morphological characters. Two taxonomic keys were made for the taxa in Hordium
murinum S.L. Leaf anatomical features of three herbaceous bamboo species
(Bambusoideae) were studied by Vieira et al., (2002). Anatomical characters such as mid
rib with complex vascular bundles and other leaf epidermal characters were observed that
correspond to the bambusoid type of leaf anatomy.
Saini et al., (2007) conducted experiment on four genotypes of Cenchrus ciliaris,

two genotypes of C. setigerus and one genotype each of Panicum maximum, P. antidotale
and Lasiuras scindicus in Heryana (India). Investigations were carried out about
morphological characters and nutritive value of the grasses and C. ciliaris was
recommended as grass with most nutritional value for use in the arid regions of South Wet
Heryana (India).
Lu et al., (2003) observed the phytolith (Microscopic silica bodies) of 32 grass

species that were collected from various coastal environments in south eastern U.S.A.
(Georgia, Florada, and Louisiana) and a large diversity in the shape and types of phytoliths
was observed in these grasses. Grasses from interdune meadow were found to have dumb
bell as well as small cross and Cyperaceae type phytoliths, while saddle ellipsoid
phytoliths were observed in grasses of coastal salt marshes.
A comprehensive study of leaf anatomy of Aniselytron Merr. And Calamagrestics

(Adans) S.I. was conducted by Ma et al., (2005), to review the systematic status of
Aniselytron. In the result of variations in anatomical characters in combination with the
differences in spikelet structures and habitat, it was suggested that Calamagrostis S.I
should be generally separated and not merged with Calamagrostis.
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Kharazian (2006) evaluated leaf anatomical characters of 26 accessions of the

Aegilops L. species. The results showed that anatomical characters had high variations.
Length of epidermal hairs, prickles, width of sclerenchyma strands and number of strands
were found to be distinguishing characters among these species and were important from
taxonomic point of view. Leaf and sheath anatomy of Austrostipa aristiglumis was studied
by Arriaga and Jacobs et al., (2006). Austrostipa is a stipoid grass that has normally
xeromorphic characters, but studies showed that it has hydrophytous or amphibious
characters and it was concluded that hydromorphic characters are adaptations that permit
A. aristiglumis to maximize its growth, where a surplus amount of water is present.
Liu et al., (2005) examined the pollen morphology of Eustachya tenera by light
scanning and transmission microscope. The studies showed that pollen grains are
generally oblate spheroidal and with a single annulate aperture with an operculum. Ying et
al., (2006) carried out the leaf epidermal studies of 5 species of Calamagrostis and 26
species and one variety of Deyexia and no sharp differences were found between these two
species.
Leaf epidermal studies of Cymbopogon citratus and Cymbopogon giganteus were

conducted by Folorunso et al., (2007). The aim of study was to determine the variations in
epidermal characters of these species and assess their value in species identification and
classification. Presence of sparsly distributed microhairs and prickle hairs in C. citratus
and papillae along side their long cells in C. giganteus were their distinguishing
characters.
Delgado (2007) carried out investigations on the transverse sections of the mature
flowering culms of Boutelouinae and it was suggested that there is close relationship
between B. eriopoda and B. eriostachya and between B. ramosa and B. breviseta and there
is inclusion of satellite genera into Boutelona. Alvarez (2008) observed the ultra structural
and anatomic characters of bulliform cells in Loudetiopsis chrysothrix (Nees) concert and
Tristachya leiostachya Nees and it was suggested that bulliform cells are involved in foliar
involution of these species.
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1.6 Work on Grasses in Pakistan
Chaudhary and Sheikh (1968) worked on halophytic flora of West Pakistan and
found that the grasses present in the inland dry saline area of West Pakistan included
Cenchrus biflorus, C. ciliaris, Dicanthium annulatum, Eleusine flagellifera, Panicum
antidotale, Sporobolus arabicus and Sporobolus marginatus. It was observed that
Sporobolus arabicus was the most salt resistant grass found in this area. Embryological
studies of some grasses were carried out by Faruqi et al., (1975), and it was observed that
Chrysopogan serrulatus, Cymbopogon parkeri, Dicanthium annulatum and Themeda
anathera exhibit apomixes and cytological and morphological polymorphism is present in
these species.
Cope, (1982) described in Flora of Pakistan, five sub families of Poaceae i.e.
Bambusoideae, Arundinoideae, Chloridoideae, Panicoideae and Pooideae along with the
tribes and their key. Sarir et al., (1984) carried out investigations on the halophytes of
Peshawar district and determined that grasses like Desmostachya bipinnata, Saccharum
spontaneum and Cynodon have wide ecological range and prefer saline and saline sodic
soils.Siddiqui and Qaisar (1988) conducted the palynological studies of 64 species of
grasses with 40 genera, from Karachi, and it was found that family is stenopalynous, and
the pollens are spheroidal, usually monoporate, rarely diporate, smooth, mostly annulate
and operculate.
Cytomorphological and palynological studies of 17 different species of grasses

from Lahore were conducted by Meo (1999). It was observed that Pollens of tetraploid and
hexaploid species were larger in size as compared to those of diploid species. Chaudhary
et al., (2001) studied the foliar epidermal anatomy of 4 species of grasses, i.e.
Cymbopogon citratus DC. Stapf, Cynodon dactylon (L) Pers., Panicum summatrense
Roeth ex Roem and Schult and Vetiveria zizanoides (L.) Nash. These taxa showed
differences in short and long cells, silica bodies, macro and microhairs and shape of
subsidiary cells and it was concluded that most of the characters are diagonostic and can
be used for making keys. Gillani et al., (2002) carried out leaf epidermal anatomical
studies of selected Digitaria species and found it valuable in the identification of these
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species. Digitaria sp. showed differences in size and shape of prickles, short cells, silica
bodies, microhairs with basal and distal cells, hooks, stomata and long cells.
Elahi et al., (2002) evaluated the stem epidermis of six varieties of Saccharum
officinarum. Results showed that all the varieties differed in anatomical characters with
each other. Width and length of long cells, number and shape of cork cells, number of
stomatas and number of rows of long cells were different in different varieties.
Morphological characters of different Digitaria species from Pakistan were investigated
by Gillani et al., (2003). The aim was to know the taxonomic relationship between these
Digitaria species. He identified a new sub species of Digitaria sanguinalies from Pakistan
on the basis of presence of spines on the upper half margins of nerves of lower lemma
only, while D. sangunalis had spines on the whole nerves of lower lemma.
Shaheen et al., (2005) studied the pollen morphology of genus Setaria, Cenchrus
and Brachiaria of tribe Paniceae from different areas of Pakistan and observed a wide
range of variations in pollen size and P/E ratio. Palynological studies of 20 species of
grasses belonging to 14 genera were carried out by Parveen (2006). It was observed that
pollen grains are mostly spheroidal, monoporate, rarely diporate, operculate or non
operculate and it was concluded that pollen studies are helpful at the specific and generic
level within the tribes.
Different accessions of Cenchrus ciliaris L. were collected from different habitats

of Cholistan desert by Arshad et al., (2007) and a wide range of morphological variations
among there accessions was observed. It was suggested that germplasm of Cenchrus
ciliaris L. in hot climate has high potential to survive against drought, salinity and high
temperature stress.
1.7 Work on Grasses in Salt Range
A little work on grasses is reported from salt Range of Pakistan, which has rich
floral diversity, but no work is done from taxonomic point of view. Ahmad, (1964) studied
the vegetation of Salt Range and presented the list of plants of 15 moncotyledonous
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families including gramineae from this area. Chaudhary et al., (2001) carried out
phytosociological studies in Chambi Surala wild life sanctionry, District Chakwal of Salt
Range and observed that Poaceae was the largest family including 41 grasses species and
Chrysopogon serrullatus was the dominant species among the grasses. Spatial and
seasonal variations in the species composition of herbs in Soon valley (Salt Range) of
Pakistan were observed by Hussain and Ali (2006). The data revealed that grasses were
confined to summer seasons at more fertile sites. Ahmad et al., (2008) carried out studies
regarding the plant diversity at Kufri, Soon valley (Salt Range) and found that the
frequency of grasses i.e. Cynodon dactyon, Saccharum sp. and Saccharum spontaneum in
this area was 60%, 30% and 20% respectively.
Hameed et al., (2008) studied some salt tolerant forage grasses i.e. Cynodon
dactylon, Imperata cylandrica and Sporobolus arabicus collected from saline habitats of
Salt Range. Sporobolas arabicus was considered most salt tolerant grass followed by C.
dactylon and Imperata cylendrica. Akram et al., (2008) conducted physiological studies
on two populations of grasses i.e. Cynodon dactylon (L) Pers and Cenchrus ciliaris L.
collected from Salt Range of Pakistan. These populations showed high growth when
grown in controlled environments and it was concluded that these populations can
accumulate great concentrations of K, N, and Ca 2+ in their shoots.
1.8 Background and Justification of the present Project
The Salt Range of Pakistan has rich diversity in grasses and various habitats are
available for their growth. There is no comprehensive study of grasses from taxonomic
point of view and to study their morphology, anatomy and palynology as an identification
tool. Salt Range enriched with natural resources and with a wide range of diversity is
being focused by many researchers and NGO’s for studies on different aspects i.e. species
composition, biodiversity but the grasses are neglected and unexplored in this area and no
effort has been made to study grasses deeply. All the grasses look similar in external
morphology i.e. the shape of leaves, so there is a need to identify them and to distinguish
them from each other. When the flora or vegetation of any area is studied, grasses are
often ignored because of small and inconspicuous flowers. Grasses that are found in all the
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habitats of Salt Range and are mainly used as fodder for cattle are neglected by the
previous researchers working in this area, and no effort has been made to study grasses
from taxonomic point of view and to study them at the species, genus and tribe level and
to study their distribution, flowering period and other distinguishing characters that assist
to differentiate grasses from each other.
It has been observed that different species of grasses present in the area are known
by same vernacular name in the area and even same species has different local names in
different localities of the area, so it is confusing for researchers working in Salt Range on
different aspects i.e. taxonomic, phytosociological or physiological studies and study the
biodiversity, hence often species with incorrect scientific name is mentioned, without
studying its characters of identification. Previously no documentation of grasses from
taxonomic point of view is reported, so there was need to carry out the systematic studies
of grasses along with their distribution, occurrence, habitat, morphological, palynological
and anatomical characters as for their correct identification. The species of the same genus
and different genera of same tribe are often very similar morphologically and difficult to
distinguish them, so this problem can be solved by their anatomical and palynological
studies. Anatomical characters are considered an important tool in taxonomy for
identification of different species and palynological studies are helpful at the species and
generic level within the tribes.
Taking this problem in consideration a comprehensive study of grasses of Salt

Range was carried out and 66 species belonging to 43 genera in 12 tribes were studied
from Salt Range area. Taxonomic investigations were carried out involving their
morphology, anatomy and palynology as an aid to the identification of grasses of Salt
Range of Pakistan.
Grasses of Salt Range growing in different habitat have undergone different

anatomical and morphological adaptations, so morphological and anatomical studies will
help in their identification. This study will be helpful and act as guideline for researchers
working in future on different aspects of grasses i.e. molecular phytosociological,
ecological and taxonomic studies. Key objectives of the project are as follows.
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Objectives
i. To identify and classify the grasses of Salt Range into different tribes on the
basis of morphology, palynology and anatomy.
ii. To study the distribution, habitat and occurrence of grasses in Salt Range area.
iii. To study the morphological, palynological and anatomical differences among
species of the same genus to find new characters for the identification and
classification of taxa.
iv. To investigate the morphological, anatomical and palynological differences
among different genera of same tribe and among different tribes.
v. To make the key of grasses on the basis of morphology and anatomy as an aid
to their identification.
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Materials and Methods Chapter 2
The research work was conducted during May 2005-2009 in the Experimental
Taxonomy lab. and Herbarium of Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad. The study was
confined to grasses of Salt Range of Pakistan. The research work comprises morphology,
palynology, leaf epidermal anatomy and T.S. of Lamina.
2.1 Collection and Preservation of Grasses
Frequent field trips were carried out to collect grasses in different seasons of the year.
In total of 66 species of grasses belonging to 43 genera and 12 tribes were collected from
different sites and habitats. All plant specimen were collected in triplicate and voucher
number was allotted to plants. Date of collection, locality, habitat and colour of
inflorescence and leaves were recorded during collection trips. Plants were dried and
preserved by using standard herbarium techniques and deposited in the Herbarium of
Pakistan Islamabad.
2.2 Morphological Studies
Detailed morphological study was carried out under dissecting binocular. Different
morphological (vegetative and floral) characters were observed and confirmed by Flora of
Pakistan (Nasir and Ali, 1970-2002). The following morphological characters of each
species were studied and 5-7 specimen of each species were observed for morphological
studies.
2.2.1 Vegetative Characters
a) Habit: Annual or perennial, erect, prostrate or decumbent.

b) Culm: Plant height, pubescence of culms, texture of nodes and internodes.
c) Leaf: Shape, length and width, texture of lamina, colour and texture of leaf sheath,
(glabrous, scabrid, open or folded). Length and shape of ligule (membranous, lacerate
membranous, with ciliated fringe or white hairs).
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2.2.2 Reproductive Characters
a) Inflorescence: Length and shape of Panicle, raceme or spike (open, contracted,

cylindrical or ovate).
b) Spikelet: Shape, length and width, pedicellate or sessile and single or in group.
c) Glumes: Shape, length and width, texture, keeled or not keeled, number of nerves of
lower and upper glume.
d) Lemmas: Shape, length, width, texture, keeled or not keeled, number of nerves on lower
and upper lemma.
e) Paleas: Shape, length, width and texture of palea, prominent or not prominent
f) Stamens: Number, size and colour.
g) Carpel: Number of style and stigma, size and colour.
h) Caryopsis: Length, width, pubescence and shape.
2.3 Palynological Studies
Light microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to study
pollen morphology.
2.3.1 Method of pollen study by light microscopy
Florets were dissected and anthers were placed on the slide with the help of forceps,
added a drop of 45% acetic acid and crushed with iron rod. Pollen were acetolysed
according to modified method of Ahmad et al., (2008), who followed Erdtman (1952).
Stirred with needle for equal distribution of pollen, placed the cover slip and sealed the slide
edges by transparent nail polish. Slides were labeled with their name, locality and voucher
number. The slides were kept in wooden slide cases in vertical position.
2.3.2 Formation of Glycerin Jelly
Glycerin jelly was prepared according to modified methods of Ahmad et al., (2008).
50 ml of distilled water was taken in beaker and heated it on the hot plate. Add 35 g of
gelatin when temperature of water raised to 70 – 80 C, it will appear as a thick solid matter,
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but as the temperature rises, it becomes a thick viscous liquid, keep this solution for 1 hour
on hot plate and mix 35g of glycerin with few crystal of phenol. Then add 0.1% safranine
by 1/8 volume with glycerin jelly, shake it till a uniform pink colour appeared and jelly was
stabilized at room temperature. All the chemicals used were standard and purchased from
Merck (Germany).
2.3.3 Pollen Parameters

Following pollen parameters were studied under light microscope for pollen morphology.
Qualitative characters
Shape in polar view
Shape in equatorial view
Type of pollen and sculpturing
Quantitative characters
Polar diameter
Equatorial diameter
P/E ratio
No. of Pores
Pore diameter
Exine thickness
2.3.4 Pollen Study by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy)
Anthers were crushed in 45% acetic acid and one to two drops of material
containing acetolysed pollen were mounted on metallic stubs with a fine pipette, and coated
with gold in vacuum coater and examined with, a Jeol microscope (JSM 1200).
2.3.5 Pollen Fertility
To determine pollen fertility, acetocarmine and glycerin Jelly was used by the
modified techniques used by Khan and Stace (1999). Anthers were squashed in a drop of
acetocarmine. Debris was removed gently and cover slip was placed on it. The slides were
observed at low magnification i.e. 10 x. The number of stained and unstained pollen were
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counted. Fully stained pollen were considered fertile while unstained and deformed pollen
were considered sterile.
2.4 ANATOMICAL STUDIES
2.4.1 Leaf Epidermal Anatomy
Dried leaves were placed in boiling water by using water bath, to soften the leaves
until they become unfolded and were used for epidermal scraping. Fresh leaves were used
directly for anatomical studies. Leaf samples were prepared according to the modified
method of Cotton (1974) who followed Clark (1960) technique. The fresh or dried leaves
were placed in a tube filled with 88% lactic acid kept hot in boiling water bath for about 50-
60 minutes. Lactic acid softens the leaf tissues so that its peeling is made possible.
The abaxial and adaxial epidermis was removed, along with the mesophyll cells by using
scalpel blade, until only the abaxial epidermis of the leaf remained on the tile. The
epidermis was placed on the slide and mounted in clean 88% lactic acid. The micro
photographs of the mounted materials were taken by using a camera mounted on Leica light
microscope. Different anatomical observations were made on the different species of
grasses collected from Salt Range of Pakistan. The following anatomical characters of both
abaxial and adaxial epidermis were studied.
Length and width of long cells, their shape and whether sinuous, slightly sinuous or
non sinuous was noted .It was examined that short cells and papillae in intercostal zone are
present or absent. No of rows of long cells between two costal zones, length and width of
stomatal complex and shape of guard and subsidiary cells was studied. Subsidiary cells, low
or high dome shaped or triangular, length, width and shape of microhairs, bicellular or
unicellular and shape of distal and basal cells present or absent were considered. Length and
width of macrohairs and hooks and their shape, their presence or absence was noted.
Length, width and shape of silica bodies and short cells and their distribution in costal zone
was observed.
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Plate 3: (a) Author collecting grasses from the area
Plate 3: (b) A view of the hills and grasses in the fields near Kalar Kahar
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2.4.2 Studies of Transverse Sections (T.S.) of Leaves

a. Freezing microtomy
In this experiment, 2 – 3 cm long sections of dried leaves were kept in Chloral

hydrate solution for 24 hours and washed with distilled water before section cutting.
Freezing microtome (Leica CM 1325) was used for T. S. of leaves. 2 – 3 drops of water
were poured on the block and placed the leaf section vertically and covered it with water
droplets. When temperature reached at – 14C, water was frozen and 10 – 15 μm thick slices
of leaves were cut by moving the microtome in forward and backwards direction and
selected the best sections for preparing slides. Both stained and unstained slides were
prepared for studies. For staining thin leaf sections were stained by following procedure.
Placed the leaf section in the slide and 1 – 2 drops of safranin were added, and then added a
few drops of 96% ethanol to remove the extra safranin. After it poured, 1–2 drops of fast
green, then added 96% and absolute alcohol respectively. Finally, added one drop of xylene.
Take Canada balsam on the cover slip and cover the slide. Slides were observed under
microscope and microphotographs were taken by Camera mounted on microscope
(Olympus Ax 70)
b. Ultra Microtomy
Leaf sections of plant samples with very thin and delicate lamina can not be
prepared by freezing microtome, hence ultra microtome was used for their sectioning. 1-2
μm thick sections were obtained by ultra microtome (Nova LKB Bromma).
Procedure
Put the leaf samples in 70%, 96% and absolute ethanol respectively for one hour.
Transfer the leaf samples in mixture of 2 parts of ethanol and one part of resin for half an
hour in closed eppendorf, than change the ratio of mixture i.e. one part of ethanol and one
part of resin and one part of ethanol and two parts of resin respectively. After it open the
eppendorf and leave for night to eliminate ethanol and to increase the amount of resins. Put
the samples for 1 hour in fresh resin (resin without ethanol) at 4Co. Transfer the samples
from refrigerator to oven and keep them in oven for 24 hours. Then process the leaf samples
for microtomy and stained the leaf sections with toluene blue and microphotographs were
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taken by using camera mounted on microscope (Olympus Provis Ax 70). Method of

Johnson (1940) was followed with modifications for microtomy. Following characters were
studied in the T.S. of leaf.
Adaxial and abaxial surface smooth or with slight or deep ribs and furrows, presence
or absence of sclerenchyma girders and strands adaxially or abaxially were observed.
Number, type and arrangement of vascular bundles, chlorenchyma cells radially arranged or
diffused, and nature of keel i.e conspicuous or not conspicuous was examined. Shape of
bulliform cells and their distribution in abaxial and adaxial zone was noted.
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Results Chapter 3
In this chapter detailed data on morphological, palynological and anatomical studies

of grasses of Salt Range of Pakistan is presented. In total of 66 species of grasses belonging
to 43 genera and 12 tribes in 4 subfamilies are arranged alphabetically. Detailed taxonomic
inventory provides information on botanical names of species followed by voucher No.,
distribution (Salt Range, Pakistan and World), occurrence and habitat, flowering period,
morphological description, palynology (LM & SM), leaf epidermal anatomy and T.S. of
lamina.
3.1: Synopsis of subfamilies and tribes of Family Poaceae in the Salt

Range of Pakistan
1. Subfamily Arundinoideae
Tribe Arundineae
2. Subfamily Chloridoideae
Tribe Aristideae
Tribe Chlorideae
Tribe Eragrostideae
Tribe Pappophoreae
Tribe Zoysieae
3. Sub family Panicoideae
Tribe Andropogoneae
Tribe Paniceae
4. Sub Family Pooideae
Tribe Aveneae
Tribe Bromeae
Tribe Hainardeae
Tribe Poeae
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Results Chapter 3
3.2: Tribe wise check list of Grasses collected from Salt Range of Pakistan
1. Tribe Arundineae
1. Arundo donax L.
2. Pharagmites karka (Retz.) Trin. Ex Stued.
2. Tribe Aristideae
3. Aristida adscensionis L.
3. Tribe Chlorideae
4. Chloris barbata Sw.
5. Chloris dolicostachya Lag.
6. Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers.
7. Tetrapogon cenchriformis (A.Rich.) Clayton
8. Tetrapogon villosus Desf.
4. Tribe Eragrostideae
9. Acrachne racemosa (B.Heyne ex Roem. & Schult.) Ohwi
10. Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.)Willd
11. Dactyloctinium scindicum Boiss
12. Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.) Stapf
13. Eleusine indica (Linn.)Gaertn
14. Eragrostis cilianensis (All.)Lut.Ex F.T. Hubbard
15. Eragrostis papposa (Roem.& Schult.) Stued.
16. Octhochloa compressa (Forssk.) Hilu.
5. Tribe Pappophoreae
17. Enneapogon persicus Boiss
6. Tribe Zoysieae
18. Tragus roxburghii Haller
7. Tribe Andropogoneae
19. Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) S.T.Blake
20. Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin.
21. Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones.)Schult
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Results Chapter 3
22. Dicanthium annulatum (Forssk.)Stapf

23. Dicanthium foveolatum (Del.) Roberty
24. Eulaliopsis binata (Retz) C.E.Hubbard
25. Heteropogon contortus (Linn.)P.Beauv.ex Roem.& Schult.
26. Imperata cylendrica (Linn.)Raeuschel
27. Saccharum bengalense Retz.
28. Saccharum ravennae (Linn.) Murr.
29. Saccharum spontaneum Linn.
30. Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.
31. Vetiveria zizanoides (Linn.) Nash
8. Tribe Paniceae
32. Brachiaria deflexa (Schumach.)C.E.Hubbard ex Robyns
33. Brachiaria distachya (Linn.)Stapf
34. Brachiaria eruciformis (J.E.Sm.)Stapf
35. Brachiaria ramosa (Linn.)Griseb.
36. Brachiaria reptans (Linn.) Gardner & Hubbard
37. Cenchrus biflorus Roxb.
38. Cenchrus ciliaris Linn.
39. Cenchrus setigerus Vahl
40. Digitaria sanguinalis (Linn.)Scop.
41. Digitaria nodosa Parl.
42. Echinochloa colona (Linn.)Link
43. Panicum antidotale Retz.
44. Panicum maximum Jacq.
45. Paspalum paspaloides (Michx.)Scribner
46. Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.)A.Camus
47. Pennisetum orientale L.C.Rich.
48. Setaria glauca L. Beauv
49. Setaria intermedia Roem. & Schult.
50. Setaria italica (Linn.) P. Beauv.
51. Setaria verticellata (Linn.) P. Beauv.
52. Setaria viridis (Linn.) P. Beauv.
53. Urochloa panicoides P.Beauv.
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Results Chapter 3
9. Tribe Aveneae
54. Agrostis viridis Gouan
55. Avena fatua Linn.
56. Avena sterelis subsp. Ludoviciana (Dur.)Gill&Magne
57. Koeleria argentia Griseb.
58. Phalaris minor Retz.
59. Polypogon monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf.
60. Polypogon fugax Nees ex Steud
10. Tribe Bromeae

61. Bromus catharticus Vahl
62. Bromus pectinatus Thunb.
11. Tribe Hainardeae

63. Parapholis strigosa (Dum.) C.E.Hubbard
12. Tribe Poeae

64. Lolium persicum Boiss. & Hohen.ex Boiss.
65. Poa annua Linn.
66. Poa infirma H.B.K.
3.3. TRIBE: ARUNDINEAE
1. Arundo donax Linn.

Voucher No: 130
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Choa Saidan Shah, Kallar Kahar, Uchali,
Khabaki (Mardan, Takht Bahi, Hazara, Swat, Kashmir and Rawalpindi).
Distribution in World: Mediterranean region, Eastwards to Burma, North Africa,

introduced in the United States
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on road sides, near mountain bases or foot hills and
near water courses. Rare in rocky river bed, near lakes, moist red sandy soil.
Flowering: June - December
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Results Chapter 3
Morphological Description
Strongly perennial, stout reed with woody rhizomes, culms hollow, 150 – 300 cm
tall; Leaf blades stiff, linear lanceolate, distichous, 30 – 53 cm long, 5 – 7 cm wide,width
upto 24 mm, with long attenuate tip, cordate or rounded at the base, dentate at the margins
glabrous; Ligule membranous, lacerate at the tip, 0.7 – 0.8 mm long; Sheath glacuous and
glabrous; A large panicle hairy in appearance, 21 – 30 cm long, much branched, spikelets
6.5 – 10.5 mm long. The branch bearing spikelets, dentate, 2 – 6 flowered; Glumes subequal
or upper glume slightly larger then lower glume. Upper glume 6.6 – 8.5 mm long, 1.3 mm
wide, 3 nerved, membranous, oblong lanceolate, glabrous; Lower glume 5.9 – 8.0 mm
long,1.3 mm wide, membranous, oblong lancolate and glabrous; Glumes persistent, floret
disarticulating above the glumes; Lemmas long hairy at the back, below the middle,
lanceolate, 3 nerves of lemma uniting and forming a short aristeae; Upper lemma shorter,
palea about half of the length of lemma. Black feathery sigma, 1mm long, anthers yellow
2.1– 2.2 mm long (Plate 4A).
Palynology (LM & SEM)

Pollen are circular in polar view and prolate spheroidal in equatorial view. Polar
diameter is 24.37 μm (20 – 27.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 23.33 μm (20 – 25 μm). P/E
ratio is 1.04. Pollen are monoporate and ectoporate. Pore diameter is 1.94 μm (1.5 – 3.5 μm)
and exine thickness is 0.94 μm (0.75 – 1.25 μm).Pollen fertility is 88.75 %. Sculpturing is
verrucate and verrucae are widely spaced (Plate 4B).
Leaf Epidermal Anatomy

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thick sinuous walls, 70
– 145 μm long and 6.5 – 14 μm wide. Inter stomatal cells with concave ends, short cells
present between long cells, short cells vertically longer than horizontally. Number of rows
of long cells, between two costal zones, 3 – 5. Number of stomatal rows between two costal
zones, 2 – 3 .Guard cells dumb bell shaped and thick in the middle and subsidiary cells
triangular in shape or low dome shaped,30 – 36.5 μm long and 15 – 22 μm wide. Microhairs
none seen; Macrohairs none seen. Hooks present, not frequent, at the junction of long cells,
24 – 26.5 μm long and 4 – 5 μm wide, pointed at one end.
Costal zone: Silica bodies in 1 – 3 layers, saddle shaped, cross shaped or intermediate
between cross and dumb bell shaped, 15 – 21.5 μm long and 12 – 18 μm wide. Short cells
present between the silica cells and with slightly sinuous walls, 16 – 18 μm long and 12 –
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Results Chapter 3
18.5 μm wide. A row of long cells with slightly sinuous walls, between two rows of silica
boidies and short cells. Prickles spherical and wide, pointed at the tip, 17 – 32 μm long and
16 – 20 μm wide. (Plate 4C)
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with thin sinuous walls, 82 – 170
μm long and 7 – 16 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 3 – 7.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 2. Guard cells not narrow in the
middle, subsidiary cells low dome shaped, 28 – 34.5 μm long and 14 – 20 μm wide.
Microhairs frequent, present between two long cells, rounded at the base, bicelled, basal cell
thick walled and blunt at the tip, distal cell thin walled and not prominent and tapering
towards the apex, basal cell longer than distal cell,48 – 55 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide.
Macrohairs none seen; Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies in 2 – 4 layers, dumb bell shaped, cross shaped or intermediate
between dumb bell and cross shaped, 17 – 22.5 μm long and 12.5 - 17 μm wide. Short cells
with sinuous walls,15 – 17 μm long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide. Row of long cells present
between two rows of silica bodies and short cells. Angular prickles present at the margins
with sharp pointed tip at one side,60 – 85 μm long and 12-25 μm wide (Plate 4D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and ridges. Ribs opposite to vascular bundles and
ridges opposite to bulliform cells. Abaxial surface smooth or with slight ribs and ridges.
Large vascular bundles of basic type, phloem surrounded by sclerenchyma cells. In small
vascular bundles, xylem and phloem easy to distinguish but large metaxylem vessels are
absent. Sclerenchyma depositions at the margins. Mostly all vascular bundles with adaxial
and abaxial sclerenchyma girders. In large basic type vascular bundles, the sclerenchyma
girders thick and wide. Chlorenchyma cells not radially arranged around the vascular
bundles, in the form of thick girders surrounding the vascular bundles on left and right sides,
and also horizontally under the vascular bundle. Keel not seen. Bulliform and associated
colourless cells in narrow groups and penetrating deeply into the mesophyll.Bulliform cells
appearing to project adaxially. Large vascular bundles with double sheath. Outer sheath
comprised of large cells. Small vascular bundles also with double sheath but inner sheath
not prominent. In the small vascular bundles, outer sheath complete. In large vascular
bundles it may be interrupted abaxially (Plate 4E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
_______________________________________________________________________
Results Chapter 3
2. Pharagmites karka (Retz.) Trin.ex Steud

Voucher No: 85
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon Sakesar, Kanhati Garden, Sodhi, Uchali
(Gilgit agency, Peshawar, Baltistan, Sakardo, Kashmir, Attock, Rawalpindi).
Distribution in World: Tropical Africa, Polynesia, Northern Asia and Tropical Asia.
Occurrence and Habitat: Rare along stream banks, near Uchali Lake, wet rocky places
near streams sandy clay, wet sandy soil
Flowering: October – November
Perennial reed with creeping rhizomes, or perennial rhizomatous reed; Culms 100 –
200 cm tall, erect, nodes glabrous; Leaf blades linear lanceolate, 28 – 47 cm long, glabrous
ventrally, rough dorsally, mostly scabird in the upper half on abaxial side, the tips attenuate
and stiff, narrow pointed; Ligule a fringe of hairs, 6 – 12 mm long; Inflorescence, a panicle
30 – 36 cm long, often whorled at the lower nodes, spikelets, 7 – 13 mm long; A tuft of hairs
at the base of floret; Upper glume 4.5 – 7.5 mm long, oblong lanceolate, 3 nerved, 0.9 mm
wide and membranous; Lower glume lanceolate, 1 nerved , 3 – 4 mm long, 0.8 – 0.9 mm
wide, membranous; Lower glume shorter than upper glume; Lemmas glabrous but
surrounded by long hairs of rachilla; Lower lemma empty, 7 – 11 mm long margins
inrolled,1 nerved, membranous; Upper palea 1.5 mm long, lower palea 1.8 – 1.9 mm long,
hyaline 2 keeled; stigmas 2 (two), 0.7 mm long (Plate 5A).
Pollen are circular to spherical in polar view and oblate spheroidal in equatorial
view. Polar diameter is 24.28 μm (17.5 – 27.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 24.28 μm
(20 – 27.5 μm). P/E ratio is 0.97. Pollen are monoporate or diporate and ectoporate, pore
diameter is 1 μm (0.9 μm – 1.5 μm), and exine thickness is 0.93 μm (0.75 – 1.0 μm). Pollen
fertility is 83.33%. Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 5B).
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Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with coarsely sinuous
walls, 68 – 172 μm long and 6 – 15 μm wide, interstomatal cells with concave ends. Number
of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 4 – 11. Number of stomatal rows between
two costal zone, 2 – 4. Stomatal complex: 31 – 35 μm long and 12 – 20 μm wide, subsidiary
cells low dome shaped .Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs not frequent. Hooks present,
pointed at one end.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped or rounded, 12 – 17.5 μm long and 12 – 16 μm
wide, short cells present rarely between the silica bodies. Prickles abundant in the costal
zone (Plate 5C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with coarsely sinuous walls, 72-
160.5 μm long and 5 – 15.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
zones, 4 – 14. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 3. Stomatal complex:
30 – 34.5 μm long and 10 – 18 μm wide, subsidiary cells low dome shaped or triangular in
shape. Microhairs none seen, Hooks present at the junction of two long cells, 28 – 32.5 μm
long cells. Macrohairs absent.
Costal zone: Silica bodies rounded or saddle shaped or oblong. 11- 19.5 μm long and 4 – 13
μm wide. Short cells common in costal zones over the veins. Angular prickels present at the
margins, with sharp pointed tips, 50 – 72 μm long and 10.5 – 18 μm wide (Plate 5D).
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with ribs and ridges, ribbed over the vascular bundles. Abaxial
surface with ribs and ridges. Two long macrohairs present at margins abaxially, appearing to
arise from sclerenchyma depositions at the margins. Large vascular bundle of basic type.
Large vascular bundles with small vascular bundles on each side. Chlorenchyma cells not
clearly radiating the vascular bundles, forming a girder on the left and right side of the
vascular bundles, and thin strand passing below the bulliform cells and connecting to
chlorenchyma cells of other vascular bundles. Sclerenchyma depositions at the margins.
Large vascular bundles of basic type with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders. Small
vascular bundles with small abaxial and adaxial girders or with abaxial girders and adaxial
strands, phloem sclerised abaxially. Keel not observed. Bulliform cells and associated
colourless cells in narrow groups, penetrating to mid of mesophyll. Bulliform cells
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projecting above the level of adaxial surface. Large vascular bundles with double sheath,
outer layer comprised of large cells and inner layer composed of small cells. Outer sheath
complete or interrupted abaxially. Small vascular bundles also with double sheath, but inner
layer obscure (Plate 5E & F).
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3.4. TRIBE: ARISTIDEAE
3. Aristida adscensionis Linn.

Voucher No: 68
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan : Soon Sakesar, Khewra, Kallar Kahar, Choa
Saidan Shah (Gilgit Agency, Peshawar, Mardan, Swat, Hazara, Kashmir, Muzzafar Abad,
Kohat, Rawalpindi, Murree, Attock, Jhelum, Lahore, Kalat, Hyderabad, Tharparker ).
Distribution in World: Throughout tropical Africa, introduced to the United States.
Occurrence and Habitat: Rare on the foot hills, rare in fields and on slopes, near
mountains. Common on mountains slopes, near Chambi Surla wild life sanctuary and
mountains near Sodhi, (Soon Sakesar), common in waste places, rocky habitation.
Flowering: March - November.
Annuals or perennials, culms 36 – 70 cm tall tufted, erect or geniculately ascending.

Inter node length, 6.5 – 8.6 cm long, nodes glabrous; Leaf blades scabrid on the abaxial side
and glabrous on the adaxial side, 5.5 – 20 cm long. 0.8 – 1.4 mm wide, convolute or
expanded, pointed tips, acuminate; Ligule a fringe of small white hairs, 0.2 – 0.4 mm long;
Sheath open or folded, glacuous; Panicle contracted, branches filiform, spikelets 5.3 – 9.0
mm long excluding awns, having one floret, base of floret hairy; Glumes persistent, 1
nerved, linear lanceolate, scarious; Upper Glume larger than lower glume, upper glume two
toothed at the tip, greenish at nerves, purplish, folded at margins, scarious, linear lanceolate,
8 – 8.5 mm long; Lower glume 5.6 – 6.5 mm long, 1 nerved, folded at the margins, linear
lanceolate, sometimes somewhat, red blackish; Lower glume scabird at the mid nerve,
broader than upper glume; Lemma 5 – 8 mm long excluding awns, keeled, scabrid on the
keels, having 3 awns, middle awn longer than lateral awns, lateral awn almost equal; Callus
hairy, hair length 0.3 – 0.5 mm long; Middle awn,19 – 23 cm long, lateral awns, 15 – 20 mm
long; Palea 0.6 mm long, thin; Anthers 3, thin sagitate, upto 1.9 mm long; Stigma 0.9 – 1.1
mm long, plumose; caryopsis hard, 6.5 – 7.0 mm long and narrow (Plate 6A ).
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Pollen are circular in polar view and sub prolate in equatorial view, polar diameter is
27 μm (20 – 30 μm) and equatorial diameter is 22 μm (17.5 – 25.4 μm) and P/E ratio is 1.22.
Pollen are monoporate or diporate and ectoporate. Pore diameter is 2 μm (1.5 – 2.5 μm) and
exine thickness is 1 μm (0.75 – 1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 78.75%. Sculpturing is verrucate
and verrucae are widely spaced (Plate 6B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostals long cells, with slightly sinuous
walls, 135 – 142 μm long and 7.5 – 11 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two
costal zones, 3 – 6. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zone, 1 – 2. Stomatal
complex 25 – 30 μm long and 18 – 20 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and
subsidiary cells triangular or low dome shaped. Microhairs 17.5 – 20 μm long and 5 – 6.5
μm wide. Macrohairs, none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 16.25 – 27.5 μm long and 7.5 – 8.75 μm wide.
Short cells slightly sinuous, short cells, 17.25 – 25 μm long and 4.05 – 6.25 μm wide.
Prickles, 50 – 56.25 μm long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide (Plate 6C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 85 – 137.5 μm
long and 16.25 – 17.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 6 –
16. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 3 – 4, guard cells dumb bell shaped
and subsidiary cells high dome shaped or triangular. Microhairs 10 – 12.5 μm long and 6 –
7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks present between long cells, 42.5 μm long.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 17.5 – 25 μm long and 10 -12.5 μm wide.
Short cells 12.5 – 14 μm long horizontally and vertical diameter,15 – 17.5 μm. Prickles,
45– 50 μm long and 12.5 – 20 μm wide (Plate 6D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with deep furrows and tall ribs, ribs opposite to vascular bundles.
Abaxial surface with slight ribs and ridges. Three small vascular bundles present between
two vascular bundles of basic type. Chlorenchyma cells radiating the vascular bundles.
Vascular bundles of basic type with abaxial girders and adaxial strands.Small vascular
bundles with adaxial and abaxial strands. Keel not prominent, with a solitary basic type
vascular bundle. Bulliform and associated colourless cells in fan shaped groups and deeply
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penetrating the mesophyll, forming girder like extension towards the abaxial side. All
vascular bundles with a single and complete sheath, but vascular bundles of basic type
having sheath interrupted abaxially (Plate 6E& F).
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3.5. TRIBE: CHLORIDEAE
Genus: Chloris Swartz.
Key to Species
1a. Upper lemma 2.8 – 3.0 mm long, broad ovate, 3 nerved, with awn about 7.5 mm long.
C. barbata
1b. Upper lemma very narrow, 2.4 mm long somewhat broad in the middle (bristle like),
with an awn about 2.5 mm long. C. dolicostachya
4. Chloris barbata SW.

Voucher No: 369
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Narwari, Skesar, Khewra (Karachi)
Distribution in World: Wide spread throughout the tropics.
Occurrence and Habitat: Very rare in Khewra and Sakesar mountains, on mountain
slopes, red sandy clay soil
Flowering: June – August
Plants, 34.5 cm tall including inflorescence, basal part of plant white and flattened.
Leaf blades 10.5 – 16 cm long, 1 mm wide, dentate at margins, narrow, folded; Ligule
whitish membranous (few stiff hairs present near ligule), hair length, 2mm, sheath whitish
and flattened, open and folded at the margins; Inflorescence having 2 spikes, spikes 4.5 cm
long, having spikelets alternatively arranged along rachis, spikelets 4 mm long excluding
awn, 3 awns present on the spikelet, 2 lateral awns long than the third one, lateral awns 6-7
mm long, middle awn 3.5 mm long, spikelets having 4 florets; Glumes persistent, upper
glume broader than lower glume, upper glume, 4 mm long, 1 nerved, lanceolate, thin
membranous; Lower glume 4.5 mm long, lanceolate, narrow than upper glume, 1 nerved,
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keeled; Lowest lemma 4 mm long, 3 nerved, broad ovate, length of awn, 7 mm, appearing
from outer middle surface, base and back of the floret hairy; Palea 2.8 mm long, nerved at
margins; Upper lemma, 2.8 – 3 mm long, broad ovate, having awn 7.5 mm long, 3 nerved,
awn emerging from the middle, appearing, 3 nerved, awn emerging from the middle
appearing to arise from the outer surface, outer surface hairy, its palea ovate, 1.8 – 2.0 mm
long, nerved at the margins, thin membranous, keeled; Third lemma in the middle, 3 nerved,
2 mm long, broad ovate, having awn 4.5 – 4.8 mm long, its palea 1.5 – 1.8 mm long, keeled,
nerved at margins; Fourth lemma reduced, 1 mm long, 3 nerved, awnless, its palea 1.0 mm
long, thin, keeled, or absent; Caryopsis 1.8 mm long (Plate 7A).

Pollen are circular in polar view and spheroidal to oblate spheroidal in equatorial
view. Polar diameter is 23.50 μm (22 – 25.90 μm) and equatorial diameter is 24.37 μm (17.5
– 27.5 μm). P/E ratio is 0.95. Pollen are monoporate and ectoporate. Pore diameter is 1.40
μm (1 – 2 μm) and exine thickness is 0.75 μm (0.65 – 0.95 μm). Pollen fertility is 53.84 %.
Sculpturing is verrucate and verrucae are narrowly spaced (Plate 7B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 45 – 51.25 μm
long and 10 – 11.25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 6 –
7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1- 2. Stomatal complex, 20 – 22 μm
long and 14 – 15 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, 2.5 μm wide, subsidiary cells
triangular 6.25 μm wide. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell shorter than basal cell and
hemispherical, 17.5 – 17.25 μm long and 11.25 – 15 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks
none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 11.25 – 12.5 μm wide horizentally and 12.5 –
13.25 μm wide vertically, 2 – 3 layers of silica bodies. Short cells cross shaped, 12.5 – 13.25
μm wide horizontally and 13.25 – 13.25 μm wide vertically. Prickles none seen (Plate 7C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 42.5 – 53.25
μm long and 8.75 – 8.80 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones,
5 – 8. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1-2. Stomatal complex, 15 –
16.25 μm long and 10 – 11.25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, 2.5 μm wide,
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subsidiary cells triangular, 3.75 μm wide. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen.
Hooks 35 – 37.5 μm long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies, saddle shaped, 8.75 – 10 μm wide horizontally and 11.25 –
11.25 μm wide vertically. Short cells with sinuous walls, 10 – 17.5 μm long and 6.25 – 10
μm wide. Prickles 18 – 20 μm long and 5 – 6.25 μm wide (Plate 7D).
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface smooth with slight ribs and furrows near the margins, pointed
prickles frequent on the adxial side. Abaxial surface almost smooth, a few pointed prickles
present. Four to five small vascular bundles between two large vascular bundles of basic
type, mostly vascular bundles small. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around the
vascular bundles.Vascular bundles in the keel region with abaxial girders, the median
vascular bundle with wide sclerenchyma girder. Other vascular bundles with adaxial and
abaxial sclerenchyma girders. Keel very conspicuous and rounded, containing one large
median vascular bundle and one small vascular bundle on each side. Major part of the mid
rib covered by colourless cells, somewhat angular in outline. Bulliform and associated
colourless cells in fan shaped groups, deeply penetrating into the mesophyll. Vascular
bundles with single or double sheath, large vascular bundles with inner complete sheath,
composed of small cells, and outer sheath composed of large cells interrupted adaxially and
abaxially (Plate 7 E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
5. Chloris dolicostachya Lag.

Voucher No: 330
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Narwari, Sakesar Mountains (Rawalpindi).
Distribution in World: China to South East Asia and Northern Australia
Occurrence and Habitat: Rare on rocky mountains of Sakesar, sandy clay soil.
Flowering: June - August
Perennial herbs, plant height upto 80 cm, geniculately ascending, rooting at the
lower nodes, internode length 5 – 13.5 cm long; Leaf blades upto 38.5 cm long, 5.5 mm
wide, flat, narrow linear, scattered on the margins, glabrous on the surface, with sparsly
white hairs; Ligule hairy, sheath glabrous, mouth of the sheath hairy, basal sheaths
compressed; Inflorescence sub digitate, having 3 – 5 recemes, raceme length 8 – 17 cm
long, spikelets 5.5 – 5.7 mm long, laterally compressed, rachis scabrid; Lower glume 2.8
mm long, about half of the length of spikelet, hyaline, 1 nerved, scabrid on the nerves, linear
lanceolate; Upper glume as long as the spikelet, 1 nerved, hyaline, scabrid on the nerve,
shortly awned; Lower lemma 4.6 mm long excluding awn; Awn length 6.5 mm, awn
scabrid, 3 nerved, mid nerve extending into awn, oblong lanceolate when flattened,
membranous; Upper lemma, 2.4 mm long excluding awn, awn length 2.5mm; Upper lemma
very narrow, somewhat broad in the middle (briskle like); Lower palea little shorter than its
lemma, 4.3 mm long, having no awn; Anthers 1 mm long, yellow, stigma 0.8 – 0.9 mm
long, blackish; Callus hairy (Plate 8A).
view. Polar diameter is 21.89 μm (20 – 25 μm) and equatorial diameter is 23.18 μm (20 –
27.5 μm). P/E ratio is 0.94. Pollen are monoporate and ectoporate. Pore diameter is 1.5 μm
(1.0-2.0 μm) and exine thickness is 0.89 μm (0.75 – 1.0 μm). Pollen fertility is 84.16 %.
Sculpturing is verrucate (Plate 8B).
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Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin sinuous walls, 60 – 65 μm
long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 5 – 9.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 3. Stomatal complex 15.25 – 20 μm
long and 15.25 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells triangular to
high dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell shorter than basal cell, distal cell
hemispherical and with rounded apices, basal cell with rounded base, 21.25 - 23.75 μm long
and 7.5- 8.75 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 12.5 - 20 μm long and 11.25 – 15 μm wide. Short
cells with sinuous walls, 22.5 - 25 μm long and 12.5 – 13.25 μm wide. Prickles 31.25 –
41.25 μm long and 12.5 – 18.75 μm wide (Plate 8C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 32.5 – 55 μm
long, 6.25 – 10 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 5 – 7.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1- 2. Stomatal complex, 15 – 17.5 μm
long and 12.5 – 13.75 μm wide. Microhairs bicelled, both cells almost equal or distal cell
shorter than basal cell, distal cell hemispherical. Macrohairs none seen, hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 7.5 – 8.0 μm wide horizontally and 11 – 12.25 μm
wide vertically. Short cells 12.5 – 16.25 μm long and 8.75 – 10 μm wide. Prickles 25 – 30
μm long and 8.75 – 10 μm wide (Plate 8D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface smooth, abaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows. Some of the
small vascular bundles with xylem and phloem not easily distinguished. Mostly small
vascular bundles angular in outline, a few large vascular bundles of basic type. Small
vascular bundles with no sclerenchyma strands or girders or adaxial strands only. Large
vascular bundles with wide adaxial and abaxial girders. Keel conspicuous and containing
one large median vascular bundle. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around vascular
bundles. Bulliform and associated colourless cells in fan shaped groups and middle cell
larger and deeply penetrating into the mesophyll. Bundle sheaths single and double, each
small vascular bundle surrounded by a single complete sheath, and large vascular bundles
with inner complete sheath and outer sheath interrupted abaxially (Plate 8E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
6. Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers.

Voucher No: 17
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Throughout the area, common, (Peshawar,
Chitral Hazara, Rawalpindi, Murree hills, Quetta, Karachi, Tharparker.
Distribution in World: Tropical and warm temperate regions, throughout the world.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common, present throughout the area, clay, sandy clay, stony
soil
Flowering: Mostly March – November. All year around.
A rhizomatous stoloniferous often with spiny suckers, perennial grass, rooting at

nodes; Culms slender, 20 – 32 cm tall; Leaf blades, flat, linear, lanceolate, distichous, acute,
narrow pointed at the tip, 3.2 – 8.5 cm long, 1.5 – 1.7 mm wide, auriculate; Ligule a short
ciliolate rim, 0.2 – 0.3 mm long; Sheath slightly membranous at margins, hairy at tip, 0.4 – 1
mm long; Inflorescence digitate, having 4 – 5 spikes, inflorescence at the tip of culm, soft
hairy whorl at the base of inflorencence; Spikes somewhat curved, spikes 2 – 4.7 cm long,
spikelets on one side of rachis, having one floret, slightly purplish, 1.9 – 2.3 mm long,
sessile, oblong; Glumes unequal, upper glume,1.3 – 1.8 mm long, 1 nerved, lanceolate,
lower glume 1 – 1.5 mm long, 1 nerved, lanceolate; Lemma 1.8 – 2.0 mm long, 3 nerved,
keeled, ovate, oblong ovate in side view, hairy on the keel; Palea equal to lemma in length, 2
keeled, slightly scabrid on the keel, sometimes purplish, boat shaped; Anthers 0.9 – 1 mm
long, style 0.2 – 0.4 mm; Caryopsis oblong (Plate 9A).
Pollen are circular in polar view and spheroidal to sub prolate in equatorial view.
Polar diameter is 22.5 μm (15 – 22.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 19.54 μm (15 – 22.5
μm). P/E ratio is 1.15 and pollen are monoporate or diporate and ectoporate or endoporate.
Pore diameter is 1.65 μm (1.25 – 2.0 μm). Pollen fertility is 79.68 %. Sculpturing is
verrucate and verrucae are narrowly spaced (Plate 9B).
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Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin sinuous walls,
39.5 – 52.5 μm long and 10 – 15 μm wide, interstomatal cells with, deeply sinuous walls
and with concave ends. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 6 – 10.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 3. Stomatal complex, 15 – 16.25
μm long and 11.25 – 12.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cell low to
high dome shaped. Microhairs none seen, macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 7 – 7.5 μm horizontally and vertical diameter 10 -
11.25 μm. Short cells having sinuous walls, 15 – 17.5 μm long and 6.25 – 10 μm wide.
Rounded bodies (cork cells) present between the short cells and silica bodies, 7.5 – 10 μm
long and 6.5 – 7.5 μm wide. Prickles pointed at the tip, 40 – 42.5 μm long and 10 – 13 μm
wide (Plate 9C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells having thin sinuous walls, 22.5 –
37.5 μm long and 7.5 – 10 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells, triangular or high dome shaped, 23.75 – 25
μm long and 12.5 – 17.5 μm wide. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks
none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 1 – 3 layers of silica bodies, 6.25 – 10 μm long
and 6.25 – 7.5 μm wide. Short cells with sinuous walls, 16 – 18.75 μm long and 8 – 10 μm
wide. Rounded bodies or cork cells present between silica bodies and short cells, 6.25 – 8.75
μm long and 6.25 – 8.75 wide. Prickles 12.5 - 20 μm long and 6.25 – 7.5 μm wide (Plate
9D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows, abaxial surface also with slight ribs and
furrows. Large vascular bundles with large metaxylem vessels, phloem also visible. Large
vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial girders. Sclerenchyma deposition at the margins,
small vascular bundles with sclerenchyma strands. Bulliform cells deeply penetrating into
the mesophyll, the middle cell larger and covering most part of the mesophyll. Large
vascular bundles with double sheath. Inner sheath complete, outer sheath interrupted
adaxially and abaxially (Plate 9E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
Genus: Tetrapogon Desf
Key to Species
1a. An annual short lived perennial, inflorescence spatheolate, caryopsis oval, elliptic
and 1.3 mm long. T. cenchriformis
1b. A densly tufted perennial grass, inflorescence composed of 2 – 3 villous spikes that
are closely stacked together and make the inflorescence cylindrical, caryopsis trigonous
and 0.5 mm long. T. villosus
7. Tetrapogen cenchriformis (A.Rich.) Clayton

Voucher No: 268
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Khewra, Kalar Kahar (not recorded from other
localities of Pakistan).
Distribution in World: Tropical Africa, East Wards to India and South Wards to Rhodesia
& Angola.
Occurrence and Habitat: Rare on Mountains, sandy clay soil.
Flowering: March - September
An annual or short lived perennial, tufted grass, upto 40 cm long. Leaf blades 5 -16
cm long, 1.9 – 2.0 mm wide, narrow pointed, flat or folded; Ligule a lacerate membranous,
0.5 mm long; Sheath whitish at the margins, sheath of basal leaves strongly keeled,
(flabellate) shiny, glabrous; Inflorescence spatheolate, two spikes merged together, and
appear as one spike, rachis persistent, spikes 4 – 7.5 cm long, villous, spikelet 3 mm long
having 5 awns, in the two rows on the rachis, spikelets having 5 florets, 2 fertile and 3
sterile; Glumes persistent, upper glume 3.6 mm long, 0.9 mm wide, 1 nerved, hyaline, blunt
(obtuse) with a short awn point, about 0.3 – 0.4 mm long, lower glume 2.8 – 2.9 mm long,
0.5 – 0.6 mm wide, 1 nerved, lanceolate, hyaline; The lemmas of the lateral or lower florets
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2.5 – 3.0 mm long, with subapical awn, 11 – 11.5 mm long, dense hairy on the back,
coriacious, 3 nerved, nerves greenish, obtuse, blunt at the tip; Palea 2.2 – 2.6 mm long, little
shorter than or almost equal to lemma, soft hairy at margins; The lemmas of the upper or
middle florets, 1 – 1.6 mm long, clavate when unopened, 3 nerved, a few cilia on the back
of 3rd floret, the top floret in the mid, short and their lemmas glabrous at the back; The lower
or lateral florets fertile; Anthers sagitate, 0.5 mm long, pale whitish, filament 0.5 – 0.6 mm
long; Caryopsis 1.3 mm long, 0.6 mm wide, light brown, oval elliptic (Plate 10A).
diameter is 24.37 μm (20-30 μm) and equatorial diameter is 23.5 µm (20 – 27.5µm). P/E
ratio is 1.03. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.7 μm (2.5 – 3.5 μm)
and exine thickness is 0.95 μm (0.75 – 1.0 μm). Pollen fertility is 89.18%. Sculpturing is
verrucate and verrucae are narrowly spaced (Plate 10B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with irregular sinuous walls and
31.5 – 55 μm long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
zones, 4 – 8. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2. Stomatal complex, 20 –
27.5 μm long and 20 – 22.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, 5 μm wide, subsidiary
cells high dome shaped, 6.25 μm wide. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks
none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped and dumb bell shaped. Saddle shaped silica
bodies, 9 – 10 μm wide horizontally and vertical diameter 10 – 11.25 μm wide. Dumb bell
shaped silica bodies, 15 – 17.5 μm long and 7.5 – 8.75 μm wide. Long cells with sinuous
walls, present over the veins with silica bodies, 36.25 – 37.5 μm long and 8.75 – 9.37 μm
wide. Angular prickles present at the margins, 32 – 35 μm long and 8 – 10 μm wide (Plate
10C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 37.5 – 72.5 μm
7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 3. Stomatal complex, 18.75 –
19.37 μm long and 16.25 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, 5 μm wide and
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subsidiary cells high dome shaped, 6.25 μm wide. Microhairs bicelled, basal and distal cells
almost equal, distal cell rounded at the tip, basal cell having a rounded structure, 22.5 –
26.75 μm long and 12.5 μm wide. Macrohairs rounded at the base, 8.0 – 15 μm long and 7.5
– 12.5 μm wide. Hooks present at the junction of two long cells, with pointed tips, 30 μm
long and 12.5 – 13.5 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 8.5 - 10 μm wide horizontally and 13.75 - 15 μm
wide vertically. Short cells with sinuous walls, 10 – 11.25 μm long and 8.75 – 10 μm wide.
Prickles abundantly present in the costal zone, 41 – 42.5 μm long and 12 – 16.25 μm wide
(Plate 10D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface smooth, with macrohairs, deeply sunken into the epidermal cells. Abaxial
surface with slight ribs, with no marcohairs. Two small vascular bundles present between
two large vascular bundles of basic type. Three small vascular bundles present on the
margins.Vascular bundles in the keel region with abaxial girder, and two adaxial
sclerenchyma strands on the adaxial surface in the keel region. Other vascular bundles with
sclerenchyma girders adaxially and abaxially. The abaxial girders wider, thick and
prominent. Keel very conspicuous and V. shaped, with a large median vascular bundle, with
two small vascular bundles on each side. The mid rib region having colourless cells,
extending from bundle sheath to the adaxial surface. Chlorenchyma cells clearly radiating
the bundle sheath cells. Bulliform and associated colourless cells, in fan shaped groups,
deeply penetrating into the mesophyll. Bulliform cells making connection to the abaxial side
between some vascular bundles. In the mid rib region colourless cells present starting from
bundle sheath to the adaxial side. Large vascular bundles with double sheath. Median large
vascular bundle in the keel region with complete inner sheath, but outer sheath interrupted
adaxially by colourless cells and abaxially by sclerenchyma girders. Small vascular bundles
with a single complete sheath (Plate 10E & F).
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8. Tetrapogon Villosus Desf.

Voucher No: 32
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Khewra, Sakesar, Khabaki, Narwari, Choa
Saidan Shah, and Kallar Kahar (Chitral Distt, Swat, Rawalpindi, Sargodha, Karachi Distt
and Dadu Distt)
Distribution in World: Tropical Africa, East wards to India and West wards to North
Africa.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on mountains, slopes of Soon Sakesar, near Kallar
Kahar and Khewra.
Flowering: March – September
A densely tufted perennial grass upto 65 cm tall, whitish and flattened at the base;
Leaf blades 2.5 – 22 cm long, 1.5 – 1.9 mm wide, narrow, pointed, dentate on margins,
sometimes hairy at the base, flat or involute, mostly leaves arising at the base, a few small
sized leaves on the upper culm; Ligule a lacerate membranous, 2.25 – 0.5 mm long; Sheath
strongly keeled at the base of the culm, membranous at the margins, coriacious and
glacuous; Inflorescence composed of 2 – 3 villous spikes that are closely sticked together
and make the inflorescence cylindrical; Inflorescence at the tip of the culm, villous, 4 – 5.5
cm long; the spikes sticked together and rarely separate at maturity; In each spike spikelets
arranged in two rows; Spikes exserted or sometimes partly enclosed at the base by
uppermost leaf sheath, pale or purplish grey, spikelets 1.6 – 2.8 mm long (excluding awns),
dense hairy; Callus hairy, spikelet having 4 – 5 florets, lateral florets hairy, middle florets
glabrous; Glumes persistent, upper glume larger than lower glume, upper glume 3 – 4 mm
long, 0.5 – 0.7 mm wide, hyaline,1 nerved, the nerve extending into a short awn, that is 0.5
– 0.8 mm long, blunt, obtuse before awn, scabrid on the mid nerve; Lower glume 1.5 – 3.3
mm long, 0.2 – 0.3 mm wide,1 nerved, lanceolate, membranous, mid nerve extended into a
pointed tip, scabrid on the mid nerve; Lemma of lateral florets, 2 – 3 mm long, 2 mm wide,
3 – 4 nerved, hairy on the back side, broad ovate, coriacious, having subapical awn, awn
length 8 mm; Palea of lateral floret, equal in length or little shorter to its lemma, short
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ciliated at the margins, 2 keeled, membranous; The middle florets, clavate, coriacious, few
cilia on the mid nerve; Lemma 1 – 1.2 mm long, having awn 4.0 – 7.5 mm long. The
middle florets shorter than the lateral florets; Anthers 0.4 – 0.5 mm long, stigma, 0.8 – 0.9
mm long; Caryopsis trigonous, 0.5 mm long, light brown (Plate 11A).
Pollen are circular in polar view and oblate spheroidal in equatorial view. Polar
diameter is 24.16 μm (22.5 – 27.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 24.77 μm (22.5 – 30 μm).
P/E ratio is 0.97. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 1.5 μm (1.2 – 1.7
μm) and exine thickness is 0.93 μm (0.75 – 1.0 μm). Pollen fertility is 80 %. Sculpturing is
rugulate and rugulae are widely spaced (Plate 11B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cell with sinuous walls, 42.5 – 92.5 μm
3. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1. Stomatal complex, 17.5 – 18.75
μm long and 15µm – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells high
dome shaped. Guard cells 3.75 – 7.5 μm wide and subsidiary cells 6.25 – 7.5 μm wide.
Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 12.5 – 13.75 μm long and 7 – 8.75 μm wide.
Number of rows of silica bodies, 1 – 4. Short cells with sinuous walls, 20 – 27.5 μm long
and 7.5 – 11.25 μm wide. Silica bodies and short cells arranged in a row. Angular prickles at
the margins of costal zone obliquely projected into pointed tip 87.5- 95 μm long and 17.5 –
20 μm wide (Plate 11C).
long and 12.5 – 16.25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 4 –
5. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones,1. Stomatal complex, 20-22 μm long
and 15-16.25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells high dome shaped.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 12.5 – 13.75 μm long horizontally and 10 – 16.25
μm wide vertically. Short cells with sinuous walls, 25 – 27.5 μm long and 7 – 8.75 μm wide.
Prickles present (Plate 11D).
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T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface almost flat with no distinct ribs and ridges, marcohairs present.
Abaxial surface smooth. Large vascular bundles, of basic type with protoxylem in the
middle and two metaxylem vessels on the side. Mostly vascular bundles are small, 2 – 3
small vascular bundles present between two large vascular bundles. The vascular bundles
with abaxial and adaxial sclerenchyma girders. The vascular bundles present in the keel
region with only abaxial sclerenchyma girders. Keel conspicuous and V. shaped having
median vascular bundle of basic type, and 3 small vascular bundles on each side.
Chlorenchyma cells clearly radiating around the bundle sheath cells, pressed by large
bulliform cells. Bulliform and associated colourless cells in fan shaped groups. Bulliform
cells deeply penetrating into the mesophyll, passing between some vascular bundles and
extending towards, the abaxial epidermis. The mid rib region with colourless cells extending
from bundle sheath to the adaxial side. These colourless cells angular in outline. Large
vascular bundles with double sheath, the inner sheath complete, but outer sheath interrupted
adaxially and abaxially. Small vascular bundles with a single complete sheath
(Plate 11E & F).
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3.6. TRIBE: ERAGROSTIDEAE
9. Acrachne racemosa Heyne Ex Roem & Schult) Ohwi

Voucher No: 38
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Khabaki, Mardwal, Sodhi, (Soon Sakesar)
Kallar Kahar, Dhok Seela, Chakwal, Khewra (Haripur, Mardan, Rawalpindi, Jhelum Distt,
Rawalpindi Distt.).
Distribution in World: Tropical Africa, South East Asia & Australia.
Occurance and Habitat: Very rare on mountains, common in wet places, and lawns, during
rainy season.
Annual, culms 19 – 55 cm tall, erect or geniculately ascending; Leaf blades 8.6 –

17.5 cm long, 3.0 – 10 mm wide, linear lanceolate, sometimes hirsute on adaxial side and on
margins, dentate on margins, acuminate at apex; Ligule a lacerate membranous, 1 – 2 mm
long, sheath glabrous, somewhat whitish membranous at the margins; Inflorescence
composed of 3 – 12 spikes, secund, present with gap on the rachis, 6.5 – 10.5 cm long, 1 or
2 spikes present below the cluster spikelets, 3.7 – 6.7 mm long, oblong, laterally compressed
and serrate in outline; Upper glume 2 – 2.7 mm long, including awns; Awn length, 0.9 – 1.0
mm, scabrid, 1 nerved, keeled, scabrid on the keel, membranous; Lower glume, keeled,1
nerved, scabrid on the keel, mucronate, with a short mucro, membranous; Lemmas 2.6 – 3.2
mm long, including awn point, awn length 0.6 mm, 3 nerved, coriacious, lateral nerves
excurrent, lanceolate when folded, narrow ovate when unfolded; Palea hyaline 1.5 – 1.8 mm
long, 2 keeled, scabrid on the keels, persistent and remains attached with rachilla; Anthers 3,
very small, 0.05-0.15 mm long, whitish; filament 0.1 mm long, stigma reddish, 0.4 – 0.5
mm long, plumose; Florets bisexal; Caryopsis, 0.4 – 0.6 mm long, ruguose, reddish black,
salcate; Seeds formed in the lower florets, while in the top florets only flowers are present
(Plate 12A ).
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diameter is 20.89 μm (17.5 – 25 μm), and equatorial diameter is 20.75 μm (20 – 22.5 μm).
P/E ratio is 1.0. Pollen are endoporate. Pore diameter is 2 μm (1.8 – 2.2 μm) and exine
thickness is 1.20 μm (1.0 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 85.26 %. Sculpturing is scabrate and
scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 12B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin sinuous walls, 50
– 82.5 μm long and 10 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
zones, 4 – 8. Number of Stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 4. Stomatal complex:
guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells very low dome shaped. Microhairs none seen.
Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped or cross shaped, 15 – 12.5 μm long and 7.5 –
10 μm wide, 1 – 6 layers of silica bodies. Short cells 20 – 25 μm long and 5 – 10 μm wide.
Rounded cells present between silica bodies and short cells, these may be cork cells 10 –
17.5 μm long and 7.5 – 15 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 12C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 40- 52.5 μm
long and 15 – 27.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells, between two costal zones, 3 – 6.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 3. Stomatal complex: 15 – 20 μm
long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none
seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped or cross shaped, 2 – 5 rows of silica bodies.
Short cells 20 – 27.5 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide, cork cells or rounded cells 10 – 12.5 μm
long and 7.5 – 12.5 μm wide. Prickles 45 – 55 μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide (Plate 12D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial and abaxial surface smooth and with no ridges. Mostly vascular bundles small,
large vascular bundles of basic type. Small vascular bundles with thin sclerenchyma strands,
adaxially and abaxially. Large vascular bundles with prominent abaxial and adaxial
sclerenchyma strands. Keel conspicuous, narrow and rounded, having a solitary vascular
bundle in the middle, accompanied by two small vascular bundles on the sides of basic type
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vascular bundles. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around vascular bundles. Bulliform
and associated colourless cells in fan shaped groups penetrating into the mesophyll. The
middle cell larger than the lateral cells. In the mid rib region large number of colourless cells
angular in outline, extending from bundle sheath to the adaxial side. Small vascular bundles
with a single incomplete sheath, interrupted by large colourless cells, abaxially and
adaxially. Large vascular bundles with a double sheath, the inner sheath complete and outer
sheath interrupted abaxially (Plate 12E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
Genus: Dactyloctinium willd.
Key to species:
1a. Annuals, inflorescence of usually 2 – 6 digitate secund spikes, 2.2 – 4.0 cm long,
anthers 0.2-0.5 mm long. D. aegyptium
1b. Stoloniferous perennial, inflorescence of usually 4-5 digitate, secund and short
falcate spikes, 0.5-1.2 cm long, anthers 1 – 1.3 mm long. D. scindicum
10. Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) Willd.

Voucher No: 69
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon Sakesar, Choa Saidan Shah, Dhok Seela,
Kallar Kahar, Khewra (Kashmir, Hazara, Swat, Rawalpindi, Jhelum on Khewra Road,
Multan, Karachi, Karachi University Sukkar, Thar Parker )
Distribution in World: Widely distributed in tropical and warm temperate regions of the
Old World.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common in cultivated fields, shady places, wet lands.
Flowering: July - October
Annual, culm 31 – 55 cm long; Internode length 3.5 – 12 cm long; Leaf blades 3 –

17.5 cm long , 3 – 4.5 mm wide, hispid near the margins and on the adaxial side, flat, linear
lanceolate; Ligule membranous or ciliated fringe, 0.5 – 1 mm long; sheath open and folded
at margins; Inflorescence of usually 2 – 6 digitate, secund spikes, each 2.2 – 4.0 cm long
having several spikelets; The spike terminating in a pointed extension of the flattened rachis,
spikelets 2 – 4.0 mm long, disarticulating above the glumes, having 3 florets, laterally
compressed; Glumes subequal, lower glume slightly shorter than upper glume; Upper glume
elliptic to obvate, 2 – 2.5 mm long, including awn, 1 nerved, keeled, scabrid on the keel,
keel extended into a short scabred awn, awn length 0.5 – 1.0 mm long; Lower glume 1.8 –
2.5 mm long, 1 nerved, keeled, thin membranous, scabrid on the keels, somewhat
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lanceolate, when folded; Lemmas 2.1 – 3 mm long , keeled, with a cusp, 3 nerved, mid
nerve prominent, lateral nerves not prominent, mid nerve extending into a cusp (0.2 – 0.7
mm long), somewhat lanceolate when folded, somewhat oval in shape when unfolded,
cuspidate to mucronate; Palea thin membranous, hyaline, keeled, bifid at the tip, keel
winged; Anthers 0.2 – 0.5 mm long, stigma plumose up to 0.8 mm long; caryopsis rugose
transverely ridged, loosely enclosed in a thin paricarp, 0.4 – 1.6 mm long, obtriangular in
profile (Plate 13A ).
view. Polar diameter is 31.52 μm (27.2 – 32.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 32.25 μm
(28.5 - 34 μm). P/E ratio is 0.97. Pollen are endoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is
2.5 μm (2.0 – 3.5 μm) and exine thickness is 1.35 μm (1.25 – 2.0 μm). Pollen fertility is
67.79%. Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate13B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous walls,
62.5 – 120 μm long and 8.75 - 12 μm wide, rounded papillae abundent on the long cells.
Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 4 – 8. Number of stomatal rows
between two costal zones, 2 – 3. Stomatal complex: 19 – 22 μm long and 11 – 16 μm wide,
guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells low dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, both
cells almost equal or distal cell longer than the basal cell, both cells short and broad,
sometimes distal cell broader than basal cell, 22.5 – 27.5 μm long and 11.25 – 13.75 μm
wide. Macrohairs none seen, Hooks none seen (Plate 13C).
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 10 – 12.5 μm long and 7.5 - 8.75 μm wide. Short
cells with slightly sinuous walls, 17.5 – 25 μm long and 6 – 7.5 μm wide. Prickles none
seen.
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with slight sinuous walls, 82.5 –
105 μm long and 11.25 – 12.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells, between two costal
20 – 21.25 μm long and 11.25 – 15 μm wide, guard cells 2.5 – 3.75 μm wide and subsidiary
cells 5 – 6.25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells low dome shaped.
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Microhairs bicelled, both cells almost equal, 17.5 – 20 μm long and 11.25 – 13.75 μm wide,
almost spherical in shape. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 10 – 12.5 μm long horizontally and vertical
diameter is 11.25 – 12.5 μm. Short cells, 8.75 – 10 μm wide and 21.25 – 22.5 μm long.
Prickles none seen (Plate 13D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface flat, glandular structures present on the abaxial side, protruding from
the abaxial epidermis. Three to four small vascular bundles present between two large
vascular bundles.Phloem of of the vascular bundles less or more sclerised.Vascular bundles
with sclerenchyma girder on the abaxial side. Mostly vascular bundles with adaxial
sclerenchyma strands. Keel rounded, conspicuous, having a large vascular bundle of basic
type in the middle, accompanied by 3 small vascular bundles on each side. Chlorenchyma
cells radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Bulliform and associated colourless
cells in fan shaped groups, penetrating deeply into the mesophyll. Bulliform cells not
present at the margins. In the mid rib region, large number of colourless cells, slightly
angular in outline, extending from bundle sheath to adaxial surface. Large vascular bundles
with double sheath, the outer sheath winged, sheaths complete or interrupted on the adaxial
side due to colourless cells. In small vascular bundles it is not clear, that there is single or
double sheath, however the outer sheath is winged. The inner sheath, if present not
prominent (Plate 13E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
11. Dactyloctenium scindicum Boiss.

Voucher No: 368
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Khewra and Sakesar mountains (Bannu, Kohat,
Attock, Dhok Pattan, Jhelum, Khewra, Quetta, Sibi, D.G.Khan, Karachi, Tharparker.)
Distribution in World: Kenya, North to Sudan, and East wards to North West India.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on mountain slopes. Sandy clay soil.
Flowering: July - September
A stoloniferous, perennial grass, forming extensive spreading mats, rooting at the

nodes, culms 22- 36 cm long, erect, internode length, 5.8 – 10.0 cm long; Leaf blades 3 – 6
cm long,1.3 – 1.5 mm wide, pappilose hispid on the both sides, and on the margins (hair
length, 1 – 2.5 mm wide); Ligule membranous, 0.2 – 0.5 mm long, sheath membranous at
the margins, sometimes stiff bristles present on the upper side; Inflorescence of 4 – 5,
digitate, short, 0.5 – 1.2cm long, falcate (sickle shaped ) spikes, disarticulating from the top
of the culm at maturity; Spikes secund, pointed at the tip, rachis extended into tip, spikelet
3– 3.2 mm long, 3 – 9 flowered; Glumes subequal or upper glume slightly larger than lower
glume; Upper glume ovoid, elliptic, 1 – 2 mm long, keeled, the keel of the upper glume
extended into scabrid awn (awn length 0.6 – 0.9 mm long); Lower glume 0.8 – 1.5 mm long,
0.5 mm wide, keeled, scabrid on the keel; Lemmas 3 nerved, with a short mucro, lateral
nerves obscure, keeled, scabrid on the keel, 2.5 mm long, 1.5 mm wide, hyaline, broad
ovate, translucent; paleas with 2 lateral keels, keels scabrid, membranous, somewhat
mucronate, Anthers 3, digitate, 1 – 1.3 mm long, 0.2 – 0.3 mm wide; Caryopsis, upto 1 mm
long, transversely rugose (Plate 14A ) .
diameter is 29.79 μm (27.5 – 32.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 30 μm (22.5 – 37.5 μm).
P/E ratio is 0.99. Pollen are endoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.4 μm (2 – 3 μm)
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and exine thickness is 1.3 μm (1.0 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 96.36 %. Sculpturing is
rugulate and rugulae are widely spaced (Plate 14B).
Leaf epidermal anatomy
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous walls, 58.5 -
115µm long and 7.5- 12.7µm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones
5-7. Number of Stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2-4. Stomatal complex, 18-22.5
µm long and 10.5-15.75µm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells triangular
or high dome shaped. Microhairs, macrohairs and hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 11.5 – 12.5 μm long and 8.75 – 10 μm wide, 2 – 3
layers of silica bodies in costal zone. Short cells with sinuous walls, 20 – 25 μm long and
6 - 8.75 μm wide (Plate 14C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with non sinuous or slightly
sinuous walls near the costal zone, 40- 90.5 µm long and 8-11.5 µm wide. Number of rows
of long cells, between two costal zones, 4-8. Number of stomatal rows between two costal
zones,1-2. Stomatal complex: 17.5-24 µm long and 9-13.5 µm wide. Microhairs, macrohairs
not seen, hooks not seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped or cross shaped in a single or two rows, 9-12 µm
long and 7-9.75 µm wide. Short cells with sinuous walls, 19.5-22.5 µm long and 7-10.5 µm
wide, prickles not seen (Plate 14D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows, abaxial surface flat. Mostly vascular
bundles with adaxial sclerenchyma strands. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around the
vascular bundles. Keel conspicuous and rounded with single median vascular bundle, having
2 – 3 small vascular bundles on each side. Bulliform and associated colourless cells in fan
shaped groups. Large vascular bundles, with double sheath, complete or interrupted on the
adaxial side, due to colourless cells. In small vascular bundles the inner sheath not
prominent (Plate 14E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
12. Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.) Stapf.

Voucher No: 40
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar, Soon Sakesar, Dhok Seela,
Chakwal (Peshawar, Swat, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Kashmir, Quetta, Karachi, Thatta,
Hyderabad, Tharparker).
Distribution in World: Throughout the middle East to India, China, North and Tropical
Africa.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common in warm places, near fields, along road side, rare on
mountains slopes.
Flowering: June – October
A robust, coarse perennial grass, upto more than 1 meter tall, culms stout, scaly
rhizomes, and forming large swards; Inter node length 5.8 – 10 cm long; Leaf blades 12 –
72 cm long, 4 – 7 mm wide, stiff and hard, linear, convolute or flat, acute; Ligule lacerate
membranous, 0.7 – 0.8 mm long; Sheath coriacious, glabrous; Inflorescence, a strict, narrow
erect panicle of densely clustered or spaced ascending or spreading spikes; Spikes secund,
falling entire, 0.5 – 2 cm long, spikelets 2.5 – 3.5 mm long, laterally compressed, narrowly
ovate to linear oblong, having 4 – 3 florets; Upper glume larger than lower glume, upper
glume, 0.7 – 1.4 mm long, keeled, 1 nerved, scabird on the keel, somewhat coriacious,
lanceolate, membranous, 0.7 mm wide, when unfolded; Lower glume 0.4 – 0.6 mm long, 1
nerved, membranous, lanceolate; Lemmas, 1.4 – 1.7 mm long, coriacious, glabrous, 3
nerved, keeled, lateral nerves not extended throughout the lemma, lanceolate when folded;
Palea, 1.3 – 1.5 mm long, 2 keeled, scabrid on the keel, hyaline, membranous; Anthers 0.6 –
0.8 mm long, stigma whitish, 0.3 – 0.4 mm long, style 0.3 mm long; Caryopsis obliquely
ovoid, compressed (Plate 15A ).
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Pollen are circular in polar view and spheroidal to prolate spheroidal in equatorial
view. Polar diameter is 19.73 μm (15 – 30 μm) and equatorial diameter is 18.4 μm (15 – 25
μm), P/E ratio is 1.07. Pollen are monoporate and endoporate. Pore diameter is 1.2 μm (1.0
– 1.4 μm) and exine thickness is 1.12 μm (1.0 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 80.09 %.
Sculpturing is verrucate and verrucae are widely spaced (Plate 15B).
Leaf epidermal anatomy

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 40 – 70 μm
long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide, short cells and long cells in a row, short cells 15 – 16.25 μm
long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 6 – 9.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 3. Stomatal complex, 22-25 μm
long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells low dome
shaped or triangular in shape, guard cells, 4 – 5 μm wide and subsidiary cells, 5 - 6.25 μm
wide. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell shorter than basal cell, 37.5 – 40 μm long and 7.5 –
8.75 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 10 – 12 μm wide, horizontally, and vertical
diameter 10- 15 μm, 2 – 5 layers of silica bodies. Short cells with sinuous walls, 12.5 – 22.5
μm long and 8.75 – 11.25 μm wide. Prickles 105 – 125 μm long and 22-25 μm wide (Plate
15 C).
10. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones,1-3. Microhairs none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 10 – 11.25 μm wide, horizontally and vertical
diameter is 12.5 – 13.75 μm. Short cells and long cells with slightly sinuous walls, 17.5 – 25
μm long and 10 – 11.25 μm wide. Prickles 30 – 43.75 μm long and 10 – 11.25 μm wide
(Plate15 D).
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T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with wide ribs separated by short furrows. Prickles present on the
adaxial side between two ribs. Abaxial surface not flattened but ribs are not prominent as on
adaxial side. Large vascular bundles of basic type, vascular bundle and phloem highly
sclerised.Vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial girders or with thick sclerenchyma
strands on adaxial side and abaxial girders, specially in keel vascular bundles, sclerenchyma
girders abundant on the abaxial side and also between the vascular bundles. Keel
conspicuous, widely rounded, with 6 – 7 vascular bundles of different size. Chlorenchyma
cells angular in outline. A tall girder of bulliform and associated colourless cells extending
from the adaxial side to the abaxial side, between two vascular bundles. Bundle sheath
double, outer sheath interrupted abaxially in large vascular bundles. Small vascular bundles
complete (Plate 15E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
13. Eleusine indica (Linn.)Gaertn.

Voucher No: 36
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar, Choa Saidan Shah, Soon Sakesar
(Kashmir, Hazara, Kohat, Karachi).
Distribution in World: Tropical and subtropical regions, throughout the world.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on shady places and near fields, wet clay sandy soil,
black wet clay soil.
Flowering: June - November
Annuals, culms tufted, 26 – 32 cm tall, flattened; Inter node length, 5.5 – 7.5 cm;
Leaf blades 13 – 25 cm long, 2.4 – 3.9 mm wide, usually folded or flate; Ligule lacerate
membranous, 0.7 – 0.8 mm long, stiff hairy (hispid ) on margins; Sheath keeled, hispid at
margins, near ligule, thin membranous at the margins; Inflorescence of usually 3 – 4 digitate
spikes, often one spike located below the cluster spikes, secund, 4 – 11 cm long , spikelets
laterally compressed, (look like a closed zipper), elliptic, having 5 florets; Glumes
unequal,upper glume, 1.4 – 2.5 mm long, 0.7 – 0.9 mm wide, 3 – 6 nerved, oblong ovate,
scabrid on the keel, lower glume, 2 – 2.4 mm long, keeled, 1 nerved, thin membranous
(hyaline), acute, keels slightly winged, scabrid on the keel; Lemmas 3 nerved, 2.4 – 1.6 mm
long, 1 mid nerve and two lateral nerves, lateral nerves not prominent, two nerves closed to
the keel on either side; Palea narrowly oblong, 2mm long, 2 keeled, scabrid on the keel;
Florets bisexual or unisexual; Anthers purplish 0.3 – 0.4 mm long, stigma 0.3 – 0.5 mm
long, style 0.2 mm long, plumose, sometimes reddesh; Caryopsis blackish, enclosed in a
thin hyaline pericarp, 1 – 1.5 mm long, rugose, triqueterous (stigma apparent at the tip of
seed) (Plate 16A ).

Pollen are circular in polar view and spheroidal to sub oblate in equatorial view.
Polar diameter is 25 μm (20 – 35 μm) and equatorial diameter is 30.7 μm (25 – 35 μm). P/E
ratio is 0.81. Pollen are monoporate and ectoporae or endoporate. Pore diameter is 1.5 μm
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Results Chapter 3
(1.2 – 1.78 μm) and exine thickness is 1.5 μm (1.0 – 2.0 μm). Pollen fertility is 76 %.
Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 16B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin to moderately thick
sinuous walls, 75 – 107.5 μm long and 12.5 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells
between two costal zones, 3 – 7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 2.
Stomatal complex: 25 – 27.5 μm long and 21.5 – 27.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell
shaped, subsidiary cells triangular in shape. Guard cells 5-7.5 μm wide and subsidiary cells
7.5 – 10 μm wide. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 7.5 – 8.75 μm wide, horizontally and 10 – 11.25
μm wide vertically, 2 – 7 layers of silica bodies. Long cell over the viens with straight walls,
62.5 – 87.5 μm long and 7.5 – 8.75 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 16C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous walls, 61.25 –
137.5 μm long and 8.75 – 20 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells, between two costal
zones, 3 – 5. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1-2. Stomatal complex:
guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells triangular, 25 – 26.25 μm long and 15 –
17.5 μm wide, guard cells 6 – 6.5 µm wide and subsidiary cells 6.5 – 7.5 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 7 – 8.75 μm horizontally and 7 – 8.75 μm wide.
Long cells with sinuous walls along with silica bodies, 35 – 87.5 μm long and 6.25 - 10 μm
wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 16D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with wide rounded ribs, separated by shallow V shaped furrows.
Two to three small vascular bundles between two large vascular bundles of basic types.
Large vascular bundles angular in outline. Vascular bundles having sclerenchyma strands,
on abaxial and adaxial surface. Large vascular bundles having large sclerenchyma adaxial
and abaxial strands. The leaf margins also sclerised, sometimes abaxial girders present with
bundles sheath. Keel conspicuous and V shaped, containing a solitary vascular bundle.
Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Bulliform and associated
colourless cells in narrow groups penetrating in the mesophyll, between two consective
vascular bundles. In large vascular bundles outer sheath prominent, with large cells,
complete, inner sheath not prominent (Plate 16E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
Genus: Eragrostis Wolf.
Key to the Species

1a. Annual herbs, leaf blades glandular at the margins (with warty glands along the
margins). Panicle effused or contracted, spikelets 8.0 mm long, narrow, oval and oblong,
laterally compressed E. cilianensis
1b. Tufted perennial, leaf blades usually forming a matted cushion, at the base of plants.
Panicle open or dispersed, spikelets 5 – 5.5 mm long, oblong, present on long and slender
pedicels. E. papposa
14. Eragrastis cilianensis (All.)Lut.Ex F.T. Hubbard

Voucher No: 32
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Khabaki, Mardwal, Kallar Kahar (Peshawar,
Kashmir, Lorali, Baluchistan coast, Karachi, Tharparker)
Distribution in World: Tropical and Warm temperae regions of the old world introduced to
new world.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common in irrigated fields, rare on mountains, clay soil.
Flowering: March – October
Annual herbs, culms tufted, 28 – 46 cm tall, erect or geniculately ascending;

Internode length, 3 – 8.5 cm, nodes glabrous; Leaf blades, 3.5 – 17 cm long, 2.5 – 3.5 mm
wide, base of the leaves sometimes, hirsute, glandular at margins,(with warty glands along
the margins), mostly glabrous; Ligule, a ciliated fringe (hairy on the margins), 0.5 mm long;
Sheath open and glabrous; Panicle, 8.5 – 18.5 cm long, effuse or contracted, small spikelets
at the base of inflorescence, and larger at the top, spikelets, 4 – 8 mm long, 1.5 mm wide,
narrow, oval and oblong, laterally compressed, sometimes purplish green; Upper glume
slightly larger than lower glume, upper glume 1.3 – 1.6 mm long, keeled (keel slightly
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Results Chapter 3
winged, scabrid on the keel, 1 nerved, purplish on one side, hyaline, acute, ovate elliptic;
Lower glume, 1.0 – 1.3 mm long, hyaline,1 nerved, keeled, scabrid on the keel, acute;
Lemmas, 1.3 – 1.6 mm long, 3 nerved, keeled, blunt at tip, chartaceous, somewhat ovate;
Palea persistent, membranous to hyaline, 1 – 1.4 mm long, 2 keeled, scabrid on the keel;
Stamens 3, anthers pale whitish, 0.15 – 0.2 mm long; Caryopsis 0.5 – 0.6 mm long, 0.3 mm
wide, broad oblong or sub globose, dark reddish brown, present between lemma and palea
(Plate 17A).

Pollen are circular to spherical in polar view and prolate spheroidal in equatorial
view. Polar diameter is 21.25 μm (15 – 25 μm) and equatorial diameter is 20 μm (17.5 – 25
μm). P/E ratio is 1.06. Pollen are monoporate and endoporate and Pore diameter is 2.0 μm
(1.5 – 2.5 μm). Exine thinckness is 1.4 μm (1.0 – 2.0 μm) and Pollen fertility is 66.19 %.
Sculpturing is rugulate and rugulae are widely spaced (Plate 17B).
100 – 150 μm long and 15 – 20 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells, between two costal
25 – 30 μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide. Mircohairs bicellular, basal cells longer than the
distal cells, distal cells rounded at the apices, 50 – 60 μm long and 6.25 – 10 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 10 – 15 μm long and 7.5 – 10 μm wide, 1-5 layers
of silica bodies. Short cells with sinuous walls, 30 – 50 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide.
Rounded cells present between silica bodies and short cells, 10 – 12.5 μm long and 8 – 10
μm wide. Prickles 30 – 35 μm long and 10 – 12.5 wide (Plate 17C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 90 – 160 μm
long and 10 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 5 – 6.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 3. Stomatal complex: 25 – 32.5
μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells low dome
shaped. Mircohairs 50-60 μm long and 7.5 – 10 μm wide, distal cell hemispherical or
rounded at the apices. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
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Results Chapter 3
Costal zone: Silica bodies, saddle shaped, 10 – 12.5 μm long and 7.5 – 10 μm wide.
Number of rows of silica bodies, 1-6. Short cells, 17.5 – 47.5 μm long and 5-7.5 μm wide,
cork cells rounded 10 – 15 μm long and 7.5 – 10 μm wide. Prickels 32.5 – 40 μm long and
7.5 – 12.5 μm wide (Plate 17D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with ribs and furrows. The regions of the lamina, having vascular
bundles are wider and narrower, and regions between two vascular bundles making wide
grooves. Macrohairs or prickles are prominent on adaxial side. Large vascular bundles with
adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders. Small vascular bundles with adaxial girders or
strands. Keel not conspicuous. Chlorenchyma cells not radially arranged around vascular
bundles. Bulliform cells in irregular groups. Large vascular bundles with double sheath, the
outer sheath and inner sheath interrupted adaxially and abaxially (Plate 17E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
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Results Chapter 3
15. Eragrostis papposa (Roem. & Schult.) Steud.

Voucher No: 220
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar (Swat, Kohat, Attock, Rawalpindi,
D.I.Khan, Khair Pur).
Distribution in World: Spain and North Africa, through the Middle East to India and
Sudan to Arabia, East Africa.
Occurrence and Habitat: Rare at the base of mountains, near Kallar Kahar, occasional at
other places.
Flowering: April – October.
A tufted perennial, up to 35 cm tall, erect or ascending; Internode length 2.2 – 4.4

cm, often short lived; Leaf blades 2.1 – 3 cm long, stiff, leaves usually forming a matted
cushion at the base of the plants, flat or rolled; Ligule a ciliated fringe (0.1 – 0.2 mm long);
Panicle open, dispersed, having spikelets on slender and long pedicels; Spikelets 5 – 5.5 mm
long, 0.8 – 0.9 mm wide, oblong blackish or purplish, breaking up from the base towards the
top, florets bisexual, rachilla persistent; Glumes unequal or subequal; Upper glume, 1 – 1.2
mm long, purplish,1 nerved, keeled, scabrid on the keel, hyaline, acute, ovate; Lower glume,
0.9 mm long, 1 nerved, hyaline, nerve reddish, keeled, scabrid on the keel, acute; Lemmas
0.9 – 1 mm long, 3 nerved, coriacious, obtuse, nerves not prominent, appressed to rachilla;
Palea 0.9 mm long , 2 keeled, membranous to chartaceous; Stamens 3, anthers 0.1 – 0.2 mm
long; Caryopsis 0.4 mm long, subglobose, somewhat rounded, light brown (Plate 18A ).
Pollen are circular in polar view and sub oblate in equatorial view. Polar diameter is
19.2 μm (15 – 22.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 22.5 μm (20 – 25 μm). P/E ratio is 0.85.
Pollen are monoporate and endoporate. Pore diameter is 2.5 μm (2.2 – 2.8 μm) and Exine
thickness is 1.3 μm (1.0 – 1.5 μm) and pollen fertility is 82.35 %. Sculpturing is verrucate
and verrucae are widely spaced (Plate 18B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin sinuous walls, 90 – 165
μm long and 12.5 – 17.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells, between two costal zones,
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Results Chapter 3
5–9. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1–3. Stomatal complex: 22.5 –30
μm long and 18 – 20 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells low to
high dome shaped. Mircohairs bicellular, 50 – 55 μm long and 8 – 10 μm wide, basal cells
longer than the distal cells, distal cell with a rounded apex, hemispherical or dome shaped.
Macrohairs, 160 – 175 μm long, tapering towards the tip, broad at the base. Hooks none
seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 15 – 17.5 μm long and 10.5 – 12.5 μm wide.
Short cells with sinuous walls, 20 – 27.5 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide. Rounded cells (cork
cells), present between short cells and silica bodies, 10 – 12.5 μm long and 6 – 7.5 μm wide.
Prickles pointed at the tip, 32.5 – 40 μm long and 10 – 15 µm wide (Plate 18C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous or non sinuous walls,
60 – 90 μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells, between two costal
zones, 4-9. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1-3. Stomatal complex:
guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells low dome shaped, 20 – 25 μm long and 15-
17.5 μm wide. Mircohairs bicelled, basal cell longer than distal cell, distal cell rounded at
the tip or hemispherical. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 4 – 5 rows of silica bodies, 15 – 10 μm long and
09 - 10 μm wide. Short cell with sinuous walls, 15 - 27.5 μm long and 6.0-7.5 μm wide,
rounded bodies (cork cells) present between short cells and silica bodies, 10 – 12.5 μm long
and 7.5 – 10 μm wide. Prickels present at the margins of costal zone, 40- 65 μm long and
7.5 – 10 μm wide (Plate 18D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial and abaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows. The diameter of the lamina
not uniform i.e. the regions of lamina having vascular bundles are wider. Prickles present
adaxially but not frequent, small vascular bundles with no sclerenchyma girders or strands
or with sclerenchyma strands only. Large vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial
sclerenchyma girders and strands. Keel not conspicuous. Chlorenchyma cells radially
arranged around the vascular bundles. Bulliform cells in irregular groups and middle cell of
the group deeply penetrating into the mesophyll. Large vascular bundles with double and
incomplete sheath, the inner sheath not prominent in small vascular bundles (Plate 18E &F).
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Results Chapter 3
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Results Chapter 3
16. Octhochloa compressa (Forssk.) Hilu.

Voucher No: 16
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Narwari, Soon Sakesar, Kariala, Chakwal, Sodhi,
Dhok Seela (Kohat, D.I.Khan, Rawalpindi, Mardan, Karachi, Tharparker, Hyderabad).
Distribution in World: Africa, Arabia, Pakistan, India, North West India to North Africa.
Occurance and Habitat: Rare near mountains, common on mountain slopes near sodhi.
Rare near wild life sanctuary Chakwal, clay soil.
Flowering: April - September
A long stoloniferous perennial grass, 20 – 32 cm tall, the base of culm whitish,

wooly. Leaf blades 2.4 – 5 cm long, 1.4 – 1.9 mm wide, narrow, pointed, sparsly hairy at the
base, (hair length 2mm); Ligule a ciliated fringe, 0.3 – 0.4 mm long; Sheath glacuous,
glabrous, base of sheath, beared (with long hair); Inflorescence digitate, having 2 – 4 spikes,
very short soft hairy whorl at the base of inflorescence, spikes 2 – 32 cm long, spikelets on
one side of rachis and overlapping each other, spikelets 3 – 5 mm long, laterally
compressed, having 2 – 4 florets, lower florets longer than upper florets, rudimentary lemma
ovate in shape, 1.6 - 2.0 mm, arising from back of palea of upper floret; Glumes unequal,
upper glume larger than lower glume; Upper glume 2.7 – 3.5 mm long, 3 nerved, 2 lateral
nerves not prominent, purplish, keeled, scabrid on the keel, lanceolate; Lower glume 1.5 – 2
mm long, lanceolate, 1 nerved, hyaline; Lemmas 3 – 4 mm long, soft hairy on the outer
surface and on the margins, oblong ovate, coriacious; Palea 1.2 – 2.5 mm long, thin
membranous, 2 keeled, scabrid on the keel, boat shaped; Anthers 1.0 –1.2 mm long, (whitish
green to pale yellow), stigma 2, style 0.3 mm long, stigma 0.7-0.8 mm long; Caryopsis 1
mm long ( white blacikish ), grain enclosed within a free hyaline pericarp (Plate 19A).

Pollen are circular to spherical in polar view and spheroidal to oblate spheroidal in
equatorial view. Polar diameter is 20.45 μm (15 – 25 μm) and equatorial diameter is 21.5
μm (20 – 30 μm). P/E ratio is 0.95. Pollen are ectoporate or endoporate and monoporate.
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Results Chapter 3
Pore diameter is 1.42 μm (1– 2 μm) and exine thinckness is 1.42 μm (1.25 – 1.75 μm) and
pollen fertility is 87.12 %. Sculpturing is scabrate (Plate 19B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin sinuous walls, 50 – 112.5
μm long and 11.25 – 15 μm wide and short cells, 12.5 – 15 μm long and 11.25 – 12.5 μm
wide. Number of rows of long cells, between two costal zones, 3 – 5. Number of stomatal
rows between two costal zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal complex: guard cells dumb bell shaped and
subsidiary cells triangular in shape, 22.5 – 27.5 μm long and 23.75 – 27.5 μm wide.
Mircohairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 1 – 8 rows of silica bodies, 10 – 11.25 μm wide
horizontally and vertical diameter is 11.25 – 17.5 μm. Short cells with sinuous walls, 25 –
35 μm long and 10 – 11.25 μm wide. Prickles 47.5 – 52.5 μm long and 12.5 – 18.75 μm
wide (Plate 19C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 5 – 7.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal complex: 23 – 25 μm
long and 22- 23.75 μm wide, guard cells, 4-5 μm wide and subsidiary cells, 8 – 10 μm
wide. Mircohairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 10 – 13.75 μm wide horizontally and 15.25 – 17.5
μm wide vertically. Short cells with sinuous walls, 22.5 - 27.5 μm long and 10 - 12.5 μm
wide. Prickles 50 – 57.5 μm long and 16.25 – 25 μm wide (Plate 19D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface is almost smooth, not ridged, pointed prickles or spines, with
pointed tips are present. Abaxial surface with glandular structures. Five small vascular
bundles, present on each side of large median vascular bundle of the keel. Four to five small
vascular bundles between two large vascular bundles. Large vascular bundles with abaxial
and adaxial sclerenchyma girders. The large vascular bundles in the keel region having
abaxial girders only. Mostly the small vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial strands
only. Keel prominent and rounded, having a median large vascular bundle. Chlorenchyma
cells not clear in the material. Bulliform and associated colourless cells in fan shaped groups
penetrating deeply into the mesophyll. In the mid rib region a large number of colourless
cells extending from the bundle sheath to the adaxial epidermis. Colourless cells angular in
outline. Outer sheath of the large vascular bundle in the keel region slightly interrupted from
the adaxial side. The inner sheath not prominent (Plate 19E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
3.7 TRIBE: PAPPOPHOREAE

17. Enneapogon persicus Boiss.
Voucher No: 362
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Khewra mountains and Kala Bagh (Gilgit
agency, Khyber, Waziristan, Peshawar, Kohat, Attock, Rawalpindi, Sargodha, Khushab,
Sakesar, Lorali.)
Distribution in World: Europe, South Western Africa, North West tropical, Soviet
middle asia, Western Asia and Arabia.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on mountains near Khewra, red sandy clay.
Tufted perennial, plant height up to 40 cm; Leaf blades, 12 – 18 cm long and 1.9
mm wide, stiff white hairs on the upper and lower surface, hair length up to 3 mm, flat or
rolled; Ligule a fringe of white hairs, 0.5 mm long; Sheath open, large stiff white hairs
present on margins; Inflorescence a contracted panicle, 8 – 12 cm long, cluster of
spikelets present on the rachis, spikelet 9 mm long; A tuft of bristles between the glumes;
Upper glume larger than lower, upper glume 6.5 mm long, 7 nerved, thin hyaline,
lanceolate, pointed from side view; Lower glume, 4.8 mm long, 7 nerved, lanceolate,
keeled on the back, 0.8 mm wide, thin hyaline, pointed from side view; Lower lemma 9
nerved, nerves extending into 9 awns, lower lemma, 9mm long, including bristles, Awn
length, 7 mm long; The back and margins of lemma hairy, the awns hairy; Upper lemma
short, with awns, about 9 hairy awns; Palea 2 mm long, keeled . (Lower floret bisexual);
Callus hairy; Anthers 3, 0.5 – 0.8 mm long; Stigma 0.8 mm long; Caryopsis blackish, 0.7
mm long (Plate 20A).

Pollen are circular in polar view, and prolate spheroidal in equatorial view. Polar
diameter is 30.35μm (27.5-35 μm) and equatorial diameter is 28.61 μm (25 – 30 μm).
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Results Chapter 3
P/E ratio is 1.06. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.61 μm (1.5 –
4.0 μm) and exine thickness is 0.97 μm (0.75 – 1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 78.20 %.
Sculpturing is rugulate and rugulae are narrowly spaced (Plate 20B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin sinuous walls, 85-
192 μm long and 8 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
zones, 4 – 12. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 3. Stomatal
complex: 31– 33.5 μm long and 18.5 – 22 μm wide, subsidiary cells low dome shaped or
triangular in shape. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs with a long and narrow stalk cell
having unicellular and glandular head, 170 - 225 μm long and 3.0 – 5.5 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross or dumb bell shaped or intermediate between cross and
dumb bell shaped, 10 – 12 μm long and 6 – 7.5 μm wide. Short cells mostly in long rows.
Prickles none seen (Plate 20C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with thin sinuous walls, 72.5 –
180 μm long and 6.0 - 9.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
zones, 6–10. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1–3. Stomatal
complex: 23 – 35.5 μm long and 19 – 24.5 μm wide, subsidiary cells low dome shaped or
triangular in shape. Microhairs and macrohairs none seen.
Costal zone : Silica bodies cross or dumb bell shaped, 10.5 – 12.25 μm long and 5 – 7.5
μm wide present in 3 or 4 rows (Plate 20D).
T. S. of Lamina
Widely spaced ribs on adaxial side. Pointed prickles with bulbous base present on
adaxial side. Abaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows. Small vascular bundles
slightly angular in outline, large vascular bundles of basic type. Macrohairs with swollen
base, thick walled, slightly sunken in the surface. Vascular bundles of basic type with
sclerenchymatous strands or girders, small vascular bundles with no sclerenchyma or a
few cells. Keel not conspicuous, having a solitary vascular bundle of basic type.
Chlorenchyma cells not radially arranged around vascular bundles. Bulliform cells in fan
shaped groups. Bundle sheath, double or single. The outer sheath interrupted adaxially
and abaxially in large vascular bundles of basic type. Small vascular bundles having
complete single sheath. The inner sheath not conspicuous (Plate 20E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
3.8. TRIBE: ZOYSIEAE
18. Tragus roxburghii Haller.

Voucher No: 263
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Sakesar, Kathwai, Mardwal, Khewara,
Kallar Kahar, Dhok Seela, Chakwal.(Kashmir, Jhelum Valley, Swat, Hazara, Abbotabad,
Rawalpindi, Kashmir, Karachi, Thar Parker)
Distribution in World: South East Africa and East Africa.
Occurrence and Habitat: Rare at mountain foot, common near banks of fields, sandy
soil.
Flowering: May – October
Annuals, sometimes radiately spreading; Culm 9.5 – 25.5 cm tall, ascending

from the prostrate base, rooting from the nodes, internode length, 1.5 – 5.5 cm; Leaf
blades 1.5 – 4.5 cm long, 1.8 – 3.2 mm wide, pectinately ciliate on the margins, acute at
apex, flat, narrowly lanceolate; Ligule lacerate membrouous, 0.3 – 0.4 mm long, sheath
glabrous; Inflorescence, stiff cylindrical, spike like, 2.5 – 5.7 cm long, sometimes
spatheolate (disarticulating at the base of spikelet clusters ); Inflorescence axis persistent,
spikelet 3.2 – 4.0 mm long, two spikelets arranged in spikelet cluster, subequal and
opposite to each other, prickly, lanceolate; Upper glume as long as the spikelet, 5 nerved,
nerves forming ribs that have prickles, prickles firm, 0.3 - .05mm long, hooked at the tip,
(not bulbous); Lower glume a minute hyaline scale; Lemma and palea almost equal,
lemma 2 – 2.8 mm long, 3 nerved, lateral nerves not distinct, lanceolate, membranous,
middle nerve extending and forming pointed tip, scabrid on the margins; Palea very thin,
shorter than or almost equal to lemma; Anthers 0.3 mm long; Caryopsis, 1–1.7 mm long,
elliptic oblong, light brownish, pointed at both ends, compressed dorsally (Plate 21A).
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Results Chapter 3
view. Polar diameter is 21.16 μm ((17.5 - 25 μm) and equatorial diameter is 22.35 μm
(20 – 25 μm). P/E ratio is 0.94. Pollen are ectoporate or endoporate and monoporate.
Pore diameter is 1.5 μm (1.0 – 2.0 μm) and exine thickness is 1.2 μm (1.0 – 1.5 μm).
Pollen fertility is 85.12 %. Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are widely spaced (Plate
21B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells, rectangular, having

straight walls, 37.5 - 75 μm long and 7.5 - 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells
between two costal zones, 5– 7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2-
3. Stomatal complex, 17.5 – 22.5 μm long and 10 – 11.25 μm wide, guard cells dumb
bell shaped, subsidiary cells low dome shaped. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none
seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 7.5 μm – 12.5 μm long and 8.75 – 10 μm
wide. Short cells with sinuous walls, 22.5 – 30 μm long and 6.25 – 11.25 μm wide.
Prickles none seen (Plate 21C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells, 43.75 - 50 μm long and 7.5 –
10 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 4 – 12. Number of
stomatal rows between two costal zones, 3- 9. Stomatal complex, 15 – 47.5 μm long and
10 – 15 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells low dome shaped.
Microhairs, none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 6.25 – 7.5 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide, 1 – 2
layers of silica bodies. Short cells 12.5 – 15 μm long and 6.25 – 8.75 μm wide. Prickles
swollen at the base, tapering towards the tip, 27.5 – 40 μm long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide
(Plate 21D).
T. S. of Lamina:
Adaxial surface uneven, the bulliform cells raised above the surface of adaxial
epidermis. Abaxial surface with wide ribs and narrow ridges. Mostly the vascular
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Results Chapter 3
bundles small, a few vascular bundles of basic type. Three to four small vascular
bundles, between vascular bundles of basic type. Vascular bundles with large metaxylem
vassels (basic type) having abaxial sclerenchyma girders (4 layers wide) and a short
adaxial sclerenchyma strand. The small vascular bundles with abaxial sclerenchyma
girders and two cells wide sclerenchyma strands. Abaxial sclerenchyma girders
prominent. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around the vascular bundle. Most part
of mesophyll covered by bulliform cells. Keel not conspicuous. Bulliform cells in
irregular and fan shaped groups, the middle cell very deeply penetrating into the
mesophyll. The bulliform cells raised above the level of epidermis. Large vascular
bundles with double sheath, the outer sheath interrupted abaxially by sclerenchyma
girders. The outer sheath composed of cells of uniform size. The cells of inner sheath
unequal in size. The small vascular bundles with a single complete sheath, composed of
cells of equal size (Plate 21E & F).
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3.9. TRIBE: ANDROPOGONEAE
19. Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) S.T.Blake

Voucher No:148
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Mardwal, Kanhati garden, Kallar Kahar
(Gilgit agency, Hazara Abbatabad, Kashmir, Murree hills and Sahiwal
Distribution in world: Old world tropics
Occurrence and habitat: Common near fields, sandy clay soil and dry sandy soil.
Flowering: May – November
Morphological description
A perennial grass, plant height 55-88 cm, sometimes decumbent, grooves present
in the internodes. Leaf blades 5.5 – 14.0 cm long, 0.3 – 4 mm wide, stiff hairy on the
abaxial side, at the base and at the margins; Ligule a lacerate membranous, 0.8 – 1 mm
long, sheath sparsly hairy at the margins, stiff hairy at the mouth, sometimes
membranous at the margins. Inflorescence digitate, having 4 – 10 racemes, the branch
bearing raceme beared at the base and at the tip, raceme length, 2 – 7 cm; Inflorescence
pale whitish to light black, sometimes inflorescence spatheolate, a pair of spikelets, one
sessile and other pedicelled; sessile spikelet 2.8 – 4.0 mm long, bisexual or female,
greenish, slightly elliptic, hairy at the base and the margins; Glumes almost equal, upper
glume 3mm long, 0.8mm wide, 1 nerved, folded at margins, glabrous, membranous, boat
shaped and keeled, pointed at the tip, surrounded by lower glume; Lower glume 3.3 – 3.7
mm long, 1-1.2 mm wide, 7-9 nerved, mid nerve passing through the pit, hairy on the
lower back, short ciliated at the front margins, cartilaginous, purplish; Upper lemma 1.6–
2.0 mm long, greenish and narrow, having awn 16 – 18.5 mm long, awn glabrous
(minutely hairy); Lower lemma hyaline, little shorter than glume; Stamens 3, anthers 1 –
1.3 mm long, stigma 2, plumose, 1.1 – 1.3 mm long, pedicelled spikelet barren, 3.0 –
3.9 mm long, purple, narrow, lanceolate, pedicel hairy on one side, the pedicel with
membranous median line. Upper glume 1.8 – 3.3 mm long, 0.4 mm wide, present
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between the folded margins of the lower glume. Lower glume as long as the spikelet,
purplish, folded and hairy at the margins, circular pit above half of the glume in the
middle, 9 nerved, the mid nerve passing through the pit, hairy at the margins, elliptic, 0.9
mm wide in folded position, short hairy on the back, mostly pedicelled spikelets without
lemma and palea, hairy, no flower i.e. barren, Stamens 3, anthers 1 – 1.3 mm long.
Stigma 1-2 mm long, plumose, purple to dark brown, style 0.4 mm long (Plate 22A).
Palynology (LM& SEM)
Pollen are circular in polar view, spheroidal to oblate spheroidal in equatorial

view. Polar diameter is 31.87 μm (27.5 – 37.5 μm). P/E ratio is 0.96. Pollen are
monoporate, pore diameter is 3 μm (2.5 – 3.5 μm) and exine thickness is 1.27 μm (0.75 –
2.0 μm) and pollen fertility is 87.89 %. Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are narrowly
spaced (Plate 22B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells, with sinuous walls, 40 – 120
μm long and 16.25 – 17.5 μm wide, short cells 15 – 17.5 μm long and 13.75 – 16.25 μm
wide. A few short cells present between long cells. Number of rows of long cells
between two costal zones, 3 – 7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zone, 2 –
3. Stomatal complex 33.25 – 36.25 μm long and 20 - 21.25 μm wide, guard cells dumb
bell shaped, 5 – 6.25 μm wide, subsidiary cells dome shaped, 10 μm wide. Microhairs
bicelled, distal cell thin walled, longer or equal to basal cell, distal cell tapering and
rounded at the tip, 42.5 – 55 μm long and 6.25 – 7.5 μm wide. Marcohairs, none seen.
Hooks, none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies, dumb bell shaped, 25 – 30.25 μm long and 5 – 6.25 μm wide,
Short cells with slight sinuous walls, 15 – 21.25 μm long and 7.5 - 15 μm wide. Prickles
at the margins of costal zone, 40.45 μm long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide (Plate 22C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells, with irregular sinuous walls,
61.25 - 80 μm long and 13.75 - 20 μm wide, short cells present between long cells.
Number of rows of long cell between two costal zones, 1 – 6. Number of stomatal rows
between two costal zones, 1 – 2. Microhairs bicelled,distal cell thin walled and tapering
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towards apex, 40-52.5 µm long and 6.0-7.25 µm wide. Macrohairs not seen. Hooks with
long pointed beak, 25 - 30 μm long and 8 - 10 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 15 – 17.75 μm long and 5 – 6.25 μm wide.
Short cells 12 – 15.5 μm long and 7.5 - 10 μm wide. Prickles, none seen (Plate 22D).
T.S. of Lamina:
Adaxial surface with no ribs and furrows, almost flat, glandular structure present
abaxially. Six small vascular bundles present between large vascular bundles.
Sclerenchyma deposited near the margins of lamina. Large vascular bundles of basic
type (with large metaxylem vessels) with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders,
except the median vascular bundle present in the mid rib region, that has only abaxial
sclerenchyma girders. Small vascular bundles with small abaxial strands. Chlorenchyma
cells radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Keel conspicuous and rounded, a
median vascular bundle of basic type, about half of the mid rib occupied by the small and
large colourless cells of irregular shapes. Keel vascular bundle with abaxial
sclerenchyma girders, adaxial sclerenchyma strands present above the mid rib region.
The phloem in the median vascular bundle covered by sclerenchyma cells. Bulliform
cells in fan shaped groups, the middle cell large and deeply penetrating the mesophyll.
Most part of the adaxial surface covered by bulliform cells. Small vascular bundles with
single and complete sheath. The large vascular bundles with complete sheath or
interrupted adaxially and abaxially by sclerenchyma girders, except large median
vascular bundle that has complete sheath adaxially and interrupted abaxially (Plate 22
E&F) .
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Results Chapter 3
20. Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin

Voucher No: 26
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon (Sodhi, Jaba, Kathwai, Khura,
Mardwal, Khabaki), Kallar Kahar, Choa Saidan Shah, (Dir, Malakand, Kashmir,
Mansehra, Abbotabad , Murree hills and Sahiwal .
Distribution in World: Afghanistan to Northern India, Nepal and Burma, Madagascar

and Tropical Africa.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on mountains, abundant on mountain slopes,

generally eaten by cattle, clay soil, stony soil.
Flowering: April - September
A tufted rhizomatous perennial; Culms 60–130 cm high; Basal leaf blades

auriculate, stiff hairy (pappilose hispid) at the margins, 5.5 – 28 cm long, 2.5 – 4.0 mm
wide, glacuous and scabrid on the margins, pointed at the tips; Ligule a short ciliated
rim, 0.3 – 1.0 mm long, basal sheath whitish and laterally compressed, the sheath at the
upper part glabrous, open and rounded; Inflorescence 6 – 17 cm long, panicle a triad of
spikelets on the filiform, slender branches; Spikelets shed off above the filiform
branches, slender branches beared at the tip. A sessile spikelet and two pedicelled
spikelets in a cluster, sessile spikelet 4.0 – 6.5 mm long, bisexual; Upper glume, 4 – 6.5
mm long, with an awn from 7 mm to 11.3 mm long, 3 nerved, ciliated at margins, hairy
on the back and on the keel, membranous at the margins; Lower glume 4.0 – 5.6 mm
long, awnless, rounded on the keel and laterally compressed, 5 nerved, two lateral nerves
on each side apparent, mid nerve not apparent, slightly coriaceous, acute, glabrous;
Upper lemma with an awn 20 – 27 mm long, awn shortly pubescent, minutely bidentate,
hairy on the back side, awn stout and thicker than upper glume awn; Lower lemma
hyaline, 3.7 – 4.0 mm long; Pedicelled spikelet, 5.0 – 8.0 mm long, male, linear
lanceolate, oblong, dense hairy at the base; Upper glume purplish, 5 – 7 nerved, 5 – 7
mm long, with a slender awn upto 8.5 mm long, pubescent on the back, soft hairy at the
margins and at the tip, bidentate at the tip; Lower glume awnless, 4.5 – 6.6 mm long, 3
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nerved, membranous, hyaline, pointed at the tip, almost equal to upper glume, having
papery texture; Upper lemma 3.8 – 6.0 mm long, 4.0 mm wide, 1 nerved, nerves not
apparent; Lower lemma narrow, hyaline, 3.5 – 5.5 mm long, 1 or 2 nerved, nerves not
prominent; Anthers 3, yellow, 3.4 mm long, stigma 2; 2.5 – 2.8 mm long; sometimes
lower glume of pedicelled spikelet having awn upto 3 mm long (Plate 23A).
view. Polar drameter is 27.5 μm (25 – 30 μm) and equatorial diameter is 29 μm (25 - 35
μm). P/E ratio is 0.96, pollen are ectoporate, and monoporate, pore diameter is 1.45 μm
(1 – 2µm), exine thickness is1.5 μm (1.0 – 2.0µm). Pollen fertility is 80.50 %.

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thick sinuous walls,
62.5 – 107.5 μm long and 20 – 21.25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cell between two
costal zones, 3–18. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2–6. Stomatal
complex, 32.5 – 37.5 μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped,
subsidiary cells low dome shaped or triangular in shape. Microhairs knife like, distal cell
thin walled and not prominent, 27.5 - 35 μm long and 5 – 6.25 μm wide. Macrohairs not
seen. Hooks tapering towards the tip, broad at the base, 25 – 28.5 μm long and 10 – 12.5
μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross shaped, 12.5 – 13.75 μm long and 5 – 11.25 μm wide.
Short cells with sinuous walls present between silica bodies, 22.5 – 37.5 μm long and
8.75 – 11.25 μm wide. Prickles not seen (Plate 23C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with thick sinuous walls, 70 -
135 μm long and 25-30 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
zones, 5-9. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2-4. Stomatal complex:
30 – 37.5 μm long and 27.5 – 28.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary
cells triangular in shape. Stomata not found frequently on the adaxial side. Microhairs
25 – 27.5 μm long and 6.25 μm wide. Macrohairs 115 - 125 μm long and 6.25 – 7.5 μm
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wide, abundent on adaxial side. Hooks rounded at the base, pointed at one side, 32.5 - 35
μm long and 15 – 20 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross and dumb bell shaped, 11.75-14 µm long and 7.25-11
µm wide. Short cells rarely present, 15-24.5 µm long and 7-10µm wide, Prickles present
at the margins (Plate 23D).
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface mostly with no ribs and ridges, ribs at certain regions. Thick
macrohairs present adaxially. Abaxial surface is with no ribs and furrows. Median
vascular bundle with sclerenchyma girder, sclerenchyma cells making a cup like
structure around the phloem of median vascular bundle. The other vascular bundles with
adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders. Abaxial girder large than the adaxial girder. A
small layer of sclerenchyma deposited at the margins. Chlorenchyma cells radially
arranged around the vascular bundles. Keel very conspicuous and v shaped, containing
one large vascular bundle of basic type, accompanied by 2 – 3 small vascular bundles on
each side. Almost half of the mid rib occupied by colorless cells, thick macrohairs on the
adaxial surface in the mid rib region. Adaxial surface in the mid rib region accompanied
by bulliform cells. A continuous row of colourless cells on the adaxial side, just under
the adaxial surface. Bulliform cells in irregular groups near the keel region. Small
colourless cells also present abaxially, but not continuous. Vascular bundles with a single
sheath. Large vascular bundles with incomplete sheath, interrupted abaxially or both
adaxially and abaxially. Small vascular bundles with complete sheath (Plate 23E&F).
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Results Chapter 3
21. Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones.) Schult

Voucher No: 137
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar, Soon Sakesar, Choa Saidan
Shah, Kariala, Chakwal, Dhok Seela, Kheura, Narwari (Dir, Quetta, Kohat, Peshawar,
Sargodha, Lahore, Dadu, Karachi, Tharparker).
Distribution in World: India, main Nepal, North east tropical Africa, Afghanistan, Iran
and Iraq, Arabia, China.
Occurance and Habitat: Common on mountains, rocky slopes, rare on edges of fields,
sandy clay soil.
Flowering: April - November
Rhizomatous perennial, tufted at the base, erect or geniculately ascending, 43 - 80

cm high; Leaf blades aromatic when chewed, green to reddish & brick reddish, 6.5 – 53
cm long, filiform, dentate at the margins, glacuous and glabrous on the surface, 2 – 3 mm
wide, sometimes stiff hairy at the margins and base; Ligule membranous, 1.2 – 2.5 mm
long, the basal sheaths whitish and flat, glacuous and glabrous, whitish at the margins; A
false panicle, spatheolate, 13 – 23.5 cm long, racemes upto 17 mm long, the rachis and
pedicels densely ciliated a the margins; A pair of spikelets, one sessile and other
pedicelled, sessile spikelet bisexual or female, 3.5 – 5.6 mm long, lanceolate, densely
ciliated at the base; Upper glume 3.5 – 5.4 mm long, 0.8 – 1.5 mm wide, boat shaped
with compressed keel, scabird on the keel, purplish on the lower side, bifid at the tip,
glabrous, membranous to cartilaginous. Lower glume, as long as the spikelet,
chartacious, 2 keeled, concave on the back, margins folded inwards, dentate on the front
margins, 0.5 – 0.8 mm wide, bifid at the tip, tapering towards the apex, nerves appear
from the middle to the top, two nerves in the middle, and two thick nerves at margins (4
nerved); Upper lemma 2 – 3 mm long, hyaline, narrow, 1 nerved, membranous, about
2mm wide, having glabrous awn, 5 – 9.5 mm long, appearing from the sinus; Lower
lemma hyaline, tightly overlapped by lower glume, slightly shorter than lower glume,
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0.4– 0.5 mm wide, enclosing the flower. Pedicelled spikelet male or barren, 3 – 6.0 mm
long, awnless, not depressed on the back, lanceolate with long dense cilia at the margins
of pedical; Upper glume 3.5 – 4.8 mm long, lanceolate, 1 nerved, membranous, folded at
the margins, greenish, 3 nerved, chartaceous, several nerved but nerves not prominent,
dentate at margins; Lower glume, as long as the spikelet, lanceolate, hairy at the margins,
greenish in the middle and whitish at the margins, chartaceous to cartilaginous, folded at
the margins, dentate at the front tip; Upper lemma hyaline, just under the upper glume,
2.5 – 3.8 mm long, 0.5 – 0.8 mm wide, when unfolded at margins, oblong, acute; Lower
lemma hyaline, 3.0 – 4.7 mm long, 0.5 – 0.6 mm wide; Anthers 1 – 2.3 mm long, stigma,
1.2 – 1.6 mm long, purplish ( Plate 24A).
diameter is 27.69 μm (22.5 – 32.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 25.86 μm (22.5 - 30
μm). P/E ratio is 1.07. Pollen are monoporate or diporate. Pore diameter is 1.41 μm (0.75
– 2.0 μm), exine thickness is 1.29 μm (1.25 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 82.89 %.
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, mostly long
cells with large papilla at one side of long cell, 40 – 116.5 μm long and 7.5 – 12.5 μm
wide, short cell present between long cells, 4.25 – 12.5 μm long and 4.0 – 6.25 μm wide.
Number of rows of long cells, between two costal zones, 3 – 6. Number of stomatal rows
between two costal zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal complex: 23.25 – 29.75 μm long and 25-
26.25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, thick in the middle, 6.25 – 7.5 μm wide,
subsidiary cells high dome shaped, 8-10 μm wide. Microhairs present between two long
cells, distal cell shorter than basal cell, 37.5 - 50 μm long and 6.25 – 7.5 μm wide.
Macrohairs and hooks not seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies intermediate between cross and dumb bell shaped or cross
shaped, 16.25 - 20 μm long and 7.5 – 12.5 μm wide, silica bodies and prickles present in
a row. Short cells present in rows. Prickles in abundance in the costal zone (Plate 24 C).
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Results Chapter 3
Adaxial intercostals zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells cubical and with slightly
sinuous or straight walls, 82.5 – 127.5 μm long and 16.25 - 25 μm wide. Number of rows
of long cell between costal zones, 2 – 6. Number of stomatal rows between two costal
zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal complex 25 - 30 μm long and 16.25 – 22.5 μm wide, guard cells
dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells high dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell thin
walled, shorter than basal cell and tapering towards the apices, 40 – 42.5 μm long and
6.25 – 7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks not seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross shaped or intermediate between dumb bell and cross
shaped, 15 – 22.5 μm long and 4.25 - 5 μm wide. Short cells with sinuous walls, 15 -
18.75 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide. Angular prickles present at the margins of costal
zone, 20 -25 μm long and 6.25-7.5 µm wide (Plate 24D).
T.S of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows. Macrohairs and glandular structures
present on the adaxial side, curved at the margins. On abaxial side ribs and furrows more
prominent. Six to seven small vascular bundles between large vascular bundles of basic
type. Large vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders, except the
median one. Chlorenchyma cells radiating the vascular bundles. Keel conspicuous and
rounded. Keel containing one large vascular bundle of basic type, accompanied by 1 or 2
small vascular bundles on each side. Mid rib region covered by large bulliform cells
present in irregular groups adaxially, middle cell longer than other cells of the group. On
abaxial side bulliform cells smaller and present in continuous rows and almost all cells of
same size.Vascular bundles with single sheath. Small vascular bundles with a complete
sheath, while in large vascular bundles, sheath is interrupted abaxially (Plate 24E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
Genus: Dicanthium Willemit
Key to Species
1a. Lower glume without a circular pit and inflorescence is digitate. D.annulatum
1b. Lower glume with a distinct circular pit and inflorescence with a solitary spike
D. faveolatum
22. Dicanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf.
Voucher No: 37
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Dhok seela, Khokhar Zer, Soon (Sodhi),
Mustafa abad, Kallar Kahar, Mardwal, Jaba, Kanhati Garden, Khabaki, Choa Saidan
Shah, Naushahra (Peshawar, Kashmir, hazara, Abbotabad, D.I. Khan, Sahiwal, Karachi,
Hyderabad and Tharparker).
Distribution in World: Tropical Africa to South East Asia, New Guinea, and Northern
Australia, Kenya, Tanzania, Senegal and Australia.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common in grasslands, moist land, throughout the area, near
fields, on slopes of mountains, wet clay, sandy clay soil.
Flowering: March - November
A tussocky perennial grass with woody root stock, culms more than 1m tall
(36 – 104 cm), nodes hairy; Leaf blades, 7 – 33 cm long, 2.2 – 5.0 mm wide, stiff
hairy on the adaxial side and at the base, glacuous, smooth and whitish near the
margins, scabrid at margins, tapering and pointed towards the apex; Ligule a lacerate
membranous or membranous, 0.5 – 1.5 mm long; Sheath glacuous and glabrous,
whitish at the margins, coriacious, stiff hairy at the mouth of the sheath, on the
surface and at the margins; Inflorescence sometimes spatheolate, having 2-8
racemes, (2.2- 5.3 cm long), the branches bearing racemes, hairy at the base and at
the tip; A pair of sessile and pedicelled spikelets, sessile spikelet, 3 – 3.2 mm long,
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unisexual or perfect (bisexual), somewhat elliptic; Upper glume 3 mm long, 1

nerved, folded at margins, almost equal to lower glumes; Lower glume 7 nerved,
0.8– 0.9 mm wide, purplish at the margins and at the tips, hairy at the lower back and
at the margins, circular pit not apparent, cartilaginous, short hairy near the tip; Upper
lemma 1.6 – 3.0 mm long, having an awn 1.5 – 19 mm long, awn pubiscent; Lower
lemma 2 – 2.8 mm long, 0.2 – 0.4 mm wide, hyaline, 1 nerved, acute, 0.2 – 0.4 mm
wide; palea absent. Anthers 3; Pedicelled spikelets empty, purplish, 0.8 – 1.4 mm
long, basifixed, stigma 2, dark purple to black, 1 – 1.8 mm long, style 0.7 – 1.0 mm
long. Caryopsis, 1 mm long, 0.2 mm wide, dorsally compressed oblong, ridged on
one side and yellow round scar on other side at one end (Plate 25A).
Pollen are circular in polar view and prolate spheroidal in equatorial view.
Polar dimater is 31.87 μm (22.5 – 45 μm) and equatorial diameter is 28.88 μm (25 –
32.5 μm). P/E ratio is 1.12. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is
2.77 μm (1.0 – 4.0 μm) and exine thickness is 1.34 μm (1.25 – 1.5 μm). Pollen
fertility is 86.76 %. Sculpturing is rugulate (Plate 25B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells, with sinuous walls,
78.5 - 150 μm long and 11.25 – 17.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between
two costal zones, 5-8. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1-2.
Stomatal complex: 20 - 25 μm long and 17.5 – 20 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell
shaped and subsidiary cells triangular. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell almost equal to
basal cell, distal cell thin walled, 35 – 37.5 μm long and 6 – 6.25 μm wide. Hooks 25
– 27.5 μm long and 4 - 5 μm wide, pointed at one end.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 1 – 3 layers of silica bodies, 17.5 –
22.5 μm long and 12.5 – 15 μm wide. Short cells, 15 – 17.5 μm long and 10 – 12.5
μm wide. Prickles swollen and pointed at one end, 17.5 – 35.5 μm long and 16.25 –
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 75-160
μm long and 10-18 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells, between two costal
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complex:18.5 – 24 μm long and 16.5 – 19 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped
and subsidiary cells triangular. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell almost equal to basal
cell. Macrohairs not seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 16 - 24.5 µm long and 11.25 - 16.5 µm
wide, Short cells with sinuous walls, 14-18.25 µm long and 9-12.25 µm wide.
Prickles present at the margins, 20.5 - 27.75 µm long and 15-18.5 µm wide (Plate
25D).
T.S. of Lamina
[
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows, thick and short triangular spines
present on the adaxial side. Abaxial surface with no ribs and furrows, glandular
structures present on the abaxial side. Five to six small vascular bundles between large
vascular bundles of basic type. The margins of lamina with sclerenchyma depositions.
Large vascular bundles of basic type with abaxial or adaxial girders or only with abaxial
girders. Small vascular bundles with short abaxial sclerenchyma strands. Chlorenchyma
cells radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Keel conspicuous with median large
vascular bundle of basic type and 2 or 3 small vascular bundles on each side. Almost half
of the mid rib region occupied by colourless cells, angular in outline. The median keel
vascular bundle with abaxial girders only. Bulliform cells in fan shaped groups. The
large cells in the middle and smaller at the sides, narrow towards the adaxial surface.
Vascular bundles with a single and incomplete sheath. The median large vascular bundle
interrupted abaxially by sclerenchyma girders and adaxially by colourless cells. Small
vascular bundles with single complete sheath, while other large vascular bundles
interrupted adaxially and abaxially (Plate 25E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
23. Dicanthium foveolatum (Del.) Roberty

Voucher No: 36
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Dhok Seela (Chakwal), Khewra, Kallar
Kahar, Choa Saiden Shah (Swat, Kashmir, Attock, Rawalpindi, Karachi,Mardan, Dadu)
Distribution in World: North Africa, Eastern Africa, Middle East, Pakistan and India.
Occurance and Habitat: Common on mountains, near Dhok Seela (Chakwal), common
on slopy mountains of Khewra, clay soil, sandy rocky soil, sandy clay, stony clay soil.
Flowering: March - September
A tufted perennial grass, culms slander and ascending, from a few cm to 60 cm,
tall, nodes hairy (a whorl of soft hairs); Leaf blades 3.5 – 12.5 cm long, tubercle based
stiff hairs at the margin and near the base, 1.8 – 2.5 mm wide, folded and scabrid at the
margins, narrow, linear, pointed at the tip; Ligule a lacerate membranous, 1 mm long;
Sheath whitish and glabrous above, basal sheaths silky hairy, glacuous and whitish;
Inflorescence of solitary narrow spike, some spikes may be subtended by a spatheole,
spikes 1.5 – 3.5 cm long; A pair of spikelets, one sessile and other pedicelled, sessile
spikelet perfect (bisexual) or male, 2.2 – 3.0 mm long; Upper glume 2.4 – 2.8 mm long,
0.5 mm wide, membranous, folded at the margins, acute or acuminate, having no pit;
Lower glume 2.3 – 2.4 mm long with a circular pit above the middle, elliptic, acute,
cartilaginous, glacuous and glabrous, folded at the margins, 0.4 mm wide, two nerves
originating above the pit; Upper lemma as long as the upper glume, not differentiated
easily from the awn, hyaline and narrow, green, upto 2 mm long, awn length 12 – 17.5
mm long; Lower lemma 1.5 mm long, 0.2 mm wide, hyaline; Stamens 3, anthers 0.7 –
1.3 mm long, stigma 2, 1 – 1.2 mm long, plumose, dark brown; Pedicelled spikelet,
slightly purplish, male or bisexual, beared at the base, 2.1 – 3.4 mm long; Upper glume,
2.9 – 3.2 mm long, 0.9 mm wide, 3 nerved, 1 nerve apparent in the middle, folded at
margins, narrow, elliptic and acute; Lower glume 2.6 mm long, 7 nerved, 3 lateral nerves
on each side and mid nerve passing through the pit, acute and hairy at the front margins,
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circular pit present in the middle; Upper and lower lemma hyaline, having no awn;
Anthers 1.2 – 1.3 mm long, yellow ( Plate 26A ) .
diameter is 28.16 μm (25 – 32.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 26.15 μm (20 – 32.5
μm). P/E ratio is 1.07, pollen are ectoporate and monoporate or diporate. Pore diameter is
2.72 μm (0.75 – 4.0 μm), exine thickness is 1.27 (1.0 – 1.5 μm), and pollen fertility is
83.66 %. Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 26B).
Leaf Epidermal Anatomy:

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells, with sinuous walls,
77.5 – 190 μm long, 15 – 22.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two
costal zones, 4 – 9. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal
complex: 36.25 – 40 μm long and 20 – 25 μm wide, guard calls dumb bell shaped and
subsidiary cells somewhat triangular. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell very thin walled and
not prominent, 18.75 – 20 μm long and 6.25 – 7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen.
Hooks, swollen at the base, pointed towards the tip, 30 – 40 μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm
wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies intermediate between cross and dumb bell shaped, 11 – 12.5
μm long and 8.75 – 11.25 μm wide. Short cells 22.5 – 32.5 μm long and 6 – 7.5 μm
wide. Prickles abundantly present on the costal zone, 45 – 65 μm long and 18.75 – 20 μm
wide (Plate 26C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 87.5 – 95
μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones,
4 – 12. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 3. Stomatal complex: 25
– 30 μm long and 17.5 – 25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells
low to high dome shaped or triangular. Microhairs bicelled, 16.5 – 32.5 μm long and 5 –
7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs not seen. Hooks 22.5 – 33.5 μm long and 7.5 – 11.25 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross shaped, 7.5 – 11.25 μm long and 10 – 11.25 μm wide.
Short cells with sinuous walls, 27.5 – 35 μm long and 8.75 - 10 μm wide. Prickles 27.5 –
35 μm long and 12.5 – 15 μm wide (Plate 26D).
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T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with no ribs and furrows, long macrohairs present adaxially,
deeply rooted with rounded base and some with swollen base. Abaxial surface flat, with
no ribs and ridges, abaxial surface with glandular structures. A few very long macrohairs
swollen at the base. Six small vascular bundles at the margins, 5 – 6 small vascular
bundles between large vascular bundles. Sclerenchyma depositions at the leaf margins.
The large vascular bundles with abaxial and adaxial sclerenchyma girders. The abaxial
sclerenchyma girder larger and anchor shaped. The small vascular bundles without
sclerenchyma girders and strands or with only abaxial sclerenchyma strands. The median
vascular bundle with abaxial sclerenchyma girder, sclerenchyma strands with one layer
of cells adaxially in the mid rib region. Extra layer of 5 cells present abaxially, close to
the median vascular bundle, so sclerenchyma girders not connected directly to the sheath.
Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Keel conspicuous and
rounded, not high. Median vascular bundle accompanied by 5- 6 small vascular bundles
at each side. Bulliform cells in irregular groups of 3 – 5 cells. Vascular bundles with a
single sheath. Large vascular bundles with complete sheath or interrupted abaxially,
small vascular bundles with complete sheath (Plate 26E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
24. Eulaliopsis binata (Retz) C.E. Hubbard

Voucher No: 26
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon Sakeser, Kallar Kahar, Khewra, Choa
Saidan Shah, Dhok Seela, Chakwal (Kashmir, Mangora, Waziristan, Kohat, Rawalpindi,
D.I.Khan.
Distribution in World: Afghanistan, East wards to Burma and Thailand, China and
Philippines.
Occurrence and Habitat: Abundant on mountain slopes, near sand stones, stony soil,
stony clay and sandy soil.
Flowering: March - July
A tufted perennial, wooly at the base; Culms 55 – 90 cm high, leaf blades very
long, stiff, basal, convolute, wiry up to 67 cm long, 2.5 – 3.5 mm wide; Ligule, a densely
ciliated fringe, 1.4 – 1.5 mm long; Basal sheaths densely white wooly (tomentose), the
upper leaf sheaths whitish, coriacious, the mouth of sheath hairy, callus hairy,
Inflorescence present at the tip of culm, composed of 2 – 4 sub digitate racemes, raceme
length 2.5 – 4.0 cm, appearing pale yellow. Sometimes inflorescence spatheolate;
Spikelets bearing paired, similar spikelets, 4.5 – 5.5 mm long, narrowly elliptic, oblong,
hairy at the base and on the both sides (unisexual or bisexual). Upper glume as long as
the spikelet, 7 – 9 nerved, hairy at the margins, a tuft of hair on the back, in the middle, 2
toothed at the tip, a small awn appearing in the sinus, about 2 mm long, acute; Lower
glume about two third of the length of spikelet, acute lanceolate, 0.4 – 0.5 mm wide, a
tuft of hairs on the base and on the mid of the back, 7 nerved, two toothed at the tip,
chartaceous; Upper lemma as long as spikelet or little shorter then spikelet, hyaline, 0.5
mm wide, awn originating from the middle of the upper lemma and extended beyond 6
mm, broad and twisted up to lemma, straight and light yellow beyond the lemma length,
Upper palea hyaline, shorter than lemma, lacerate at the tip (ciliated at the tip, about 2
mm long cilia); Upper floret female, Lower lemma hyaline, lanceolate, almost equal to
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upper lemma, its palea shorter than lemma, (Lower floret male). Stamens 3, anthers
yellow, 2 – 2.5 mm long, 0.15 mm wide; Stigma 2, 1.3 – 2.6 mm long, style,1.2 – 3.5
mm long. Caryopsis, immature or not formed, 0.5 mm long (Plate 27A).
Palynology (LM and SEM)
diameter is 26.07 μm (20 - 30 μm) and equatorial diameter is 25.62 μm (22.5 – 30 μm).
P/E ratio is 1.01. Pollen are endoporate or ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is
1.79 μm (1.25 – 3.0 μm) and exine thickness is 1.19 μm (1.0 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is
86.80%. Sculpturing is rugulate and rugulae are narrowly spaced (Plate 27B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls,
37.5– 150 μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide. Short cells present between long cells, 5 –
7.5 μm horizontally and vertically diameter 12.5 – 15 μm. Number of rows of long cells
between two costal zones, 5 – 7. Number of stomatal rows of between two costal zones,
1 – 5. Stomatal complex: 40 – 45 μm long and 20 – 25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell
shaped, subsidiary cells some what triangular in shape or dome shaped. Microhairs none
seen, macrohairs very long with rounded base, 180 – 195 μm long and 6 – 6.25 μm wide.
Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross shaped, 8.75 – 12.5 μm horizontally and vertical
diameter 8.75 – 15 μm. Short cells present between silica bodies, 38 – 40 μm long and
10– 12.5 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 27C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cell, with sinuous walls, 37.5 – 40
μm long and 17.5 – 20 μm wide. Number of rows of long cell between two costal zones,
5 – 7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 3 – 4. Stomatal complex: 40 –
43.5 μm long and 20 – 25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells, dome
shaped or somewhat triangular in shape. Microhairs none seen, macrohairs none seen,
hooks none seen.
Costal zone: A large number of dumb bell shaped and cross shaped silica bodies present
in a row, 7.5 – 12.5 μm long and 7.5 – 10 μm wide. Short cells rectangular with sinuous
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walls, 32.5 – 92.5 μm long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide. Prickles tapering towards the tip, 35 -
37.5 μm long and 11.25 – 12.5 μm wide (Plate 27D).
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with wide ribs and furrows along with thick, and long pointed
macrohairs, deeply embedded in the epidermis, rounded at the base. Abaxial surface, flat
with no ribs and furrows. Three to five small vascular bundles present between large
vascular bundles of basic type. At margins 2 – 3 small vascular bundles between large
vascular bundles. Large vascular bundles in the middle and small vascular bundles more
towards the abaxial side. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around the vascular
bundles, especially around the small vascular bundles. Chlorenchyma cells restricted
around the small vascular bundles, especially around the small vascular bundles. Large
vascular bundles with wide and high adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders. Small
vascular bundles without sclerenchyma strands or girders, few small vascular bundles
with abaxial girders only. Keel not conspicuous. Bulliform cells in irregular groups of
10–12 cells, bulliform cells present in the furrows. Vascular bundles with single sheath,
large vascular bundles interrupted adaxially and abaxially. Small vascular bundles with
single complete sheath, sheath with thick walled cells, equal in size (Plate 27E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
25. Heteropogon contortus (Linn.)P.Beauv.ex Roem & Schult.

Voucher No. 42
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Dhok Seela, Kathwai, Khura, Kallar Kahar,
Kanhati Garden, Sodhi, Mardwal (Kashmir, Hazara, Abbotabad, Rawalpindi, Murree
hills, Tharparker and Sargodha.
Distribution in World: Throughout the tropics and sub tropics, tropical and warm
temperate regions.
Occurance and Habitat: Abundent on mountains, throughout the area, sandy dry soil,
clay soil.
Flowering: June – November
A densely tufted branched perennial, culms, 25 cm to more than 100 cm high;

Leaf blades, 5 – 25 cm long, 4.5 - 5.5 wide, auriculate, rough on the adaxial side, dentate
on the margins, abruptly narrowed at the tips, papillose hispid a the base; Ligule, a
lacerate membranous, 0.8 – 1.0 mm long; Sheath glabrous, and membranous at the
margins, a few stiff hairs at the mouth of the sheath, the basal sheath laterally
compressed, hispid; Raceme 4.5 – 6.5 cm long, a bunch of twisted awns at the top of
raceme; A pair of spikelets, one pedicelled and other sessile, sessile spikelet at the base
of raceme, 9 – 9.5 mm long (barren or male), oblong lanceolate; Upper glume, 7.9 – 8.6
mm long, 1.5 – 1.6 mm wide, 1 nerved in the middle, oblong, acute, folded on one side
and on the front; Lower glume, 8.2 – 8.5 mm long,1.5 – 1.9 mm wide, membranous and
slightly folded at the margins, greenish and coriacious in the middle, stiff hairy on the
margins and at the tip, oblong acute, many nerved; Upper lemma, 6.5 – 7.0 mm long, 1-
1.3 mm wide, hyaline, 1 nerved, hairy at the margins and at the tip, with a stiff pointed
tip, slightly reddish or dark yellow in color; Lower lemma 6.7 – 7.5 mm long, 1 – 1.2
mm wide, hairy or ciliated at the margins and on the tip, blunt at the tip; Pedicelled
spikelet at the base, 8 – 8.5 mm long, barren or male, somewhat twisted; upper glume,
7.6 – 8 mm long, 3 nerved, 2 lateral nerves greenish, mid nerve whitish, membranous,1.7
mm wide, a few hairs at the margins, linear oblong, ovate; Lower glume, 7.1 – 7.4 mm
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long, 1.5 – 1.7 mm wide, greenish in the middle and membranous at the margins, many
nerved, hispid on the back side and on the margins; Upper lemma, 6.5 – 7 mm long,
hyaline, 1 nerved, hairy at the margins, with a stiff, pointed tip,1.3 mm wide; Sessile
spikelet near the tip of the raceme, glumes equal, lemma of upper female floret 6 mm
long, narrow, projected into usually a stout well developed awn, with a column, awn 7.5
– 7.7 cm long. Palea absent, callus hairy; Pedicelled spikelet near the tip, male, 9.9 – 10
mm long; Upper glume 9.4 – 10 mm long, 3 nerved, hairy at the margins, linear
lanceolate, two laterel nerves green, mid nerve white, lower glume 8 – 8.2 mm long,
greenish in the mid, and membranous at the margins, folded at one side, stiff hairy at he
margins and at the tip, many nerved, coriacious; Upper lemma hyaline, 6.5 – 7.5 mm
long, other characters same as upper lemma of sessile spikelet at the base; Lower lemma
hyaline, 8.8 – 8.0 mm long,1 mm wide, ciliated at the margins, and the tip, slightly
lanceolate, 1 nerved; Anthers 3, 1.3 – 4.0 mm long, with a short filament, about 0.5 mm
long, stigma 3-5 mm long (Plate 28A) .
diameter is 43.75 μm (32.5 – 52.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 40.16 µm (35 - 47.5
μm) P/E ratio is 1.08. Pollen are monoporate or diporate and ectoporate. Pore diameter is
3.15 μm (2 – 4 μm), exine thickness is 1.38 μm (1.25 – 1.5 μm) and pollen fertility is
86.08 %. Sculpturing is verrucate and verrucae are narrowly spaced (Plate 28B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with coarsely sinuous
walls, 68.75 – 125 μm long and 16.25 – 20 μm wide, one rounded papilla present at one
side of each long cell; Short cells present between long cells, 6 – 6.25 μm long and 12 –
12.5 μm wide vertically. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 6 – 11.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 4. Stomatal complex: 31.5 –
32.5 μm long and 21.25 - 25 μm wide, guard cells swollen in the middle and subsidiary
cell low dome shaped, subsidiary cells curved from the inner side, subsidiary cells, 3.73
– 6.25 μm wide and guard cells 10 μm wide. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell thin walled
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and not prominent, knife like, distal cell equal or shorter then basal cell, 70 – 85 μm long
and 6.25 – 7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen; Hooks present between two adjacent
cells, pointed at the tip, 25 – 35 μm long and 12.5 μm wide.
Costal zone : Silica bodies dumb bell shaped and somewhat lobed in the middle, 21.88
– 23.75 μm long and 6.75 – 8 μm wide, 2 – 4 layers of silica bodies. Short cells sinuous,
17.5 – 22.5 μm long and 7.5 – 10 μm wide. Prickles present in the marginal costal zone,
55 – 72 μm long and 12 – 15 μm wide (Plate 28C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with deep sinuous walls, each
cell with a single papilla on one side. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
complex: 30 – 32.5 μm long and 20 – 21.25 μm wide, guard cells swollen in the middle
and subsidiary cells low dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell thin walled and not
distinct, both cells almost equal or distal cell shorter than basal cell, 50 – 55 μm long and
5 – 7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs, none seen. Hooks 2.5 – 32.5 μm long and 7.5 – 8.75 μm
wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 17.5 – 37.5 μm long and 8.75 – 12.5 μm
wide. Short cells with sinuous walls, 17.5 – 37.5 μm long and 8.75 -12.5 μm wide.
Prickles present at the margins, 62.5 – 90 μm long and 6.75 – 7.5 μm wide (Plate 28D).
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs, present opposite to large vascular bundles.
Abaxial surface also with slight ribs and furrows. In small vascular bundles xylem and
phloem can not be differentiated. Vascular bundles of 3 types with respect to their sizes
small vascular bundles, medium size and large vascular bundles. Large vascular bundles
of basic type (having large metaxylem with small protoxylem on each side). Small
vascular bundles not accompanied by sclerenchyma. Medium size vascular bundles with
small adaxial and abaxial girders. Large vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial
strands. Keel conspicuous and rounded, having single median vascular bundle, having 2-
3 small vascular bundles on each side. Bulliform cells in irregular groups or fan shaped
groups, some cells penetrating into the mesophyll. Bundle sheath single, all small
vascular bundles with complete sheath, the large vascular bundles having incomplete
sheath interrupted abaxially (Plate 28E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
26. Imperata cylendrica (L.) Raeuschel

Voucher No. 67
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon Sakesar near Uchali, Kathwai, Kallar
Kahar, Khewra, Khabaki, Kanhati garden. (Chitral, Peshawar, Hazara, Kashmir, Mirpur,
Sahiwal, Makran, Nawabshah).
Distribution in World: Throughout the old world tropics, extending to the

Mediterranean and the middle, East, also in Chili, India, Australia, Eastern & South
Africa.
Occurrence and Habitat: Occasionally along water courses, common in fire burnt
fields, near fields, wet soil, dry clay soil, sandy clay soil.
Flowering: March - November
A rhizomatous perennial, 26 – 60 cm tall, nodes hairy, leaf blades 5- 50 cm long,

2.5– 5 mm wide. Mostly the leaves at the base the basal leaves stiff, narrow and erect,
mostly leaves folded; Ligule membranous, blunt, 0.5 – 1 mm long, sheath white stiff,
coriacuous, glabrous, sometimes beared at the mouth; Inflorescence cylindrical, wooly
(silky), present at the tip of the culm, 4 – 10 cm long, some panicles spatheolate, rachis
persistent, stigmas visible in the inflorescence; A pair of similar spikelets, each on a
slender pedicel, 2.5 – 3.8 mm long, lanceolate to oblong, a tuft of white wooly hairs at
the base of spikelet, spikelets bisexual. Both glumes equal and as long as the spikelet,
lanceolate to oblong; Upper glume, 5 – 7 nerved, nerves not prominent, hyaline at the
margins and at the tip, mid nerve distinct; Lower glume membranous, hyaline near the
tip; Upper floret, bisexual, upper lemma shorter than spikelet, hyaline, awnless, its palea
broad, shorter than lemma. Lower floret reduced to a hyaline lemma, shorter than
spikelet; Stamens 2, anthers 2 – 2.8 mm long, 0.5 – 0.6 mm wide yellowish, filaments 2
mm long. Stigma 2, 2 – 4 mm long, style 2 mm long. Seed immature or not formed
(vegetative growth is vigorous) (Plate 29A).
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diameter is 29.21 μm (22.5 - 35 μm) and equatorial diameter is 27.65 μm (22.5 – 32.5
μm). P/E ratio is 1.05 and pollen are ectoporate and diporate. Pore diameter is 1.33 μm
(0.75 – 1.5 μm) and exine thickness is 1.31 μm (1.0 – 1.5 μm) and pollen fertility is
88.99 %. Sculpturing is scabrate (Plate 29B).

37.5 – 65 μm long and 8.70 – 11.25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells, between
two costal zones, 3 – 6. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 2.
Stomatal complex: 18.75 – 20.25 μm long and 17.5 – 20 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell
shaped, subsidiary cells triangular. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell thin walled and not
prominent, distal cell tapering to pointed apices, 22.25 – 26.25 μm long and 6 – 6.25 μm
wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 10 – 13.75 μm long and 5 – 6.25 μm wide,
silica bodies in one row. Short cells none seen, prickles none seen (Plate 29C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cell with sinuous walls, 27.5 – 67.5
10 – 16. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zone, 2- 3. Stomatal Complex:
22.5 – 27.5 μm long and 22.5 – 25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary
cells triangular. Microhairs none seen, macrohairs none seen, hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 11.25 – 13.75 μm long and 8.75 – 12.5 μm
wide vertically. Long cells in costal zone sinuous, 55 – 65 μm long and 10 – 12.5 μm
wide. Prickles present, 25 – 37.5 μm long and 12 – 15 μm wide (Plate 29D).
T.S of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows while abaxial surface smooth and
flat. A thick cuticle on both surface of epidermis. Vascular bundles of different sizes, two
very small vascular bundles on both sides of large vascular bundles of basic types,
present near the abaxial side. Three different sizes of vascular bundles observed, large
vascular bundles of basic types, medium and small vascular bundles. The bundle sheath
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of medium vascular bundles having elongated cells adaxially, so pointed adaxially. The
small vascular bundles angular in outline. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around
the vascular bundles. The large vascular bundles of basic type and medium sized
vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial girders (5 layers thick). The very small
vascular bundles with no sclerenchyma or 1 or 2 layers thick short strand. Deposition of
sclerenchyma at the margins. Keel not observed in the material. Bulliform cells in fan
shaped groups or in a group tapering towards the base. Bulliform cells along with
colourless cells deeply penetrating the mesophyll. Sometimes the colourless cells making
girder towards the abaxial side. Large vascular bundles of basic type with complete
double sheath or outer sheath interrupted abaxially by sclerenchyma girders. Small
vascular bundles with a single complete sheath of almost equal sized cells (Plate
29E&F).
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Results Chapter 3
Genus: Saccharum Linn.
Key to Species
1. Peduncle not hairy below the panicle, panicles not silvery white, rachis less fragile.
S.bengalense
Peduncle hairy below the panicle: panicles silvery white; rachis very fragile. 2
2a. Awn or the upper lemma small, not exerted beyond the glumes. S. spontaneum
2b. Awn on the upper lemma exerted beyond the glumes. S. ravennae
27. Saccharum bangalense Retz.

Voucher No: 30
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon (Mardwal) Sodhi, Dhok Seela,
Chakwal, Kallar Kahar (Peshawar, Kashmir, Hazara, Swat, Gilgit, Rawalpindi, Dadu,
Larkana, Karachi, Hyderabad, Tandojam)
Distribution in World: Widely distributed in the warmer regions of the old world,
North & North West.
Occurrence and Habitat: Occasional in dry rocky areas, common near water channels
of Kathwai, common on mountain bases of Khewra, stony clay, clay soil.
Flowering: October – January
Rhizomatous perennials, more than 3 meters tall; Leaf blades 68 – 76 cm long,

1.8 – 9.5 mm wide, sharply dentate on the margins, coriacious and stiff, channeled, the
whitish part i.e. mid rib occupying the great part of the width; Ligule, a ciliated truncate
membranous; sheath coriacious, glacuous and glabrous, the mouth of sheath with long
ciliated hairs, sheaths sometimes glacuous at the margins; Panicle 25 – 45 cm long, white
wooly, light yellowish or gray in colour. The peduncle below the inflorescence not hairy,
scabrid on the culm ridges. A pair of spikelets, pedicelled and sessile, pedicelled spikelet
breaking at the pedicel, while sessile spikelet falling off with the adjacent pedicel, white
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silky hairs, present at the base of spikelets exceeding the length of spikelets. Sessile
spikelet bisexual or male, hairy at the base, 3.8 – 5.0 mm long, lanceolate; Glumes
almost equal, scabrid on the mid nerve and on the margins; Upper glume, 3.3 – 5 mm
long, 1mm wide, 3 nerved, mid nerve prominent, membranous to coriacious, with
hyaline margin and pointed tip, glabrous on the back, reddish on the front margans;
Lower glume 3.3 – 4.8 mm long, hairy at the back with two lateral nerves, nerves
scabrid, 1.4 mm wide; Upper lemma 3.0 – 4.2 mm long, hyaline, with a short awn point
(0.6 mm long), hairy at the margins, and near the tip; Lower lemma 2.8 – 4.0 mm long,
0.6 – 0.8 mm wide, membranous, one nerved, hairy at the margins, and near the tip;
Lower floret empty; Palea 1.6 – 2.0 mm long, hyaline and hairy at the tip; Stamens 3,
anthers 1 mm long, caryopses oblong ,2mm long; Pedicelled spikelet, male, 3.5 – 5 mm
long, both glumes hairy on the back (hair length (8 – 8.5 mm), both glumes equal;
Upper glume 3.3 – 5 mm long,1 nerved, dense hairy on the back 0.8 mm wide; Lower
glume 3.3 – 5 mm long, 3 nerved, with two lateral nerves, scabrid on the nerves, hairy at
the front margins, 0.8 – 1.0 mm wide; Upper lemma 2.8 – 4.5 mm long, hyaline, hairy at
the front margins, with a short scabrid awn point (awn length 0.7 – 0.8 mm); Lower
lemma 2.7 – 4.2 mm long, membranous, ciliated at the margins, and at the tip, hyaline at
the margins, 0.8 – 0.9 mm wide, oblong acute or lanceolate; Palea 2.0 – 2.7 mm long, 0.7
mm wide, hairy at the tip and at the front magins; Anthers 3; Caryopsis oblong 2 mm
long, 0.35 mm wide, enclosed between upper lemma and palea (Plate 30A).
Pollen are circular in polar view and spheroidal to prolate spheroidal in

equatorial view. Polar diameter is 26.5 μm (25 – 30 μm) and equatorial diameter is 29.75
μm (25 – 35 μm). P/E ratio is 0.89 and pollen are monoporate and endoporate. Pore
diameter is 2.3 μm (1.5 – 3.5 μm) and exine thickness is 1.5 μm (1.25 – 2 μm ). Pollen
fertility is 82.57 %. Sculpturing is rugulate (Plate 30B).

interstomatal cells with concave ends, 80 – 170 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells
between two costal zones, 4 – 10. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones,
2– 4. Stomatal complex: 28.5 – 33 μm long and 12.5 - 22 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell
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shaped, subsidiary cells low dome shaped or triangular. Microhairs 45 – 70 μm long,

basal cells longer than distal cells, distal cells tapering to the pointed apices. Hooks none
seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross shaped or intermediate between cross and dumb bell
shaped, 7 – 21.5 μm long and 4 – 7 μm wide. Short cells in the row of 2–5 cells. Angular
prickles present at the margins (Plate 30C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells, sinuous, 65 – 175 μm long and
11 – 17 μm wide. Macrohairs noneseen. Hooks none seen. Microhairs bicellular, basal
cell long than distal cell, basal cell tapering to the apices. Microhairs 30 – 70.5 μm long.
Costal zone; Silica bodies, intermediate between cross and dumb bell shaped, short cells
frequent. Angular prickles present at margins (Plate 30D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows, macrohairs seen on the adaxial
surface. A rounded extension present in mid of rib adaxially, opposite to large vascular
bundle of basic type. Abaxial surface flat, not ridged macrohairs present. Vascular
bundles of different size, large vascular bundle of basic type, medium size and small
vascular bundles. Medium size and small vascular bundles angular in outline.Large
vascular bundles and medium size vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial
sclerenchyma girders. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around vascular bundles.
Keel not seen. Bulliform cells in fan shaped groups. The middle cell longer in size and
narrow towards the base. Associated colourless cells deeply penetrating the mesophyll,
sometimes the colourless cells making girders towards the abaxial side. All vascular
bundles with single sheath, the small bundles with complete sheath (cells of sheath equal
in size). Mostly medium and large vascular bundles with incomplete sheath, interrupted
adaxially and abaxially. The sclerenchyma girders penetrating the bundle sheath and
surrounding xylem and phloem (Plate 30E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
28. Saccharum ravennae (Linn.) Murr

Voucher No: 63
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kathwai (Soon Sakesar)
Distribution in World: Northern India and Southwest Asia, west wards to the
Mediterranean region.
Occurrence and Habitat: Rare, near fields, wet sandy soil
Flowering: August - September
A tall tussocky, perennial up to 4 m tall; Leaf blades up to 1 meter long, 3-20

mm wide; Ligule a ciliated truncate membranous, 5-15 mm long; Sheath glacuous and
glabrous. Inflorescence, a panicle, 61 cm long, white slivery; Length of primary branches
bearing racemes arising from the main rachis, 16-24 cm long; Peduncle glabrous; Sessile
spikeltet 3 mm long, bisexual, both glumes almost equal and glabrous; Upper glume, 3
mm long, 1 nerved, scabrid or dentate on the nerve, slightly membranous; Lower glume
2.9 mm long, 0.4 mm wide, with two lateral nerves, slightly concave on the back; Upper
lemma 1.5 mm long with an awn,4.5 mm long; Lower lemma 2.6 mm long, 0.4-0.5 mm
wide; Pedicelled spikelet bisexual, 2.9 mm long, long hairy at the base, both glumes
equal, sparsly hairy on the back; Upper glume 2.9 mm long, 0.8 mm wide, 3 nerved, 2
lateral nerves whitish not apparent, hyaline and hairy at the margins, slightly
membranous; lower glume 2.9 mm long, 0.4 mm wide with two lateral nerves, slightly
concave on the back; Upper lemma hyaline, 1.6 mm long with an awn, 4 mm long;
Lower lemma 2.5 mm long, anther 1.4mm long, stigma 0.6 mm long, Style 0.5 mm long
(Plate 31A).

Pollen are circular in polar view and spheroidal to prolate spheroidal in
equatorial view. Polar diameter is 25 μm (24 - 29 μm). P/E ratio is 0.89, pollen are
monoporate and endoporate, pore diameter is 1.4 μm (1.25 – 2.0 μm) and exine thickness
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Results Chapter 3
is 1.5 μm (1.25 – 20 μm). Pollen fertility is 79 %. Sculpturing is rugulate and rugulae are
widely spaced (Plate 31B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thick sinuous
walls, 65 – 152 μm long and 10 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between
Microhairs bicelled, distal cells taparing towards the apices, 18 – 26 μm long and 3.5 – 5
μm wide. Macrohairs and hooks, none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies mostly intermediate between cross and dumb bell shaped,
occasionally cross shaped, 14 – 20 μm long and 11.5 – 17.25 μm wide. Short cells
present between the silica bodies and with slightly sinuous walls. Prickles present in the
costal zone repeating after 3 – 5 silica bodies and short cells (Plate 31C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 69 - 165 μm
10. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 3. Microhairs bicelled, basal
cell longer than distal cell. Macrohairs and hooks noen seen.
shaped, 13 – 18.5 μm long and 12 – 17 μm wide. Short cells in short rows. Prickles
present (Plate 31D).
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial and abaxial surfaces with slight ribs and furrows. Macrohairs present on
the adaxial side. Vascular bundles are catagorized in three groups on the basis of their
size i.e small vascular bundles, medium sized and large vascular bundles. Large and
medium size vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders.
Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Keel conspicuous and
rounded. Bulliform cells in fan shaped groups. The associated colourless cells
penetrating deeply into the mesophyll. All vascular bundles with single sheath. The small
vascular bundles with complete sheath and the cells forming sheath equal in size. Mostly
medium and large vascular bundles with incomplete sheath, interrupted adaxially and
abaxially (Plate 31E & F ).
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Results Chapter 3
29. Saccharum spontaneum Linn

Voucher No. 39
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Mardwal, Sodhi, (Soon Sakesar), Dhok
Seela, Chakwal, Kaller Kahar (Peshawar, Kashmir, Hazara, Swat Gilit, Rawalpindi,
Dadu, Larkana, Karachi, Hyderabad, Tandojam)
Distribution in World: Widely distributed in the warmer regions of the old world.
Occurrence and Habitat: Very common along stream banks, at margins of ponds, and
at base of mountains, very rare in dry places, common near lakes, sandy, sandy clay soil.
Flowering: July- September
A rhizomatous, perennial, 100 cm to 150 cm high; Leaf blades 15 – 70 cm long,
up to 7 mm wide, thick, depressed, glacuous, glabrous and whitish on the adaxial
surface, while on abaxial surface, greenish with parallel lines, tapering towards the tip
and pointed at the tip; Ligule a lacerate memberanous, 1.3 mm long; Sheath ciliated at
the mouth of the sheath, glacuous, glabrous and open; Panicle 23 – 32 cm long, whitish,
wooly, anthers and stigma apparent in white wooly panicle; The axis of the panicle,
sparsly short hairy but dense hairy just below the inflorescence, covered with soft white
hairs. A pair of sessile and pedicelled spikelets, pedicelled spikelet detached above the
pedicel and sessile spikelets detached with the adjacent pedicel, long hair present below
the spikelets. The hair on the callus 2 – 3 times long than the length of spikelet; Sessile
spikelet,bisexual,3.5 mm long, lanceolate; Callus hairy, (hairs about 12 mm long);
Pedicelled spikelet also bisexual similar to sessile one; Both glumes equal, glabrous, and
ciliated at the margins, sub coriacious in the lower part and membranous or hyaline in
the upper part; Upper lemma very narrow, 1.8 – 1.9 mm long, bifid at the tip; Lower
lemma hyaline, lanceolote, 1.5 – 2.5 mm long, ciliated at margins; Anthers 1.0 – 1.7 mm
long, whitish orange to reddish, stigma 0.7 mm long, plumose, purple to yellow;
Caryopsis 1.0 – 1.2 mm long, 0.4 mm wide, oblong ovate, shiny whitish, slightly
compressed (Plate 32A).
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Results Chapter 3
Palynology (LM &SEM)
Pollen are circular to semi circular in polar view and oblate spheroidal in
equatorial view. Poler diameter is 30.45 μm (17.5 – 37.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is
30.70 μm (22.5 – 40.0 μm). P/E ratio is 0.9. Pollen are monoporate and endoporate. Pore
diameter is 1.5 μm and exine thickness is 1.2 μm (1.0 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 90.62
%. Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 32B).
75.5 – 158 μm long and 12 – 14.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two
costal zones, 4 – 8. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 3.
Microhairs bicelled, 50 – 72.5 μm long, basal cells longer than distal cells, distal cells
varying in shape and diameter. Mostly tapering to pointed apices. Stomatal complex: 27–
32 μm long and 13 – 22 μm wide, subsidiary cells triangular but not prominent, because
of overlying prickles. Macrohairs and hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped or intermediate between cross and dumb
bell shaped, 9- 25 μm long and 5 – 7 μm wide, short cells frequent in the costal zone.
Prickles present (Plate 32C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with thick sinuous or straight
wialls, 62 – 145 μm long and 12 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between
two costal zones, 4 – 10. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones,1 – 3.
Stomatal complex: 28 – 32.5 μm long and 13 – 21 μm wide, subsidiary cells triangular or
low dome shaped, bicelled microhairs frequent in the inter costal zone, basal cells bent
and longer than distal cells, 51 – 75 μm long. Macrohairs and hooks none seen.
shaped, 7.5 – 22 μm long and 4 – 7.5 μm wide, angular prickles present at the margins
(Plate 32D).
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial and abaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows or flat and smooth.
Mostly the vascular bundles small, three types of vascular bundles with respect to size,
large, medium and small vascular bundles. Large vascular bundles present in the middle
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Results Chapter 3
of the mesophyll. Medium and small vascular bundles near to the abaxial side, especially
the small vascular bundles are located near the abaxial surface. Large vascular bundles
with apparent wide and tall anchor shaped abaxial sclerenchyma girders. Medium size
vascular bundles with short sclerenchyma abaxial girders and small vascular bundles
with no abaxial girders, sclerenchyma depositions at the margins. Adaxial sclerenchyma
strands present opposite to the large and medium sized vascular bundles. A major part of
the mesophyll covered by large air spaces (aerenchyma cells). These air spaces absent at
the margins and near the margins opposite to vascular bundles on the adaxial side,
mesophyll occupied by colourless cells. Chlorenchyma cells restricted to narrow zones
around the vascular bundles, and radiating around the vascular bundles. Keel
conspicuous and rounded, having a median large vascular bundle with, 2 or 3 small
vascular bundles on each side. Most of the mid rib region covered by colourless cells.
Bulliform cells present on the adaxial side, opposite to the keel region, only large cells
present in the middle and smaller cells on the sides (in fan shaped groups). Large
vascular bundles with double sheath, the inner sheath complete and outer sheath
complete or interrupted at the abaxial side by girders (Plate 32E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
30. Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.

Voucher No: 56
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Sodhi (Soon), Kallar Kahar, Kala Bagh,
(Gilgit, Chitral, Kashmir, Hazara, Balakot, Sahiwal, Lahore, Tharparker).
Distribution in World: Mediterranean region, introduced very early to India, wide

spread through tropics.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on field borders, near fields, on mountains bases,
clay soil.
Flowering: May - October
A tufted, rhizomatous, perennial grass, 120 cm to 200 cm tall, prop roots arise at
the lower above grounds nodes; Leaf blades 18.5 -57 cm long, 1.1-1.6 cm wide, pointed
at the tip, linear lanceolate, acuminate, margins scabird; Ligule lacerate membranous,
1mm long, tip of the sheath hairy at the margins, glacuous, glabrous, rolled; Panicle lax,
24- 34 cm long, having slender branches, compound branchlets in threes, at the branchlet
tips; One sessile and fertile female and two pedicelled spikelets, and below the tips in
pair of one sessile and other pedicelled ( staminate) spikelet, sessile spikelets( bisexual)
and pedicelled spikelet (staminate); Sessile spikelet, 4- 4.5 mm long, oblong ovate,
slightly hairy, laterally compressed, with awn or awnless; Upper glume 4- 4.5 mm long,
7 nerved, narrow than lower glume,1 mm wide, stiff coriacious, glabrous on the surface,
folded on the sides; Lower glume, 3.5 – 3.9 mm long, 1.2 – 1.9 mm wide, 10 or 11
nerved from the upper half side, short ciliated on the margins, ovate oblong, glabrous,
shiny coriacous, 2 or 3 toothed at the tip; Upper lemma thin membranous, having awn 8
mm long or awnless, awn geniculate twisted and glabrous, if awnless then cuspidate at
the tip; Lower lemma thin membranous, 3.5 mm long. Callus hairy; Pedicelled spikelet
having pedicel, 2.2 – 2.3 mm long, short purple soft hairs on the pedicel; Spkelet 4-
4.2mm long, hairy at the base; Upper glume 4 mm long, light purplish, lanceolate, 5
nerved, scabrid on the mid nerve ( on the keel); Lower glume purplish, 6 nerved, 4 mm
long, 1 mm wide, lanceolate, coriacious, scabrid on the margins, folded at the margin;
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Results Chapter 3
Lemma as long as the upper glume, thin membranous; Palea shorter than lemma, thin
membranous; Anthers 3, yellow, 2 mm long, shed off at maturity ( Plate 33A) .
Palynology (LM& SEM)
diameter is 29.80µm (25 -37.5µm) and equatorial diameter is 30.66µm (27.5-35µm). P/E
ratio is 0.97 and pollen are monoporate or diporate and ectoporate. Pore diameter is
0.95µm (0.75 -1.0µm) and exine thickness is 1.25µm (0.75- 1.7 µm). Pollen fertility is
95.59 %. Sculpturing is verrucate and verrucae are narrowly spaced (Plate 33B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Intercostal long cells, with thin sinuous walls, 110-
160 μm long and 12.5 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
complex: 27.5 – 32.5 μm long and 15 - 20 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and
subsidiary cells some what triangular. Microhairs bicelled, distal cells tapering to pointed
apices, distal cell slightly longer than basal cell, 15 – 20 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide.
Hooks rounded, present at the junction of two long cells.
Costal zone : Silica bodies dumb bell shaped or intermediate between cross and dumb
bell shaped, 1-5 layers of silica bodies, 22.5 – 25 μm long and 7.5 – 10 μm wide. Short
cells 10 – 20 μm long and 10 – 15 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 33C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells, with thick sinuous walls, 50 –
complex: 30 -32.5 μm long and 17.5 - 25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, and
subsidiary cells triangular in shape. Microhairs 30-32.5 μm long, 17.5 - 25 μm wide,
bicelled. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks rounded, present at the junction of two long cells.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 22 to 25 μm long and 10 to 12.5 μm wide,
silica bodies and short cells alternate to each other, 1 - 4 layers of silica bodies. Short
cells 15 - 22.5 μm long and 10 to 12.5 μm wide. Prickles 17.5 – 35 μm long and 12.5 –15
μm wide (Plate 33D).
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Results Chapter 3
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with prickles or macrohairs slightly opposite to the large
vascular bundle of the basic type. Adaxial surface smooth or with slight ribs and furrows,
4–5 small vascular bundles present between large vascular bundles of basic type.
Chlorenchyma cells clearly radiating the vascular bundles. Large vascular bundles of
basic type with adaxial and abaxial girders. Small vascular bundles without
sclerenchyma strands or girders. Keel conspicuous, and occupied by the median large
vascular bundle of basic type rounded at the tip. Most part of the mid rib occupied by
colourless cells, some cells angular in shape, 2 or 3 outer layers of epidermal cells on the
adaxial surface in the mid rib region. Bulliform cells in irregular group of 2 – 5 cells.
Large vascular bundles with single sheath, interrupted abaxially by abaxial sclerenchyma
girders, complete adaxially or interrupted. Small vascular bundles also with a single
sheath, sheath cells almost equal in size (Plate 33E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
31. Vetiveria zizanoides (Linn.)

Voucher No.77
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Uchali, Soon Sakesar (Rawalpindi).
Distribution in World: Throughout Africa, India, Burma, Sri Lanka, South East Asia
Occurrence and Habitat: Very rare or edges of fields .
Flowering: August – September
Tufted perennial, culms 117 cm high; Leaf blades 35 – 37 cm long, 4.5 mm

wide, keeled at the base; Ligule a short ciliated fringe, basal sheaths laterally compressed
and keeled; Panicle 25 – 27.5 cm long with whorls of numerous slender racemes;
Racemes composed of several to many spikelets; A pair of two spikelets, pedicelled and
sessile, sessile spikelet 4 mm long; Glumes slightly lanceolate, oblong and coriacious;
Upper glume 3.7 – 3.8 mm long, black spines on the mid back, glacuous and hard;
Lower glume with stiff spines on the margins and on the back, 4mm long and 1.4 mm
wide, glacuous and hard; Upper lemma hyaline, as long as upper glume, closely attached
with upper glume; Lower lemma hyaline, a little shorter than lower glume; Pedicelled
spikelets 3.7 – 3.8 mm long, upper glume 3.6 mm long, short spines on the mid of the
back, at the half front portion, lower glume 3.6 mm long, 1 mm wide spines on the
margins, and one or two spines on the mid, rounded on the back stiff, lemma hyaline, as
long as the glume, palea also hyaline; Stigma 1.7 – 1.8 mm long, plumose, anthers
yellow about 2 mm long (Plate 34A).
Pollen are circular in polar view and prolate to sub prolate in equatorial view.
Polar diameter is 32 μm (22.5 – 40 μm) and equatorial diameter is 27.5 μm (20 – 40 μm).
P/E ratio is 1.16. Pollen are endoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.75 μm (2.5 –
3.0 μm) and exine thickness is 1.08 μm (0.5 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 75 %.
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Results Chapter 3
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with moderately thick
sinuous walls, 75 – 150 μm long and 7.5 – 13.75 μm wide. Short cells abundant between
the long cells, 5.75 μm wide horizontally and vertical diameter, 11.25 - 15 μm. Number
of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 4 – 13. Number of stomatal rows
between two costal zones, 2-4. Stomatal complex: 27.5 – 32.5 μm long and 13.75 – 22.5
μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells triangular. Microhairs bicelled,
12.5 – 23.25 μm long and 8.75 – 10 μm wide, distal cells with rounded apices.
Macrohairs none seen; Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross shaped, 2 – 5 layers of silica bodies, sinuous cells
present between cross shaped silica bodies. Short cells 42.5 – 61.5 μm long and 8.75 –
12.5 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 34C).
μm long and 15 – 25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones,
8–16. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 4. Stomatal complex:
22.5 – 31.25 μm long and 15 – 22.5 μm wide. Microhairs none seen, macrohairs none
seen, hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross shaped, 7.5 – 8.75 μm horizontally and vertical
diameter, 13.75 – 15 μm; Long cells with sinuous walls present between silica bodies,
short cells with sinuous walls, 77.5 – 125 μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide. Prickles none
seen (Plate 34D).
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with no ribs and furrows and smooth. Abaxial surface smooth,
with slight ribs and furrows. Large vascular bundles of basic type, small vascular bundles
embedded in the assimilatory tissues. Sclerenchyma depositions at the margins. Large
vascular bundles with wide and thick abaxial sclerenchyma girders and short adaxial
strands. Most of the small vascular bundles with no girders or strands but some vascular
bundles with abaxial strands or girders. The adaxial strands connected to the bundle
sheath by girders of large colourless cells and separating different intercellular cavities
from each other. Chlorenchyma cells in narrow strips towards the abaxial epidermis.
These strips extending towards the middle, covering the right and left sides of large
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Results Chapter 3
vascular bundles of basic type. Most part of the lamina covered by large intercellular
cavities extending from the assimilatory tissue to just below the adaxial epidermis.
Girders of colorless cells present between intercellular cavities. These girders extending
from vascular bundles to adaxial surface. 6 – 7 intercellular cavities present on either
side of the mid rib. Intercellular cavities absent at the margins. Keel conspicuous. The
lamina narrow in the mid rib region and at the margins, abaxial projection at the mid rib
region. Bulliform cells in a single group along the adaxial side and also in a single row
abaxially. Vascular bundles with single sheath. Large vascular bundles interrupted
abaxially. Small vascular bundles with complete sheath (Plate 34E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
3.10. TRIBE: PANICEAE
Genus: Brachiaria (Trin.) Griseb.
Key to Species
1. Lower glume up to only one fourth of the length of spikelet, usually truncate.
B.reptans
Lower glume a little shorter than half of the length of spikelet. 2
2. Upper lemma smooth, shining and obtuse.

B.deflexa
Upper lemma rugose and crustaceous, bluntly acute. 3
3. Lower lemma as long as spikelet, 5 nerved

B.distachya
Lower lemma as long as spikelet, 3 nerved 4
4. Spikelets 2 mm long, 0.8 mm wide, pubiscent and elliptic

B. eruciformis
Spikelets, 2.5-2.8 mm long, 1.3 mm wide, ovate elliptic, slightly pubiscent or
glabrous
B. ramosa
32. Brachiaria deflexa (Schumach.) C.E. Hubbard ex Robyns

Voucher No. 125
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Khewra (Rawalpindi, Sargodha, Lorali Distt,
Sahiwal )
Distribution in World: Senegal to Yemen and south wards to South Africa.
Occurrence and Habitat: Shady places, at the base of mountains.
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Results Chapter 3
Flowering: July-August
A loosely tufted annual grass, more than 30 cm long, ascending or geniculately

ascending, nodes short hairy; Leaf blades, 4 – 11 cm long, 0.6 mm wide, glabrous on
surface, slightly pubescent, scabrid on the margins; Ligule a ciliated fringe or a ciliated
rim, basal sheath keeled, pubescent, upper sheath also pubescent; Panicle 5.0 – 8.5 cm
long, rachis, main axis and pedicel scabrid, pubescent and with stiff white hairs; Spikelets 3
mm long, oval, globose and pointed; Upper glume as long as the spikelet, pubiscent, 5
nerved and membranous at the margins. Lower glume a little short than half of the length
of spikelet, 5 nerved, acute, pointed at the tip, and membranous at the margins; Upper
Lemma and palea shiny and smooth, upper floret bisexual; Lower lemma 5 nerved,
pubescent as long as the spikelet, its palea hyaline, narrower, little shorter than lemma and
less in width than lemma; Anthers pale yellow, 1 mm long (Plate 35A).
diameter is 33.03 μm (30 – 37.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 32.5 μm (27.5 – 37.5 μm).
P/E ratio is 1.01. Pollen are ectoporate or endoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 3.1
μm (1.25 – 4.0 μm) and exine thickness is 1.15 μm (1.0 – 1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is
84.66%. Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 35B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin sinuous walls, some
cells with cubical and slightly to moderately sinuous walls, 65 – 123 μm long and 12 – 18
μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zone, 4–10. Number of
stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 4. Stomatal complex: 31 – 33 μm long and 15
– 20 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells triangular or low dome
shaped. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell longer than the basal cell, 34 – 65 μm long and 3.5
– 6.0 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
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Results Chapter 3
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped or intermediate between cross and dumb bell
shaped, 11 – 14.5 μm long and 3 – 6 μm wide. Short cells 9 – 12.5 μm long and 6.5 – 8.5
μm wide, silica bodies and short cells alternatively present to each other. Prickles present,
48 – 60 μm long and 11 – 14.5 μm wide (Plate 35C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous or non sinuous walls,
62.5 – 82 μm long and 13.5 - 16 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two
complex, 25 – 32 μm long and 18 – 22 μm wide, subsidiary cells triangular in shape.
Microhairs bicelled, 28 – 57.5 μm long and 5.5 – 7.0 μm wide. Hooks none seen, prickles
none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 13 –14.5 μm long and 4 – 5.5 μm wide, silica
bodies and short cell alternatively present to each other. Short cells, 9 – 11 μm long and
5.5– 8.25 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 35D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and shallow furrows, abaxial surface somewhat flat,
mostly vascular bundles small, a few large vascular bundles of basic type. Small vascular
bundles with no sclerenchyma strands or girders. The large vascular bundles with adaxial
and abaxial strands. Keel prominent and rounded with no large median vascular bundle, 4 –
5 small vascular bundles present in the keel region. Bulliform cells in fan shaped groups
and middle cell larger and penetrating deeply into mesophyll. Chlorenchyma cells not
prominent, bundle sheath single and complete (Plate 35E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
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Results Chapter 3
33. Brachiaria distachya (Linn.) Stapf.

Voucher No: 313
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Sakesar, Mardwal, Khabaki, Narwari, Chakwal
(Kashmir, Nowshera, Bhimber hills, in hills of Sind and Punjab)
Distribution in World: Kashmir, India to Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand, introduced in
Africa.
Occurrence and Habitat: Rare under shady trees, moist clay soil, wet organic black soil
with litter.
Flowering: July - September
An annual grass, up to 75 cm high, rooting at nodes, nodes pubiscent; Leaf blades,
6 - 10.5 cm long, 1.4 cm wide, with glabrous surface and scabird at the margins; Ligule a
ciliated rim, sheath glabrous; Inflorescence a panicle, 9 – 13 cm long. The main axis of
inflorescence scabrid and slightly pubiscent, a few stiff hairs present at the pedicel,
spikelets 2.8 mm long and 1.4 – 1.5 mm wide, gaping, glabrous, elliptic and acute; Upper
glume as long as spikelet, pubesent, 7 nerved; Lower glume, one third of the length of
spikelet, 3 nerved; Upper lemma, 2.5 mm long, rugose and crustacious, bluntly acute;
Lower lemma as long as the spikelet, 5 nerved, pubiscent, its palea hyaline; Caryopsis 1.5 –
1.6 mm long, 0.9 mm wide, oval, elliptic, enclosed by hardened lemma and palea (Plate
36A ).

diameter is 31.25 μm (22.5 – 40 μm) and equatorial diameter is 27.5 μm (25 – 35 μm). P/E
ratio is 1.13. Pollen are monoporate and endoporate. Pore diameter is 3.75 μm (3.5 – 4.0
μm) and exine thickness is 1.06 μm (0.75 – 1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 78.84%.
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Results Chapter 3
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells having sinuous walls, 52.5– 117.5
μm long and 13.75 – 21.25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells, between two costal
zones, 6 –12. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 4. Stomatal complex:
22.5 – 25 μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary
cells low to high dome shaped. Mircohairs bicelled, distal cell not apparent, 15 – 17.5 μm
long and 5 – 6.5 μm wide. Macrohairs 71.25 – 120 μm long and 6.26 – 11.25 μm wide.
Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross to dumb bell shaped, 15 – 17.5 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm
wide. Short cells, 55-60 μm long and 25-27.5 μm wide. Angular prickles present, 51-78 μm
long and 8-10 μm wide (Plate 36C) .
μm long and 12.5 – 20 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones,
5– 10. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 3 – 4. Stomatal complex: 23 –
27.5 μm long and 16.5- 17.25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells
low dome shaped, subsidiary cells 6.25-7.0 μm long and guard cells 3 – 3.75 μm wide.
Mircohairs bicelled, 15 – 17.5 μm long and 6.5 – 7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen.
Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 18.25 – 20 μm long and 6 -7.5 μm wide.
Silica bodies and short cells alternatively present to each other. Prickles none seen (Plate
36D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial and abaxial surfaces with slight ribs and shallow furrows, or smooth
.Mostly vascular bundles small and not angular in outline. A few large vascular bundles of
basic type. Mostly small vascular bundles not accompanied by sclerenchyma girders or
strands. Large vascular bundles with small adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma strands. Keel
not conspicuous having a single median vascular bnundle. Chlorenchyma cells radially
arranged around the vascular bundles. Bulliform cells in small fan shaped groups present
adaxially and sometimes, middle cell penetrating into mesophyll (sporobolus type). Small
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Results Chapter 3
vascular bundles with single and complete sheath and large vascular bundles with double
sheath i.e. inner and outer sheaths complete (Plate 36E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
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Results Chapter 3
34. Brachiaria eruciformis (J.E.Sm.) Stapf

Voucher No: 291
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Sakesar, Mardwal, (Hazara, Kashmir,

Rawalpindi, Sargodha, Sakesar, Hydarbad , Mirpur)
Distribution in World: South Africa to the Mediterranean, Eastwards to India
Occurrence and Habitat: Very common weed of cultivated fields, near wet irrigated land,
wet clay soil.
Flowering: July – September
Annual herbs, culm upto 45 cm tall, ascending, culms slender, nodes hairy,
internodes glabrous, internodes 5–7.5 cm long; Leaf blades, 4.5 – 8.5 cm long linear
lanceolate, glabrous on the surface and scabrid on the margins; Ligule a ciliated rim;
Sheath hispid at the surface and on the margins; Inflorescence, 4 – 7.5 cm long, having 4–
6 racemes, racemes 1 – 2 cm long, secund, spikelets pubiscent, elliptic, 2 mm long, 0.8 mm
wide; Upper floret dehiscent, readily deciduous, spikelets in single, along one side of
rachis, rachis triqueterous; Upper glume pubiscent, 5 nerved, as long as spikelet; Lower
glume very minute, glumes and lower floret persistent; Upper lemma, 1.5 mm long,
smooth, glacuous, obtuse and deciduous (it disarticulates when spikelet is disturbed ); Palea
shiny smooth, enclosed at the margins by the lemma; lower lemma as long as spikelet, 3
nerved; Lower palea, 2 keeled, hyaline, narrow, little shorter than lemma; Caryopsis
blackish, 0.7 mm long , 0.4 mm wide ( Plate 37A).
diameter is 24.30 µm (21.2 -26.5 µm) and equatorial diameter is 22.5 µm (18.9 -29µm).
P/E ratio is 1.08. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 3.5 µm (3.2 - 4.0
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µm) and exine thickness is 0.98 µm (0.75-1.02 µm). Pollen fertility is 77.50 %. Sculpturing
is scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 37B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 65 – 105 μm
long and 12.5 – 17.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells, between two costal zones, 5 –
7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 5. Stomatal complex: 22.5 – 25
μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells triangular
or low dome shaped, guard cells 6 – 6.25 μm wide and subsidiary cells 7.5 – 8.25 μm wide.
Mircohairs bicelled, 11.25 – 16.25 μm long and 3.75 – 5 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen.
Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped or intermediate between dumb bell and cross
shaped, 12.5 – 13.5 μm long and 7.5 – 8.5 μm wide. Silica bodies and short cells
alternatively in a row. Short cells 15-17.5 μm long and 8-10 μm wide. Prickles present
(Plate 37C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells 62.5 – 125 μm long and 11.25 –
17.5 μm wide, with sinuous walls. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones,
5 – 6. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 4. Stomatal complex: 25 –
27.5 μm long and 15 - 17.5 μm wide, guard cells 4 – 5 μm wide and subsidiary cells 5 –
6.25 μm wide. Mircohairs bicelled, distal cell not prominent, 12.5 – 15 μm long and 3.75 –
5.0 μm wide. Macrohairs not seen. Hooks not seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 15 – 17.5 μm long and 5 -7.25 μm wide.
Short cells 11 - 11.25 μm long and 8 – 10 μm wide. Prickles not seen (Plate 37D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with small ribs and shallow furrows. Abaxial surface with
prominent ribs and furrows, ribs large opposite to the large vascular bundles of basic type.
Vascular bundles mostly small, a few large vascular bundles of basic type, sclerenchyma
depositions at the magins. All vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma
strands, abaxial strands thick as compared to adaxial strands. Chlorenchyma cells radially
arranged around the vascular bundles. Keel conspicuous with solitary vascular bundle of
basic type. Bulliform cells in fan shaped groups, in the group of 4–6 cells, deeply
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penetrating the mesophyll. Bundle sheath single and complete, not clear in small vascular
bundles (Plate 37E & F).
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35. Brachiaria ramosa (Linn.) Stapf

Voucher No: 30
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar, Choa Saidan Shah, Sakesar,
Sodhi, (Dir, Kashmir, Jhelum Valley, Swat, Hazara, D.I.Khan, Sialkot, Lorali, Dadu,
Tharparker).
Distribution in World: Sengal to Yeman and South Wards to Malawi, Rhodesia & South
Africa, tropical Asia.
Occurence and Habitat: Common in waste places, in fields, and near fields, clay soil, dry
and wet sandy soil, sandy clay.
Flowering: June – October
Annual, upto 55 cm tall, decumbent, geniculately ascending, rooting at lower nodes,

nodes short hairy or beared, internodes 5 – 10.5 cm long; Leaf blades, 5.5 – 14.5 cm long,
0.8 – 1.2 cm wide, linear lanceolate, glabrous or puberelent on the surface and scabrid on
the margins; Ligule a ciliated fringe, 0.8 mm long, sheath glabrous; Inflorescence irregular
panicle, 6.3 – 12.5 cm long, having secondary branchlets; Main axis and rachis with stiff
white hairs (papillose hispid), triqueterous branches, forming inflorescence, 2.3 – 4.5 cm
long, spikelets 2.5 – 2.8 mm long, 1.3 mm wide, ovate elliptic, slightly pubescent or
glabrous; Lower glume one third of the length of spikelet, 3 nerved, membranous, 0.9 mm
long, sparsly pubescent; Upper glume, as long as the spikelet, 1.5 mm wide, 7 nerved,
membranous, pubescent or glabrous; Lower lemma as long as the spikelet, 5 nerved
membranous, barren or empty, similar to upper glume, its palea equal or little shorter than
lemma, hyaline, narrow in width than lemma; Upper lemma, 2.1 – 2.6 mm long, 1.1 – 1.2
mm wide, 3 nerved, rugose, (nerves apparent on the lower surface); Upper floret bisexual,
its palea rugose, enclosed by incurved margins of its lemma. Stamens 3, anthers light
greenish, 0.7 mm long, stigma blackish, 0.25 mm long; Caryopsis enclosed by hardened
lemma and palea, 0.7 – 0.9 mm long, 0.7 mm wide, ovoid (Plate 38A) .
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Pollen are circular in polar view and sub oblate or oblate spheroidal in equatorial
view. Polar diameter is 24.09 μm (15 – 35 μm) and equatorial diameter is 27.5 μm (22.5 –
32.5 μm). P/E ratio is 0.87. Pollen are endoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2 μm
(1.2 – 2.5 μm) and exine thickness is 0.85 μm (0.75 – 1.0 μm). Pollen fertility is 68.75%.
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous
walls, 57.5 – 102.5 μm long and 10.75 – 23.75 μm wide, short cells somewhat rounded,
present between long cells, 12.5 μm wide horizontally and 20 μm wide vertically. Number
of rows of long cells, between two costal zones, 4 – 8. Number of stomatal rows between
two costal zones, 1 – 3. Stomatal complex: 27.5 – 31.25 μm long and 17.5. – 22.5 μm wide,
guard cells dumb bell shaped, very thin in the middle, subsidiary cells low dome shaped,
guard cells 3.5 – 3.75 μm wide and subsidiary cells 5.5 – 7.5 μm wide. Mircohairs bicelled,
distal cell thin walled and not prominent, distal cell tapering towards the tip and rounded at
the tip, basal cell with rounded base, 27.5 – 30 μm long and 7.5 – 8.75 μm wide.
Macrohairs tapering towards, the tip and pointed at tip, 55 – 61.25 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm
wide. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped or irregularly shaped, short cells rarely
present between silica bodies. Short cells with none sinuous walls, 13.75 – 15 μm long and
6.25 – 8.75 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 38C).
Adaxial intrcostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cell with sinuous walls and rectangular
in shape, 52.5 – 67.5 μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide, rounded short cells present between
long cells, 12.5 μm long and 12.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells, between two
complex: 20 –22.5 μm long and 15-16 μm wide. Guard cells dumb bell shaped and
subsidiary cells low dome shaped, guard cells, 4–5 μm wide and subsidiary cells, 7 – 7.5
μm wide. Mircohairs bicelled, distal cell not apparent, 18.75 – 20 μm long and 6.25 μm
wide. Macrohairs none seen, hooks none seen.
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Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped or slightly lobed in the middle, 15 – 17.5 μm
long and 6.25 – 7.5 μm wide. Short cells somewhat cross shaped, 10 – 11.25 μm long and
7.5 - 11.25 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 38D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial and abaxial surfaces flat or with slight ribs and shallow furrows. Most
vascular bundles small and not angular, a few large vascular bundles of basic type. Small
vascular bundles having small sclerenchyma strands adaxially or without any strand or
girder abaxially and adaxially. Keel prominent and rounded abaxially, with no large
median vascular bundles, a few small vascular bundles present in the keel region.
Chlorenchyma cells not clearly radiating the vascular bundles. Bulliform cells in fan
shaped groups on the adaxial side and sometimes the middle cell deeply penetrating into
the mesophyll (sporobolus type). Bundle sheath single and complete. Bundle sheath
surrounding the large vascular bundles sometimes having extension towards the adaxial
girders (Plate 38E & F).
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36. Brachiaria reptans (Linns.) Gardner & Hubbard

Voucher No: 14
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar, Narwari (on way to Soon
Sakesar (Hazara, Haripur, Swat, Mingora, Rawalpindi, Attock, D.I.Khan, Lahore,
Khairpur)
Distribution in World: Tropical Asia, introduced throughout the tropics.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common along water courses, and under the shade of bushes,
near fields, wet clay soil.
Flowering: June - November
An annual decumbent grass, prostrate at the base, rooting at the nodes; Culm upto
21 cm tall; Leaf blades 1.5 – 5.0 cm long, 4 – 8 mm wide, glabrous on the both sides,
scabrid on the margins, lanceolate and folded; Ligule a short ciliated rim; Sheath glabrous,
membranous and hairy at the margins; Inflorescence having 3 – 7 racemes, raceme1.2 – 2.3
cm long, rachis and pedicel persistent, spikelets disarticulating above the pedicels, rachis
scabrid and papillose hirsute (having soft white hairs); Spikelets 1.8 – 1.9 mm long, 0.8
mm wide, ovate oblong; Upper glume as long as spikelets, 7 nerved, membranous, ovate;
Lower glume 0.3 – 0.4 mm long, faintly nerved and hyaline; Upper lemma faintly 3
nerved, elliptic with a short tip (mucronulate ), rugose, little shorter than the spikelet;
Upper palea rugulose, enclosed by incurved margins of lemma; Lower lemma 5 nerved,
membranous, as long as the spikelet; Lower palea almost equal or shorter than lemma,
elliptic, hyaline, folded at the margins. Stamens 3, anthers 0.6 mm long, stigma 2, blackish,
0.4 mm long; Caryopsis flattened, oval (Plate 39A).

diameter is 23.40 μm (20 - 25 μm) and equatorial diameter is 21.45 μm (17.5 – 27.5 μm).
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P/E ratio is 1.09. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.83 μm (1.5 –
3.5 μm) and exine thickness is 0.96 μm (0.75 – 1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 78.30 %.
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin sinuous walls, 60 – 115
4-7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 4. Stomatal complex: 30 –
32.5 μm long and 15 – 21.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells
triangular, guard cells 6.25 – 8.75 μm wide, subsidiary cells also 6.25 – 8.75 μm wide.
Microhairs bicelled, distal cell longer than basal cell, distal cell tapering towards the apex,
32.5 – 50 μm long and 3.75 – 6.25 μm long. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 11.25 – 14.37 μm long and 4.0 – 6.25 μm
wide. Short cells 8 – 10 μm long, 6.25 – 8.75 μm wide, silica bodies and short cells
alternatively present to each other.Angular prickles present, 52 – 57.5 μm long and 10 –
12.5 μm wide (Plate 39C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with straight walls, 61.25 – 75 μm
long and 13.75 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 5 –
6. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 4. Stomatal complex: 20 – 22.5
μm long and 15 – 16.25 μm wide, subsidiary cell triangular, guard cells 6 – 6.25 μm wide
and subsidiary cells, 5 – 6.25 μm wide. Microhairs 17.5 – 25 μm long and 5 – 6.25 μm
wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 12 – 13.75 μm long and 5 – 6.5 μm
wide.Silica bodies and short cells alternatively present to each other. Short cells 8.0 – 8.75
μm long and 6.5 – 7.25 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 39D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial and abaxial surface smooth, most vascular bundles small and not
angular. A few large vascular bundles of basic type. Mostly small and large vascular
bundles with adaxial and abaxial strands having few cells. A few small vascular bundles
with no adaxial or abaxial strands. Keel fairly conspicuous, with large median vascular
bundle. Chlorenchyma cells not prominent. Bulliform cells and associated colourless cells
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in fan shaped groups penetrating the mesophyll (sporobolus type). Small vascular bundles
with a single complete sheath, large vascular bundles with double sheath, complete or outer
sheath interrupted abaxially (Plate39 E& F).
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Genus: Cenchrus L.
Key to Species
1. Inner bristles long ciliate along the margins, apparently free or connate at the
base in the lower 0.5 mm portion above the rim. C. ciliaris
Inner bristles connate for 1/4 to 2/3 of their length to form a cupulate structure.
2
2. Lower glume less than half of the length of spikelet or one third of the length of
spikelet. C. setigerus
Lower glume almost equal to upper glume and inner bristles connate and
retrorsely barbed. C. biflorus
37. Cenchrus biflorus Roxb.

Voucher No.114
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar, Kala Bagh, Soon Sakesar
(Attock Distt , Mirpur, Bahawalpur Distt,Tharparker, Hyderabad ) .
Distribution in World: Tropical Africa, extending through Arabia to India.
Occurence and Habitat: At the mountains base rare clay, sandy clay
Flowering: April – October
Annual, culm length 50 – 60 cm; Leaf blades 3 – 11 cm long, scabrid on the adaxial
side,smooth on the abaxial side, dentate at the margins; Ligule a ciliated fringe, sheath
smooth; Panicle 3.5 – 8.0 cm long; involucre 5 – 6 mm long, the inner spines connate at the
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base, ciliated at the base or on the lower half, retrorsely barbed and pungent at the tip, the
outer spines smaller and thin than the inner, divergent, 3 spikelets in a burr, spikelets
oblong ovate, 3 mm long; Upper glume 5 – 7 nerved; Lower glume 5 nerved, papery,
oblong ovate, almost equal; Lemma and palea smooth and shiny, palea overlapped at the
margins by the lemma, oblong ovate, pointed at the tip; Caryopsis1.6 mm long, 1 mm
wide, broad, somewhat ovate (Plate 40A).
diameter is 32.5 μm (26 – 42.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 31.92 μm (24 - 40 μm). P/E
ratio is 1.01. Pore diameter is 2.75 μm (2 – 3.2 μm) and pollen are endoporate and
monoporate. Exine thickness is 1.4 μm (1.0 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 80.20%.
Leaf Epidermal Anatomy:

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous or
non sinuous walls, 60 – 135 μm long and 17 – 20.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells
between two costal zones, 4 – 20. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 –
4. Stomatal complex: 30 – 32.5 μm long and 18 – 22 μm wide. Microhairs bicelled, distal
cell longer then basal cell, 40 - 52 μm long and 4 – 7 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen.
Hooks irregular in shape, present at the junction of two long cells, pointed at one end.
shaped, 8 – 14 μm long and 6.5 – 11 μm wide, short cells frequent, 11 – 29.5 μm long and
4 – 7 μm wide. Prickles present in the costal zone, 30 – 34 μm long and 21 – 24.5 μm wide
(Plate 40C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with non sinuous walls, 48 - 132
μm long and 12 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 4-
10. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 4. Stomatal complex: 28 – 32.5
μm long, subsidiary cells triangular. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell longer than basal cell,
40 – 52 μm long and 6 – 8.5 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen.
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shaped. Short cells 11- 13 μm long and 6.5 – 9.0 μm wide. Prickles present, 32 – 47 μm
long and 11 – 18.5 μm wide (Plate 40D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with prominent ribs and furrows, pointed prickles present on the
adaxial ribs, prickles broad at the base and pointed towards the tip. Abaxial surface uneven,
but without prominent ribs and furrows. Large vascular bundles of basic type, repeating
after 6–7 small vascular bundles. Large vascular bundles of basic type with prominent
abaxial and adaxial thick strands and with no sclerenchyma girders. Vascular bundles at the
margins and opposite to furrows without any adaxial sclerenchyma strand, abaxial strands
present. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Keel faily
conspicuous, wide and rounded, with large median vascular bundles of basic type,
accompanied by 3 – 4 small vascular bundles on each side. Mid rib region covered by
irregularly shaped colourless cells. Bulliform cells in fan shaped groups present in the
furrows regions. Bulliform cells also present in groups near margins. Bundle sheath single
and complete in all vascular bundles, the sheath cells of small vascular bundles large in size
(Plate 40E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
38. Cenchrus ciliaris Linn.

Voucher No: 59
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Dhok Seela, Chakwal, Kallar Kahar, Sodhi,
Kathwai, Jaba, Kariala, Choa Saidan Shah. (Peshwar, Khyber Distt. Kohat, D.I.Khan,
Attock, Quetta, Multan, Dadu).
Distribution in World: Hotter and drier part of India, Mediterranian region, tropical and
southern Africa, now widely introduced.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on mountain slopes, near fields, at the base of
mountains, on mountains, sandy clay, stony clay, stony soil, clay soil.
Flowering: March – October
A tussocky perennial grass, 20 – 115 cm tall; Leaf blades, 5 – 40 cm long, 2 – 5 mm

wide, dense hairy at the base, sparsly hairy on the surface, scabrid on the surface and on the
margins; Ligule lacerate membranous; Sheath glabrous in the lower side but sparsly hairy
on the above surface and on the margins; Inflorescence 4 – 13 cm long panicle, cylindrical
to ovoid, gray purple or straw coloured; Involucre 8 -10 mm long, inner bristles stiff
flattened, ciliated in the lower half and greenish in the middle, narrow awn like and scabrid
in the upper half, connate in the lower 0.5 mm portain above the rim; Involucre enclosing
the two spikelets, 3.5 – 4.0 mm long, lanceolate; Upper glume more than half of the length
of spikelet; Lower glume about half of the length of spikelet, glumes 1 nerved; Upper
lemma as long as spikelet, 5 nerved, coriacious, folded on margins and enclosing palea;
Palea also cariacious; Lower lemma as long as the spikelet, 5 nerved, membranous,
lanceolate, enclosing the palea at the margins, 1.4 mm wide when unfolded; Anthers 1.8 –
1.9 mm long; Stigma plumose, 2mm long; Style, 1.8 – 1.9 mm long; Lower floret barren,
upper floret female; Caryopsis 1 – 1.2 mm long and 0.5 mm wide, enclosed by upper
lemma and palea ( Plate 41A ).
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Pollen are circular in polar view and sub prolate in spheroidal view. Polar diameter
is 36.36 μm (30-40 μm) and equatorial diameter is 30.35 μm (25 – 35 μm). P/E ratio is
1.19. Pollen are endoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.83 μm (2.0 – 3.5 μm) and
exine thickness is 1.38 µm (1.0 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 85.14 %. Pollen are scabrate
and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 41B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with, thin sinuous walls, 65 – 130
μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 4
– 27. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 4. Stomatal complex: guard
cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells low to high dome shaped, 30 - 35 μm long and 15
– 20 μm wide. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell very long and tapering towards apices, 25 –
32.5 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks irregularly rounded,
present between the two long cells, pointed at one end, rounded part 20 – 35 μm long and
5–7 μm wide wide, beak projections 20 – 27.5 μm long.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 1 – 4 layers of silica bodies, or intermediate
between cross and dumb bell shaped. Short cells cross shaped, 10 – 27.5 μm long, 5 – 7.5
μm wide. Prickles 33 – 35 μm long and 22.5 – 25 μm wide (Plate 41C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with, deeply sinuous walls, 50 -
zones,6 – 10. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 4. Stomatal complex:
30 – 35 μm long and 25 – 30 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells
high dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell longer than basal cell, 25 – 32.5 μm long
and 5 – 7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks 17.5 μm - 25 μm long and 15 – 17.5
μm wide, rounded and present between two cells.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 1 – 3 layers of silica bodies, 12.5 – 15 μm
long and 7.5 – 12.5 μm wide. Short cells 10 - 12.5 μm long and 7.5 – 10 μm wide. Prickles
35 – 50 μm long and 12.5 – 22.5 μm wide, 8 – 16 cells between prickles (Plate 41D).
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T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows. Pointed prickles with swollen base
infrequently present on ribs. Abaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows, furrows narrow
and deep as compared to adaxial surface. Vascular bundles arranged in two distinct rows in
the mesophyll, 6 – 7 small vascular bundles present between large vascular bundles. Large
vascular bundles of basic type with thick abaxial and adaxial sclerenchyma strands. Small
vascular bundles with conspicuous abaxial sclerenchyma strands, but no adaxial
sclerenchyma strand observed. Sclerenchyma depositions at the margins. Chlorenchyma
cells clearly radiating the vascular bundles. Chlorenchyma cells forming a continuous
strand throughout the mesophyll, from one vascular bundle to the other. Keel fairly
conspicuous, with large median vascular bundle of basic type, with three small vascular
bundles on each side. Bulliform cells in irregular or fan shaped groups. Bundle sheath
single, complete, around all vascular bundles (Plate 41E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
39. Cenchrus setigerus Vahl.

Voucher No: 203
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Sakesar, Sodhi, Kathwai, Kanhati Garden,
Khabaki, Choa Saidan Shah and Kallar Kahar (Kohat, Attock, Rawalpindi, Sialkot, Lahore,
Karachi, Hyderabad, Tharparker)
Distribution in World: North West India and North East Tropical Africa.
Occurence and Habitat: Rare on slopes, in fields with stony clay soil, rare near water
courses, clay soil, sandy soil, red sandy clay.
A tufted perennial, 20 – 50 cm long, geniculately ascending; Leaf blades 3.5 – 15

cm long , 2 -3 mm wide; Ligule lacerate membranous, sheath glabrous, sparsly hairy at the
margins; Inflorescence, a panicle, 2.5 – 8 cm long, the rachis of inflorescence, flexous
(zigzag), persistent and scabrid; Involucre cupulated ( cup shaped ), 3.5 – 5.2 cm long. The
inner bristles connate (on the lower side less then half of the length of bristles), forming a
cup, rigid and flat; The outer bristles very minute; The involucre enclosing 3 spikelets;
Spikelets 3.3 – 3.9 mm long, oblong lanceolate; The inner bristles antrorsely scabrid and
puberelous on the margins and on inner side, narrowly triangular at the tip, with greenish
mid lines and dark purple at the tips; Upper glume, more than half of the length of spikelet,
1 nerved, broad ovate, 1.6 – 1.7 mm long, in a 3 mm long spikelet, membranous; Lower
glume less than half of the length of spikelet or one third of length of spikelet, 1 nerved,
membranous; Upper lemma, 5 nerved, coriacious; Upper palea thin membranous; Lower
lemma, 5 nerved, nerves not extending throughout the inner surface, its palea little shorter
than lemma, narrow than lower lemma, two lateral nerves extending to the tip; Anthers 1.4
– 2.0 mm long, yellowish to purple; Stigma 2.5 mm long; Caryopsis1 – 1.8 mm long, 0.6 –
0.9 mm wide, dark brown, ovoid, dorsally compressed (Plate 42A ) .
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diameter is 31.25 μm (25 – 45 μm) and equatorial diameter is 31.04 μm (25 – 37.5 μm).
P/E ratio is 1.0. Pollen are endoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.66 μm (2.0 – 4.0
μm) and exine thickness is 1.38 μm (1.0 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 85.71 % .Sculpturing
is verrucate and verrucae are widely spaced (Plate 42B).
Abaxial intrcostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, interstomatal
long cells concave at the margins, 60 – 135 μm long and 12 – 15.7 μm wide. Number of
rows of long cells, between two costal zones, 3 – 9. Number of stomatal rows between two
costal zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal complex: guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells
triangular or low dome shaped, 32–34 μm long and 14 – 20 μm wide. Microhairs bicelled,
distal cells long and tapering towards apices, 22 – 30 μm long and 4 – 6.5 μm wide.
Macrohairs none seen. Hooks rounded, present between two long cells, pointed at one end,
rounded part 18 – 32 μm long and 4 – 6.5 μm wide, beak like projection, 18 – 25 μm long.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 8 – 22.5 μm long and 5 – 6.5 μm wide, 1 – 4
layers of silica bodies. Short cells with sinuous walls, 10 – 28 μm long and 4 – 7.5 μm
wide, width one third of the length. Angular prickles with pointed beak at one end, 25 – 30
μm long, pointed beak 15 – 22 μm long (Plate 42C).
Adaxial intercostals zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells slightly sinuous, some cells with
straight walls, 42 – 150 μm long and 16 – 20.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells,
between two costal zones, 5 –15. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 –
5. Stomatal complex, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells low dome shaped,
32 – 35 μm long and 12 – 18 μm wide. Microhairs bicelled, basal cells longer than the
distal cell, distal cell thin walled and not apparent, tapering to the tip, 25 – 30 μm long and
3.5 – 5.5 μm wide. Macrohairs a few, very long. Hooks 8–22 μm long and 12–18 μm wide,
rounded and pointed at one side.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped to cross shaped, 8 –12.5 μm long and 6.5 – 10
μm wide. Short cells cross shaped, 8 – 12 μm long and 6.5 – 8 μm wide. Prickles present
abundantly, repeating ater 3 – 4 short cells and silica bodies 32 – 45 μm long and 12 – 20
μm wide (Plate 42D ).
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T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial side opposite to mid rib region with small and narrow ribs and furrows,
pointed prickles present on the ribs. Adaxial surface with prominent ribs and furrows.
Pointed prickles abundent on the adaxial ribs. Abaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows,
pointed prickles with the curved tips present abaxially. Mostly vascular bundles small, a
few large vascular bundles of basic type. Sclerenchyma depositions at the margins. Large
vascular bundles of basic type with adaxial and abadial strands. Mostly small vascular
bundles with abaxial sclerenchyma strands only. Small vascular bundles opposite to
bulliform cells with abaxial strands only. Small vascular bundles at the margins with no
sclerenchyma strand or girder. Chlorenchyma cells clearly radiating the vascular bundles.
Keel conspicuous, wide and rounded, pointed prickles on the keel, with median vascular
bundle of basic type accompanied by 3 – 4 small vascular bundles on each side. The mid
rib covered with irregularly shaped colourless cells. Bulliform cells in fan shaped groups,
the middle cell in the group larger than the remaining one. Bundle sheath single and
complete around the vascular bundles (Plate 42E & F).
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Genus: Digitaria Haller
Key to Species
1a. A tussocky perennial, without rhizomes, but with bulbous bases giving rise to new
shoots.Spikelets 2.3 – 3.0 mm long, ovate oblong, disarticulating above the pedicel.
D. nodosa
1b. Annual, culms mostly ascending from a bent or prostrate base, rooting from the
lower nodes. Spikelets 3-3.5 mm long in pairs, along one side of raceme, ovate elliptic to
oblong elliptic D. sanguinalis
40. Digitaria nodosa Parl.

Voucher No: 113
Dsitribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Sakesar, Mardwal, Sodhi and Narwari (Kohat,
Peshawar, Rawalpindi).
Distribution in World: Africa North, Macronesia, Northern Tropical and East Tropical.
Occurrence and Habitat: Rare on mountains, at the base of mountains, red sandy clay,
clay soil.
A tussocky perennial grass without rhizomes but with bulbous bases of culms ,
giving rise to new shoots; Culms upto 60 cm tall; Leaf blades 4 – 23 cm long, 2 – 2.5 mm
wide, narrow lanceolate, stiff hairy at the base; Ligule membranous, 1 – 1.5 mm long,
sheath glabrous; Inflorescence having 3 – 7 racemes, 3 – 15 cm long, spikelets 2.3 – 3.0
mm long, ovate oblong, the pedicels of spikelets persistent, spikelets disarticulating above
the pedicel; Upper glume 2 – 2.3 mm long, shorter than spikelet, villous at the margins and
at the tip, 3 nerved, equal in length to lower lemma, but less in width to lower lemma;
Lower glume very minute (0.1 mm long), not easily visible; Upper lemma,1 nerved, 2 – 2.4
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mm long, its margins partially covering the palea; Palea smooth, membranous (upper floret
bisexual); Lower lemma as long as spikelet, 2 – 2.3 mm long, 7 nerved, villous between the
lateral nerves and slightly villous in the middle, sometimes long soft hairs covering the
outer surface, its palea very minute; Lower floret barren; Anthers 3, 1 -1.6 mm long,
yellowish, stigma 2, 0.7 – 1.0 mm long, purplish (Plate 43A ).
Palynology (LM & SEM):

Pollen are circular in polar view, and prolate spheroidal in equatorial view. Polar
diameter is 28.10 μm (22.5 – 32.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 25.16 μm (22.5 – 32.5
μm). P/E ratio is 1.11. Pollen are monoporate and ectoporate. Pore diameter is 2.20 μm
Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are widely spaced (Plate 43B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly to moderately
sinuous walls, 75 – 117.5 μm long and 12.5 – 22.5 μm wide, some cells irregular, not
having uniform width. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 3 – 7.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1–3. Stomatal complex: 25 – 27.75
μm long and 17.5 – 20 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells low to high
dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, basal and distal cell almost equal or distal cell smaller
than basal cell, distal cell thin walled and not prominent, 10 – 32.5 μm long and 5 μm wide.
Macrohairs, none seen. Hooks swollen at the base, 27.5 – 28.5 μm long and 10 – 12.5 μm
wide, abundent in intercostals zone.
shaped, 11 – 11.25 μm long and 7 – 7.5 μm wide. Short cells 22.5 – 26.25 μm long and 5-
7.5 μm wide. Prickles with swollen base, 15 – 17 μm long and 8 – 10 μm wide (Plate 43C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous walls or
having straight walls, 81.5 – 103.75 μm long and 13.75 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of
long cells between two costal zones, 5 – 16. Number of stomatal rows between two costal
zones,1 – 5. Stomatal complex, 25 – 28.75 μm long and 20 -21.25 μm wide, guard cells
dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells dome shaped. Microhairs 20 – 22.5 μm long and 5 –
7 μm wide, basal and distal cells almost equal, distal cell with very thin wall, so not very
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prominent. Macrohairs 50 – 100 μm long and 5.0- 7.5 μm wide, tapering towards the tip,
with bulbous bases, deeply sunken. Hooks swollen at the base, 25 – 27.5 μm long and 10 –
11.25 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies intermediate between cross and dumb bell shaped, 1–3 layers of
silica bodies, 10 – 12.5 μm long and 5.0 – 7.5 μm wide. Short cells with slightly sinuous
walls, 17.5 – 2.5 μm long and 5.0 - 7.5 μm wide. Prickles swollen at the base, with pointed
tip, 20 – 22.5 μm long and 6.0 – 6.5 μm wide (Plate 43D).
T. S. of Lamina
Very long and thin marcohairs deeply embedded on the adaxial side, with rounded
and swollen base, small prickles present on the adaxial side.Vascular bundles with slight
ribs over the large vascular bundles of basic type. Abaxial surface with no ribs and furrows.
Small and thick prickles, with pointed tips on the abaxial side. 7 – 9 small and median
vascular bundles, between large vascular bundles of basic type. Large and medium vascular
bundles with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma strands. The abaxial strands much thicker
than adaxial strands. Small vascular bundles without any sclerenchyma strand.
Chlorenchyma cells restricted around the vascular bundles, towards the abaxial side in the
mid rib region. Chlorenchyma cells not distinctly radiating the vascular bundles. Keel
conspicuous, not rounded, with slight ribs and furrows on abaxial side. Median large
vascular bundle accompanied by 2 or 3 small vascular bundles on each side. Most part of
the mid rib covered by colourless cells, somewhat angular in outline. Bulliform cells in
irregular group. Bundle sheath single and complete throughout most of the lamina (Plate
43E & F).
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41. Digitaria sanguinalis (Linn.) Scop

Voucher No.119
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon Sakesar, Narwari, Mardwal, Khabaki,
Sodhi, Khewra, Dhok Seela, Chakwal (Chitral, Hazara, Swat, Kashmir, Giligit,
Rawalpindi, Quetta).
Distribution in World: Warm temperate regions, throughout the world penetrating into
the tropics.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common near fields, rare on mountains, clay soil, red clay.
Flowering: June – September
A loose growing green or purplish annual, 20 – 85 cm high; Culms mostly
ascending from a bent or prostrate base, rooting from the lower nodes, hairless and
glabrous at nodes; Leaf baldes 2.5 – 18 cm long, 3 – 5 mm wide, papillose hispid or with
tubercle based hairs at the base, scabrid on the margins, narrow oblong; Ligule
membranous, 1.5 – 3.0 mm long, sheath papillose hispid, (densely to sparsly hairy from
minute tubercles) or glabrous; Inflorescence digitate having 3 – 6 racemes, culm
terminating in inflorescence; Raceme 8 – 14 cm long, raceme axis 3 angled (triqueterous),
scabrid on the angles, spikelets, 3 – 3.5 mm long, in pairs along one side of raceme, one
spikelet in pair having short pedicel and other having long pedicel, falling entire at
maturity, somewhat flattened, ovate elliptic to oblong elliptic; Upper glume shorter than
spikelet, 2.5 – 3.0 mm long, 3 nerved, thick hairy at the outer surface, lanceolate to
narrowly ovate; Lower glume minute, 0.2 mm long; Upper lemma as long as the spikelet,
pointed, firm, except for the broad thin margins, folding over the back of the palea, smooth;
Lower lemma as long as the spikelets, membranous at the margens, 7 nerved, hairy on the
lateral nerves, nerves dark green, soft hairy between the lateral nerves, its palea minute;
Lower floret barren; Anthers 0.7 – 0.8 mm long, filament filiform, 1.2 – 1.3 mm long;
Stigma 2, 05 – 1.0 mm long; Caryopsis oblong, 0.4 – 0.6 mm wide, 1.0 – 1.8 mm long
(Plate 44A).
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diameter is 31.97 μm (25 – 35 μm) and equatorial diameter is 31.16 μm (25 – 37.5μm). P/E
ratio, 1.02. Pollen are ectoporate. Pore diameter is 2.71 μm (1.75 – 3.0 µm) and exine
thickness is 1.09 μm (1 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 73.13%. Pollen are scabrate and
scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 44B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells, with slightly sinuous walls, 42.5–
62.5 μm long and 10 – 12 μm wide. Papillae present on the long cells. Short cells present
between the long cells, but not frequent. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
17.5 – 25 μm long and 12 – 15 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells low
dome shaped, subsidiary cells 5 – 6.25 μm wide, guard cells 6.25 μm wide. Microhairs
bicelled, distal cell thin walled, not prominent, both cells equal or distal cell shorter than
basal cell. Microhairs present between the intercostal zones and at the margins of costal
zone, 50 – 57.5 μm long and 6 – 7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks present at the
junction of two long cells, 17.5 – 20 μm long and 12 – 13.75 μm wide.
shaped, 15 – 17.5 μm long and 5 – 6.25 μm wide. Short cells 13 – 15 μm long and 7 – 6.25
μm wide. Prickles present on both sides of costal zones, 30 – 35 μm long and 10 – 12 μm
wide (Plate 44C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls. Number of
rows of long cells between two costal zones, 8 – 10. Number of stomatal rows between two
costal zones, 2. Stomatal complex: 20–25 μm long and 13.75 – 16 μm wide. Microhairs
none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies saddle shaped, 3-4 layers of silica bodies, 12 – 15 μm long,
length and width almost equal. Short cells with sinuous walls, 14 – 15 μm long and 12-
13.75 μm wide. Prickles at the margins, 42.5 – 50 μm long and 11.25 – 18.75 μm wide
(Plate 44D).
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T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with ribs and furrows, ribs higher, opposite to the vascular bundles
of basic type. Stomata observed on the abaxial side, pointed prickles and slight ribs and
furrows on the abaxial side. Small and large vascular bundles of basic type, lamina narrow
between two vascular bundles. Sclerenchyma depositions at the margins. Large vascular
bundles of basic type, with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma strands. Chlorenchyma cells
radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Keel conspicuous and rounded with large
vascular bundle of basic type. Bulliform cells in irregular groups and vascular bundles with
single and complete sheath (Plate 44E & F).
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42. Echinochloa colona (L.) Link

Voucher No: 310
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon Sakesar, Choa Saiden Shah, Dhok Seela,
Chakwal (Dir, hazara, Abbotabad, Swat, Rawalpindi, Karachi, D.G.Khan, Makran).
Distribution in World: Widely spread in tropical Africa, Asia and Australia.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common weed of fields, and wet land, clay soil, moist clay
soil.
Flowering: May – September
An annual, erect or geniculately ascending, rooting at lower nodes, 65 – 80 cm tall;
Leaf blades flat, 5 – 13 cm long, glabrous, scabrid at the margins; Ligule absent; Sheath
glabrous, compressed; Inflorescence 4 – 6 cm long, composed of racemes on a central axis,
main axis slightly puberulent, racemes 1 – 3 cm long, spikelets arranged in two to four
rows on the rachis, 2.3 – 2.6 mm long, ovate, elliptic, hair, pubescent and cuspidate; Upper
glume as long as spikelet, 7 nerved, pubescent, hairy on the back, cuspidate; Lower glume
a little long or short than half of the length of spikelet, 3 – 5 nerved, oval, cuspidate,
pubescent on the surface and at the margens; Upper lemma glabrous and glacuous; Upper
palea enclosed by the incurved margins of its lemma, the tip of upper palea inflexed (bent);
Upper floret bisexual; Lower lemma as long as the spikelet, 7 nerved, depressed in the
middle, pubiscent, inflexed at the margins, its palea hyaline, 2 keeled, as long as spikelet or
little shorter than spikelet; Anthers 0.4 – 0.5 mm long ; Stigma 0.4 mm long, blackish;
Caryopsis, 1.6 – 1.7 mm long, 0.9 mm wide, broad elliptic, dorsally flattened (Plate 45A ).

diameter is 33 μm (30 – 35 μm) and equatorial diameter is 30.17 μm (27.5 – 32.5 μm). P/E
ratio is 1.1. Pollen are endoporate or ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.58 μm
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(1.5–3.5 μm) and exine thickness is 1.08 μm (1–1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 86.90 %.
Sculpturing is rugulate, and rugulae are narrowly spaced (Plate 45B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells cubical, with slightly sinuous or
non sinuous walls, 56.25 – 77.5 μm long and 17.75 – 27.5 μm wide. Short cells present
between long cells. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 7 – 16.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 5. Stomatal complex: 30 – 31.25
μm long and 16.25 – 22.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells
triangular or low dome shaped, guard cells 5 μm wide and subsidiary cells 6.25 – 7.5 μm
wide. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell thin walled and not prominent, basal cell rounded at
the base, 22.5 – 32.5 μm long and 3.75 – 5.0 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none
seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 15 – 17.5 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide.
Short cells with sinuous walls, 15 – 16.25 μm long and 7 – 8.25 μm wide. Prickles none
seen (Plate 45C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells cubical and with non sinuous
walls, 75 – 80 μm long and 18 – 21.25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between
two costal zones, 2 –13. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1–3. Stomatal
complex, 31.25 – 37.5 μm long and 21.25 – 26.25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped,
subsidiary cells, dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell not prominent, 25 – 27.5 μm
long and 5 – 6.25 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped or slightly lobed in the middle, 16.25 – 20 μm
long and 6 – 7.5 μm wide. Short cells with slightly sinuous walls, 25 – 31.25 μm long and
8.75 –11.25 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 45D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows. Abaxial surface with no ribs and
furrows. Three types of vascular bundles with respect to size, large, medium and small
vascular bundles. Wide sclerenchyma strands abaxially, opposite to median vascular
bundles at the keel region. The vascular bundles in the keel region with abaxial strands
only. Large vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma strands. Medium
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vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma stands, or adaxial strands only.
Small vascular bundles, without any strand or girder. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged
around the vascular bundles. Keel conspicuous and rounded with median vascular bundle
of basic type, accompanied by 3 small vascular bundles on each side. Some part of the mid
rib covered by colourless cells. Bulliform cells in irregular groups. Bundle sheaths single,
complete around the vascular bundles. Small vascular bundles with large sheath cells (Plate
45E & F).
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Genus: Panicum
Key to Species
1a. Panicle narrowly pyramidal to broad oblong or ovate and lower glume half to two
third as long as the spikelet. P. antidotale
1b. Panicle usually ovate and the branches mostly bare in the lower half and lower
glume a quarter to one third of the length of spikelet. P.maximum
43. Panicum antidotale Retz

Voucher No: 262
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Choa Saidan Shah, Kallar Kahar, Khabaki,
Sodhi (Hazara Distt, Peshawar, Sargodha, Multan Distt, Jacobabad, Karachi, Tharparker)
Distribution in World: Tropical Africa, Arabia, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India
Occurrence and Habitat: Present on banks of fields and on slopes, at the base of
mountains, clay and stony clay soil.
Flowering: April – September
A tufted branched perennial, with woody root stock; Plant height more than 100
cm, branched; Leaf blades linear, 5 – 32 cm long, flat, 2 – 11.5 mm wide; Panicle
pyramidal to ovate, 12 – 35 cm long; A pair of spikelets, one large and broad and other
narrow and lanceolate; Large spikelet 2 mm long, ovate oblong (staminate); Upper glume
1.8 – 1.9 mm long, 7 nerved, 1.2 mm wide, ovate and somewhat coriaciuos; Lower glume
1.2 – 1.4 mm long, broad ovate, acuminate, 3 nerved, hyaline, 1 mm wide; Lemma 7
nerved, coriacious; Palea thin membranous; Anthers 0.5 – 0.6 mm long (Plate 46A).
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diameter is 24.70 μm (21.5 - 30 μm) and equatorial diameter is 24.5 μm (19.2 – 28.5 μm).
P/E ratio is 1.0. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 1.2 μm (0.7 – 2.0
μm) and exine thickness is 0.8 μm (0.75 – 1.0 μm). Pollen fertility is 70.66 %. Sculpturing
is scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 46B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells somewhat cubical and slightly
sinuous, 81.15 – 125 μm long and 7.5 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between
Stomatal complex 35 – 37.5 μm long and 5 – 6.25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped
and subsidiary cells low dome shaped, guard cells 5 – 6.25 μm wide and subsidiary cells,
5–7.5 μm wide. Microhairs bicelled, distal cell not prominent, distal cell larger or equal to
basal cell, not prominent, 35 – 37.5 μm long and 5 – 6.25 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen.
Hooks present between long cells, 35 – 37.5 μm long and 7 – 8.12 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross shaped, 10 – 11.86 μm long and 6.85 – 7.5 μm wide. Short
cells, 17.75 – 20 μm long and 4 – 5 μm wide. Prickles, 57.5 – 62.5 μm long and 12 – 15 μm
wide (Plate 46C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with straight walls or slightly
sinuous walls, 62.5 – 100 μm long and 13.75 – 20 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells
between two costal zones, 4-7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1–2.
Stomatal complex: 21.25 – 25 μm long and 12.5 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell
shaped, subsidiary cells triangular or dome shaped, guard cells, 5 – 6.25 μm wide and
subsidiary cells, 5 – 7.25 μm wide. Microhairs bicelled, 20 – 18.75 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm
wide. Macrohairs present between the long cells. Hooks 20 – 22.5 μm long and 6 – 7.5 μm
wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies rectangular shaped, 10 – 11.25 μm long and 5.0-6.25 μm wide.
Prickles 40 – 57 μm long and 7.5 – 15 μm wide (Plate 46D).
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T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows, over the vascular bundles. The ribs
large over the vascular bundles of basic type. Pointed projection on the ribs, over the large
vascular bundles of basic type. Abaxial surface mostly smooth, ribs present opposite to the
large vascular bundles of basic type. Three types of vascular bundles on the basis of size,
large vascular bundles of basic type, medium size vascular bundles and small vascular
bundles. Large vascular bundles of basic type with thick abaxial and adaxial sclerenchyma
stands. Mostly small vascular bundles without sclerenchyma stands and girders, a few
small vascular bundles with small adaxial and abaxial strands. Chlorenchyma cells more or
less radially arranged around the vascular bundles, the assimilatory tissue not radiate. Keel
not conspicuous. Bulliform cells mostly in irregular groups. Vascular bundles with single
and complete sheath (Plate 46E & F).
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44. Panicum maximum Jacq.

Voucher No: 136
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon Sakeser, Kallar Kahar (Swat, Sargodha,
Lahore).
Distribution in World: Tropical Africa, introduced to most other warm countries.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on banks of fields, on slopes, stony clay soil.
Flowering: June - October
Morpological Description
Densely tufted perennial; plant height more than 1.5 m, having tussocky roots,
internodes rigid, smooth and sparsly hairy, nodes slightly pubiscent; Leaf blades upto 24.5
cm long, 5 – 55 mm wide, stiff, thick, pointed at tips, pubiscent on both surfaces, also
scabrid on the margins; Ligule a lacerate membranous; sheath shiny and slightly pubiscent;
Inflorescence 11.5 cm long, main rachis wavy and scabrid, rachis and pedicels of spikelets
persistent, whole spikelet shed off including glumes; Spikelet 2 mm long, oblong ovate;
Glumes unequal, upper glume little shorter than spikelet, ovate, 5 nerved; Lower glume
about half of the length of spikelet, ovate obtuse, 1 nerved, purplish; Upper lemma rugose,
its palea also rugose, enclosed by the incurved margins of lemma; (upper floret bisexual);
Lower lemma as long as the spikelet, pubiscent, similar to upper glume, greenish in the
lower half and purplish in the upper half, its palea slightly hyaline, obtuse, 2 keeled, and
slightly shorter or almost equal to lemma; (lower floret barren ); Anthers 3, 0.8 – 1.0 mm
long; Stigma 0.5 mm long, style 0.3 mm long ( Plate 47A ).
diameter is 25.96 μm (22.5 – 32.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 25.85 μm (20 - 30 μm).
P/E ratio is 1.00. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate, pore diameter is 1.4 μm (0.75 – 2.0
μm) and exine thickness is 0.88 μm (0.75 – 1.0 μm). Pollen fertility is 81.70 %. Sculpturing
is verrucate and verrucae are widely spaced (Plate 47B).
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Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thick sinuous or
cubical walls, 78 – 134.25 μm long and 8.25 – 14 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells
between two costal zones, 4 – 9. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 3.
Stomatal complex, 32 – 36.5 μm long and 4 – 6 μm wide, subsidiary cells triangular or low
dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, 40.5 – 60 μm long and 6 – 7.5 μm wide. Distal cells
longer than basal cells; Macrohairs none seen; Hooks present frequently between the long
cells, 32 – 34.5 μm long and 6 – 9.25 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies mostly cross shaped or intermediate between cross and dumb
bell shaped. Short cells 16.25 – 21.5 μm long and 3.5 – 5 μm wide (Plate 47C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with lightly sinuous walls, 65 –
zones, 4 –12. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2–3. Stomatal complex,
30-33.25 μm long and 4–7 μm wide, subsidiary cells mostly triangular. Microhairs
bicelled, distal cell longer than basal cells. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks present. Prickles
present frequently in the costal zone (Plate 47D).
T. S. Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows, ribs large opposite to the large
vascular bundles of basic type. Pointed prickles with rounded base present on the adaxial
ribs and near the mid rib region. Pointed prickles embedded in the epidermis. Abaxial
surface with slight ribs opposite to vascular bundles. Large and medium vascular bundles
of basic type, other vascular bundles small and angular. Three adaxial scleranchyma
strands, opposite to the mid ribs. Large vascular bundles of basic type with adaxial and
abaxial sclerenchyma girders. Some small vascular bundles opposite to the bulliform cells
without strands or girders, other small vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial strands or
abaxial strands only. Chlorenchyma cells immediately around the vascular bundles, more
or less radially arranged, remaining assimilatory tissue not radiate. Keel conspicuous and
with slight ribs and furrows abaxially, ribs present opposite to the vascular bundles.
Median vascular bundle of basic type, accompanied by 3 vascular bundles, on each side.
One vascular bundle of basic type on each side. Middle part of mid rib covered by
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colourless cells angular in outline. Bulliform and associated colourless cells in irregular
groups. Vascular bundles with single and complete sheath or interrupted abaxially by
sclerenchyma girders especially large vascular bundles in the mid rib region (Plate
47E&F).
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45. Paspalum paspaloides (Michx.)Scribner.
Voucher No: 125
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar, Choa Saidan Shah, Dhok Seela,
Chakwal (Swat, Mingora, Kashmir, Rawalpindi, Sargodha, Karachi, Thatta).
Distribution in World: Widely distributed in tropical region.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common along margins of ponds, ditches, and water, clay soil,
sandy clay.
Flowering: April – November
Creeping stoloniferous perennial, rooting at the nodes, nodes hairy, Culms 36 – 75

cm long; Leaf blades, 7 – 20 cm long, 3 – 45 mm wide, linear lanceolate, glabrous, flat,
dentate at margins, rounded at the base; Ligule membranous, 0.6 – 1.4 mm long; Sheath
glacuous, glabrous with whitish bands at the margins; Inflorescence having two racemes,
2.5 – 7.2 cm long, rachis flattened on the back, keeled on the axial side, keel narrowly
winged and wavy; Spikelet ovate elliptic, 3 mm long, singly arranged in two rows on one
side of rachis, two rows of spikelets separated by winged keel; Upper glume as long as the
spikelet, 5 nerved, oval elliplic, membranous, puberulent and appressed; Lower glume
present as a minute scale or absent; Upper lemma, 3 nerved, smooth, chartacious, inflexed
at margins and clasping the palea at the margins; Upper palea having inflexed margins,
almost equal in length to lemma, smooth; ( Upper floret bisexual ); Lower lemma similar in
texture and shape to upper glume but is not puberulent, 5 nerved, as long as the spikelet,
empty, its palea absent; (lower floret empty). Anthers, 0.9 mm long, yellowish, stigma
blackish, 0.8 mm long, style whitish 0.8 mm long; Caryopsis 1.3 – 1.4 mm long, 0.7 mm
wide, elliptic oblong (Plate 48A).
diameter is 36.53 μm (30 – 50 μm) and equatorial diameter is 32.75 μm (22.5-50 μm). P/E
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ratio is 1.11. Pollen are endoporate or ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 1.56
μm, (1.0 – 2.5 μm) and exine thickness is 1.14 μm, (0.75 – 1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 84.95
%. Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are widely spaced (Plate 48B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 65 μm
- 125 μm long and 10 μm - 17.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
zones, 5 –17. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 4. Stomatal complex,
22.5 – 25 μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells
low dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, 20 - 45μm long and 6.0–7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs
none seen. Hooks present.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 12.5 - 15 μm long and 6 – 7.5 μm wide, silica
bodies in a single row. Short cells slightly wavy, 15-25 μm long and 7.5–10 μm wide.
Prickles broad at the base and beak like at the tip, 35 – 50 μm long and 10 – 15 μm wide
(Plate 48C).
long and 15 – 20 μm wide. Short cells present between long cells at regular interval.
between two costal zones, 2 – 7. Stomatal complex, 22.5 – 25 μm long and 15 – 17.5 μm
wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells dome shaped. Microhairs none
seen, macrohairs 40 – 45 μm long and 8 – 10 μm wide. Hooks broad at the base and beaked
at the tip, 40 – 45 μm long and 8 – 10 μm wide.
Costal zone: 1- 4 rows of dumb bell shaped silica bodies, 10 – 12.5 μm long and 5 - 7.5
μm wide. Short cells 30 – 32.5 μm long and 7.5 – 10 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate
48D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows, abaxial surface smooth, with no ribs
and furrows.Three types of vascular bundles, large, medium and small vascular bundles.
Small vascular bundles opposite to bulliform cells, sclerenchyma depositions at the
margins. Large vascular bundles of basic type with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma
strands. Medium size vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial strands or adaxial strands
only. Small vascular bundles without any sclerenchyma strand or girder. Chlorenchyma
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cells clearly radiating the vascular bundles. Keel not very conspicuous. Medium and large
vascular bundles of basic tupe, 2–3 vascular bundles on each side of median vascular
bundles. Middle part of the mid rib covered by colourless cells, sclerenchyma strands on
the adaxial side in the mid rib region. Bulliform cells in fan shaped groups, middle cells
larger than the remaining cells. Vascular bundles with single and complete sheath (Plate
48E & F).
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46. Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.)

Voucher No: 354
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Choa Saidan Shah (Dir, Rawalpindi, Kashmir,
Sheikhupura, Lahore)
Distribution in World: Tropical Asia
Occurrence and Habitat: Common along the road, from Choa to Kallar Kahar, at base of
mountains, clay soil.
Flowering: July – October
Annuals or perennial; Culms 12 – 47 cm long , erect or shortly decumbent; The

basal culm flattened and whitish at the base; Leaf blades 7 – 8.5 cm long, 0.5 – 0.7 mm
wide, glabrous, scabrulous or dentate at the margins, stiff hairy at the base; Ligule a ciliated
rim; Sheaths glacuous, glabrous, the basal sheaths compressed; Inflorescence 8.5 – 24 cm
long, with racemes present at distance from each other, rachis of raceme flexuous (zigzag)
and flattened, 4–9 racemes present in alternate manner on inflorescence; The distance
between the lower racemes more than the upper racemes, the distance of 4 – 5 cm between
the lower racemes; The distance of 1 – 1.2 cm in the upper racemes, raceme length 1.2 –
1.7 cm (ascendingly more or less appressed to the axis); Spikelets in two rows on the
rachis, 8 – 20 spikelets in a raceme, 2 – 2.5 mm long, gibbously globose; Upper glume 2 –
2.2 mm long, 1.8 – 1.9 mm wide, 7 nerved, broad ovate, membranous; Lower glume, 0.9 –
1.0 mm long, 0.7 mm wide, less than half of the length of spikelet, 2 – 3 nerved,
membranous; Upper lemma granulose or ridged, coriacious, 5 nerved, glacuous, its palea
similar and enclosed in its lemma; Lower lemma, chartaceous, 5 nerved,1.8 – 1.9 mm long,
1.7 mm wide, ovate, its palea hyaline, 2 keeled, margins inflexed; Anthers 3, 1 – 1.4 mm
long, 0.3 – 0.4 mm wide, filament 0.7 mm long, whitish; Stigma 2, 1.7 –1.8 mm long;
Caryopsis broad elliptic (Plate 49A).
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diameter is 32.04 μm (27.5 – 37.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 31.25 μm (30-35 μm).
P/E ratio is 1.02. Pollen are endoporate or ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.5
μm (2-4 μm) and exine thickness is 1 μm (1 – 1.5 μm) and Pollen fertility is 81.04%.
Sculpturing is verrucate and verrucae are narrowly spaced (Plate 49B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous walls, 60
μm-150 μm long and 22.5 μm – 25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two
complex, 25 – 30 μm long and 3.5 – 4 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary
cells low dome shaped. Microhairs 15-20 μm long and 8 – 10 μm wide, blunt at the end.
Macrohairs none seen. Hooks present.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 15 - 17.5 μm long and 7.5–10 μm wide, silica
bodies mostly in a single row. Short cells over the veins, mostly in long rows, 10 μm – 1.25
μm long, Prickles, 40 – 100 μm long (Plate 49C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells rectangular, 35 – 47.5 μm long
and 20. 25 μm wide, walls mostly none sinuous. Number of rows of long cells between two
costal zones, 4 –12. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 4. Stomatal
complex, 30 μm – 27.5 μm long and 20 μm -22.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped,
subsidiary cells dome shaped. Microhairs 22 – 25 μm long and 6 – 7.5 μm wide.
Macrohairs none seen; Hooks 15 μm - 20 μm long and 10 – 12 μm wide .
Costal zone: Silica bodies 20 μm - 22.5 μm long and 12.5 μm wide, dumb bell shaped,
mostly in one row. Short cells 30 – 65 μm long and 15 – 20 μm wide. Silica bodies and
short cells arranged alternatively. Prickles 35 – 50 μm long and 15 – 20 μm wide, 2 – 10
cells between prickles (Plate 49D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial side opposite to the mid rib region having bulliform cells, narrow towards
the epidermal surface. Abaxial surface almost smooth, with no ribs and furrows. 6 – 7
small vascular bundles present between large vascular bundles of basic type. Median
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vascular bundle in the keel region with thick abaxial strand only. All other basic type
vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial strands. Small vascular bundles with no
sclerenchyma strand or abaxial strand only. Chlorenchyma cells in the mid rib region
restricted around the vascular bundles near to the abaxial side. Chlorenchyma cells
radiating the vascular bundles, forming continuous strand from one vascular bundle to the
other. Keel very conspicuous and V shaped, with median vascular bundle of basic type
accompanied by one small vascular bundle on each side. Middle part of mid rib with
colourless cells. Bulliform cells in fan shaped groups, present in the mid rib region, not
observed in other regions. Bundle sheath single and complete, sheath cells almost equal in
size, small vascular bundles with large sheath cells (Plate 49E & F).
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47. Pennisetum orientale L.C. Rich.
Voucher No: 140
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar (Chitral, Dir, Hazara, Swat,
Kashmir, Jhelum, Muzzafarabad, Gilgit, Sargodha and Karachi.)
Distribution in World: North Africa, through Arabia to central and south west Asia, India
and Nepal.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on mountains, stony clay, clay soil.
Flowering: April – November
A rhizomatous perennial, often forming large clumps; Leaf blades 13 – 30 cm long,

4 – 4.5 mm wide, scabrid on the surface and on the margins, convoluted, filiform at the tip;
Ligule a ciliated fringe, sheath glacuous and glabrous; Panicle linear, 3 – 15 cm long,
involucre having long inner bristles, 16 – 22.5 mm long, whitish and hairy in the lower
half, and purplish and scabrid in the upper half; Involucre enclosing 4 – 5 spikelets,
spikelets lanceolate, 5 – 5.5 mm long; Upper glume little shorter than spikelet,1 nerved,
hyaline and with a short awn point; Lower glume about half of the length of spikelet, 1
nerved; Upper lemma almost as long as spikelet, coriacious, faintly 5 nerved, setaciously
acuminate, its palea little shorter than it; Lower lemma 5 nerved, membranous, as long as
the spikelet, setaciously acuminate; Lower palea little shorter than lemma; Anthers 2.4 mm
long, stigma, 4.5 – 4.8 mm long (Plate 50A ).
diameter is 36.96 μm (30 – 42.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 32.5 (30 – 35 μm). P/E
ratio is 1.13. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate or diporate. Pore diameter is 2.41 μm
Sculpturing is scabrate (Plate 50B).
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Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thick, non sinuous
walls, 62 – 125 μm long and 14–18 μm wide. Short cells present between two long cells,
with rounded papilla. Number of rows of long cells, between two costal zones, 5 – 10.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones,3 – 4. Stomatal complex: guard cells,
dumb bell shaped, slightly narrower in the middle, subsidiary cells low dome shaped, 30.5
– 36 μm long and 15 – 20 μm wide. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks
present at the junction of two long cells, pointed at one end, 18 – 30 μm long and 5 – 78
μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped or cross shaped, 15–17.5 μm long and 5– 6.25
μm wide(1 – 2 layers of silica bodies). Short cells with sinuous walls, 13 – 15.5 μm long
and 7.5 – 8.5 μm wide. Prickles present in the costal zone, 30 – 32 μm long and 8 – 11.5
μm wide (Plate 50C).
long and 15 – 18 μm wide. Short cells with rounded papillae, present between two long
cells, short cells vertically longer than horizontally. Number of rows of long cells between
Stomatal complex: guard cells dumb bell shaped and slightly narrower in the middle,
subsidiary cells triangular in shape, 28 – 35 μm long and 18 – 25 μm wide. Microhairs
none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks present at the junction of two long cells, 17 – 24
μm long and 6 – 8 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies mostly intermediate between cross and dumb bell shaped, 14-
16.5 µm long and 4-5.75µm wide. Short cells rarely present between silica bodies. Prickles
and angular prickles with long pointed ends at one side present on the costal zone, 34 – 52
μm long (Plate 50D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface smooth, sometimes with slight ribs over the large vascular bundles.
Abaxial surface also with slight ribs and furrows. Mostly vascular bundles small, and
angular in outline, xylem and phloem is not easily differentiated in small vascular bundles.
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Large vascular bundles of basic type. Mostly small vascular bundles having no abaxial and
adaxial strands, a few small vascular bundles with small adaxial strands only. Large
vascular bundles with adaxial strands or girders and abaxial girders, keel conspicuous and
having large median vascular bundle with 3-4 small vascular bundles on each side.
Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Bulliform cells in
irregular groups or bulliform cells inflated. Bundle sheath single or double. Small vascular
bundles with a single complete sheath. Large vascular bundles with double sheath, inner
sheath not conspicuous and outer sheath complete (Plate 50E & F).
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Genus: Setaria P. Beauv.
Key to Species
1. Panicle not branched, 6 - 7.5 cm long with yellow to reddish yellow spikelets.
S. glauca
Panicle branched, lobed and lateral branches of panicle well developed. 2
2. Upper glume half or more than half of the length of spikelet, 5-7 nerved.
S. intermedia
Upper glume little shorter than spikelet, 7- 9 nerved 3
3. Spikelets not deciduous, 3mm long, oblong elliptic. S. italica
Spikelets deciduous, 2mm long, oval elliptic. 4
4. Bristles retrorsely barbed, making the panicle very sticky to each other and to
clothes. S. verticillata
Bristles antrorsely barbed and green, 1-3 at the base of each spikelet. S. viridis
48. Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv.

Synonym: Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem & Schult.
Voucher No: 281
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar, Choa Saidan Shah (Peshawar,
Swat, Hazara, Rawalpindi, Quetta, Loralai, Sahiwal, Khairpur, Hyderabad).
Distribution in World: Tropical and warm temperate regions of old world, introduced to
North America.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on moist soil, near water, wet sandy clay, wet clay
soil, common in open grassland.
Flowering: May – October
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Annual, 30 – 63 cm high, culms loosely tufted or solitary, erect or bent and

ascending sometimes, nodes black, internodes glabrous, rough near the panicle; Leaf blades
7 – 30 cm long, 5 – 7 mm wide, linear lanceolate, scabrid on surface and on margins,
sparsly hairy on the adaxial side, (hairs 5 mm long); Inflorescence 6 – 7.5 cm long, main
axis of inflorerscence slightly scabrid, pubiscent at the base of panicle, 6 – 7 involucral
bristles, 4 – 7 mm long, present at the base of spikelet; Yellow to reddish yellow spikelet
2.5 – 2.6 mm long, 1.3 – 1.4 mm wide, ovate elliptic; Glumes broadly ovate, thin
membranous; Upper glume 5 nerved, more than half or up to two thirds of the length of
spikelet; 1.4 – 1.5 mm long; Lower glume 3 nerved, little shorter than upper glume, less
than half of the length of spikelet, ovate; upper lemma as long as the spikelet, broadly boat
shaped, 3 nerved (nerves visible on inner side), indurate, rugose, its palea also regose, as
long as the lemma; Lower lemma as long as the spikelet, 5 nerved, membranous, its palea
hyaline, subequal to lower lemma, flat with greenish margens; Anthers upto 1.5 mm;
Caryopsis tightly enclosed by lemma and palea, 1.4 – 1.5 mm long, 0.8 – 0.9 mm wide,
ovate elliptic (Plate 51A ).
Pollen are circular in polar view, and oblate spheroidal in equatorial view.Polar
diameter is 34.75 μm (27.5 – 42.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 35.68 μm (30-40 μm).
P/E ratio is 0.97. Pollen are endoporate or ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is
3.16 μm (2.5 – 4.0 μm) and exine thickness is 1.25 μm (1 – 2 μm). Pollen fertility is
77.55%. Sculpturing is rugulate and rugulae are narrowly spaced (Plate 51B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous or
non sinuous walls, long cells adjacent to costal zone, deeply sinuous. Some long cells wide
in the middle and narrow towards the sides, 70 μm - 450 μm long and 30 - 35 μm wide.
between two costal zones, 2 – 6. Stomatal complex, 45 – 60 μm long and 27.5 – 30 μm
wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells low dome shaped, length almost twice
of breadth. The tips of guard cells extending on the margins. Microhairs bicelled, blunt at
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the end, present on the junction of two long cells, 20 – 22.5 μm long and 7.5 – 10 μm
wide. Macrohairs 200 – 250 μm long and 5.0 – 7.5 μm wide. Hooks present.
Costal zone: Silica bodies in one row, dumb bell shaped, or intermediate between cross
and dumb bell shaped. Silica bodies and short cells alternatively present to each other, 30 –
32.5 μm long and 12.5 μm wide. Short cells 13 – 15 μm long and 8 – 10 μm wide. Prickles
none seen (Plate 51C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with lightly sinuous walls, 250
μm – 620 μm long and 35 – 40 μm wide, interstomatal cells not uniform in length and
breadth, and walls not straight. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 7 –
9. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1- 2. Stomatal complex, 47.5 – 62.5
μm long and 22.5 – 25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells dome
shaped, the tips of guard cells extending at margins. Microhairs, blunt at the end, bicelled
20 – 22.5 μm long and 6 – 7.5 μm wide. Hooks beaked at one end, 55 – 60 μm long and
25– 35 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 27.5 – 30 μm long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide.
Short cells 15 – 20 μm long and 6 – 7.5 μm wide. Prickles having a beak like projection,
18.5- 22 µm long and 7.25-9.5 µm wide (Plate 51D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface mostly smooth, with slight ribs over large vascular bundles.
Abaxial surface with slight ribs opposite to large vascular bundles, mostly smooth, pointed
prickles present abaxially. Sclerenchyma depositions near the margins. Large vascular
bundles of basic type with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders, and near margins with
adaxial strands only, that are 4 – 6 cells wide and with 2 – 4 layers. Small vascular bundles
without any sclerenchyma strand or girder. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around
the vascular bundles. Around the small vascular bundles, most part of mesophyll covered
by bulliform cells, so chlorenchyma and other assimilatory tissue in the form of thin strip
from one vascular bundle to other and so on. Keel conspicuous, with a large median
vascular bundle of basic type, accompanied by 2 small vascular bundles on each side.
Bulliform cells large, present on both abaxial and adaxial epidermis, covering most part of
mid rib. Bundle sheath single, complete, sheath cells of large vascular bundles unequal in
size, sheath cells of small vascular bundles not clear (Plate 51E & F).
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49. Setaria intermedia Roem. & Schult.

Voucher No: 300
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Choa Saidan Shah, Kallar Kahar, throughout
the area (Rawalpindi, Said Pur, Jhelum).
Distribution in World: India, Burma, Sri Lanka, introduced to tropical Africa.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common in waste lands, Shady places, wet sandy Soil, wet
sandy clay soil.
Flowering: June – September
Annuals, ascending or geniculately ascending, often decumbent below, and rooting
at the lower nodes, nodes swollen; Culm 40 – 65 cm tall, weak; Leaf blades, 7.5 – 20 cm
long, 8mm wide, linear lanceolate, attenuate at the tip, scabrid on the surface and on the
margins, tubercle based stiff hairs sparsly present on both surfaces; Ligule a ciliated rim,
sheath with tubercle based stiff hairs; Inflorescence, a panicle, 2.2 – 9.5 cm long, lax, lobed
in the lower part and tapering upwards, rachis scabrid and pubiscent, main axis also
scabrid. Involucral bristles, 3-6, unequal, minutely scaberulous, 4.5 – 8.5 cm long; Spikelet
broadly elliptic, 2mm long, 0.9 mm wide; Upper glume longer than lower glume, half or
more than half of the length of spikelet, 5-7 nerved; Lower glume one third or less than half
of the length of spikelet, 3 nerved, ovate, membranous, with a short pointed tip; Upper
lemma as long as the spikelet, coriacious, rugose with transverse ridges, faintly 3 nerved;
Upper palea almost equal to lemma, rugulose, oval, enclosed by incurved margins of
lemma; Lower lemma 5-7 nerved, as long as spikelet, broad ovate, membranous; Lower
palea shorter than lemma, 2 keeled, boat shaped, with two lateral nerves; Caryopsis 0.6 –
1.2 mm long whitish, oval elliptic tightly enclosed between hardned upper lemma and
palea (Plate 52A ).

Pollen are circular in polar view, and sub prolate in equatorial view. Polar diameter
is 37.08 μm (25 – 47.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 28.12 μm (20 – 37.5 μm). P/E ratio
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is 1.31. Pollen are monoporate and endoporate. Pore diameter is 3.5 μm (3.0 – 4.0 μm) and
exine thickness is 1.18 μm (1.0–1.5 μm). Pollen fertility is 87.70 %. Sculpturing is scabrate
(Plate 52B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous walls, 100
μm -165 μm long and 10 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
zones, 4-9. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1-2. Stomatal Complex,
17.5-25 μm long and 12.5-17.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells
low to high dome shaped. Microhairs 20 μm long and 5 μm wide, blunt at the end.
Macrohairs none seen. Hooks rounded, present between the two cells, slightly beaked at
one end, 12 – 15 μm long and 8 – 10 μm wide, beaks 7.5-10 μm long .
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 12 – 15 μm long and 4 – 5 μm wide. Short
cells cross shaped, 7.5-10 μm long and 7.5 μm wide, short cells and silica bodies
alternatively present. Prickles present on the margins, 11 – 15 μm long and 4 – 5 μm wide
(Plate 52C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 62.5-150 μm
long and 10 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 8-10.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2-3. Stomatal complex, 20-22.5 μm
long and 17.5-20 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells low or high
dome dome shaped. Microhairs 20-22.5 μm long and 17.5-20 μm wide. Macrohairs none
seen, hooks rounded, present between the long cells, 22-25 μm long and 15-17.5 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 15-20 μm long and 5-7.5 μm wide, silica
bodies and short cells alternate to each other. Short cells 15-17.5 μm long and 5.0-7.5 μm
wide. Prickles 50-55 μm long and 20-22.5 μm wide (Plate 52D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface uneven, with ribs and furrows, pointed prickles with wide base
present on ribs. Abaxial surface with ribs and furrows. A few long macrohairs present
abaxially. A group of 4-5 elongated cells present at the base of macrohairs. Chlorenchyma
cells radially arranged around the vascular bundles, other assimilatory tissue diffused and
not radiating. Lamina wider at the mid rib region, rest of lamina narrow. Large vascular
bundles of basic type in the keel region, with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma strands.The
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abaxial strand wide as compared to adaxial strand. A few small vascular bundles without
strands or girders. Small vascular bundles with small adaxial strands and abaxial girders.
Keel conspicuous and rounded, with median large vascular bundle of basic type,
accompanied by one small and one medium size vascular bundle on each side. Most part of
mid rib covered by large colourless cells. Bulliform cells in irregular groups, bundle sheath
single and complete (Plate 52E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
50. Setaria italica (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Voucher No: 105
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon Sakesar (In Pakistan, it is cultivated in
plains and hilly areas.)
Distribution in World: Cultivated as a crop in China and parts of India and for fodder or
bird seed in Europe and it is occasionally grown in parts of Africa tropics and warm
temperate regions.
Occurrence and Habitat: Present in fields, dry clay soil.
Flowering: July – October
[
The Italian fox tail millet is considered the cultivated form of S.viridis; It is tufted,
geniculately ascending plant, 50 – 60 cm high; Leaf blades 37 – 40 cm long, 7mm wide;
Ligule a densely ciliated fringe; Sheath glabrous, hairy at the margins; Inflorcesence a
panicle 8 – 16.5 cm long; spikelets 3 mm long, oblong, elliptic, antrorsely barbed; Upper
glume little shorter than spikelet, 7 – 9 nerved, membranous; Lower glume one third of the
length of spikelet; Upper lemma rugose, as long as the spikelet, indurate; Upper palea also
rugose enclosed by incurved margins of lemma, indurate; Lower lemma 5–7 nerved
,membranous, as long as the spikelet; Lower Palea hyaline, very thin and short; Lower
floret barren. It is distinguished by upper floret disarticulating at maturity; Glumes and
lower lemma persistent; Caryopsis, 1.1 – 1.2mm long, 0.9 mm wide, broad ovate (Plate
53A).

Pollen are circular in polar view and spheroidal to prolate spheroidal in equatorial
view. Polar diameter is 28.57 μm (25 – 32.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 27.89 μm
(22.5-30 μm). P/E ratio is 1.03. Pollen are monoporate and endoporate. Pore diameter is 2.2
μm (1.5-2.5µm) and exine thickness is 1.1 μm (1.0 – 1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 88.42 %.
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Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous walls, 62.5-
zones, 6-10. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1- 2. Stomatal complex
20 - 25 μm long and 10 – 15 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells low
dome shaped. Microhairs 20-27.5 μm long. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks present at the
junction of two long cells.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 15 μm long and 7.5 μm wide. Short cells 7.5
μm long and 5 μm wide. Prickles 32.5 - 40 μm long and 20 – 22.5 μm wide, beaked at one
end (Plate 53C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells, 80 - 115 μm long and 8 – 10 μm
wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 6 – 10. Number of stomatal
rows between two costal zones, 1-2. Stomatal Complex: 22.5-25 μm long and 20 - 22.5 μm
wide. Microhairs 25 μm long and 5 μm wide, bicelled, blunt at the tip. Macrohairs none
seen. Hooks rounded, present frequently at the junction of two long cells.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 1-3 layers of silica bodies, 12- 15 μm long
and 5 – 7.5 μm wide. Silica bodies and short cells alternating with each other. Short cells, 5
– 15 μm long and 7.5 μm wide. Prickles frequently present, 30 – 32.5 μm long and 15 -
17.5 μm wide (Plate 53D ).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows over the vascular bundles. Thick
pointed prickles and macrohairs with rounded ends present abundantly on the ribs. Abaxial
surface smooth near the mid rib, other surface with slight ribs and furrows, thick pointed
prickles also present abaxially.Vascular bundles in four groups, very small, small, medium
and large vascular bundles. Large vascular bundles present in the keel region. Large and
medium size vascular bundles of basic type. Small and very small vascular bundles
alternating with each other. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged around the vascular
bundles. Some small vascular bundles without sclerenchyma strands or girders. Some with
a small adaxial girder, others with abaxial and adaxial girders or strands. Median vascular
bundle with a thick and wide abaxial girder and an adaxial strand. Keel fairly conspicuous,
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not rounded but rather straight abaxially, having a single median vascular bundle of basic
type, vascular bundle covering the middle of mid rib. Two to three layers of colourless
cells near the adaxial side in the mid rib region. Bulliform cells in irregular groups or in
uniform regular groups.Vascular bundles with single and complete sheath (Plate 53E & F).
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51. Setaria verticillata (Linn.) P.Beauv

Voucher No: 33
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Sakesar, Kathwai, Karialla, Kallar Kahar, Choa
Saidan Shah (Hazara, Swat, Rawalpindi, Sargodha, Loralai, Lahore, Thatta, Karachi, Thar
parker).
Distribution in World: Tropical and warm temperate regions.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on shady and wet places, moist clay and sandy clay
soil.
Flowering: April – October
Annuals, ascending or geniculately ascending; Culm 20-70 cm high, nodes black,
internodes glabrous; Leaf blades 6-32 cm long and 1.4-13 mm wide, linear lanceolate,
scabrid on the surface and on the margens, sparsly hairy on the both surfaces; Ligule
lacerate membranous, 0.6-2.2 mm long, sheath with sparsly short stiff hairs, compressed;
Inflorescence a panicle 3.0-11.5 cm long, 1.2 mm wide, narrowly oblong, cylindrical, the
rachis scabrid to pubulent; Inflorescene adhering to clothes due to its retrorsely barbed
bristles. Involucral bristles, one to few, 8 mm long; Spikelet 2 mm long, 1 mm wide, oval,
elliptic; Upper glume little shorter than spikelet, 1.8 mm long, 7 nerved, membranous;
Lower glume one third or less than half of the length of spikelet, 3 nerved, membranous;
upper lemma as long as spikelet, transversely rugose, coriacious, indurate; Upper palea also
rugose, enclosed by incurved margins of lemma; Lower lemma as long as spikelet, 5
nerved, membranous, (empty); Lower palea, hyaline, 2 keeled, boat shaped, more than half
of the length of spikelet; Anthers 0.8 mm long, yellow, stigma blackish, 0.5 – 0.6 mm long;
Caryopsis, tightly enclosed by hardened upper lemma and palea,1 mm long, 0.7 – 0.8 wide,
whitish, elliptic (Plate 54A).
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Pollen are circular in polar view, and oblate spheroidal in equatorial view.Polar
diameter is 27.50 μm (20-37.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 27.76 μm (20-35 μm). P/E
ratio is 0.99. Pollen are ectoporate or endoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.02
μm (1.25-3.5 μm) and exine thickness is 0.2 μm (0.75-1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 76.31%.
Sculpturing is rugulate (Plate 54B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous walls, 55 -
225 μm long and 17.5-25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
zones, 10-11. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2-3. Stomatal complex,
25-27.5 μm long and 17.5-25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells low
dome shaped. Microhairs 17.5-22.5 μm long and 6-7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs none seen.
Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross shaped or dumb bell shaped, 12.5 – 20 μm long and 7.5 –
10 μm wide. Short cells 12.5-15 μm long and 12.5-15 μm wide. Prickles, 42.5-45 μm long
and 15-20 μm wide, 3 – 9 cells present between prickles (Plate 54C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with sinuous walls, 45-137.5 μm
long and 20-25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 7-9.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2. Stomatal complex, 25-30 μm long
and 15 – 27.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells dome shaped.
Microhairs none seen. Long macrohairs tapering towards the apex, 32.5-36 µm long.
Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies cross shaped, one row of silica bodies, silica bodies and short
cells alternatively present to each other, 12.5-17.5 μm long and 7.5-10 μm wide. Short cells
7.5-17.5 μm long and 7.5-10 μm wide. 2-9 cells present between prickles. In prickles
rounded part, 40-45 μm long and 22-25 μm wide, beaked or pointed at one end, 12 – 15
μm long (Plate 54D ).
T. S. of Lamina
A row of enlarged cells on the adaxial side, with slight ribs. Ribs not very
prominent, thick pointed prickles present on the ribs adaxially. A row of enlarged cells on
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the abaxial epidermis, thick pointed prickles also present abaxially. Mostly the vascular
bundles small, a few vascular bundles of basic type. Chlorenchyma cells radially arranged
around the vascular bundles. Medium size vascular bundle with wide and 5 layered
sclerenchyma girder, accompanying small vascular bundles in the keel region, with small
abaxial sclerenchyma girders. Three adaxial strands present in the mid rib region. Large
basic type vascular bundles in other part of the lamina with adaxial strand and abaxial
girder. Small vascular bundles without sclerenchyma strands or girders. Keel or mid rib
region prominent, with a median vascular bundle of basic type and two small vascular
bundles on either side. Major part of mid rib covered by large colourless cells. Bulliform
cells in the form of single group on both sides of mid rib on the adaxial side. Bundle sheath
single and complete except the median vascular bundle that is interrupted abaxially (Plate
54E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
52. Setaria viridis (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Voucher No: 278
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar (Chitral, Dir, Kashmir, Swat,
Abbotabad, Gilgit, Sakardu, Rawalpindi, Quetta and Loralai).
Distribution in World: In the cooler regions of the old world, introduced to the new
world.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common in shady places, under the shade of trees, common in
Kallar Kahar
A loosely tufted annual, 30-60 cm high, culms ascending or geniculately ascending,
internodes slender and glabrous; Leaf blades 4.5-160 cm long, 0.8-5.0 mm wide, linear
lanceolate, pointed, scabrid on the surface and on the margins; Ligule a ciliated rim;
Sheaths glabrous, sparsly hairy at the margins. Inflorescence,1.7-6.0 cm long panicle, main
axis of inflorescence scabrid, bristles 1-3, at the base of each spikelet, bristle length, 3.5-7.5
mm long; Spikelet elliptic oblong, in back view, 1.5-1.8 mm long, 0.5-0.7 mm wide; Upper
glume, 5 nerved, as long as the spikelet, membranous; Lower glume one third of the length
of spikelet, ovate, 3 nerved; Upper lemma as long as the spikelet, tough, rugose, rounded
on the back; Upper palea also wrinkled (rugose); Upper floret bisexual or male (flower
enclosed by hardened lemma and palea); Lower lemma similar to upper glume,
membranous, rugose, as long as the spikelet; Lower palea very thin, less than half of the
length of spikelet (Lower floret barren); Anthers yellow, 0.3-0.5 mm long; Caryopsis 0.9-
1.0 mm long, 0.5 mm wide, enclosed by hardened lemma and palea (Plate 55A ).

Pollen are circular to semicircular in polar view and prolate spheroidal in equatorial
view. Polar diameter is 26.11µm (22.5-32.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 25.22 μm
(22.5-30 μm). P/E ratio is 1.03. Pollen are ectoporate or endoporate and monoporate. Pore
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diameter is 2 μm (1.2-3.7 μm) and exine thickness is 1.09 μm (1.0-1.5 μm). Pollen fertility
is 76.92 %. Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 55B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous walls, 62.5
μm long and 12.5-15 μm wide, interstomatal cells variable in length. Number of rows of
long cells between two costal zones, 6-11. Number of stomatal rows between two costal
zones, 1-2. Stomatal Complex, 20-35 μm long and 15-30 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell
shaped, subsidiary cells low dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, 25-27.5 μm long and 5-7
μm wide. Macrohairs abundantly present, 33-40.5 µm long. Hooks somewhat rounded and
pointed at one end, 17.5-19 μm long and 13-15 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies, 12.5-20 μm long and 4-5 μm wide, dumb bell shaped, silica
bodies and short cells alternatively present to each other, usually one row of silica bodies.
Short cells 10-15 μm long and 5.0-7.5 μm wide. Prickles 25-35 μm long and 12.5 μm wide,
2-6 cells between prickles (Plate 55C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells, 85-200 μm long and 17.5-25 μm
wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones 5-8. Number of stomatal
rows between two costal zones, 2-3. Stomatal complex, 22.5-25 μm long and 17.5-20 μm
wide. Guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells dome shaped. Microhairs 16 –
17.5 μm long and 4-5 μm wide, bicellular. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped, 1-3 layers of silica bodies, 15-17.5 μm long
and 4-5 μm wide. Silica bodies and short cells present alternatively to each other. Short
cells 7.5-17.5 μm long and 5 μm wide. Angular prickles present at the margins, 27.5-35 μm
long and 10 – 15 μm wide (Plate 55D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and shallow furrows, ribs not very high, thick
pointed prickles on the ribs. Abaxial surface mostly smooth, slight ribs opposite to large
vascular bundles of basic type, small pointed prickles present abaxially. Most vascular
bundles small, angular and xylem and phloem not distinct. A few large vascular bundles of
basic type (in which protoxylem, metaxylem and phloem are clear). Chlorenchyma cells
radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Large vascular bundles of basic type with
abaxial girders and adaxial strands, medium size vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial
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sclerenchyma strands. Small vascular bundles without strands or girders. Sclerenchyma

deposition at the margins. Keel not conspicuous. Bulliform cells in irregular groups
between the ribs on the adaxial side. Vascular bundles with single and complete sheath
(Plate 55E & F).
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53. Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv

Voucher No: 70
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon Sakesar, Choa Saidan Shah, Dhok Seela,
Chakwal.
Distribution in World: Sudan to Yemen and South wards to South Africa, India,
introduced to Australia.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common near fields and shady places, rare in crevices of rocks,
near wild life sanctuary, clay soil, sandy clay, wet clay soil.
Annuals, culms 20-65 cm tall, erect or geniculately ascending, rooting at nodes;
Leaf blades, 2-16 cm long and 0.7-0.9 mm wide, linear lanceolate, finely hirsute with
tubercle based hairs or glabrous, scabrid on margins; Ligule a ciliated rim, 0.8-1.5 mm
long; Sheath hairy on the margins; Inflorescence having 3-5 racemes, 1.5-6.0 cm long,
rachis flattened on the back, narrowly winged, main axis of inflorescence wooly at the
base; Spikelets biseriate (in two rows, on one side of flattened and narrowly winged
rachis), 3.3-4.5 mm long and 1.9-2.0 mm wide, narrowly elliptic, hairy; Upper glume as
long as spikelet, 9 nerved, pubiscent, slightly folded at margins, slightly mucronate; Lower
glume one third of the length of spikelet, 3-5 nerved, hairy, obtuse to sub acute at the tip;
Upper lemma, 3-3.2 mm long, faintly 3 nerved on the lower side, rugose, mucronate,
mucro 0.3-0.4 mm long; Upper palea also rugose, lemma clasping the palea by its incurved
margins, rounded at the tip, shorter than lemma. (Upper floret bisexual or female); Lower
lemma as long as the spikelet, 5-7 nerved, slightly folded at the margins, hairy, slightly
mucronate. Lower palea hyaline, almost subequal to lemma, 2 keeled with 2 lateral nerves.
(Lower floret barren); Stigma blackish, 0.7 mm long; Style, 0.8-0.9 mm long; Caryopsis
tightly enclosed by the upper lemma and palea, oval elliptic, 1.8-2.2 mm long, 1.5 mm
wide (Plate 56A ).
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diameter is 32.5 μm (30-34.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 30.2 μm (27-32.5 μm). P/E
ratio is 1.07. Pollen are endoporate or ectoporate. Pore diameter is 2.45 μm (1.4 – 3.0 μm)
and exine thickness is 1.05 μm (1.0-1.20 μm). Pollen fertility is 80.75%. Sculpturing is
scabrate (Plate 56B)

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thick sinuous walls,
interstomatal cells variable in length, 30-245 μm long and 15-17.5 μm wide. Number of
rows of long cells between two costal zones, 6-13. Number of stomatal rows between two
costal zones, 2-4. Stomatal complex, 32.5-35 μm long and 15-17.5 μm wide, guard cells
dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, blunt at the end,
frequently present at the junction of two long cells, 20-22.5 μm long and 5.7 μm wide.
Macrohairs long, 125-140 μm long and 7.5-10 μm wide. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: One to two layers of dumb bell shaped silica bodies, 15-22.5 μm long and
7.5-12.5 μm wide. Silica bodies and short cells alternatively present in the costal zone.
Short cells 15-25 μm long and 10-12.5 μm wide. Prickles none seen (Plate 56C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells, 135 - 415 μm long and 15-20 μm
wide, walls of long cells not sinuous or slightly sinuous. Number of rows of long cells
between two costal zones, 4-8. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2-5.
Stomatal complex: 25-27.5 μm long and 20-22.5 μm wide. Guard cells dumb bell shaped
and subsidiary cells dome shaped. Microhairs bicelled, blunt at the tip, 24-27.5 μm long
and 6.0-7.5 μm wide. Macrohairs long, 125-155 μm long and 6.0-7.5 μm wide, broad at the
base and beaked at the tip. Hooks 28-30 μm long and 15-17.5 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies 15-20 μm long and 7.0-7.5 µm wide, mostly silica bodies in
one row, silica bodies dumb bell shaped. Short cells 15-25 μm long and 6.0-7.5 μm wide,
cross shaped. Angular prickles, 30–35 μm long and 12.5–15 μm wide, 6.0-50 cells between
prickles (Plate 56D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs opposite to the vascular bundles, the furrows
shallow and narrow. Abaxial surface also with very slight ribs. Small vascular bundles
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present at the margins, not accompanied by sclerenchyma. Other small vascular bundles
with minute adaxial and abaxial strands. Large vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial
strands or girders. Keel fairly conspicuous and rounded, having a single median vascular
bundle. Bulliform cells in fan shaped groups, the cell in the middle of the group penetrating
deeply into the mesophyll. Bundle sheath, single or double, small vascular bundles with a
single complete sheath. Sheath cells unequal in size. Large vascular bundles with complete
inner sheath and outer sheath interrupted abaxially (Plate 56E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
3.11 TRIBE: AVENEAE

54. Agrosts viridis Gouan
Voucher No: 229
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar, Choa Saidan Shah (Chitral, Dir,
Gilgit Agency, Swat, Baltistan, Kohat, Attock, Kashmir, Quetta, Lorali Distt, Zhob)
Distribution in World: Mediterranean region, Arabia, Middle East, Pakistan, India, East
Africa to Egypt, South Africa, America, Australia
Occurrence and Habitat: Sometimes present in water, common on marshy and shady
places, closely associated with Polypogon Sp. at some marshy places, wet clay soil.
Flowering: March – August
A stoloniferous, perennial grass of moist habitats, rooting at the lower nodes upto
49-53.5 cm long; Leaf blades 5.5-15.5 cm long, 4-5 mm wide, scabrid on the surface and on
the margins; Ligule white membranous, 1-5 mm long, sheath glacuous and glabrous;
Inflorescence a loose panicle, sometimes lobed and spatheolate, 4.5-12.8 cm long, spikelets
1.2-1.5 mm long, disarticulating below the glumes, having one floret bisexual (spikelets
similar to Polypogen but awnless); Glumes subequal, shiny, scabrid on the mid nerve; upper
glume almost as long as spikelet, 1 nerved, greenish in the mid, scabrid on the mid nerve, on
the back and on the margins, membranous; lower glume as long as the spikelet, 1 nerved,
membranous, notched at the tip, sometimes blunt or obtuse at the tip; Lemma 0.7-0.9 mm
long, 0.3mm wide, faintly 3 nerved, truncate, denticulate at the tip, nerves of lemma
extended into teeth like structure or mucro, hyaline; Palea almost equal to lemma, bilobed at
the tip, narrow than lemma, 1nerved; Anthers 0.2-0.4 mm long, stigma 0.15-0.3 mm long,
Caryopsis 0.2-0.4 mm long (Plate 57A) .

Pollen are circular to sub circular in polar view, and oblate spheroidal in equatorial
view. Polar diameter is 22 μm (20-25 μm) and equatorial diameter is 22.10 μm (20-27.5
μm). P/E ratio is 0.99. Pollen are monoporate and endoporate. Pore diameter is 1.87 μm
(1.5-2.0 μm) and exine thickness is 1.08 μm (1.0-1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 69.44%.
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Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells, having thin and non sinuous walls,
some cells narrow at the ends than in the middle, 142.5-190 μm long and 15-20 μm
wide.Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 3-6. Number of stomatal rows
between two costal zones, 1-2. Stomatal complex 37.5-40 μm long and 17.5-21.25 μm wide,
guard cells somewhat dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells parallel sided. Microhairs none
seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks 52.5 - 60 μm long and 12.5-16.25 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies slightly dumb bell shaped, cross shaped or slightly rectangular in
shape, 18.75-23.75 μm long and 7.5-10 μm wide. Short cells, 27.5-45 μm long and 7.5-8.75
μm wide. Prickles with bulbous base, pointed at one end, 72.5-75 μm long and 20 μm wide
(Plate 57C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with straight walls, and not having
uniform diameter, 125-287.5 μm long and 15-25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells
between two costal zones, 3-4. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1-2.
Stomatal complex, 35-37.5 μm long and 18-20 μm wide, guard cells thick in the middle,
subsidiary cells parallel sided and very thin walled. Microhairs none seen .Macrohairs none
seen. Hooks broad at the base, 47.5-60 μm long and 47-60 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies slightly rectangular in shape or irregularly shaped, 18-20 μm
long and 6.0-8.75 μm wide. Short cells 23.75-25 μm long and 8.75-11.25 μm wide. Angular
prickles 40-52.5 μm long and 20-23.75 μm wide (Plate 57D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows, abaxial surface flat but
sometimes with slight ribs. Most vascular bundles small and not conspicuously angular,
some vascular bundles angular in outline. Small vascular bundles with very small adaxial
and abaxial strands or without any sclerenchyma strand. Large vascular bundles with large
adaxial and abaxial strands but with no sclerenchyma girder. Keel not conspicuous, with a
single median vascular bundle. Bulliform cells uniform and in regular groups.These may be
in uniform small or large groups. Small vascular bundles with a single complete sheath, the
inner sheath not conspicuous because of very small cells. Large vascular bundles with
double complete sheath (Plate 57E&F).
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Results Chapter 3
Genus: Avena L.
Key to species
1a. The axis of spikelet breaks naturally at maturity at the base of each lemma, the point of
detachment being marked by a rounded scar. A. fatua
1b. The axis of spikelet breaks at the base of the lowest lemma, and this is with only one
scar. A. sterilis
55. Avena fatua Linn.

Voucher No. 259
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Choa Saidan Shah, Soon Sakesar (Gilgit
Agency, Kashmir, Baltistan, Sakardu, Rawalpindi, Murree, Lahore
Distribution in World: Europe, Western and Central Asia, introduced to many other
countries
Occurance and Habitat: Common in fields and near field, clay soil.
Flowering: March – May
Annual, 30-80 cm long, tufted or solitary, erect or bent at the base; Leaf blades 7.5-
19 cm long, 4.0-4.5 mm wide, finely pointed; Ligule 2.5 mm long, blunt, membranous,
sheath shiny and sparsly hairy on the back; Inflorescence upto 16 cm long, loose panicle
with pendulous spikelets, spikelets 22 mm long, loosely scattered, narrow oblong or gaping;
Upper glume as long as spikelet, 5.5 mm wide, lanceolate; Lower glume 20 mm long, 4mm
wide, 7 nerved, membranous, lanceolate; upper lemma 14.5 mm long (thin and membranous
at the margins, a horse shoe shaped basal scar at the base of florets; Lower lemma with
geniculate awn at the mid back, hairy at the half lower back, about one third of awn hairy
and dark black and twisted, white and pale yellow and scabrid in the upper portion, awn
28– 30 mm long. Lower floret 16.5 mm long, both lemma hairy at the back, palea shorter
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than lemma 2 keeled, lanceolate, short hairy at the margins, 11.0-11.3 mm long; Callus
hairy, lemmas two toothed and hard, Caryopsis villous, 6.5 mm long,1 mm wide (Plate
58A).

Pollen are circular to semi circular in polar view and prolate spheroidal in equatorial
view. Polar diameter is 39.16 μm (35 – 42.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 34.79 μm (30 –
40 μm). P/E ratio is 1.12 and pore diameter is 3.37 μm (2.25 - 4 μm). Exine thickness is
1.05 μm (1 – 1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 84.90 %. Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are
narrowly spaced (Plate 58B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells very long, with straight walls, 250–
625 μm long and 20 – 22.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal
zones, 6 – 12. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones,1 – 3. Stomatal Complex,
36.25 – 65 μm long and 17.5 – 27.5 μm wide, guard cells with uniform diameter, not narrow
in the middle, subsidiary cells parallel sided, 10 – 12.5 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide.
Microhairs none seen. Microhairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies slight cubical in shape, 5 – 12.5 μm long and 3.75 – 7.5 μm
wide. Angular Prickles 50 – 75 μm long and 20 – 25 μm wide (Plate 58C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with straight walls, not uniform in
width, 192.5 – 475 μm long and 27.5 – 35 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between
two costal zones, 3 – 13. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones,1 – 4.
Stomatal complex 58.25 – 61.25 μm long and 22.5 – 27.5 μm wide, guard cells with
uniform diameter, 10 – 11.25 μm wide, subsidiary cell parallel sided, 6.25 – 8.25 μm wide.
Microhairs none seen, macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies 6.0-12.25 µm long and 5.0-6.5µm wide. Prickles 45 – 50 μm
long and 20 – 25 μm wide (Plate58D).
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs and furrows, almost smooth. Abaxial surface with
slight ribs and furrows. Short prickles present abaxially and adaxially. Three types of
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Results Chapter 3
vascular bundles with respect to size, large, medium and small vascular bundles. Large and
medium size vascular bundles of basic type. Chlorenchyma cells not radially arranged
around vascular bundles. Large vascular bundles of basic type with adaxial and abaxial
girders, the abaxial girders wide and high. The small vascular bundles with small adaxial
and abaxial sclerenchyma strands. Keel conspicuous and rounded, with a single median
vascular bundle of basic type. Median vascular bundle covered from the adaxial and abaxial
side by irregularly shaped colourless cells. Colourless cells large towards the adaxial side
while small towards the abaxial side in the mid rib region. Bulliform cells in fan shaped
groups or in regular groups. Vascular bundles with double and complete sheath or
interrupted abaxially by sclerenchyma girder (Plate 58E&F).
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Results Chapter 3
56. Avena Sterilis sub sp. Avena ludoviciana (Dur.)

Voucher No: 166
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Chakwal, Uchali, Kallar Kahar, Naushahra,
Kanhati Garden, Choa Saidan Shah (Peshawar, Chitral, Malakand, Swat, Hazara between
Haripur and Abbotabad, Kohat, Hangu, Kashmir, Kotli, Quetta and Karachi ).
Distribution in World: Mediterranean region and the middle East, east wards of North
West India.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common to fields and near fields, at the borders of the fields,
sandy clay, clay soil.
Flowering: March - May
Annuals, 23 – 78 cm long , erect or geneculately ascending; Leaf blades 9 – 37.5 cm
long, 4 – 7.5 mm wide, glabrous or scabrid on the surface; Ligule membranous, 4 – 5.5 mm
long; Sheath apparently glabrous, but by rubbing from top to bottom feels rough;
Inflorescence an open panicle, 10 – 18 cm long, loose panicle having pendulous spikelets,
spikelets 18 – 26.5 mm long, disarticulating above the glumes, the pedicel of spikelets, 17
mm long, having 3 – 4 florets, 2 fertile and one vesitigial; Callus long densely hairy, upto
the insertion of awns with long stiff hairs, about 4mm long; Upper glume, as long as
spikelet, 9 – 11 nerved, thin membranous at the margins, greenish in the middle, lanceolate,
acute at the tip, herbaceous membranous to scarious membranous, 5 mm wide; Lower
glume little shorter than upper glume, 2.5 – 5.0 mm wide, 9 – 11 nerved, lanceolate, acute at
the tip; Both lemmas two toothed and hairy at the back and granular, having awn 24 – 44
mm long, twisted below, and dark, while scabrid above and light in colour, breaking in the
half lemmas, greenish near the tip, having incurved margins, and a thin membranous band at
the margins, incurved margins enclosing palea; Palea 7 nerved, 2 keeled, enclosing oblong
caryopsis, shorter than lemma, short hairy at margins, lanceolate; Lower floret 12.5 – 18
mm long bisexual; Upper floret 10.2 – 13 mm long, bisexual, horse shoe shaped swelling at
the base of lower Lemma. Anthers 1.5 – 2.0 mm long, stigma white plumose; Caryopsis 6 –
7 mm long, 1.3 – 1.4 mm wide, oblong, villous, and having tuft of hairs towards the tip,
tightly enclosed between lemma and palea (Plate 59A ) .
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Results Chapter 3
Pollen are circular to oval in polar view and prolate spheroidal in equatorial view.
Polar diameter is 45.92 μm (35 – 57.5 μm). P/E ratio is 1.01 and pollen are ectoporate and
monoporate. Pore diameter is 3.85 μm (3 – 4 μm) and exine thickness is 1.17 μm (1.0 – 1.5
μm). Pollen fertility is 94.26 %. Sculpturing is rugulate (Plate 59B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with straight walls, not uniform in
width, 192.5 – 475 μm long and 27.5 – 35 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between
Stomatal complex, 82.5 – 90 μm long and 25 – 26.5 μm wide, subsidiary cells parallel
sided, 5 – 7.5 μm wide, guard cells with uniform width in the middle, 10 – 11.5 μm wide;
Costal zone: Silica bodies with elongated, thick, non sinuous walls, some cells having
transverse striations, 68.5 – 550 μm long and 8.75 – 25 μm wide. Prickles with elongated
bulbous bases, pointed at one end, 62.5 – 87.5 μm long and 20 – 22.5 μm wide (Plate 59C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 6 – 11.
Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2- 4. Stomatal complex, 61.5 – 62.5
μm long and 22 – 25 μm wide. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none
seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies with elongated, thick, non sinuous wall, 32.5 – 75 μm long and
6.25 – 7.5 μm wide. Angular prickles present at the margins and in the mid of costal zone,
28.25 – 52.5 μm long and 13.75 – 15 μm wide (Plate 59D).
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with ribs over large vascular bundles of basic type. Abaxial surface
with ribs opposite to the large vascular bundles of basic type. Stomata observed adaxially
and abaxially. Large vascular bundles of basic type, in small vascular bundles xylem and
phloem not distinct. Chlorenchma cells not radially arranged around the vascular bundles
but diffused in the mesophyll. Large vascular bundles of basic type with adaxial and abaxial
strands. Small vascular bundles also with adaxial and abaxial strands. Small vascular
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bundles opposite to bulliform cells without sclerenchyma strands or girders. Keel slightly
conspicuous, containing a single median vascular bundle. Bulliform cells in fan shaped
groups or in the form of uniform regular groups. Vascular bundles with double sheath, the
outer sheath composed of large cells, the inner sheath is composed of small cells (Plate 59E
& F).
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57. Koeleria argentea Griseb.

Voucher No. 191
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Soon Sakesar, (Kashmir, Quetta)
Distribution in World: Afghanistan, throughout temperate regions of Northern

hemisphere.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on moist places and wet clay soil.
Flowering: March – April
Loosely tufted perennial, 23 – 37 cm long, internodes and nodes glabrous, internodes
shiny; Leaf blades 5.3 – 18 cm long, 3 mm wide, scabrid on the surface and on the margins,
sparsly hairy; Ligule a lacerate membranous, 1 mm long; Sheath glabrous, hairy on margins
on one side; Inflorescence, 2.5 – 9.0 cm long panicle, cylindrical, sometimes lobed on the
lower part of panicle; Spikelets glistening, 2.5 – 2.9 mm long, spikelets having 3 – 4 florets,
florets 2.2 – 3.0 mm long; Rachilla terminating into a vesitigial floret.Upper glume 2 – 2.5
mm long, 0.7 – 0.9 mm wide, 3 nerved, keeled, scabrid on the keel, sparsly pubiscent on the
back, lanceolate, broader than lower glume; Lower glume 1.5 – 2.0 mm long, one nerved,
keeled,scabrid on the nerve, narrow, 0.2 mm wide, lanceolate, greenish in the mid,
membranous at the margins; Side florets having lemma as long as the spikeltes, 5 nerved,
hyaline at the margins, with a short awn point, 0.2 – 1 mm long, greenish in the mid and
white membranous at the margins; Palea shorter than lemma, 2 keeled, 1.8 – 2.0 mm long,
hyaline, bilobed at the tip, and scabrid on the margins, with two short aristeae at the tip;
Anthers 3, 0.2 – 0.3 mm long, pale white, stigma 0.5 mm long, plumose, white; Caryopsis,
1 mm long, narrow oblong (Plate 60A).
Pollen are circular in polar view and prolate spheroidal to oblate in equatorial view.
Polar diameter is 22.77 μm (20 – 27.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 20.83 μm (17.5 – 25
μm). P/E ratio is 1.09. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 1.75 μm (1.5
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– 3.0 μm) and exine thickness is 1.14 μm (1.0 – 1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 88.23 %.
Sculpturing is scabrate (Plate 60B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with non sinuous walls, not
uniform in diameter, mostly cells cubical, broad in the middle, 205 – 310 μm long and 17.5
– 32.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 5 – 8. Number of
stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal complex, 35 – 37.5 μm long and
15 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells not narrow in the middle, subsidiary cells very thin walled,
parallel sided or low dome shaped. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs swollen at the base
and pointed towards the tip, 112.5 – 185 μm long and 20 – 22.5 μm wide. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies horizontally elongated and with smooth or sinuous outline.
Angular prickles 42.5 – 47.5 μm long and 13.75 – 15 μm wide (Plate 60C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with non sinuous walls, slightly
broad in the middle, 142.5 – 332 μm long, 12 – 28.75 μm wide. Number of rows of long
cells between two costal zones, 5 – 10. Number of stomatal rows between two costal
zones,1 – 3. Stomatal complex 35 – 45 μm long and 16.25 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells not
narrow in the middle, subsidiary cells very thin walled. Microhairs none seen, Macrohairs
with bulbous base 165 – 512.5 μm long and 20 – 32.5 μm wide. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies elongated and with sinuous or smooth outline, many layers of
silica bodies. Prickles present, 47.5 – 58.75 μm long and 8.75 – 16.25 μm wide (Plate 60D).
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with ribs and furrows, ribs over the vascular bundles and deep
furrows between the vascular bundles. Abaxial surface with long pointed prickles and with
slight ribs and furrows. Large vascular bundles of basic type in which protoxylem and
metaxylem are very prominent. Small vascular bundles crowded. Chlorenchyma cells not
radially arranged around the vascular bundles. The median vascular bundle in the keel
region with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders. Keel fairly conspicuous or not
conspicuous, containing a single median vascular bundle of basic type. Bulliform cells in
fan shaped groups. Vascular bundles with single sheath, in large vascular bundles sheath not
clear (Plate 60E & F).
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58. Phalaris minor Retz.

Voucher No: 187
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kanhati Garden, Khabaki, Sodhi, Uchali,
Chakwal, Kallar Kahar, Choa Saidan Shah.( Peshawar, Swat, Kohat, Hanza Rawalpindi,
Gujar Khan, Attock, Jhelum, Quetta, Malir Karachi, Lahore)
Distribution in World: World wide.
Occurrence and Habitat: Occasional on waste land, in fields and near wheat fields, on
field edges, clay moist, clay soil
Flowering: March – May.
Marphological Description
A tufted annual grass, 30 – 65 cm long; Leaf blades 7.5 – 28 cm long, 0.8 – 10 mm
wide, scabrid on the surface and on the margins, rarely glabrous, flat and linear lanceolate;
Ligule 2.5 – 6.5 mm long, membranous; Sheath glabrous and membranous at the margins;
Inflorencence 2 – 8 cm long, a dense spicate panicle, ovate to ovate oblong, whitish green
panicle; Both glumes equal, as long as spikelet, 3 nerved, winged on the mid nerve on the
keel, slightly dentate on the mid nerve, whitish except for the greenish nerves, membranous;
Pedicel of spikelet scabrid, fertile lemma 3 mm long, strongly folded, when unfolded
broadly elliptic, short hairy at the back, 5 nerved, soft sparsly short hairy near the tip,
glossy, smooth, slippery and shiny acute at the tip (fertile floret bisexual); Palea short hairy
on the mid nerve, 0.5 – 0.6 mm wide, when unfolded, lanceolate; Sterile floret very short as
a scale on one side of fertile floret, about 1 mm long; Anthers yellowish, 1.0 – 1.5 mm long,
stigma 1.5 mm long; Caryopsis 1.4 – 1.9 mm long, dark yellow and oblong ovate (Plate
61A).
Pollen are circular in polar view and sub prolate in equatorial view. Polar diameter is 32.11
μm (27.5 – 37.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 26.52 μm (20 – 35 μm). P/E ratio is 1.21.
Pollen are ectoporate or endoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.9 μm (2.5 – 3.5 μm)
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and exine thickness is 1.33 μm (1.0 – 1.5 μm) and pollen fertility is 79.09 % .Sculpturing is
scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 61B ).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin, non sinuous walls, 90 –
270μm long, 18 – 22 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 5 –
15. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 3. Stomatal complex, 44 – 46
μm long and 22 – 25 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells parallel sided
or low dome shaped. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies with rounded ends and smooth. Short cells with sinuous walls
(Plate 61C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cell with thin non sinuous walls, 124 –
275 μm long and 20 – 22.5 μm wide. Number of rows of long cell, between two costal
zones, 6 – 15. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal complex,
45 – 47.5 μm long and 25 – 27.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, 8 – 10 μm wide,
subsidiary cells parallel side or low dome shaped, 7 – 7.5 μm wide. Microhairs none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies with rounded ends and smooth, 50 – 52.5 μm long and 13 .75 –
16.25 μm wide. Short cells with sinuous walls. Prickles 50 – 55 μm long and 14 – 17.5 μm
wide (Plate 61D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs opposite to the vascular bundles, ribs are wider and
with wide and shallow furrows. Mostly vascular bundles small and infrequent and not
angular in outline. Small vascular bundles near the leaf margins without sclerenchyma.
Most vascular bundles with small adaxial and abaxial girders. The vascular bundles in the
keel region with only large abaxial girders. Keel fairly conspicuous, with one large median
vascular bundle and with one small vascular bundle on each side. Chlorenchyma cells not
radiating the vascular bundles. Bulliform cells in fan shaped groups, and the middle cell
larger than the remaining cells of the group. Bundle sheath double in large and small
vascular bundles, outher sheath with girder like extension of colourless cells that are
connected to sclerenchyma girder (Plate 61E &F).
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Results Chapter 3
Genus: Polypogon
Key to species
1a. Awns of glumes 2 -2.8 mm long P. fugax
1b. Awns of glumes 2.2 – 5.5 mm long P.monspeliensis
59. Polypogon fugax Nees ex Steud.

Voucher No. 217
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Khewra, Choa Saidan Shah, (Dir, Kashmir,
hazara, Abbotabad, Swat, Kashmir, Kotli, Rawalpindi, Murree, Sibi, Zhob)
Distribution in World: Iraq, East Wards to Burma mainly in the Himalayan.
Occurrence and Habitat: Found on moist and shady places, abundant in wet sandy and
marshy places, moist clay soil
Flowering: May - August
Annuals, 6.5 – 63 cm high, often decumbent at the base and rooting from the lower
nodes, geniculately ascending, nodes and internodes glabrous; Leaf blades 2 – 14 cm long,
0.5 – 0.6 mm wide, scabrid on the margins, surface scabrid; Ligule membranous, 0.5 – 2.0
mm long; Sheath glabrous or slightly scabrid on the surface; Inflorescence 0.7 – 10 cm long,
Panicle lobed and oblong, spikelet 1.4–1.6 mm long, having one floret, spikelets
disarticulating below the glume, rachis and pedicels of spikelets persistent, scabrid and
pubiscent florets 0.8 – 0.9 mm long; Glumes subequal, 1 nerved, bilobed, and ciliated at
margins, keeled above and scabrid on the keel, awn arising between the lobes, (awn length
2– 2.8 mm long); Lemma and palea hyaline, lemma truncate, palea very delicate, notched
at the tip; Anthers 0.15 – 0.3 mm long ; Caryopsis oval, 0.3 – 0.4 mm long ( Plate 62A).
Palynology (LM and SEM)

Pollen are circular to semicircular in polar view and sub oblate in equatorial view.
Polar diameter is 26.25 μm (20 – 32.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 31.66 μm (30 – 35
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μm). P/E ratio is 0.82. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate, Pore diameter is 2.5 μm (2.2 –
2.8 μm). Exine thickness is 0.93 μm (0.75 – 1.00 μm). Pollen fertility is 80.30%.

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with slightly sinuous walls, 102.5 –
212.5 μm long and 15 – 22.5 μm wide, rounded short cells present between long cells, 12.5–
15 μm long horizontally and 12.5 – 15.25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cell, between
Stomatal complex, 35 – 36.25 μm long and 16.25 – 22.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell
shaped, subsidiary cells dome shaped. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks
none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies, dumb bell shaped, 21.25 – 22.5 μm long and 4.0 – 5.0 μm wide.
Short cells with sinuous outline, 20 – 31.5 μm long and 7.5 – 8.75 μm wide. Prickles none
seen (Plate 62C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cell with slightly sinuous or straight
walls, 37.5 – 72.5 μm long and 11.25 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between
two costal zones, 5 - 7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal
complex, 2.5 – 25 μm long and 17.5 – 18.75 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped,
subsidiary cells high dome shaped. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks
present, 15.5 -17.25 µm long and 12-15.5 µm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies dumb bell shaped and present in continuous row, 17.5 – 21.25
μm long and 6.25 – 7.5 μm wide. Rounded short cells present between long cells, prickles
none seen (Plate 62D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with fairly tall ribs and deep furrows, ribs tall over the large
vascular bumbles. Abaxial surface also with slight ribs and furrows. Three types of vascular
bundles with respect to size, large vascular bundles of basic type, medium sized and small
vascular bundles. Chlorenchyma cells not radially arranged around the vascular bundles.
Keel not conspicuous. Bulliform cells shrinked and not observed in the material examined.
Large vascular bundles of basic type with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders. Bundle
sheath double or intermediate (Plate 62E &F).
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60. Polypogon monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf.

Voucher No: 217
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kariala (Chakwal), Kallar Kahar, Choa Saidan
Shah, Dhok Seela (Mardan, Gilgit agency, Chitral, Hazara, Mansehra, Kashmir, Peshawar,
Rawalpindi, Sargodha, Lahore, Dadu, Karachi, Hyderabad, Turbat).
Distribution in World: Europe, Africa, Middle East, Pakistan to China, introduced else
where.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common in moist places, marshy places, along water courses,
near sanitary pipes and channels, wet clay soil, muddy organic soil, wet black humus soil .
Flowering: Throughout the year, but mostly between March – July.
Tufted annual grass, usually decumbent, sometimes geniculately ascending, and

rooting as the lower nodes; Culms 20 – 63 cm long, nodes and intenodes glabrous; Leaf
blades 2.75 cm long, 0.6 – 6 mm wide, scabrid on the surface and on the margins, 0.8 – 80
mm long, whitish membranous; Sheath glabrous or stightly scabrid on the outer surface;
Inflorescence 1.7 – 13.3 cm long, ovate to oblong, cylindrical and somewhat lobed; Spikelet
1.0 – 1.8 mm long, having one floret, disarticulating below the glume; Both glumes sub
equal having awn at the tip, awns of both glumes not equal, awns whitish, thin and slightly
scabrid, 2.2 – 5.5 mm long, both glumes one nerved, keeled above, thin and greenish in the
mid, ciliated at the margins, glumes bilobed at the tip and awns arising between the lobes,
floret 0.5 – 0.8 mm long, 0.2 mm wide, glabrous, glacuous, male or (bisexual). Both lemma
and palea, membranous, lemma truncate, awned or awnless, awns 0.5 – 0.8 mm long; Palea
equal or sub equal to lemma; Anthers very small, 0.1 – 0.4 mm long or less then 0.1 mm;
Stigma 0.15 – 0.2 mm long; Caryopses ovoid, 0.15 – 0.5 mm long (Plate 63A ).

diameter is 31.25 μm (3.0 – 32.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 27.22 μm (25 – 30 μm).
P/E ratio is 1.14. Pollen are monoporate and ectoporate. Pore diameter is 2.2 μm (2.0 – 2.5
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μm) and exine thickness is 1 μm (0.75 – 1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 81.25%. Sculpturing is
verrucate and verrucae are widely spaced (Plate 63B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin, non sinuous walls, 70 –
137.5 μm long and 20 – 25 μm wide. Short cells present between long cells, 10 – 11.25 μm
long and 7.5 – 11.25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cell between two costal zones, 4 –
7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 3. Stomatal complex, 40 – 45 μm
long and 20 – 22.5 μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells parallel sided.
Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks with rounded base and with long
pointed tip.
Costal zone: Silica bodies horizontally elongated with sinuous outlines or intermediate
between cross and dumb bell shaped, 15 – 25 μm long and 13.75 – 16.25 μm wide. Prickles
52.5- 57.5 μm long and 20 – 22.5 μm wide (Plate 63C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with non sinuous walls, 55 – 122
μm long and 8 – 10 μm wide. Short cells 15 – 17.25 μm long and 11.25 – 12.5 μm wide.
between two costal zones,1 – 2. Stomatal complex, 35 – 37.5 μm long and 18 – 20 μm wide,
guard cells thick from the middle, subsidiary cells low dome shaped or parallel sided.
Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks with bulbous base, 50 – 55 μm long
and 15 – 17.5 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies somewhat dumb bell shaped or horizentally elongated with
sinuous outline, 17.5 – 27.5 μm long and 12.5 – 13.75 μm wide. Short cells 7.5 – 15 μm
long and 10 – 11.25 μm wide. Prickles 45 – 50 μm long and 20 – 21.25 μm wide with
bulbous base and pointed at one side (Plate 63D).
T. S. of Lamina
Both adaxial and abaxial surfaces with ribs and shallow furrows. Ribs large over the
vascular bundles of basic type. Three small vascular bundles between two large vascular
bundles of basic type.Vascular bundles not angular in outline, mostly vascular bundles
small. Chlorenchyma cells not radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Keel not
conspicuous, containing a single vascular bundle of basic type. Bulliform cells, present on
both adaxial and abaxial sides, present in the group of uniform bulliform cells or in fan
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shaped groups. Large vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders.
Small vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial strands. Bundles sheath double or
intermediate (Plate 63E&F).
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Results Chapter 3
3.12 TRIBE: BROMEAE

Key to Species:
1a. Annual or short lived perennial, upper glume 11 nerved and lower glume 9 nerved.
B. catharticus
1b. Annuals, upper glume 7 nerved and lower glume 3 nerved. B. pectinatus
61. Bromus catharticus Vahl.

Voucher No: 275
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar (Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Murree
hills)
Distribution in World: Central and South West, Argentina.
Occurance and Habitat: Rare at shady places, wet clay soil.
Flowering: April – July
Annual or short lived perennial grass, culms, 28 – 30 cm long; Leaf blades upto 14.5
cm long, 2.5 mm wide, scabrid on the surface and antrorsely scabrid on the margins; Ligule
membranous, 2mm long; Sheath soft hairy (pubiscent), basal sheath somewhat light in
colour. Inflorescence, a panicle, 7 – 10 cm long, having upto 13 spikelets, pedicels of
spikelets scabrid, 0.7 – 1.8 cm long, spikelets, 24 mm long, having 5 – 6 florets; Upper
glume, 8mm long, 3.5 mm wide, ovate lanceolate, 11 nerved, membranous at the margins;
Lower glume 7 mm long, 2 mm wide, 9 nerved, acute lanceolate, greenish in the mid
except margins, glabrous on the back, florets glacuous with a short mucro or fine awn point,
coriacious, glabrous, floret 11 – 13 mm long; Lemma, 9 nerved, bidentate at the tip having
awn point, 0.7 mm long between the sinus, membranous at the margins, strongly keeled and
laterally flattened, scabrulous at the nerves; Palea 8 mm long, whitish, 2 keeled, ciliolate on
the keels, two toothed at the tip(Plate 64A).
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Pollen are circular in polar view, and spheroidal to prolate spheroidal in equatorial
view. Polar diameter is 44 μm (42.5 - 45 μm) and equatorial diameter is 43 μm (35 – 47.5
μm). P/E ratio is 1.02. Pollen are monoporate and ectoporate. Pore diameter is 3.64 μm
(2.5– 4.0 μm) and exine thickness is 1.25 μm (1.0 – 1.75 μm). Pollen fertility is 97.78 %.

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with non sinuous walls, short cells
present between long cells, 127.5 – 255 μm long and 17.5 – 25 μm wide. Number of rows of
long cell between two costal zones, 3 – 7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal
zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal complex, 47.5 – 52.5 μm long and 21.25 – 22.5 μm wide, guard cells
thick in the middle, 7.5 μm wide, subsidiary cells lows dome shaped, 7.5 μm wide.
Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs with swollen base and tapering towards the apex, 180 –
252.5 μm long and 10 – 13.75 μm wide. Hooks present between long cells, base somewhat
rounded, pointed at one side, 40 – 61.25 μm long and 5 – 12.5 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies with straight and non sinuous walls, 13.25 -18.5 µm long and
12.5 -14.5 µm wide. Prickles, 47.5 – 50 μm long and 13.75 – 15 μm wide (Plate 64C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with none sinuous walls. No.of
rows of long cells between two costal zones, 3 – 5. Number of stomatal rows between two
costal zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal complex, 40 – 41.25 μm long and 20 – 21.25 μm wide, guard
cells thick in the middle, subsidiary cells low dome shaped. Microhairs none seen.
Macrohairs swollen at the base and tapering to the apex, 150 - 287 μm long and 8.75 – 12
μm wide. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies with none sinuous walls, 12-15 µm long and 8.5-13 µm wide,
3– 4 rows of silica bodies. Prickles 50 – 55 μm long, and 11.25 – 15 μm wide (Plate 64D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight and wide ribs and shallow furrows. Abaxial surface also
with slight ribs and furrows. Most vascular bundles small and not angular in outline. Large
vascular bundles of basic type. A few small vascular bundles without any sclerenchyma
strand or girder. Other small vascular bundles with small adaxial strands only. Large
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vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial girders. Keel conspicuous and having a single
median vascular bundle with anchor shaped incomplete girder. Chlorenchyma cells not
radiating the vascular bundles. Mostly adaxial girders extending towards the outer sheath of
vascular bundles. Bundle sheaths double. In small vascular bundles sometimes the outer
sheath is not complete, and inner sheath not prominent. In large vascular bundles outer
sheath complete or interrupted adaxially and abaxially (Plate 64E &F).
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Results Chapter 3
62. Bromus pectinatus Thunb.

Voucher No: 200
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Sodhi, Naushahra, Kanhati Garden (Gilgit
Agency, Dir, Chitral, Kafirisan Valley, Kashmir, Chitral, Hazara, Attock, Rawalpindi,
Quetta.
Distribution in World: Sudan Republic, through Ethiopia to Egypt, Sinai and Arabia,
South Africa India, Europe
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on humus soil, under shady trees, near fields, in shade,
on moist soil, wet clay soil, black organic soil.
Annuals, culms erect or geniculately ascending, 13 – 47 cm long, nodes blackish,
internodes glacuous and glabrous; Leaf blades 4.5 – 22 cm long, 1.5 – 4.0 mm wide, hairy
on the both surface; Ligule membranous, 1.5 – 4.5 mm long; Sheath sparsly hairy on the
back, and on the margins, sometimes glacuous and glabrous; Inflorescence a panicle, 7.5-19
cm long, a raceme 10 – 15 cm long, having pedicelled spikelets, the pedicels 1 – 2.8 cm
long, the pedicels antrorsely scabrid, spikelets 1.1 – 2.3 cm long, 5mm wide, lanceolate and
awned; Upper glume 7 – 8 mm long, 2.5 – 3.5 mm wide, 7 nerved, pubiscent on the back
and membranous at the margins, greenish except the margins, elliptic oblong, acute at the
tip; Lower glume 6 – 7 mm long, 1.7 – 1.8 mm wide, narrow, 3 nerved acute hairy on the
back, hairy and membranous at the margins; Lower floret lemma 9 – 10 mm long, 7 – 9
nverved, elliptic oblong, having awn about 4 – 11 mm long, (awn emerging just behind the
tip) , bidentate at the tip, pubescent at the back and membranous at the margins; Palea 6 – 7
mm long, hyaline, 2 keeled,hairy at the margins and on the keels, truncate at the tip; Top
floret having awn from 12 – 15 mm long, awn scabrid, palea upto the origination of awns,
hyaline, 7 mm long, 1.2 – 1.3 mm wide, two keeled, hairy at the margins, palea somewhat
adnate to the caryopsis; Caryopsis 5.5 mm long, 0.5 mm wide, wooly fringed at the tip,
depressed on one side (Plate 65A ).
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diameter is 30.4 μm (25 - 0 45 μm) and equatorial diameter is 29.30 μm (25 – 35 μm). P/E
ratio is 1.03. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate, pore diameter is 3 μm (2 – 4 μm). Exine
thickness is 1 μm (0.95 – 1.05 μm) and pollen fertility is 92.10 %. Sculpturing is verrucate
and verrucae are narrowly spaced (Plate 65B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with thin, non sinuous
walls, 30 – 275 μm long and 17.5 – 31.25 μm wide. Short cells present between long cells at
regular intervals. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 5 – 13. Number
of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 4. Stomatal complex, 52.5 – 65 μm long and
25 – 28.75 μm wide. Guard cells dumb bell shaped and subsidiary cells low dome shaped or
parallel sided. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs long, present abundantly, swollen at the
base and tapering towards the apex, 187.5 – 575 μm long and 10 – 16.25 μm wide. Hooks
present, 75 – 77.5 μm long and 12 – 13.25 μm wide.
Costal zone: Silica bodies horizontally elongated with non sinuous walls and with rounded
ends, 57.5 – 63.5 μm long and 7.5 – 11.25 μm wide. Angular prickles present in the costal
zone and also present at the margins of the costal zone, 32.5 - 40 µm long and 28 - 35.5 µm
wide(Plate 65C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with non sinuous walls, 137.5 –
243.75 μm long, 21.25 – 23.75 μm wide. Short cells present between long cells, rectangular
shaped. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 5 – 7. Number of stomatal
rows between two costal zones, 1 – 2. Stomatal complex 55-57.5 μm long and 25 – 31.25
μm wide, guard cells dumb bell shaped, subsidiary cells parallel sided or low dome shaped.
Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs abundent and very long, swollen at the base 187.5 – 340
μm long and 11.25 – 23.75 μm wide. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies elongated with rounded ends and smooth, 40.5-52µm long and
8- 12.5 µm wide. Short cells not seen. Prickles 55 – 82.5 μm long and 13.75 – 17.75 μm
wide (Plate 65D).
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Results Chapter 3
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial and abaxial surface smooth. Most vascular bundles small and not angular in
outline. Large vascular bundles of basic type. Small vascular bundles without any adaxial or
abaxial strand or girder and large vascular bundles with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma
strands and girders. Keel fairly conspicuous, with a single median vascular bundle or having
a small vascular bundle on each side. The median vascular bundle with an anchor shaped
girder. Chlorenchyma cells not radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Bulliform
cells in uniform regular groups. Bundle sheaths double. Large vascular bundles having inner
sheath complete and outer sheath interrupted adaxially and abaxially. The inner sheath in
small vascular bundles not conspicuous (Plate 65E &F).
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Results Chapter 3
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Results Chapter 3
3.13. TRIBE: HAINARDEAE
63. Parapholis strigosa (Dum.)C.E.Hubbard

Voucher No: 312
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar (Peshawar Distt, Rawalpindi Distt,
Quetta Distt, Makran Distt)
Distribution in World: Middle East and the Mediterranian region, coast of west Europe,
introduced in North and South America and Austalia.
Occurrence and Habitat: Rare in fields, near Kallar Kahar garden, wet clay soil.
Flowering: June - August
Annuals upto 76 cm long, rooting at the lower nodes; Leaf blades, 6.5 – 13.0 cm
long, 3 mm wide, glabrous on the surface and scabrid on the margins; Ligule a short ciltated
rim, 0.2 – 0.3 mm long; Sheath whitish, glacuous and glabrous, hyaline at the margins;
Inflorescence 2 – 5.5 cm long, spikelets arranged alternatively on the axis; Spikelets sessile
having one floret, one side of the spikelet completely embedded in the cavity of the axis;
Glumes almost equal, both glumes laterally keeled, broad lanceolate; Upper glume 4.5 mm
long, 1mm wide and obtuse at the tip upper glume hardened, coriacious, 7 nerved; Lower
glume closely adhering to axis and thin and pointed, and almost equal to upper glume.
(U.glume from upper side seems obtuse and from inner side pointed; lemma and palea thin
membranous; Palea equal to lemma; Florets bisexual; Stigma 2, 1.0 mm long; Anthers 3,
1.5 – 1.8 mm long (Plate 66A).

Pollen are circular in polar view and sub prolate in equatorial view. Polar diameter is
30.55 μm (22.5 - 45 μm) and equatorial diameter is 25.60 μm (20 - 30 μm). P/E ratio is
1.19. Pollen are monoporate and ectoporate. Pore diameter is 2.87 μm (2.5 – 4.0 μm) and
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Results Chapter 3
exine thickness is 1.15 μm (1 – 1.5 μm) and pollen fertility is 93.66%. Sculpturing is
scabrate (Plate 66B).

140 – 225.5 μm long and 16.5 – 22.25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two
costal zones, 5 –10. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 3. Stomatal
complex, 35 – 40.5 µm long and 16 – 18.25 µm wide, subsidiary cells low dome shaped.
Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies mostly rounded to elliptical, 6 – 8.5 μm long. Short cells
frequently present between the silica bodies, 8 – 12.5 μm long and 3 – 5 μm wide. Angular
prickles at the leaf margins, 40 – 52 μm long and 5 – 11 μm wide.
Adaxial surface similar to the abaxial surface. (Plate 66C & D)
T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with no ribs and furrows, pointed prickles on the adaxial side in the
mid rib region and in other regions. Abaxial surface with no ribs and furrows, smooth. Four
to five small vascular bundles at the margins. Large vascular bundles of basic type with 4 –
5 small vascular rbundles on each side. Chlorenchyma cells are not radially arranged around
the vascular bundles. Keel fairly conspicuous and V shaped, with solitary median vascular
bundle. Bulliform cells arranged adaxially in regular groups. Median vascular bundle with
thick abaxial sclerenchyma girder and adaxial strand extended to form a girder. Other large
vascular bundles of basic type with adaxial and abaxial girders. Small vascular bundles with
no sclerenchyma strands and medium vascular bundles with abaxial strands. Vascular
bundles with double sheath, inner sheath complete and outer sheath interrupted adaxially
and abaxially by sclerenchyma girders (Plate 66E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
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Results Chapter 3
3.14. TRIBE: POEAE
64. Lolium persicum Boiss. & Hohen. Ex Boiss

Voucher No: 213
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Kallar Kahar, (Rawalpindi, Murree hills,
Quetta).
Distribution in World: The middle East, Southern U.S.S.R. Pakistan.
Occurrence and habitat: Not common, present in Kallar Kahar, under shady trees, wet
clay soil.
Marphological Description
A tufted annual, erect , 35 – 53 cm long; Leaf blades 8.5 – 16 cm long, 3 – 4 mm
wide, scabrid on the surface and on the margins, auriculate; Ligule membranous, 0.4 – 1.0
mm long, sheath glacuous and glabrous; Inflorescence 4.5 – 18.5 cm long, axis having
alternate spikelets in opposite row, with one edge sunk in hollows in the continuous axis,
(their edges fitting in hollows in the axis), spikelets present at the distance of 1.4 – 2.0 cm
with each other, axis of inflorescence scabrid on the margins, spikelet 10.5 – 12.2 mm long,
having 5 florets; Upper glume as long as the spikelet, or shorter than spikelet, 1.0 – 1.4 mm
wide, 7 – 9 nerved, obtuse or blunt at the tip, raised, nerved on the back, smooth and
glacuous on the inner surface (opposite to back), rough on the back, sometimes shiny;
Lower glume present only in the terminal spikelet, similar to upper glume that slightly
shorter; Lemma 5.5 – 6 mm long, 5 – 7 nerved, very hard, obtuse, oblong lanceolate, awns
arising behind the tip, scabrid awn 5 – 8 mm long; Palea as long as lemma or little shorter
than lemma, 2 keeled, scabrid on the keel, acute at the tip; Palea tightly attached to
caryopsis; Caryopsis enclosed between hardened lemma and palea, 3.5 mm long, 0.8 mm
wide, pointed at one side and broader on the other side; Anthers 1.5 mm long (Plate 67A ).

Pollen are circular to slightly irregular in polar view and oblate spheroidal in
equatorial view. Polar diameter is 25.62 μm (22.5 – 30 μm) and equatorial diameter is
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Results Chapter 3
25.83μm (22.5 – 27.5μm). P/E ratio is 0.98. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate. Pore
diameter is 3 μm (2.5 – 3.5 μm) and exine thickness is 1μm (0.75 – 1.25 μm). Pollen
fertility is 91.35 %. Sculpturing is scabrate and scabrae are widely spaced (Plate 67B).
Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells very long, the long cells near costal
zone slightly sinuous, while other cells with thin, non sinuous walls, 170 – 350 μm long and
12 – 15 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 4 – 17. Number
of stomatal rows between two costal zones, none. Stomatal complex, 42.5 – 47.5 µm long
and 15 – 17.5 µm wide. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies elongated and with sinuous outline. Long cells with sinuous
wialls 70 – 97.5 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide. Angular prickles 65 – 72 μm long and 12 –
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells cubical and with none sinuous
outline, 130 - 135 μm long and 16.25 – 18.25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells
between two costal zones, 3 – 7. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones,1 – 2.
Stomatal complex not seen, guard cells not narrower in the middle, subsidiary cells parallel
sided. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen .Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies elongated and with sinuous outline. Long cells present along
with silica bodies. Prickles 50 – 62.5 μm long and 10 – 12.5 μm wide (Plate 67D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with tall ribs, deep and wide furrows, prickles present on the adaxial
side. Abaxial surface with ribs and shallow furrows, but ribs not tall. Most vascular bundles
small and not conspicuous, a few large vascular bundles of basic type and not angular in
outline. Chlorenchyma cells not radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Keel
conspicuous, containing a median single vascular bundle of basic typ. Bulliform cells in fan
shaped groups, shrinked in the plant material examined, so not clear. Median vascular
bundle in the mid rib region with well marked abaxial girder, and a short adaxial strand,
other vascular bundles with small abaxial girders and adaxial strands. Vascular bundles with
double sheath. Outer sheath not clear and interrupted abaxially, the inner sheath complete
(Plate 67E & F).
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Results Chapter 3
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Results Chapter 3
Genus: Poa Linn.
Key to Species:
1a. Lemma without any wool at the base, sometime dense wooly at the base of the back and
anthers (0.5 – 0.8 mm )long , two to three times as long as their width. P. annua
1b. Lemma dense wooly at the base, and anthers (0.2 – 0.5 mm) long, only a little longer
than their width. P.infirma
65. Poa annua Linn.

Voucher No: 144
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Sodhi, Kallar Kahar (Dir, Hazara, Thandiani,
Kaghan and Naran, Kashmir, Rawalpindi, Murree hills, Ayub Park Rawalpindi, Faisalabad,
Lahore)
Distribution in World: Cosmopolitan, not present in hot climates and deserts.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common on moist shady soil, common near fields, sandy clay,
clay moist soil.
Flowering: March – November
Tufted annual or short lived perennial, 15 – 22 cm long, having slender culms;
Culms erect or decumbent; Leaf blades, 2 – 8 cm long, 2 – 3mm wide, flat and glabrous on
the surface, and antrorsely scabrid at the margins, hooked or boat shaped at the tip; Ligule
membranous 1.3 – 2.0 mm long; Sheath glacuous and glabrous, thin and membranous on
the margins; Inflorescence 3.8 – 7.0 mm long, open panicle, spikelets 3.5 – 5.5 mm long,
lanceolate, having 3 – 4 florets, bisexual or unisexual florets, shed off above the glumes;
Glumes unequal, persistent; Upper glume 1.7 – 2.9 mm long, 0.6 – 1.3 mm wide, 3 nerved,
membranous, hyaline at the margins, keeled, scabrid on the keel, purplish at the tip margins;
Lower glume 1.4 mm long, 0.2 – 0.5 mm wide,1 nerved, keeled, glabrous and obtuse at the
tip, greenish except the margins; Lower floret 2.2 – 2.9 mm long, its lemma 5 nerved,
hyaline at the margins, obtuse, keeled, wooly, hairy at the keel, hairy on the margins, wooly
at the base of the back, and sparsly wooly at lateral nerves; Palea equal to or little shorter
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Results Chapter 3
than lemma, 2 keeled, hairy on the keels, bifid at the tip, greenish at the margins, 0.7 – 1.0
mm long; Anthers,0.5-0.8 mm long; Caryopsis, 0.8 – 1.3 mm long, enclosed by the lemma
and palea (Plate 68A).
diameter is 25.76 μm (22.5 – 27.5 μm) and equatorial diameter is 26.13 μm (22.5 - 30 μm).
P/E ratio is 0.98. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 3 μm (2.5 – 3.5
μm) and exine thickness is 1 μm (0.75 –1.25 μm). Pollen fertility is 92.06 %. Sculpturing is
scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 68B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with non sinuous and
straight walls, broad in the middle and narrow towards the ends, 70 – 160 μm long ,10-18
μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 8 – 17. Number of
stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2- 4. Stomatal complex, 48 - 50 μm long and 22.5
- 25 μm wide, guard cells, 8.7 - 15 μm wide, not narrow in the middle, subsidiary cells
paralled sided, 5-6.25 μmwide. Microhairs none seen. Macrohairs none seen. Hooks none
seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies elongated, long cells present in the costal zone, 40 – 44 μm long
and 4.5 – 5.0 μm wide, 4 – 5 layers of cells. Prickles none seen (Plate 68C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with straight and non sinuous
walls, the end walls often at right angle to the long axis of the cells, 150 - 340 μm long and
25 – 30 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones, 4 – 8. Number
of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 2 – 4. Stomatal complex, 30 – 32.5 μm long and
15 – 17.5 μm wide, guard cells uniform throughout the length, not narrow in the middle, 7 –
7.5 μm wide and subsidiary cells 4 – 5 μm wide, parallel sided or low dome shaped.
Costal zone: Silica bodies elongated. Angular prickles present at the marginal costal zones,
62.5 – 100 μm long and 13.75 - 15 μm wide (Plate 68D).
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Results Chapter 3
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial surface with slight ribs, stomata observed abaxially and adaxially. Large
vascular bundles of basic type, and small vascular bundles. Small vascular bundles not very
clear in the material examined. Chlorenchyma cells not radially arranged around the
vascular bundles, diffused in the mesophyll. Keel not conspicuous. Bulliform cells in
irregular groups. 2 – 5 cells wide thin sclerenchyma strands present adaxially and abaxially.
Vascular bundles with double and complete sheath, outer sheath composed of large cells
and inner sheath composed of small cells (Plate 68E&F).
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Results Chapter 3
_______________________________________________________________________
Results Chapter 3
66. Poa infirma H.B.K

Voucher No: 167
Distribution in Salt Range and Pakistan: Naushahra, Khabaki, Kallar Kahar (Swat,
Mingora, Rawalpindi, Sialkot).
Distribution in World: South America, Southern Europe, East wards to the Himalayas and
central Asia.
Occurrence and Habitat: Common near irrigated wet soil, in moist shady places, clay soil.
Loosely tufted annual, 18 – 30 cm long, erect, spreading or prostrate; Leaf blades
4.0 – 10.0 cm long, 2.5 – 4.0 mm wide, hooked or boat shaped at the tip, glabrous on the
surface and scabrid on the margins; Ligule membranous, 2.4 – 2.5 mm long; Sheath
membranous, glacuous and glabrous; Inflorencence 3.5 – 9.0 cm long, open Panicle;
spikelets 3.2 – 4.2 mm long, having 3 florets, not closely packed; Glumes persistant and
unequal; Upper glume 1.6 – 2.0 mm long, 3 nerved, keeled, membranous at the margins,
bifid at the tip; Lower glume 0.9 – 1.9 mm long, 1 nerved, keeled, membranous at the
margins, greenish in the mid except margins; Lower floret 2.8 mm long; Lemma 2.5 – 2.8
mm long, 5 nerved, keeled, membranous and hyaline at the margens, wooly at the keel, on
the lateral nerves and on the lower side; Palea as long as lemma or slightly shorter, 2 keeled,
wooly sparsly at the keels, 2 toothed or bilobed at the tip; Anthers 0.3 – 0.5 mm long, 0.15 –
0.25 mm wide, a little longer than width. (It is a character of P. infirma different from P.
annua); Stigma white, plumose, 0.4 – 0.6 mm long; Caryopsis 1 – 1.4 mm long , 0.25 mm
wide (Plate 69A).

diameter is 24 μm (22.5 – 25 μm) and equatorial diameter is 21.87 μm (20 – 22.5 μm). P/E
ratio is 1.09. Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter is 2.7 μm (2 – 3.5 μm).
_______________________________________________________________________
Results Chapter 3
Exine thickness is 1 μm (0.75 – 1.25 μm) and pollen fertility is 77.46 %. Sculpturing is
scabrate and scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 69B).

Abaxial intercostal zone: Abaxial intercostal long cells with straight walls, and not
uniform in length, the end walls at right angles to the long axis of the cells, 145 – 235 μm
long and 18.75 – 23.75 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between two costal zones,
3 – 8. Number of stomatal rows between two costal zones, 1 – 3. Stomatal complex, 35 –
41.25 μm long and 17.5 – 18.75 μm wide, guard cells with uniform length, not narrow in the
middle,subsidiary cells parallel sided, and low dome shaped. Microhairs none seen.
Macrohairs 99 – 107.5 μm long and 5 – 7.5 μm wide.Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies elongated and narrow with straight walls, 90 – 210 μm long and
8.75 - 10 μm wide. 5 – 6 layers of cells in costal zone. Prickles none seen (Plate 69C).
Adaxial intercostal zone: Adaxial intercostal long cells with straight walls, not uniform in
width, 115 - 172 μm long and 18.75 - 25 μm wide. Number of rows of long cells between
Stomatal complex, 31.25 – 35 μm long and 13.75 – 16.2 μm wide, guard cells not thin in the
middle, uniform throughout the length, subsidiary cells parallel sided. Microhairs none seen
.Macrohairs none seen .Hooks none seen.
Costal zone: Silica bodies elongated with straight walls. Long cells with straight walls in
costal zone. Angular prickles present at the margins, 52.5 – 65 µm long and 12 -15.5 µm
wide. (Plate 69D).
T. S. of Lamina
Adaxial and abaxial surface with slight ribs and furrow. Large vascular bundles of
basic type in which large meta xylem vassels are conspicuous. Small vascular bundles not
prominent. Chlorenchyma cells not clearly radiating the vascular bundles. Bulliform cells in
irregular groups. No sclerechyma girders observed, sclerenchyma strands present adaxially
and abaxially. Keel not conspicuous.Vascular bundles with double and complete sheath.The
cells of outer sheath larger than cells forming inner sheath (Plate 69 E& F).
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Results Chapter 3
_______________________________________________________________________
Discussion Chapter 4
Grasses a natural homogenous group of plants belong to family Poaceae and form
one of the most fascinating families of flowering plants, with a wide range of diversity. They
play a significant role in the lives of humans and animals. The members of this group are
present in all the conceivable habitats suitable for the growth of the plant communities. In
Pakistan, the Gramineae is one of the dominant families, both on the the basis of its number
of genera and species (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2004). The members of this family are present
in all climates and regions. Grass lands, which make up 20% of the world’s vegetational
cover, are composed of the members of Poaceae (Ture and Bocuk, 2007). According to
Cope (1982) there are about 620 genera, 10,000 species and about 60 tribes in the world.
Olorade (1984) has mentioned 660 genera and 9000 species. There are about 10,000 species
and 651 genera of grasses in the world (Clayton and Renvoize, 1986). Clayton and Renvoize
(1986) nominated six main sub families in the family Poaceae, although the origins of these
groups, their relationship and even constituent memberships still remain to be determined
(Soderstrom et al, 1987).
Morphological characters provide useful information for the identification of all

levels of taxonomic ranks (families, tribes, genera and species, etc). Many taxa of flowering
plants have been distinguished on the basis of morphological characters only. Inflorescence
and floral characters are generally considered to be more reliable than vegetative characters
in grass systematics. Floral characters such as type of inflorescence, number of spikelets per
inflorescence, number of florets per spikelet, spikelet length, pedicel length, glume length,
lemma length, number of veins on lemma and glumes, shape and texture of glumes and
lemma, awn length, position of awn on lemma, number and length of anthers, size and shape
of caryopsis have been used to recognize various grass taxa.
Vegetative characters such as plant habit (annual or perennial) nature of rhizomes,

etc, culm height, leaf blade length and width, pubescence of leaf, nature of leaf sheath and
ligule have been widely used in species differentiation. The collective use of floral and
vegetative morphological characters is an essential basis for a complete and natural
classification.
_______________________________________________________________________
In this study morphological markers were used for the identification of grasses and to
correlate them at the species, genus and tribe level. However some additional morphological
characters such as length, width and number of anthers and stigma, shape and size of
caryopsis were also studied which are not mentioned in the Flora of Pakistan.
Pollen morphology has proved to be a valuable tool in plant taxonomy. Pollen

morphology was not considered in the earlier taxonomic studies and it was difficult to
identify grasses merely on the basis of palynology in the past. Palynology can be helpful in
solving problems related to grass systematics and palynological studies can provide basis for
additional features for identification of plant species (Aftab & Parveen, 2006). Pollen
morphology of grasses has been studied by Kohler and Lange (1979), Chaturvedi et al.,
(1994, 1998) and Ma et al., (2001). In the present studies both qualitative and quantitative
characters of pollen were studied, as some characters such as grain size and sexine pattern
are of significance in taxonomy of grasses (Woodehouse, 1935). Firbas (1937) used the
grain size as a basic character to separate wild and cultivated grasses.
The leaf epidermal anatomy provides extensive taxonomic data related to grasses.
Epidermal traits i.e. epidermal cells, stomata and hairs have proved to be an important tool
in delimitation of taxa in many plant families (Metcalfe & chalk, 1950 – 1989, Uphof et al.,
1962, Sinclair & Sharma, 1971; Lackey, 1978, Ditsh et al, 1995; Barthlott et al., 1998;
Stenglein et al., 2003). It is confirmed that leaf epidermal features can help to elucidate
taxonomic relationships at different levels (Prat, 1936; Stebbins 1956; Metcalfe, 1960, Ellis,
1979, Palmer and Tucker, 1981, Palmer et al., 1985, Davila & Clark, 1990, Cai & Wang,
1994; Mejia – Saules & Bisbey, 2003) and these leaf epidermal characters are of great value
in grass systematics and characterization of broad groups within the grasses, particularly
subfamilies and tribes.
Before the later part of 19th century taxonomists were confined to the use of the
features of reproductive organs, as floral characters were considered to provide the most
valuable characters to taxonomic affinities (Nwokeocha, 1996), but the taxonomists have
posed many problems by using the traditional methods based on grass morphology. Of all
_______________________________________________________________________
the non reproductive organs, leaf is the most widely used part in plant taxonomy (Stace,
1965, 1984), and leaf epidermis is the second most important character parallel with
cytology for solving taxonomic problems .
The work of Metcalfe and Chalk (1950) and Metcalfe (1954) is used as a standard
reference in plant anatomy and the use of anatomical characters in taxonomy has become a
routine procedure.
Transverse sections of grass leaves are also helpful in the identification and
taxonomic delimitation of grasses. Dual-Jouve (1875) first studied the transverse sections of
grass lamina, and used the character of the position of bulliform cells in relation to the
vascular bundle for identification purposes. In the genus Brachypodium, distribution of
sclerenchyma and bulliform cells proved useful at specific level (Khan, 1984).
Occurance of sclerenchyma and bundle sheath (Kranz Sheath), the width of sclerenchyma,
the indumentum of leaves and length and frequency of epidermal basis are features of prime
importance that can identify relationship among the genera of Poaceae (Dube & Morisset
(1987) and Jarves & Barkworth (1992). Ellis (1986) pointed out that characters such as the
thickness of the leaf, the number and arrangement of vascular bundles might be
systematically useful, and characters such as the distribution of prickles may be relatively
stable or environmentally variable. Ellis (1976) also observed that the position of vascular
bundles in the blades appeared to be a useful diagnostic character above the generic level.
The bulliform cells and associated colour less cells are used as a taxonomic character
(Metcalfe, 1960, Markgraf-Dannenberg, 1980), and their structural details have been studied
in few species by (Tuan et al.,1965, Jane and Chiang, 1991, Vecchia et al., 1998).
In the present studies morphological screening, pollen characters, leaf epidermal and
T.S. studies of leaves of 66 grass species, belonging to 43 genera and 12 tribes were carried
out to differentiate and correlate the grasses at the tribes, genus and species level. The
grasses of Salt Range have been studied and classified into 4 subfamilies, 12 tribes, 43
genera and 66 species. The taxa of Poaceae have been characterized on the basis of
morphological, palynological and anatomical characters. It has been found that new
taxonomic characters have been obtained from these disciplines. Such characters have
_______________________________________________________________________
contributed for the identification and delimitation of species. The grasses of Salt Range have
been discussed tribe wise as follows
4.1 Tribe: Arundineae
It includes 40 genera in the world out of which 6 genera and 10 species are reported
from Pakistan. From Salt Range two genera i.e Arundo and Pharagmites with one species
each are found. Arundo is a genus of 12 species in tropical and temperate regions out of
which 1 species is present in Pakistan, and genus Pharagmites has two species in Pakistan.
In Salt Range Arundo donax and Pharagmites karka are present in wet rocky habitat, near
lakes, also at the base of mountains and along road side, on the margins of rivers and lakes
and their network of roots and rhizomes helps in preventing erosion.
4.1.1 Morphology
Arundo donax and Pharagmites karka look similar morphologically but by
studying their vegetative and floral characters these genera can be distinguished. The leaves
of Arundo donax are wider (5 – 7 mm wide) than Pharagmites karka and cordate or rounded
at the base, while it has lacerate membranous ligule, 0.7 – 0.8 mm long. In Pharagmites
karka, ligule is 6 – 12 mm long and is a fringe of hairs .In Arundo donax lemmas are long
hairy at the back, below the middle and 3 nerves of lemma are united and from a short
aristeae. In Pharagmites lemmas are glabrous, but surrounded by long hairs of rachilla, but
rachilla is glabrous in Arundo donax. Panicle is 21 – 30 cm long in A. donax and 30 – 36 cm
long in P. karka (Plate 4 & 5A). According to Gould (1968) A. donax may be 3 – 6 meters
tall and its panicles are 20 – 40 cm long. Salt Range area has many lakes and these two grass
species are established on the lake margins to sustain the equatic ecosystem of the area.
These are economically important as used for making roof and thatching huts for cattle in
the area.
4.1.2 Palynology
Both genera are different in qualitative characters as the pollen are circular in polar view
and prolate spheroidal in equatorial view in A. donax but polar view is circular to spheroidal
and equatorial view is oblate spheroidal in Pharagmites, however there is no significant
_______________________________________________________________________
difference in polar diameter and exine thickness of both species, and in equatorial diameter
pollen are slightly larger in Pharagmites karka. Pollen are monoporate and ectoporate in
both species. Pore diameter is higher in Arundo donax that is 1.94 m (1.5 – 3.5 m) while
in Pharagmites karka pore diameter is less, 1 m (0.9 – 1.5 m), these findings are similar
to Siddiqui & Qaisar (1988) who observed the pollen characteristics of Arundo donax and
Pharagmites karka pollen and found the size (22.88 – 28.60 m) while the pore size and
exine thickness were recorded (2.59 – 2.83 m) and (1.28 – 1.43 m) respectively. In the
present studies exine thickness is found 0.75 – 1.25 m in these species; while the pollen
size is (17.5 – 27.5 m) and pore diameter ranged from (0.9 – 3.5 m) in the specimen
examined. Usually the qualitative characters are of limited value in grass systematics, but it
is observed that both genera of tribe Arundineae are distinguished on the basis of both
qualitative and quantitative characters, so that palynologcial studies are useful in
identification of species at the generic level. There is difference in sculpturing pattern of
pollen in both species. In Arundo donax sculpturing is verrucate while Pharagmitas karka
shows the scabrate type of sculpturing (Plate 4 & 5B). Siddiqui and Qaisar (1988) observed
the areolate type of sculpturing in these species. The present studies show that these two
genera can be differentiated on the basis of their different sculpturing patterns.
In the tribe Arundineae, leaf epidermal anatomy of Arundo donax and Pharagmites
karka revealed that abaxial intercostal long cells are with thick sinuous and adaxial
intercostal long cells are with thin sinuous walls in A. donax, while Pharagmites karka can
be distinguished due to adaxial and abaxial inter costal cells, with coarsely sinuous walls.
Long cells are longer in Arundo donax as compared to Pharagmites karka, ranging in length
from 70 - 145m, while in width, cells are almost equal and interstomatal cells with concave
ends are found in both species. Stomata are paracytic with two subsidiary cells and
subsidiary cells are triangular or low to high dome shaped in both species (Plate 4 & 5C).
Silica bodies are saddle shaped, cross shaped or intermediate between cross and dumb bell
shaped in Arundo while saddle shaped, rounded or oblong in Pharagmites. Microhairs are
not seen in Arundo donax but observed in Pharagmites karka (Plate 2C & D). Prat (1936)
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has described the leaf of Arundo donax mainly panicoid but with a tendency to be festucoid.
Metcalfe (1960) studied the Arundo donax and Pharagmites karka, and observed that
microhairs are present in Arundo donax while absent in Pharagmites karka but microhairs
are present in Pharagmites karka in the present findings. According to Prat (1936) several
tribes belonging to Arundinoideae lack microhairs, so not only the features of micro hairs
but their presence or absence are of great value in the systematic debate of Poaceae.
4.1.4 T.S. of Lamina
Adaxial and Abaxial surface is with slight ribs and ridges in both genera, the abaxial
surface may be smooth in Arundo donax. Gunzel (1921) observed ribbed surface in lamina
of Arundo donax, but only slight ribs on the adaxial side. Mostly all the large vascular
bundles are with adaxial and abaxial sclerenchyma girders. In large vascular bundles
sclerenchyma girders are thick and wide and phloem is sclerised abaxially. Metcalfe (1960)
observed wide and low sclerenchyma girders in A. donax while Pharagmites can be
distinguished due to wide and high sclerenchyma girders. Bulliform cells in narrow groups
are found in both species that are deeply penetrated the mesophyll and appear to project
adaxially (Plate 5E), as Lohauss (1905) observed that the outer walls of bulliform cells are
more thickened than the lateral walls and lumen and sometimes filled with silica in Arundo
donax. Such groups of bulliform cells are distinctive and the characteristic of Arundo, hence
called the bulliform cells of Arundo type. Chlorenchyma cells are not radially arranged and
diffused around the vascular bundles and a girder of chlorenchyma cells is observed around
the vascular bundles (Plate 4E). Most of the grasses from temperate regions have diffused
chlorenchyma cells that is festucoid (Pooid) leaf pattern (Gould, 1968).
4.2 Tribe: Aristideae
This tribe has 3 genera in the world found in tropics and sub tropics, growing in dry
climates on poor soil. Two genera Aristida with 7 species and Stipagrostis with 6 species are
present in Pakistan. In Salt Range of Pakistan one species of Aristida i.e. Aristida
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adscensionis is present in semi arid habitat. According to Chaudhary (2001) there are 2
species of Arstida in Salt Range but in my observation there is only 1 species in this area.
4.2.1 Morphology
The tribe Aristideae can be distinguished by the presence of 3 awns (Plate 6A).
.Ligule is a fringe of small white hairs ranging in length from 0.2 – 0.4 mm. The genus
Aristida is studied by Cope (1982) from Pakistan but the nature of ligule is not mentioned by
him. Type of ligule is an important taxonomic character in identification of grasses. Its
panicle is contracted with filiform branches and glumes are persistent, 1 nerved and are
without awn. Absence of awns on the glumes is helpful in the identification of this species.
Aristda is also known as 3 awned grass, because of the presence of awns on the lemma. In
the specimen observed, middle awn is 19 – 23 mm long and larger than lateral awns which
are 15 – 20 mm long. Chaudhary (1989) has mentioned the length of central awn from 10 –
15 mm and the length of lateral awn is from 8 – 22 mm.
Morphology of this species is not described in detail in Flora of Pakistan, because

several characters which are used to recognize various grass texa such as nature of ligule,
length of awns, number and length of anther and stigma, shape and size of caryopsis are not
mentioned, that are observed in the present studies and are helpful in identification of
species in this tribe.
4.2.2 Palynology
The tribe Aristideae is very heterogenous, but pollen morphology is significantly

helpful at specific level (Parveen, 2006).
Pollen are circular in polar view and sub prolate in equatorial view, (as in most
grasses however the quantitative characters can be used as identification tool). In Aristida
adscensionis polar diameter is 27 µm (20 – 30 µm) and equatorial diameter is recorded 22
µm (17.5 – 25.4 µm). Parveen (2006) observed the diameter of this species 26.7 – 35 .5 µm,
while Siddiqui and Qaisar (1988) studied the pollen of Aristida mutabilis and found the size
_______________________________________________________________________
28.21 µm and pore size and exine thickness were recorded 2.81 µm and 1.21 µm
respectively. Parveen (2006) has observed the pore diameter (3.43 – 3.73 µm) and exine
thickness 0.72 – 1.79 µm in Aristida adscensionis, while in present studies, pore diameter is
2 µm (1.5 – 2.5 µm) and exine thickness is 1 µm (0.75 – 1.25 µm). Parveen (2006) studied 4
species of Aristida and variations were observed in pore diameter, pollen diameter and exine
thickness, hence these quantitative characters are helpful in identification and delimiting
different species of Aristida on the basis of palynology. The SEM studies revealed that
Aristida adscensionis has verrucate type of sculpturing pattern in which verrucae are widely
spaced (Plate 6B).
Leaf epidermal anatomical studies showed that in Aristida adscensionis, subsidiary

cells are low dome shaped or triangular, which is among the diagnostic characters of genus
Aristida (Plate 6C & D). Clifford and Watson (1977) also drew attention to the taxonomic
value of shape of subsidiary cells which they found to be triangular in non festucoid grasses
Bicelled microhairs (Panicoid type) are observed in the species in which distal cell tapers to
the apex (Plate 6D). According to Metcalfe (1960) in most species of the genus Aristida
microhairs may be absent, and silica bodies are oblong to elliptical in some species or dumb
bell shaped, and sometimes the middle part of each body elongated and tending to be lobed,
however in present studies the species observed have dumb bell shaped silica bodies( Plate
6C & D). Tateoka et al., (1959) observed microhairs in 11 species of Aristida and found rod
like microhairs with little variations among them. He also observed a difference between the
typical chloridoid and panicoid microhairs in the cell membrane. In the former the cell
memberane of both cells is almost the same in thickness while in the later the cell membrane
of distal cell is clearly thinner than that of the basal cell. Metcalfe (1960) studied different
species of Aristida and found that mostly the silica bodies are dumb bell shaped over the
veins, same is observed in present studies in Aristida adscensionis. Several investigators
have shown that the shape of silica bodies is not always correlated with the systematic
grouping, however the shape of microhairs is believed to be more constant and
taxonomically useful. In Aristida adscensionis microhairs are observed on the both adaxial
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and abaxial surface that microhairs are longer (17.5 – 20 µm) long on the abaxial side, as
compared to adaxial side.
4.2.4 T.S of Lamina
According to Brown (1958) Genus Aristida is peculiar in having a double

parenchyma sheath and no mesotome sheath, this appears to be true for some species, but in
present investigations all vascular bundles with single and complete sheath are found in
Aristida adscensionis except the basic type vascular bundles in which sheath is interrupted
abxially. Jelenc,(1951) examined the epidermis and T.S. of leaves of some species of
Aristida and found that some vascular bundles are with single bundles sheath. So the number
of bundle sheath is not a constant character in the tribe. Adaxial surface is found with deep
furrows and tall ribs (Plate 6E). Theron (1936) carried out leaf anatomy of genus Aristida
from S.Africa and observed that adaxial surface may be flat, furrowed or with deep furrows
and concluded that species can be grouped taxonomically on the basis of this character and
the height of the ribs and the depth of the furrows are of specific diagnostic value.
Chlorenchyma cells are found to be radially arranged around the vascular bundles. Adaxial
strands and abaxial girders are observed opposite to the vascular bundles of basic type.
Bulliform and associated colourless cells form a girder like extension towards the abaxial
side (Plate 6F). Metcalfe,(1960) also observed tall girders of bulliform cells, traversing the
mesophyll from the base of an adaxial furrow to the abaxial side in different species of
Aristida, so the presence of girder like extension of bulliform cells is a diagnostic character
and is helpful in taxonomic studies and identification at the generic level .
4.3 Tribe Chlorideae

This tribe belong to sub family Chloridoideae, having about 45 genera throughout
the tropics in the world, out of these, 7 genera and 15 species are present in Pakistan. In the
present studies from Salt Range 5 species belonging to 3 genera of this tribe are collected.
Two genera Chloris and Tetrapogon have two species each while Cynodon has one species.
Tetrapogon cenchriformis is collected from the area and it is the new report from Pakistan
and not previously mentioned in the flora of Pakistan.
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4.3.1 Morphology
Both species of Chloris that are rarely present on the mountain slopes of Salt Range,
have certain different morphological characters that can be used as an identification tool and
to differentiate the species. The culm in Chloris barbata is white and flattened at the base
and ligule is white membranous and few stiff hiars are observed near ligule and spikes are
alternatively arranged around the rachis. Chloris dolicostachya has more height than C.
barbata, it has rooting at the lower nodes, ligule is hairy and inflorescence is sub digitate,
having 3 – 5 racemes with laterally compressed spikelets that are larger than C. barbata
(Plate 8A). In Chloris barbata spikelets have four florets, and lemma in fourth floret is
reduced and awnless. Upper lemma is distinct in Chloris dolicostachya as it is very narrow
and bristle like and slightly wider in the middle, which is the diagnostic character of this
genus.
Both species of Tetrapogon are densely tufted and are annual or short lived
perennial grasses with base of the culm whitish and flattened. Sheath is strongly keeled in
both species. Tetrapogon cenchriformis has spatheolate inflorescence (Chaudhary, 1989),
that makes it different from Tetrapogon villosus (Plate 10 & 11A). This species is not
mentioned in Flora of Pakistan and it is the new report from the area. Both species are
characterised by clavate lemmas in the upper or middle florets. Anthers are sagitate and 0.4
– 0.5 mm long and these species also differ in the shape of caryopsis as it is trigonous and
light brown in Tetrapogon villosus, while oval elleptic in Tetrapogon cenchriformis,
however no difference observed in the size of caryopsis that is almost same in both species .
Shape and size of caryopsis can be used to recognize various grass taxa.
Cynodon dactylon is a rhizomatous stoloniferous perennial grass present throughout the
area. It has the ability to grow in slightly saline soil (Bernstein, 1958) and it is able to shunt
its photosynthates from the top to roots to enable it to survive under saline conditions
(Skerman and Riveros, 1990). Hameed et al., (2008) also observed that Cynodon dactylon is
well adapted in the saline soil. Extensive root system often with spiny suckers is observed in
this species and presence of salt glands on the leaves as observed by Oross and Thomsan
(1982) are the adaptations in this species that make it also to minimize the detrimental
effects of salinity. A few morphological characters that make this species distinct from other
genera of the tribe is the presence of ligule with a short ciliolate rim, 0.2 – 0.3 mm long.
_______________________________________________________________________
Inflorescence is digitate and is at the tip of culm, with curved spikes, 2 – 4.7 mm long (Plate
9A). Spikelets are arranged at one side of rachis having one floret. Inflorescence is digitate
in genus Chloris and Cynodon.
4.3.2 Palynology
Few studies have been conducted on the pollen morphology of Chloridoideae.
(Huang,1975). According to Liu et al., (2005), pollen grains in subfamily Chloridoideae are
generally radially symmetrical and prolate spheroidal. Pollen in Chloris barbata are longer
than C. dolicostachya , having polar diameter (23.50m ) and equatorial diameter (24.37m)
while pore diameter (1.5m) and exine thickness is more in Chloris dolicostachya than C.
barbata. Pollen in both species of Tetrapogon differ with each other in equatorial view, as
oblate spheroidal in Tetrapogon villosus and prolate spheroidal in T. cenchriformis. Pollen
are large in polar view (24.16m) in T. cenchriforms but small in equatorial view (23.5m)
than T.villosus. Other quantitative characters such as P/E ratio, pore diameter and exine
thickness are recorded more in T.cenchriformis.
Siddiqui and Qaisar (1988) studied 4 species of Chlorideae for palynology and grain
size was recorded, 18.59 – 31.46 m, while in the present studies, pollen size ranged from
15 – 30 m. In Cynodon dactylon, pollen are spheroidal to sub prolate in equatorial view
and pore diameter (1.65m) in this species is more than the other species studied in the tribe
except T.cenchriformis which has maximum pore diameter and grain size than other species
. Siddiqui and Qaisar (1988) found the grain size in Cynodon dactylon (35.14 m) but in the
present investigations pollen diameter in this species is 15 – 22.5 m. Parveen (2006)
studied Cynodon arculatus, having pollen diameter from, 19.74 µm – 24.71 m. According
to her observations pollen are spheroidal and monoporate. Pollen are monoporate and
ectoporate in the present studies and all the pollen of different species in this tribe are
circular in polar view. Variations are found in equatorial view as spheroidal to oblate
spheroidal pollen are found in different species, even differences are found in two species of
same genus i.e. Tetrapogon, but in genus Chloris both species are similar in equatorial view.
So these variations observed in qualitative as well as qualutitative characters may be helpful
in identification of different species and genera in the tribe. All the species in this tribe
_______________________________________________________________________
showed the verrucate type of sculpturing (Plate 7-11B). Parveen (2006) observed areolate
type of sculpturing in Cynodon dactylon and Chloris barbata.
The foliar epidermal studies show that all intercostal long cells on abaxial and
adaxial surface are with sinuous walls, however the walls are thin sinuous in Chloris
dolicostachya and Cynodon dactylon (Plate 8 & 9C). In Tetrapogon cenchriformis irregular
sinuous walls are observed. Long cells with maximum length (92.5m) are noted in
Tetrapogon villosus. The largest stomatal complex is observed in Tetrapogon cenchriformis
that is 20 – 27.5 m long and 20 – 22.5 m wide and small in Cynodon dactylon which
range in length from 15 – 16.25 m long and 11.25 – 12.5 m wide.Subsidiary cells are
triangular to high dome shaped in genus Chloris, low to high dome shaped in Cynodon
dactylon and high dome shaped in Tetrapogon species, indicating that stomatal complex
proved to be useful taxonomic feature in this tribe. Chaudhary et al., (2001) observed that in
Cynodon dactylon stomata are with triangular subsidiary cells, silica bodies are saddle
shaped, and microhairs with hemispherical distal cells are present, while macrohairs are
absent. In the present investigations, Cynodon dactylon showed triangular and low to high
dome shaped subsidiary cells and micro hairs are not observed abaxially( Plate 9C ) but a
few microhairs are present adaxially( Plate 9D ). Freire et al., (2005) also noted the presence
of microhairs in Cynodon dactylon. Metcalfe (1960) studied 3 species of Cynodon dactylon
collected from different localities and found that silica bodies are saddle shaped. Stomata are
with triangular or low dome shaped subsidiary cells, and microhairs were present in all the
species examined. My findings are similar to that of Metcalfe except the microharis which
are absent on abaxial side in Cynodon, in the present studies. It may be due to environmental
variations as Cynodon dactylon is a wide spreading grass, which varies considerably in
habit. Bicelled microhairs (21.25-23.75 µm) with hemispherical distal cell shorter than basal
cell are found only in genus Chloris (Fig 8C&D), while found absent in Cynodon dactylon
(rarely present on adaxial surface) and Tetrapogon species. All the species in the tribe have
saddle shaped silica bodies as according to Prat (1934, 1961) and Johnston and Watson
(1976), the chloridoid type is characterized by globose or club shaped bicellular microhairs
_______________________________________________________________________
and saddle shaped silica bodies. The feature of stomata and silica bodies are characteristics
of these species
4.3.4 T. S. of Lamina
In Chloris differences are found in the adaxial and abaxial surface. In Chloris
dolicostachya adaxial surface is smooth and abaxial surface is with slight ribs and furrows.
In Chloris barbata adaxial and abaxial surface is smooth or may be with slight ribs near the
margins and pointed prickles are frequent on the adaxial side (Plate 7E) but prickles are
absent in Chloris dolicostachya. Keel is very conspicuous and rounded in C. barbata as
compared to Chloris dolicostachya (Plate 4F). Median vascular bundle with wide
sclerenchyma girders is present. Major part of the midrib is covered by colourless cells
(Plate 7F & 8E), as according to Metcalfe (1960), occurrence of high proportion of
colourless cells in the adaxial half of mesophyll is diagnostic character of this genus. In
these Chloris species, 4-5 small vascular bundles are present between two large vascular
bundles of basic type and this distribution pattern of vascular bundles of different orders in a
leaf is variable and can be valuable taxonomically.
In both species of Tetrapogon macrohairs are present on the adaxial side only but in
Tetrapogon cenchriformis, macrohairs are deeply sunken into the mesphyll (Plate10F). Both
these species are distinct from other species of the tribe in having, V shaped very
conspicuous keel (Plate 10 & 11E). Median vascular bundle with two small vascular bundles
on each side is present in T. cenchriformis while 3 small vascular bundles on each side of
median vascular bundle are observed in T. villosus.
In Chloris bulliform cells are in fan shaped groups and deeply penetrating the
mesophyll as in other species of the tribe, but one character that make the Chloris species
different from other is the formation of girders by bulliform cells to the abaxial side (Plate
8 & 9F). Sabnis (1921) observed the leaf of the T. villosus and found that adaxial surface
has low but numerous ribs separated by shallow furrows and large vascular bundles are with
wide abaxial girders. He further noted that chlorenchyma cells are radiating around the
vascular bundles and bulliform cells and adjacent colourless cells forming girders to the +
_______________________________________________________________________
abaxial epidermis between the vascular bundles. Small vascular bundles were with single
sheath and large vascular bundles with double sheath. My findings are similar to these
observations except that in the present observations, adaxial surface is found flat and with no
ribs and ridges, and macrohairs are also observed adaxially (Plate 10 & 11 F). Cynodon
dactylon is with slight ribs and furrows adaxially and abaxially (Plate 9F). Large vascular
bundles are with adaxial and abaxial girders and small vascular bundles are with adaxial
strands and sclerenchyma depositions are observed at the leaf margins. All the species in this
tribe have large vascular bundles with double sheath, some times outer sheath is interrupted
adaxially and abaxially, and inner sheath is complete while small vascular bundles are with
single sheath. These species show kranz type of anatomy and the chloridoid type of leaf as
according to Gould (1968) chlorenchyma cells are tightly packed, radially arranged
surrounding the bundle and vascular bundles are with double sheath. The outer sheath is
composed of large cells, while inner sheath is irregular, and is composed of small cells.
Another character that is observed in Chloris in the present studies is the separation of
vascular bundles by colourless and bulliform cells and making girder to the abaxial side and
middle cell in bull form cells deeply penetrates the mesophyll, is also related to chloridoid
type leaf.
4.4 Tribe Eragrostideae

This tribe is represented by about 50 genera in the world, found throughout the
tropics. In Pakistan 16 genera and 33 species of this tribe are present. From Salt Range of
Pakistan, 6 genera with 8 species of tribe Eragrostideae are collected. In the present studies,
it ranks third on the basis of number of genera and species after Paniceae and
Andropogoneae in the Salt Range of Pakistan.
4.4.1 Morphology
This tribe includes the annual or perennial grasses. Among the perennial grasses
Desmostachya bipinnata is a robust coarse perennial grass, ranging in length from more than
one meter, the culms in this grass are with stout scaly rhizomes and form large swards.
Other perennial grasses are Octhochloa compressa having culm whitish wooly at the base.
Eragrostis papposa is an erect or ascending perennial grass and Dactyloctinium scindicum
_______________________________________________________________________
is a stoloniferous perennial grass forming extensive spreading mats and has rooting at the
nodes. The annual grasses are Eleusine indica, Dactyloctinium aegyptium, Acrachne
racemosa and Eragrostis cilianensis. Ligule in these species is a ciliated fringe or lacerate
membranous. Maximum length of ligule is observed (1-2mm) in Acrachne racemosa, while
minimum in E. papposa, with ligule 0.1 – 0.2 mm long. Inflorescence is composed of
digitate spikes in both species of Dactyloctenum and in Eleusine indica. Dactyloctenium
scindicum is differentiated from Dactyloctinium aegyptium by its falcate (sickle shaped)
spikes and small inflorescence (Plate 14A). In dactyloctinium aegyptium, 2 – 6 digitate
spikes having length, 2.2 – 4.0 cm are observed, while D. scindicum has 4 – 5 digitate
spikes, ranging in length from 0.5 – 1.2 cm. These species also differ in their habitats as D.
aegyptium is mostly found in fields, near fields and at the moist soil while D. scindicum is
present on sandy and rocky mountain slopes, forming extensive spreading mats and has a
perennial habit.
In geneus Eragrostis there are also two species i.e. E. ciliansis and E. papposa. The later is
easily distinguished from E. ciliansis having dispersed open panicle and spikelts have
slender and long pedicels (Plate 18A). In most of the species of tribe eragrostideae spikelets
are laterally compressed.
4.4.2 Palynology
The palynological studies of tribe Eragristideae showed that all the species have
circular pollen in polar view except Eragrostis ciliansis in which circular to spheroidal
pollen are observed in polar view, while pollen are oblate spheroidal, prolate spheroidal ,
sub oblate and spheroidal in equatorial view in different species. In Acrachne racemosa and
Dactyloctinium scindicum pollen are oblate spheroidal and spheroidal to oblate spheroidal
pollen are recorded in Dactyloctinium aegyptium and Octhochloa compressa. In
Desmostachya bipinnata and Eragrostis ciliansis pollen are spheroidal to prolate spheroidal
while in Eragrostis papposa and Eleusine indica pollen are spheroidal to sub oblate.
Siddiqui & Qaisar (1988) carried out pollen studies in different species of tribe
Eragrostideae and found that Eragrostideae is unique by having the smallest as well as the
largest grains and found the average size of grains, 14.30 – 37.18 m. In the present
investigations the average size of pollen is 17.5 – 37.5µm and the previous results are
_______________________________________________________________________
similar to the present findings. Maximum pollen size (37.5m) is observed in

Dactyloctinium species followed by E. indica and Acrachne racemosa is found to have
pollens with minimum diameter (17.5 – 22.5m), so both type of pollen of small and
medium size are found. Meo (1999) observed length and width of pollen in Eragrostis
poaeoids 28.93 m and 26.63 m and in Eleusine flagellifera 32.83 m and 30.61 m
respectively. Variations in range of pollen size is taxonomically useful at the generic level.
In the present studies two species of Eragrostis i.e. E. ciliansis and E. papposa are studied
having polar diameter, 21.25µm and 19.2 m and equatorial diameter 20 – 22.5m. Eleusine
indica has pollen diameter 25 – 30.7 m, while Siddiqui and Qaisar (1988) recorded the
pollen size in this species 24.97m which is less than the pollen size observed in present
studies. Pollen are endoporate and monoporate. In Acrachne racemosa, Eleusine indica and
Octhochloa compressa pollen also seem ectoporate. Pore diameter in the species of this tribe
ranged from 1.2 – 2.5 m. Maximum pore diameter is observed in Dactyloctinium
aegyptium and minimum pore diameter in Desmostachya bipinnata, while maximum exine
thickness (1.5m) is shown by Eleusine indica and minimum exine thickness (1.12µm) by
Desmostachya bippinata. Hence D.bipinnata is peculiar in having minimum pore diameter
and exine thickness, as compared to other species of the tribe. Siddiqui and Qaisar (1988)
also observed minimum pore diameter in D. bipinnata but he observed minimum exine
thickness in D. aegyptium. Three types of sculpturing patterns are found in this tribe.
Acrachne racemosa, Dactyloctinium aegyptium, Eleusine indica and Octhochloa compressa
showed the scabrate type of sculpturing (Plate 12&13B). Rugulate type of sculpturing
pattern (with widely spaced rugulae) is present in Dactyloctinium scindicum and Eragrostis
cilianensis (14 & 17B), while Desmostachya bipinnata and Eragrostis papposa revealed the
verrucate type of sculpturing (15 & 18B). So different types of sculpturing are present
within the same tribe and even within the same genus, as stated by Page (1978) that on the
basis of sculpturing type, if tribes are arranged in sequence, the tribes form no definite order
as all types of sculpturing patterns are present within tribe .
.
4.4.3 Leaf epidermal Anatomy
Different genera in the tribe Eragrostideae e.g. Acrachne, Eleusine and
Dactyloctinium, look morphologically similar but anatomical studies are helpful in their
_______________________________________________________________________
differentiation and identification, when correlated with their morphological characters.

Intercostal long cells in all the species of different genera in the tribe are with thin sinuous or
moderately thick sinuous walls. Long cells in genus Eragrostis have maximum length
ranging from 90 – 165 m. Dactyloctinium aegyptium is different from all others species by
having rounded papilla, abundantly present on the long cells of abaxial side. Metcalfe (1960)
also observed that long cells are obscured by papellae in this species. All species have dumb
bell shaped guard cells as it is the characteristic of grasses, while subsidiary cells are very
low dome shaped, low dome shaped, high dome shaped or triangular in shape as reported by
Prat & Vignal (1968) and Sanchez (1971). The genus Eragrostis is recognized by bicellular
microhairs with hemispherical distal cell (Plate 18D). In Dactyloctinium aegyptium
microhairs are with distal cell and basal cell equal in length or distal cell longer than basal
cell while in D. bipinnata, distal cell is shorter than basal cell having microhairs 37.5- 40
m long (Plate 13 & 15C ), while in other species microhairs are found absent. Friere et al.,
(2005) studied two species of Eragrostideae that are Eragrostis cilianensis and Eleusine
indica and found that in E.cilianensis microhairs are with hemispherical cell that are similar
to my findings, but he reported that Eleusine indica is characterized by pear like microhairs
but in my observations E.indica is found to have no microhairs. As silica bodies are saddle
shaped in all the species except Acrachne racemosa in which dumb bell shaped or cross
shaped silica bodies are found. Eragrostis papposa is distinct from other species by the
presence of macrohairs tapering towards the tip having length 160-175 m, while
macrohairs are absent in other species. Eragrostis cilianensis and Eragrostis papposa are
peculiar in having microhairs with hemispherical distal cells, rounded cork cells present
between silica bodies and short cells over the veins (Plate 17 & 18D). Bibi et al., (2007)
reported that silica bodies and marcohairs are absent in Eleusine indica but Eleusine indica
is observed to have saddle shaped silica bodies. According to Prat (1936) types of
mircohairs and silica bodies are very useful in systematic studies as found in this tribe to
have saddle shaped silica bodies and microhairs with hemispherical distal cell.

Studies regarding the T.S. of leaves in this tribe are helpful in the identification of
species of same genus and to differentiate different genera from one another. Dactyloctinium
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aegyptuim and D. scindicum are characterized by the presence of glandular structures on its
abaxial side and protruding abaxially (Plate13 & 14F). Metcalfe (1960) studied this species
but he has not mentioned this character. Adaxial surface is flat in Dactyloctinium aegyptium
while in Dactyloctinium scindicum adaxial surface is with slight ribs and furrows. Sabnis
(1921) described the leaf structure of D.scindicum and found its surface not grooved and
sclerenchyma forming adaxial and abaxial girders with the long vascular bundles, while
adaxial strands and slight abaxial girders are present opposite to the small vascular bundles.
It is observed in the present studies that abaxial surface is not grooved in D. scindicum, it
appears that this character varies in the same species with different environmental conditions
and habitat, while other observation as the presence of adaxial and abaxial girders opposite
to large vascular bundles and slight girders or strands are present opposite to small vascular
bundles are same as found by Sabnis (1921).
When we compare two speces of Eragrostis on the basis of T.S. studies, they show a clear
difference as is E. cilianensis macrohairs or prickles are prominent on the adaxial side while
in E. papposa, macrohairs or prickles are not observed or rarely present. The previous
studies show that macrohairs or prickles are found in different species of Eragrostis as
described by Breakwell (1915) and Gunzel (1912) but found absent in different species
studied by Metcalfe (1960). Nicora (1941) has reported the occurance of multicellular
glands (extra floral nectaries) on the leaves and floral parts of certain species of Eragrostis.
In the present investigations glandular structures are also seen in both species of this genus
(Plate 17 & 18F). Glandular structures are also recorded in genus Dactyloctinium and
Octhochloa compressa. Sclerenchyma which can present several patterns of distribution
occuring in the form of sub epidermal layers, sheath extensions or in the leaf margins (Ellis,
1976). In the present studies large vascular bundles, mostly have adaxial and abaxial
sclerenchyma girders, while sclerenchyma strands are observed opposite to the small
vascular bundles. In some species such as D. aegyptium phloem of vascular bundles is less
or more sclerised and in E.indica, leaf margins are sclerised and in D. bipinnata, basic type
vascular bundles and phloem is highly sclerised (Plate 15F). Adaxial parenchyma cells are
observed in Octhochloa compressa, Acrachne racemosa and Dactyloctinium aegyptium.
According to Ellis (1986) adaxial parenchyma in keel region is rarely found in
Chloridoideae, and never been found in Pooideae. In most species keel is round and
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conspicuous but Eleusine indica differs by having V.shaped keel (Plate 16E). Chlorenchyma
cells are radially arranged around the vascular bundles and bulliform cells are in fan shaped
or irregular groups deeply penetrating into the mesophyll, sometimes a tall girder of
bulliform cells extending from adaxial to abaxial side as in Desmostachya bipinnata is
observed (Plate 15F) and it is the typical character of chloridoid leaf as described by Gould
(1968).
4.5 Tribe Pappophoreae

This tribe belonging to subfamily Chloridoideae includes 5 genera in the world,
found in the tropics and subtropics. In Pakistan only one genus Enneapogon with 4 species
is reported (Nasir & Ali, 1970 – 2002). In the present studies from Salt Range of Pakistan, it
is found that Pappophoreae is represented by only one genus, having one species that is
Enneapogon persicus. It is mostly found at the dry places and at mountain slopes near
Khewra and mountains of Kala Bagh. According to Cope (1982) this is a desert species and
noted as a useful pasture and fodder plant, but it is observed that E. persicus is also present
on the dry mountainous and slopy areas of Salt Range (Plate 20A).
4.5.1 Morphology
Morphological studies show that Enneapgon persicus has specialized morphological
character of having 9 nerved lemma and the nerves are extended into 9 awns ranging in
length to 7 mm. It is the distinguishing character of this tribe to have lemmas with many
awns. Enneapogon persicus is distinguished from other species as it has 9 nerved lemmas
with 9 awns and upper lemma is shorter than lower lemma. Lower lemma is 9 mm long
including awns. In this species, leaf blades have stiff white hairs (2-3 mm) on the upper and
lower surface. Ligule is a fringe of white hairs and it is the characteristic of this tribe.
Vegetative characters such as leaf pubescence and nature of ligule are valuable in species
differentiation. Inflorescence is a contracted panicle in which spikelets in clusters are present
and spikelets are about 9 mm long (Plate 20A). In the flora of Pakistan it is mentioned that
lower and upper glumes are 6-8 nerved and lower glume is 5-10 mm long and upper glume
is 7-11.5 mm long , but in the present studies in my observation, upper and lower glumes are
7 nerved and lanceolate and they are 6-6.5 mm long and 4.5 – 4.8 mm long respectively.
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Anthers in this species are 0.5 – 0.8 mm long and stigma length is 0.8 mm. The species
exhibits a range of variations in glume morphology which is the characteristic of this species
and the length of glumes is probably correlated with habitat and is region specific.
4.5.2 Palynology:
Pollen studies show that they are circular in polar view and prolate spheroidal in
equatorial view. Polar diameter in E. persicus is observed 30.35m and equatorial diameter
is 28.61m. Parveen (2006) studied palynology in two species i.e Enneapogon persicus and
E. schimperanus and found the pollen diameter 23.33 – 28.36 m and 28.7 – 35.9 m
respectively, pollen were found spheroidal, monoporate to diporate and rarely triporate,
while in my studies pollen are prolate spheroidal, ectoporate and monoporate. Pore diameter
is recorded 1.5 – 4.0 m, exine thickness is 0.75 – 1.25 m. In the previous studies by
Parveen, pore diameter was found 2.87 – 3.94 m and exine thickness was 0.36 – 1.79 m
in this species. There is no significant difference in pore diameter in both studies but
maximum exine thickness is recorded less in the present studies. Rugulate type of pollen
sculpturing is found in Enneapogon persicus in which rugulae are narrowly spaced (Plate
20B) and this feature is helpful in identification of this species.

subsidiary cells are low dome shaped or triangular as observed by Metcalfe
(1960).Macrohairs with a long and narrow stalk cell (170 – 225 m long) having unicellular
and glandular head are observed ( Plate 20D ). This is a special type of macrohairs found in
this species of tribe pappophoreae, as observed by Watson et al., (1986) and Amarasinghe
and Watson (1988)
Lohauss (1905) and Gunzel (1912) found macrohairs of special type consisting of
long distal cell with glandular head in different species of Enneapogon, hence this special
type of macrohairs is the distinguishing feature of the genus Enneapogen. Silica bodies are
observed cross to dumb bell shaped or intermediate between cross and dumb bell shaped.
Gunzel (1912) observed dumb bell shaped silica bodies over the veins in E. scaber while
Metcalfe (1960) noted in E.cenchriodes, intermediate between cross and dumb bell shaped,
dumb bell shaped or nodular silica bodies. The previous studies showed that a complexity is
_______________________________________________________________________
present in the shape of silica bodies in different species of Enneapogon, hence silica bodies
may be thoroughly observed while studying taxonomy of Enneapogon.

The T.S. studies of Enneapogon persicus showed the adaxial surface with widely
spaced ribs and prickles with bulbous bases are observed adaxially (Plate 20F). Abaxial
surface has also slight ribs and furrows but is without prickles. Thick walled macrohairs
with swollen base are slightly sunken into the surface. Gunzel (1912) found in Enneapogon.
scaber, adaxial surface with slight ribs while abaxial surface more pronounced, but it is
different in Enneapogon persicus as both surfaces are with slight ribs and furrows but ribs
are comparatively widely spaced on the adaxial side. Keel is not conspicuous in the
speciemen examined, and median vascular bundle is solitary and of basic type (Plate 20E).
Large vascular bundles have strands or girders but small vascular bundles are without
scelrenchyma or few cells. Sabnis (1921) described the leaf of Enneapogon elegans and
observed the abaxial surface more grooved than adaxial surface. Sclerenchyma strands were
present opposite to the vascular bundles and mesophyll with radiate chlorenchyma and more
over the bulliform cells are of sporobolus type.
In the present investigations, chlorenchyma cells are not radially arranged around vascular
bundles in E. persicus and bulliform cells are in fan shaped groups (Plate 20F). Sporobolus
type of bulliform cells is also fan shaped group of cells but deeply penetrating the
mesophyll. Bundle sheath around vascular bundles is double or single. In small vascular
bundles the inner sheath is not conspicuous, while in large vascular bundles, outer sheath is
interrupted adaxially and abaxially by sclerenchyma girders.This species does not show the
chloridoid leaf pattern, as in chloridoid leaf pattern, chlorenclyma cells are very regularly
radiately arranged around the vascular bundles, but in the present studies chlorenclyma cells
are not radiating the vascular bundles (Plate 20F). Goossens (1938) found , both radiate and
non radiate conditions in genus Sporobolus of subfamily Chloridoideae.It was observed that
most species have regular radially elongated cells but S. panicoides was found to have
irregularly arranged cells.
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4.6 Tribe Zoysieae

It includes 12 genera found in tropics throughout the world. Out of these 3 genera
with 4 species are present in Pakistan. The 3 genera found in Pakistan are Perotis having one
species, Tragus and Leptothrium with two species.
From Salt Range of Pakistan only one species of Tragus (T. roxburghii) representing
this tribe is found in the present studies (Plate 21A).
4.6.1 Morphology
Tragus roxburghii is often confused with T. berteronianus, as both these species are
found in Pakistan, but T. roxburghii is distinguished from other species by the presence of
non bulbous prickles on the upper glume while often bulbous prickles are observed in T.
berteronianus (Plate 21A). Chaudhary et al., (2001) also reported the presence of T.
roxburghii from Salt Range of Pakistan. One distinguishing character of this genus is the
presence of nerves forming ribs that have 0.3 – 0.5mm long firm prickles hooked at the tip
(non bulbous). Upper glume is 5 nerved and as long as the spikelet. Gould (1968) described
that genus Tragus has 3 rows of stout and hooked spines, but it is observed that upper glume
in this specis is 5 nerved. These nerves are modified into ribs having spines, so there are 5
rows of firm spines hooked at the tip are observed. Lemma and Palea are almost equal in
this species, lemma is 3 nerved, its lateral nerves are not prominent, the middle nerve is
extended to form a pointed tip. Anthers are 0.3 mm long and caryopsis is 1 – 1.7 mm long,
elliptic oblong, light brown in colour, pointed at both ends and compressed dorsally. These
characters are not mentioned in the previous literature, as these characters are of diagnostic
value at the specific and generic level in the tribe.
4.6.2 Palynology
Siddiqui and Qaisar (1988) studied Tragus roxburghii and found pollen size,24.21
m (18.5-27.17m) while in present studies polar diameter is (17.5 – 25 m) and equatorial
diameter is (20-25 m). According to Erdtman (1952) small grains range from (10 - 25m)
and mediaum size grains are from 25-50 m. Both small size and medium size pollen are
found in this species. Pore diameter is recorded (1-2 m) and exine thickness (1-1.5m),
while in previous studies by Siddiqui, pore diameter and exine thickness were found 2.76
_______________________________________________________________________
m and 1.43m respectively in the species. There is no significant difference found in the
present studies in exine thickness but pore diameter is recorded less, as compared to
previous studies. Siddiqui and Qaisar (1988 ) observed that areolate type of sculpturing is
found in Tragus roxburghii but in present investigations this species shows the scabrate type
of sculpturing in which scabrae are widely spaced ( Plate 21B ) .

The leaf epidermal anatomical studies revealed that intercostal cells in Tragus
roxburghii are rectangular and with straight walls, ranging in length from 37.5 – 75 µm,
however the cells with slightly sinuous walls are observed near costal zone (Plate 21C). On
the adaxial side, the intercostal cells are smaller as compared to cells on abaxial side, and
subsidiary cells are low dome shaped (Plate 18C). According to Metcalfe (1960) the
subsidiary cells in Tragus are triangular or low dome shaped. Microhairs and macrohairs are
not observed in these species. Metcalfe (1960 ) observed two species of Tragus in which
microhairs and macrohairs were also absent but Grob (1896 ) observed microhairs in
Tragus koeleroides and same observation was made by Schweickerdt (1941) who studied
the leaf structure of 4 different African species of Tragus and found microhairs in one
species while other structure was found similar. Tateoka et al., (1959) also reported
microhairs with hemispherical distal cell in T. bertironianus but not seen in the same species
by Metcalfe (1960). Hence presence of microhairs is not a constant character in the genus,
not observed in most Tragus species. Silica bodies are saddle shaped in T. roxburghii and
short cells with sinuous walls are present (Plate 21C & D). According to Metcalfe (1960)
silica bodies are saddle shaped or crescent shaped in Tragus. Presence of saddle shaped
silica bodies refer to chloridoid type of leaf and is characteristic of various species in the
tribe Zoysieae.
Adaxial surface is uneven and abaxial surface is with wide ribs and narrow ridges in
Tragus roxburghii. Bulliform cells are in irregular and fan shaped groups and middle cell is
deeply penetrated into the mesophyll. The T.S. studies of species showed that bulliform cells
are raised above the level of epidermis (Plate 21F), it may be due to thick wall of bulliform
_______________________________________________________________________
cells. Metcalfe (1960) also observed that in Tragus bertironianus, apices of the groups of
bulliform cells are raised above the surface of adaxial epidermis. Large vascular bundles of
basic type (with large metaxylem vessels) are observed to have 4 layers wide abaxial
sclerenchyma girders and short adaxial sclerenchyma strands (Plate 21E). The small
vascular bundles are with abaxial thick sclerenchyma girders and two cells wide adaxial
sclerenchyma strands. Large vascular bundles are with double sheath, the outer sheath is
composed of cells of uniform size while the cells of inner sheath are unequal in size (Plate
21E). Small vascular bundles appear to have a single sheath composed of cells of equal size
and chlorenchyma cells are radially arranged around vascular bundles. These characters
show the chloridoid types of leaf. Prat (1936) studied the leaf structure and stated that
Tragus should be regarded as a member of the Chlorideae but according to Vickery (1935),
it belongs to tribe Zoysieae. This tribe shows the non kranz type of leaf anatomy, as Clayton
and Renvoize, (1986) stated that Chloridoideae has kranz type of leaf anatomy. In grasses
the basic leaf anatomy can be used to know if the grasses have C3 or C4 photosynthetic
pathway. The grass with non kranz anatomy have C4 photosynthetic pathway, and most C4
species are monocots. (Salisbury and Ross,1995).
4.7 Tribe Andropogoneae

. This tribe has 87 genera throughout the tropics, extending in the warm temperate
regions. 36 genera and 67 species of this tribe are reported from Pakistan. From the Salt
Range of Pakistan, 13 species belonging to 10 genera of this tribe are collected and studied.
The genus Saccharum has 3 species followed by genus Dicanthium with two species, while
all other genera have one species each. This is the second largest tribe after Paniceae studied
in this area
4.7.1 Morphology
The tribe Andropogoneae is recognized by a pair of spikelets, one sessile and other
pedicelled, so this character helps to justify the particular specimen in the tribe. There
are some problematic genera which are not easy to distinguish from each plant. Genus
Bothriochloa and Dicanthium annulatum are very similar to each other and there is
always confusion in identifying these genera (Plate 22 & 25A). In Bothriochloa bladhii,
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lower glume of sessile and pedicelled spikelet has a circular pit and mid nerves pass
through it and pedicel is with membranous median line while in Dicanthium annulatum
this pit is not apparent. Faruqi (1969) also observed in his studies on Bothriochloa, that
presence or absence of pit on the lower genera is a variable character. Dicanthium
foveolatum is easily distinguished from D. annulatum by solitary narrow spike (Plate
26A). Chrysopogon serrulatus is identified by a triad of spikelets on filiform branches.
In 3 spikelets one is sessile and two are pedicelled in the cluster. Cymbopogon
jwarancusa can be easily identified from other species of this genus by chewing its
leaves, that are aromatic, it has green to reddish and brick reddish leaves. Eulaliopsis
binata is wooly at the base of culm, its leaf blades are very long and stiff, upto 67 cm
long, due to their stiffness, leaves are used for making ropes in the area. It is identified
by white wooly (tomentose) basal sheaths and pale yellow racemes (Plate 27A).
In Heteropogon contortus, lemma of the upper female floret is projected into

a short well developed blackish awn, and a bunch of twisted awns is present at the top of
raceme that is rigid and pungent (Plate 28A), so not liked by the cattle at maturity.
Imperata cylindrica is distinguished by its cylindrical wooly (panicle) inflorescence
(Plate 29A). It is observed that vegetative growth is vigorous in this species. It is a
uncontrolable weed of the fields, grows immediately when burnt. Genus Saccharum has
3 species out of which two species i.e. S. bengalense and S. spontaneum are widely
distribuated in the area, and are common near water channels and mountains bases, as
observed by Chaudhary et al., (2001) while Saccharum ravennae is rarely present in the
area. Bernstein (1958) reported that species like Saccharum spontaneum can grow better
in saline conditions with moisture.
The genus Saccharum is known by its tallness in the tribe, the height ranges
from 3-4 meters in Saccharum bengalense and S. ravennae (Plate 30& 31 A). These two
species are very similar in external morphology, and can be differentiated by studying
their micro morphological characters as the awn of the upper lemma is exerted beyond
the glumes in S. ravennae while there is short awn point in S. bengalense. Sometimes
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S.bengalense is confused with Arundo donax by non taxonomists, but Saccharum sp. has
narrow leaves with wide mid ribs as compared to A. donax.
Sorghum halepense has lax panicle (Plate 33A), and compound branchlets in
threes, one sessile and two pedicelled spikelets, at branchlet tips. Vetiveria zizanoides is
rarely found in the area, it is differentialed by its spiny glumes of the pedicelled
spikelets. In most of the genera of this tribe, ligule is lacerate membranous, which is
characteristic of this tribe. In Cymbopogon jwarancusa and Imperata cylendrica, ligule
is membranous and ligule is a ciliated fringe in Eulaliopsis binnata and Vetiveria
zizanoides.
Inflorescence is digitate in Bothriochloa while sub digitate racemes are

present in Dicanthium annulatum, Eulaliopsis binata and Heteropogon contortus. In
Imperata cylendrica and Saccharum spontaneum the panicle is white wooly and it is
cylendrical in Imperata cylendrica. In Saccharum bengalense and S. ravennae, the
panicle is light yellowish or grey in colour or white silvery (Plate 30& 31A). Most
distinguishing features on the basis of which most genera of this tribe are recognized is
the presence of spikelets in pairs and presence of a geniculate awn on the upper lemma,
so these characters are helpful in identification at the species, genus and tribe level.
4.7.2 Palynology
In the present study of 13 species of grasses belonging to 10 genera of tribe
Andropogoneae, all the pollen are circular in polar view and spheroidal to prolate
spheroidal in equatorial view except one species (Vetiveria zizanoides) that has prolate
to sub prolate pollen, in equatorial view, hence the qualitative characters are not much
helpful, when trying to distinguish the various taxa contained within the family. The
same observations were made by Parveen (2006), who concluded that Gramineae is a
stenopalynous family, and the pollen morphology of various taxa at the generic or even
at the tribe level is remarkably uniform.
However the species showed variations in quantitative characters i.e. polar
and equatorial diameter, P/E ratio, pore diameter and exine thickness. Maximum polar
_______________________________________________________________________
diameter was observed in Heteropogon contortus (43.75 µm) followed by Vetiveria

zizanoides (32µm) and Bothriochloa bladhii (31.85 µm), and Saccharum ravennae
showed minimum polar diameter (25 µm). Maximum equatorial diameter (40.16 µm)
was recorded in H. contortus, while minimum equatorial (25.62 µm) diameter was
observed in Eulaliopsis binata, so H.contortus showed maximum polar and equatorial
diameter and these differences in pollen size are helpful in identification of species and
have some value in taxonomic studies of grasses, as Woodehouse (1935) pointed out that
grain size has some significance in taxonomy of family gramineae. P/E ratio (1.16) was
maximum in Vetiveria zizanoides followed by Dicanthium annulatum (1.12) and H.
contortus (1.08) and minimum P/E ratio was observed in genus Saccharum (0.89 –
0.90). Pore diameter and exine thickness varied from 0.95 – 3.15 µm and 1.08 – 1.5 µm
respectively. Maximum pore diameter (3.15 µm) was observed in Heteropogon
contortus, while minimum pore diameter (0.95µm) was recorded in Sorghum halepense.
Maximum exine thickness (1.5 µm) was found in Chrysopogon serrulatus, Saccharum
bengalense and S. ravennae, while Vetiveria zizanoides showed minimum exine
thickness (1.08µm).
Mostly the pollen are monoporate. Chaturvedi (1971) has observed

monoporate grains in Saccharum. In my observations in the 3 species of genus
Saccharum, pollen are monoporate. The species of different genera of this tribe are
uniform in qualitative characters but variations in above mentioned quantitative
characters assist in identification, at the species and generic level. In this tribe three
types of sculpturing patterns are observed that are scabrate , verrucate and regulate
.Species of the same genus also exhibit different sculpturing patterns,as pollen in
Dicanthium annulatum show the regulate type of sculpturing ( Plate 25B) while pollen
with scabrate type of sculpturing is found in Dicanthium foveolatum ( Plate 26B )
.Siddiqui and Qaisar (1988) also pointed out that individual species of the tribe can not
be further delimited on the basis of sculpturing patterns as different types of sculpturing
patterens are present within the same tribe .
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4.7.3 Leaf Epidermal Anatomy:
According to Elahi and Ashraf (2002), quantitative variations i.e. the width
and length of long epidermal cells are very important and may help in identification and
classification of poaceae. All the species have paracytic stomata (guard cells accompanied
by two subsidiary cells), with dumb bell shaped guard cells, except Heteropogon contortus
and Cymbopogon jwarancusa in which guard cells are straight in the middle .Fahn (1965)
also reported that guards cells of gramineae are dumb cell shaped however there are some
variations in shape of subsidiary cells. Abid et al., (2007) studied 3 species of
andropogoneae belonging to 3 different genera and observed the paracytic type of stomata.
The difference in shape of subsidiary cells can be used to differentiate genus Bothriochloa
from Dicanthium, as these genera look similar morphologically. Subsidiary cells in
Bothriochloa bladhii are dome shaped while these are triangular in Dicanthium annulatum
and D. foveolatum (Plate 25& 26 C). Metcalfe (1960) also observed that in genus
Dicanthium mostly the stomata are triangular. In 3 species of geneus Saccharum, mostly the
subsidiary cells are low dome shaped or triangular and silica bodies are intermediate
between cross and dumb bell shaped. According to Metcalfe (1960) mostly the subsidiary
cells are triangular in panicoid grasses.
Silica bodies are cross shaped in Vetiveria zizanoides, Chrysopogon serrulatus and
Eulaliopsis binata. Chaudhary (2001) also carried out studies on Vetiveria zizanoides and
observed that mostly the silica boidies are cross shaped. Silica bodies are dumb bell to
intermediate between cross and dumb bell shaped in D. foveolatum, Sorghum halepense and
Genus Saccharum. In Cymbopogen jwarancusa, silica bodies are mostly cross shaped or
intermediate between dumb bell and cross shaped. Folorunso et al., (2007) studied two
species of Cymbopogon and also observed the same findings that silica bodies are mostly
cross shaped and it is the characteristic of most of the species of this tribe. Bibi et al (2007)
observed the dumb bell shaped silica bodies in Heteropogon contortus, Imperata cylendrica
and Dicanthium annulatum, but in the present studies silica bodies are dumb bell shaped and
somewhat lobed in the middle in H. contortus while dumb bell shaped in other two species.
According to Metcalfe (1960) mostly the silica bodies in H. contortus are dome shaped, and
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middle portion of these bodies are long. So a diversity in shapes of silica bodies is observed
in the species of this tribe as Clayton (1981) noted a great complexity and diversity of silica
bodies in Andropogoneae. Shape of silica bodies is a valuable character because a great
variety of shape occurs (Clifford and Watson, 1977). Bicelled microhairs of panicoid type
are present in all the species except Eulaliopsis binata in which microhairs are absent. This
is the only species in which very long macrohairs ranging from 180 – 195 µm in length and
6 – 6.25 µm in width are present, so the absence of microhairs and the presence of
macrohairs are the characters which distinguish this species from other genera of the tribe.
Rounded papillae at one side of long cell are observed in only two species i.e. Cymbopogon
jwarancusa and Heteropogon (Plate 26C & D), while absent in other genera. So this
character is also helpful in the identification of these species in the tribe. It is evident from
the studies that diversity in leaf anatomial characters is helpful in the identification at the
specific and generic level of the tribe

Studies regarding the transverse section of lamina may provide information to
resolve the systematic problems surrounding particular taxa (Macfarlane and Watson, 1980).
Variations are observed in the outline of lamina i.e. the presence or absence of ribs and
furrows on the adaxial and abaxial side, as according to Metcalfe (1960), the no of ribs is of
taxonomic value. In Chrysopogon serrulatus and Dicanthium foveolatum, no ribs and
furrows are observed on the adaxial and abaxial surface, however macrohairs are present on
the adaxial surface of lamina of these species. Macrohairs are thick in Chrysopogon
serrulatus (Plate 23F ) while long macrohairs are present in D. foveolatum (Plate 26F). The
presence and distribution of prickles or macrohairs may be important in differentiating and
identification of different species. According to Ellis (1986) the distribution of prickles,
might be relatively stable or environmentally variable.
In Bothriochloa bladhii there are no ribs and furrows adaxially and glandular
structures are present abaxially (Plate 22F), while Dicanthium annulatum is with slight ribs
and furrows on adaxial side and glandular structures are observed abaxially but not
pronounced and thick short and triangular spines are present on the adaxial side. Eulaliopsis
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binata is differentiated by other species by the presence of wide ribs and furrows adaxially
and long pointed macrohairs deeply embedded in the epidermis (Plate 27E). According to
Metcalfe (1960), it is important to note that whether the base of hairs is sunken between or
below the general level of adjacent cells. Presence of sunken hairs is characteristic of grasses
from warm regions and more superficial types are common in temperate grasses. In grasses
the basic leaf anatomy can be used to find out if a grass has the C3 or C4 photosynthetic
pathway. The two basic types of leaf anatomy are kranz and non kranz patterns of leaf
anatomy. In kranz type one or two bundle sheaths are present around vascular bundle and 2
– 4 chlorenchymatous cells between adjacent vascular bundles radiating from or towards the
bundle sheath (Chaudhary, 1989). According to Clayton and Renvoize (1986), the tribe
Andropogoneae has kranz type of leaf anatomy. In the present investigations in all the
species of this tribe chlorenchyma cells are radially arranged around the bundle sheath, that
is the character of panicoid type leaf (Gould, 1968). Reynolds (1959) who studied leaf
anatomy of Andropogoneae in for greater detail, pointed out significant differences at
species level which could be helpful in the classification of Andropogoneae. This study of
Reynolds, though lacking in the synthesis of demonstrating relationships, was a great step
forward in pointing out the fact that inter specific anatomical differences in the leaf do exist
among the members of the tribe Andropogoneae.
A major part of mesophyll is covered by large air spaces in Saccharum spontaneum

(Plate 32F). These air spaces are absent at the margins of lamina. In Vetiveria zizanoides
intercellular cavities are also present covering most part of the lamina (Plate 34F). Presence
of air cavities that develop in different organs of the plant while their number and size varies
with the age and nature of the organ is the characteristic of hydrophytous or amphibious
species (Sculthorpe, 1967). These both species are mostly found near water, so the presence
of air cavities is the adaptation of these species to grow in water saturated soil. According to
Chaudhary (2009), Vetiveria zizanoides has a strong deep penetrating aerenchymatous fast
growing system and physiologically it has the ability to grow both as a xerophyte and
hydrophyte. Bulliform cells are in fan shaped groups or in irregular groups in all the genera
of tribe.
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In Chrysopogon serrulatus and Cymbopogon jwarancusa bulliform cells are in the

midrib region (Plate 23 & 24E). In Heteropogon these cells are in fan shaped or irregular
groups (Plate 28E & F ) and in I. cylendrica bulliform cells are in fan shaped groups or in a
group tapering towards the base ( Plate 29E ). In Vetiveria, bulliform cells are in a single
group adaxially and also present in a single row abaxially (Plate 34F) while Metcalfe (1960)
studied Vetiveria zizanoides and observed that bulliform cells are confined to a single large
group on the mid rib of adaxial surface only.
Median vascular bundle is solitary and of basic type in Sorghum halepense and
Bothriohloa bladhi (Plate 19 & 30E). Faruqi, (1969) studied Bothriochloa intermedia and
found in cross sectional studies that there are three primary bundles in the keel. The number
of bulliform bands between two primary bundles of the lamina is usually two and the
number of intercalary bundles is 3 – 4. In other species, median vascular bundle is of basic
type and is accompanied by 1 – 6 cells on either side. In Eulaliopsis binata large vascular
bundles are in the middle while small vascular bundles on the abaxial sides and adaxial
girders are wide and high (Plate 27 F). In most of the species adaxial and abaxial strands and
girders are observed opposite to the medium and large vascular bundles and with no
sclerenchyma strands or girders opposite to the small vascular bundles.
In Eulaliopsis binata abaxial girder is observed opposite to few small vascular

bundles. Abaxial strands are present in Bothriochloa bladhii, Dicanthium foveolatum, while
adaxial and abaxial strands are observed in Imperata cylendrica and Vetiveria zizanoides.
Grasses from arid areas have well developed sclerenchyma tissue while many tropical
grasses often have a high proportion of the smaller bundles not accompanied by
sclerenchyma (Ellis, 1976). Rarely in some species sclerenchyma lies between the vascular
bundles (Metcalfe, 1960). Sclerenchyma may penetrate the bundle sheath on one or both
sides to connect with the sclerenchyma of the vascular bundles (Gould, 1968). As in
Bothriochloa bladhii the phloem in the median vascular bundle is covered by sclerenchyma
cells, while in Chrysopogon serrulatus, sclerenchyma cells make a cup like structure around
the phloem of median vascular bundle (Plate 23E). In S. bengalense sclerenchyma girders
penetrating the bundle sheath and surround the xylem and phloem.
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Mostly in all species of the tribe bundles sheath is single in small and large vascular
bundles and complete in the small vascular bundles except the Imperata cylendrica and
Saccharum spontanum in which large vascular bundles are with double sheath.
In panicoid type leaves mostly the bundles sheath is single as observed in this tribe
and the inner or mestome sheath is absent or inconspicuous. According to Metcalfe (1960)
large vascular bundles are sometimes with double sheath in some species, same is observed
in this tribe in which two species, Imperata cylendrica and Saccharum spontaneum have
large vascular bundles with double sheath.
4.8 Tribe Paniceae

This tribe has about 101 genera in the world, throughout the tropics extending into
warm temperate regions. The genus Panicum is one of the largest genera of this tribe with
approximately 450 species distributed world wide (Webster, 1988). This tribe is represented
by 15 genera and 73 species in Pakistan.
From Salt Range of Pakistan 10 genera having 22 species belonging to this tribe are
reported in the present investigations. Brachiaria and Setaria are the largest genera with 5
species each, followed by Cenchrus having 3 species and both Digitaria and Panicum haing
2 species, while all other genera are represented by one species. Paniceae is the largest tribe
on the basis of number of genera and species, followed by Andropogoneae and
Eragrostideae having 13 and 8 species respectively.
4.8.1 Morphology
In tribe Paniceae a wide morphological diversity is observed among the different
genera, while different species within the genus seem to be quite similar and difficult to
identify.The different genera include Brachiaria, Cenchrus, Setaria, Digitaria and Panicum.
In genus Brachiaria, different species can be distingushed from each other on the basis of
shape and length of inflorescence, length of spikelets and length of lower glume. In B.
eruciformis and B. reptans inflorescence is with racemes (Plate 37 & 39 A). In B.
eruciformis, inflorescence has 4 – 6 racemes that are 1-2 cm long, while in B. reptans, there
are 3 – 7 racemes having length 1.2 – 2.3 cm and spikelets are smaller than B. eruciformis,
however glume is very minute in B.eruciformis and in B. reptans, it is 0.3 – 0.4 mm long,
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faintly neved, hyaline and one forth of the length of spikelet. In B.deflexa, panicle is 5.0 –
8.5 cm long (Plate 35A), upper glume is 5 nerved and lower glume is also 5 nerved and little
shorter then upper glume. B. deflexa is often confused with B. distachya and B. ramosa, but
these two species are different in having 7 nerved upper glume, and lower glume is 3 nerved
and one third of the length of spikelet.
In Cenchrus biflorus involucre is 5-6 mm long and the inner spines are retrorsely
barbed and pungent and outer spines are smaller and thin than the inner and generally there
are 3 spikelets in a burr (Plate 40A). Due to its retrorsely barbed spines, it adheres to the fur
of animals. In C. setigerus, involucre is cup shaped, the inner bristles are connate and form a
cup like structure. Cenchrus ciliaris is distinguished from other Cenchrus species by its gray
purple or straw coloured panicle (Plate 41A) and it has inner bristles in involucre, ciliated in
the lower half and awn like and scabrid in the upper half.
Pennisetum orientale is aften confused with C. ciliaris (Plate 50A ), but by observing
their floral characters these can be differentiated, as in Pennisetum orientale long inner
bristles are free at the base and upper and lower lemma in this species are setaciously
acuminate, while in Cenchrus, inner bristles are fused at the base. According to Chaudhary
et al,(1968) C. ciliaris is one of the best range grasses. In Setaria inflorescence is a
cylindrical panicle and different Setaria species show a closed morphological resemblance.
Setaria glauca and Setaria viridis can be distinguished by the colour of their bristles as in
S.glauca, inflorescence looks yellow because of yellow bristles (Plate 51A), while S. viridis
is identified by its green bristles (Plate 55A). Upper glume is as long as the spikelet in S.
viridis but S. glauca has upper glume more than half or up to two thirds of the length of
spikelet.
The length of anthers is also important in the identification and differentiation of
species as anthers are 0.3 – 0.5 mm long in S.viridis and upto 1.5 mm long in S. glauca. In
Setaria intermedia, panicle is lobed in the lower part (Plate 52A), while Setaria verticillata
is distinguished by its retrorsely barbed bristles, and involucral bristles are one to few,
having length from 6-8 mm. Setaria italica that is a cultivated species and is considered the
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cultivated form of S.viridis has antrorsely barbed spikelets and is distinguished by upper
floret disarticulating at maturity.
In Panicum maximum upper glume is 7 nerved, and lower glume is 3 nerved, while
in P. maximum, upper glume is 5 nerved and lower glume is 1 nerved. In genus Digitaria,
two species i.e D. nodosa and D. sanguinalis are present in Salt Range. According to Cope
(1982) Digitaria is widely growing genus in different parts of Pakistan and D. nodosa is the
most commonly growing species in Pakistan. Digitaria nodosa is different from D.
sanguinalis by its perennial habit, with its bulbous basis of culms (Plate 43A), while D.
sanguinalis is an annual grass. Another character that differentiates D. nodosa is the
persistence of pedicels of spikelets, and spikelets disarticulate above the pedical while in D.
sanguinalis spikelets fall entire at maturity (Plate 44A).
Echinochloa colona is best identified by the absence of ligule while Urochloa

panicoides is distinguished by its mucronate upper lemma, 9 nerved upper glume, and
spikelets are arranged in two rows on one side of flattened and narrowly winged rachis
(Plate 56A). Different grasses such as E. colona, Urochloa panicoides, Brachiaria sp.,
Paspalum paspaloides and Paspalidium are good fodder grasses for cattle (Skerman &
Riveros, 1990).
The grass species with strong rhizomes hold the sides of cuts and banks of water
tributaries and consequently protect then against erosion. Species like Panicum antidotale,
P. maximum, Cenchrus ciliaris and C. setigerus are recommended for fixation and
reclamation of sand dunes in areas of low rainfall (Yusaf Zai and Gandhi, 1999).
Paspalum paspaloides that is common along margins of ponds and ditches, has
rachis flattened on the back but keeled on the axial side. Its keel is narrowly winged and two
rows of spikelets are sparated by winged keel (Plate 48A). Paspalidium flavidum is rare in
the area and only found near Choa Saidan Shah (Chakwal). It is distinguished by its
gibbously globose spikelets and, inflorescence has 4-9 racemes present in alternate manner
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and the upper racemes are more or less appressed to the axis (Plate 49A). It is indicated that
floral morphology of spikelet proved useful in the identification of the taxa of tribe Paniceae
4.8.2 Palynology
Maximum polar diameter (33.03m) and equatorial diametrer (32.5 m) is observed
in B. deflexa followed by B. distachya, while minimum polar diameter (23.40m) and
equatorial diameter (21.45m) is observed in B. reptans. Pore diameter in Brachiaria sp.
ranged from 2.0 – 3.75 m. B. distachya showed maximum pore diameter while minimum
pore diameter is observed in B. ramosa. B. deflexa and B. distachya showed maximum exine
thickness, 1.15 m and 1.06 m respectively, while minimum exine thickness is observed in
B. ramosa.
All the species have monoporate and endoporate pollen, except B. reptens in which
pollen seem exoporate. Shaheen et al., (2005) also studied different species of genus,
Brchiaria, Cenchrus and Setaria and found that pollen are circular in polar view and mostly
the species have endoporous pollen. Among the Cenchrus species, maximum polar diameter
(40m) is recorded in C. ciliaris followed by C. biflorus and C. setigerus, however C.
biflorus showed maximum equatorial diameter. Pennisetum orientale that is often confused
with C. ciliaris has more polar and equatorial diameter than all Cenchrus species. Shaheen
et al (2005) observed maximum polar and equatorial diameter in C. setigerus and found that
this species is ectoporate but in my observations C. ciliaris showed the maximum polar
diameter while C. biflorus showed the maximum equatorial diameter and all species are
endoporous. Meo (1999) found that the length and width of pollen in C. setigerus and C.
penisetiformis was 24.72 µm - 31.31 m and 31.78µm - 39.12 m respectively. In the
present studies polar diameter in C. setigerus is 31.25m (25-45m) while equatorial
diameter is 31-04 m (25-37.5m).
Maximum exine thickness (1.25 m) is observed in Setaria glauca followed by S.
intermedia. Setaria intermedia has maximum pore diameter (3.5m) as compared to all
other Setaria species, while small pollen are observed in S. verticillata and S. viridis. Small
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to medium sized pollen are present in Setaria, on the basis of pollen size classes proposed by
Erdtman (1952).
The present findings are different to Firbas (1937) and Faegri & Iversen (1964) who
suggested that pollen of cultivated grasses are more than 35 m. In our observations S.
italica while is considered the cultivated form of S. viridis, has pollen size from 22.5 – 32.5
m that is overlapped with size of pollen in wild grasses.
Panicum maximum shows more values than P. antidotale in all quantitative parameters and
P. maximum is differentiated from P. antidotale by its large pollen size, so the pollen size
may help in the identification of species with in the same genus.
Digitaria sanguinalis and Digitaria nodosa are similar in polar and equatorial view
but these species can be differentiated from each other on the basis of quantitative
characters. D. sanguinalis has more polar (31.97m) and equatorial diameter (31.16m) and
also more pore diameter (2.71m) and exine thickness (1.09m) than D. nodosa. In D.
nodosa polar and equatorial diameter is 25.10 m and 25.16 m respectively, while pore
diameter is 2.20 (1.75 – 3.0m) and exine thickness is 1.01 (0.75 – 1.25m) in this species.
The Digitaria species can be distinguished from each other by correlating their
morphological as well as palynological (quantitative) characters. Maximum polar (36.53m)
and equatorial diameter (32.75m) is found in P. paspaloides, while minimum polar
diameter 32.04m and exine thickness (1.0 m) is observed in Paspalidium flavidum.
Echinochloa colona has minimum equatorial diameter while Paspalum paspaloides also
showed maximum exine thickness. The results regarding these 4 species are similar to
Siddiqui and Qaisar (1988), who also observed maximum grain size (33.64m) in Paspalum
Paspaloides. The comparision of different species in the tribe revealed that Paspalum
paspaloides has largest pollen with polar diameter (30 – 50 m) and equatorial diameter
(22.5 – 50 m) in the whole tribe, while the smallest pollen are found in Brachiaria. Mostly
the species in this tribe show the scabrate type of pollen sculpturing followed by rugulate
and verrucate type of sculpturing, however there are also variations within the same genus
and not helpful from taxonomic point of view as Parveen (2006) concluded that pollen types
recognized on the basis of exine sculpturing do not correspond with the tribal classification
of family gramineae .
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4.8.3 Leaf Epidermal Anatomy:
Brachiaria ramosa is different from other species of Brachiaria by having short

cells between long cells (Plate 38D). Microhairs are bicelled, with distal cell longer than
basal cell and mostly the distal cell is thin walled and non apparent which is the
characteristic of this tribe (Plate 38 & 39C). In B. deflexa longest microhairs (34 - 65m
long) are present. Macrohairs are present on abaxial side in B. distachya and B. ramosa
(Plate36C), while found absent in other Brachiaria species.
In Cenchrus subsidiary cells are also triangular, and low to high dome shaped and
long cells are with sinuous or slightly sinuous walls (Plate 40 & 41C ), ranging in length
from 60 - 135m and 12 – 17.5m wide. Microhairs are bicelled and distal cell is longer
than basal cell and tapers towards the apices. Longest microhairs are observed in C. biflorus
present both adaxially and abaxially ranging in length from 40 – 52 m and small in C.
setigerus having length 22 – 30 m. Macrohairs are non seen in all the three species of
Cenchrus. Prickles are present in all the species but found abundently in C. setigerus on
adaxial side.
Pennisetum orientale that is a problematic species and ofter confused with C. ciliaris
can be distinguished by short cells with rounded papilla, present between long cells in
intercostal zone (Plate 50C). In Setaria subsidiary cells are low dome shaped, and large
stomatal complex is present in S. glauca having length from 45 – 60 m ( Plate 51C & D ) ,
While in S. intermedia , stomatal complex is smaller (17.5 - 25m long) as compared to
other speices ( Plate 52C ). Microhairs are bicelled, but distal cell is not apperent and it
looks that Setaria species have one celled microhairs, because the distal cells are very thin
walled and often collapse. Bibi et al., (2007) studied Setaria glauca and Digitaria nodosa
and found that subsidiary cells are dome shaped and silica bodies are dumb bell shaped and
observed that microhairs, papillae and prickles are absent, while in the present studies all the
Setaria species including S. glauca and Digitaria species i.e. Digitaria nodosa and Digitaria
sanguinalis are found to have microhairs in the intercostal zone and prickles in the costal
zone.
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In Digitaria species distal cell and basal cell are equal or distal cell is shorter than
basal cell. Microhairs are absent on the adaxial side in D. Sanguinalis while present on both
sides in D. nodosa. Digitaria sanguinalis is different from D. nodosa as it has papiliae
present on the long cells ( Plate 44C & D ) which are absent in Digitaria nodosa however
long macrohairs are present on the adaxial surface in D. nodosa ( Plate 43D ). Freire et al.,
(2005) also observed papillae in Digitaria sanguinalis and reported that Digitaria
sanguinalis and Echinochloa crus-galli are characterized by rod like microhairs and silica
bodies are dumb bell shaped in Digitaria sangiunalis while nodular in Echinochloa.
In the present investigations in Digitaria sanguinalis, silica bodies are dumb bell shaped or
intermediate between cross and dumb bell shaped and are present on the abaxial side, while
saddle shaped silica bodies are observed on the adaxial side. In Echinochloa colona, silica
bodies are dumb bell shaped or slightly lobed in the middle. Gilani et al., (2002) observed
that microhairs are absent on the abaxial side in D. nodosa and D. sanguinalis, while in my
findings these both species have microhairs on the abaxial side.
Silica bodies are cross shaped or rectangular shaped in Panicum maximum while
cross shaped or intermediate between cross and dumb bell shaped in P.antidotale.
Chaudhary et al., (2001) observed the same type of silica bodies in Panicum summatrense.
Macrohairs are absent in Panicum maximum while present in P. antidotale adaxially.
Paspalum paspaloides differs from Paspalidium flavidum by having 40-45 m long
and 8-10 m wide prickles on the adaxial side, which are absent in P. flavidum. Urochloa
panicoides is characterized by having long intercostal cells ranging in length from 30-
415m and long cells present on adaxial side are more in length as compared to that present
abaxially, as according to Zarinkamar (2006), the average cell length on adaxial surface is
greater than those of abaxial surface, and 125-155 m long macrohairs are present abaxially
and adaxially (Plate 56D).
Subsidiary cells are low to high dome shaped and triangular, but a diversity is observed in
the form of silica bodies in different genera of the tribe Paniceae as dumb bell shaped, cross
shaped, saddle shaped, rectangular shaped, intermediate between cross and dumb bell
shaped silica bodies are present, and even in one species and on the same leaf, more than
one form of silica bodies are present. Silica is found in the epidermis of mature grass leaves
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in the form of discrete particles (silica bodies) produced in specialized silica cells (Esau,
1977).
According to Dahlgren and Clifford (1982) surface, sculpture, shape, size and
distribution pattern of silica bodies on grass epidermis are variable in different species, and
these variations are considered of great taxonomic value.
In tribe Paniceae (Panicoideae) mainly all the species of grasses are used as a good
fodder for cattle and according to Herrera (1985), complexity of silica bodies is greatest in
Panicoideae which have a long history of vertebrate grazing and grow in regions which have
more incidence of grazers.

There are variations in the number of vascular bundles in the keel region. In
Brachiaria deflexa and Brachiaria ramosa, there is no median vascular bundle in the mid rib
and there are 4 to 5 small vascular bundles in the keel region (Plate 35E) while other three
species have solitary median vascular bundle of basic type. Chlorenchyma cells are radiate
to non radiate in Brachiaria and bundles sheath is single and bulliform cells are of
Sporobolus type ( present in fan shaped groups ) and the middle cell deeply penetrates the
mesophyll. The structure of bulliform cells can be used as a taxonomic character. Metcalfe
(1960) also studied two species of Brachiaria i.e. B. reptans and B. deflexa and found the
same results.
All the species in Setaria are characterized by the presence of pointed prickles, on
the ribs adaxially or abaxially. In S.italica, thick pointed prickles with rounded ends are
present abundantly on the abaxial side (Plate 53F). In all the species, median vascular
bundle of basic type is present. The position of vascular bundles and the absence or presence
of median vascular bundle is helpful in the identification of species.
Bulliform cells which are present in all monocotyledons including grasses, exept the
order Helobiae (Alverez et al., 2008). Setaria glauca is different from other species by
having large bulliform cells present on both abaxial and adaxial epidermis and most part of
the mesophyll is covered by bulliform cells and so chlorenchyma cells and other
assimilatory tissue are in the form of thin strip from one vascular bundle to the other and so
on ( Plate 51F ). In other species of Setaria, bulliform cells are in irregular or regular groups
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on adaxial side except S. verticillata in which bulliform cells are in single group on both
sides of mid rib on the adaxial side (Plate 54F). In Setaria, diversity is observed regarding
the position and shape of bulliform cells, that can be helpful in the identification. Genus
Setaria is previously studied by Amidei (1932) and Metcalfe (1960) from anatomical point
of view but they have not mentioned these charaters as found in present studies.
Adaxial surface in all the three Cenchrus species has pointed prickles, however
found abundantly in Cenchrus setigerus and abaxial surface in this species has prickles with
curved tips (Plate 42E & F). No sclerenchyma girders are observed in Cenchrus species. All
the large vascular bundles of basic type are with thick abaxial and adaxial sclerenchyma
strands, while only abaxial sclerenchyma strands are present opposite to small vascular
bundles which differentiate this genus from other genera of the tribe. In Cenchrus setigerus
a few prickles are present in the keel region and middle cell in the group of bulliform cells is
larger than the remaining one (Plate 42E & F), while Cenchrus biflorus is differentiated by
the presence of bulliform cells at the margins.
Digitaria nodosa differs from D. sanguinalis by having long and thin macrohairs,
deeply embedded on the adaxial side, and chlorenchyma cells are restricted around the
vascular bundles towards the abaxial side in the mid rib region ( Plate 43E ). In Panicum
maximum pointed prickles with rounded base are embedded in the epidermis but in Panicum
antidotale only pointed projections are seen on the adaxial side. Sabnis (1921) noted the
following characters in P. antidotale that both surfaces are grooved and sclerenchyma forms
the adaxial and abaxial girders to the large vascular bundles and spiny hairs are also present.
In the present studies Panicum antidotale is observed to have adaxial and abaxial
sclerenchyma strands, opposite to large vascular bundles and sclerenchyma girders are
absent in these species ( Plate 46F ), however the sclerenchma girders are found in Panicum
maximum (Plate 47F ) which differentiates this species from P. antidotale. Chlorenchyma
cells are more or less radially arranged around the vascular bundles in both species. As
Metcalfe (1960) noted that mostly Panicum species have distinct radiate chlorenchyma but
chlorenchyma can be inconspicuously radiate in some species.
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In most species in the tribe, bulliform cells are in irregular or fan shaped groups but
there are variations in the position of bulliform cells that are valuable taxonomically. In
some species, bulliform cells are present both adaxially and abaxially as in Setaria glauca,
and in most species are present on the adaxial side. In Cenchrus biflorus, bulliform cells are
observed at the margins adaxially and in Paspalidium flavidum, only observed in the mid rib
region, not observed in the other regions and this species is characterized by U shaped and
very conspicuous keel.
Urochloa is distinct in having single vascular bundle in the keel region (Plate 56E).
In most species in this tribe, 2 to 3 small vascular bundles are present on each side of median
vascular bundle. In rare cases, one small vascular bundle is present as in Paspalidium
flavidum, so this character can be helpful in the identification of species.
Aliscioni (2000) and Fabbri et al., (2006) studied the anatomy of genus Paspalum
and found that under wet conditions species developed air cavities and aerenchyma and this
ability to develop air cavities represents a constant character, however in the present studies
air cavities are not observed in this species, which indicates that in P. paspaloides presence
of air cavities is not a constant character. In all the species bundle sheath is single and
complete except the median vascular bundle in which sometimes sheath is interrupted
abaxially. In few species the large vascular bundles are with double sheath as found in
Urochloa panicoides, Pennisetum orientale, Brachiaria reptans and Brachiaria distachya.
Pennisetum orientale can be differentiated from Cenchrus by having large vascular bundles
with double sheath. Metcalfe (1960) reported that in these species bundle sheath may be
single or double. Overall the species in this tribe show the Panicoid characters.
4.9 Tribe Aveneae

This tribe includes more than 57 genera in the world, mainly found in temperate regions
of both hemispheres and extends to mountainous regions of the tropics. In Pakistan tribe
Aveneae is represented by 17 genera and 55 species. From Salt Range seven species of this
tribe belonging to 5 genera are collected, in which genus Avena and Polypogon has two
species each, while other genera Agrostis, Koeleria and Phalaris are represented by one
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species each. These species generally grow in the early spring. Agrostis, Koeleria, and
Polypogon are found in the shady and moist places, while Polypogan is also present in
marshy places. Phalaris is the serious weed of wheat fields. Aveneae is a large
heteromorphous tribe, in which different genera show variations morphologically.
4.9.1 Morphology
In genus Avena two species i.e Avena fatua and Avena sterilis sub sp. Avena
ludoviciana look morphologically very similar. Avena sterilis can be distinguished due to
longer spikelets and awns while in Avena fatua spikelets and awns are shorter. Chaudhary
(1989) observed that awns length range from 40 – 50 mm in both these species but in the
present studies, awn length ranges from 22 to 44 mm. Caryopsis is oblong and villous, 6 -
7mm long, in both species however, in Avena sterilis caryopsis has a tuft of hairs towards
the tip. Hence the morphology of caryopsis is also helpful in identification of these species.
By studying spikelet we can observe one character that clearly differentiates both species. In
Avena sterilis, only one horse shoe shaped scar is present on lower lemma but in A. fatua
two horse shoe shaped scars can be observed on both lemmas, as Hubbard (1978) also
observed that in Avena fatua the axis of spikelet breaks naturally at maturity at the base of
each lemma, the point of detachment being marked by a rounded scar, while in Avena
sterilis the axis breaks at the base of the lowest lemma and this is left with only one scar.
Both species of genus Polypogon are very much similar in morphology (Plate 62 & 63A).
Glumes are bilobed at the tip and thin and slighty scabrid awns arise between the lobes
.Awns are 2.2 – 5.5 mm long in Polypogon monspeliensis while these are 2-2.8 mm long in
Polypogon fugax, so length of ligule and awns is more in Polypogon monspeliensis than
Polypogon fugax and is distinguishing character to differentiate these species.
Polypogon fugax is found in moist, marshy and shady places, it shows a clear difference
with respect to habitat, as it is indicator of salinity and has a very small size when growing
under saline conditions (Ahmad et al., 2009).
Agrostis viridis is often confused with genus Polypogon because spikelets in both these
genera look similar but spikelets are awnless in Agrostis viridis while there are awns in
genus Polypogon. Agrostis viridis is a stoloniferous perennial, sometimes it is lobed and
spatheolate. It is identified by shiny glumes that make the whole inflorescence shiny (Plate
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57A). Koeleria argentia is distinguished from Phalaris minor by its glistening spikelets
(Plate 60A), the ligule in this species is lacerate membranous and 1mm long while in
Phalaris minor ligule is white membranous and 2.5 – 6.5 mm long. Phalaris minor can be
differentiated from other genera of the tribe by its very long whitish ligule that can be
observed easily at the base of leaf blade and its glumes are winged on the mid nerve and are
whitish except the green nerves, so panicle looks whitish green (Plate 61A). Species of
genus Agrostis, Koeleria, Polypogon and Phalaris look similar in the first sight by observing
their panicle, but micromorphological studies play a role in delimiting different taxa of the
tribe, as Judd et al., (1999) stated that morphological characters play a vital role in practical
identification.
4.9.2 Palynology
Pollen were observed circular in polar view and prolate spheroidal in equatorial view
in all species. In Avena fatua and Polypogon fugax semi circular pollen can be seen in polar
view while oblate spheroidal and prolate to oblate spheroidal pollen are recorded in Agrostis
and Koeleria argentia respectively. Phalaris minor and Polypogon fugax are different from
other species due to sub prolate and sub oblate pollen respectively. Meo et al., (1988)
studied pollen of 17 grass species and found that pollen were spherical and monoporate. In
the present studies in tribe Aveneae most species are prolate spheroidal in equatorial view
and all species are monoporate. The data regarding quantitative characters of pollen revealed
that Avena sterilis has the maximum polar diameter (35 -57.5 m) followed by A. fatua (35
– 42.5 µm) and Phalaris minor (27.5 – 37.5 m). Minimum polar diameter is recorded in
Agrostis viridis (20-25m). Avena species have also maximum equatorial diameter followed
by Phalaris minor and P. monspeliensis. Both species of Polypogon differ from each other
as pollen in P. monspeliensis have more polar diameter but less equatorial diameter than P.
fugax. According to Firbas (1937) pollen of wild grasses measured 20 – 30 m and that of
cereals (cultivated grasses) were over 35m. However Faegri & Iversen (1975) considered
40 m as a dividing line between wild grasses and cereals, but their observations do not
match with the present findings as maximum pollen size in Avena is 57.5m, followed by
Avena fatua (42.5m) and both these species are wild and even A. sterilis has long pollen
size than Avena sativa as Meo (1999) observed pollen size (53.02 m) in Avena sativa.
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Maximum pore diameter (more than 3 m) is also observed in Avena species followed by P.
minor and minimum Pore diameter (1.87m) is in Agrostis viridis. Siddiqui et al., (1988)
studied pollen of two species i.e Phalaris minor and Polypogon belonging to tribe Aveneae.
They observed pollen size (35.08m), pore diameter (2.83m) and exine thickness (1.14m)
in Phalaris minor while in P. monspeliensis grain size was recorded (27.55m) and pore
size and exine thickness was 2.47 m and 1.43 m respectively. Their results are similar to
the present findings however exine thickness in P.monspeliensis is observed 1m (0.75 –
1.25m) in present studies and there is no significant difference in other quantitative
parameters studied in these two species.
Overall palynological studies of the genera in tribe avaneae show that largest pollen are
present in genus Avena, while smallest pollen are observed in Agrostis viridis. As the genus
Phalaris, Agrostis and Polypogon look morphologically similar but these can be
distinguished easily on the basis of pollen size, pore diameter and exine thickness, so the
palynological studies are valuable in solving problems related to grass systamatics and can
prove helpful in accurate identification of closely related species. Three types of pollen
sculpturing patterns (scabrate, verrucate and rugulate) in different species of tribe aveneae
have been recognized. Avena sterilis is differentiated from Avena fatua by it rugulate
sculpturing (Plate 59B) while A. fatua shows the scabrate type of sculpturing in which
scabrae are narrowly spaced (Plate 58B)

Both species of genus Polypogon are different from others in having rounded short
cells found frequently at regular intervals between long cells. Long cells with maximum
length (250 - 625m) are found in Avena fatua followed by Avena sterilis. It is observed that
long cells are comparatively larger in the species of this tribe, than other species and all
these species are mostly present in moist and shady habitat as Stace (1965) found that
epidermal cells are large on leaves of plants from more humid and shady areas and smaller
in dry areas and soil and plants grown in higher altitude. All the species of this tribe have
parallel sided subsidiary cells, however low dome shaped subsidiary cells are also observed
in Koeleria argentia, Phalaris minor and Polypogon monspeliensis while in P. fugax only
dome shaped subsidiary cells are observed. Largest stomata are found in genus Avena (Plate
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58 & 59C) while smaller in genus Polypogon (Plate 62 & 63C). Absence of microhairs and
macrohairs in all the species of this tribe is observed. Koeleria argentia is the only species in
which long marcrohairs are present (Plate 60D). In genus Polypogon, subsidiary cells are
dumb bell shaped or horizontally elongated with sinuous outline. Metcalfe (1960) studied
the abaxial leaf epidermis of Polypogon monspeliensis and found the same results.
In Agrostis viridis silica bodies are slightly dumb bell shaped, cross shaped or rectangular.
In Phalaris minor silica bodies are smooth and with rounded ends, while Koeleria argentia
has horizontally elongated silica bodies with smooth or sinuous outline. In genus Avena
silica bodies are cubical in shape as in Avena fatua and in Avena sterilis elongated, thick
silica bodies with non sinuous walls are recorded and it is observed that Avena sterilis has
silica bodies with maximum length in the whole tribe. The present studies showed that
morphological variations of silica bodies are present in different species of the tribe.
According to Prat (1932) and Clayton (1981) complexity and diversity of silica bodies is
much less elaborate in less advanced sub family Pooideae. It is observed in the present
studies of silica bodies in this tribe that in most species silica bodies with straight walls are
present and do not show any complexity in structure. Ying et al.,(2006) conducted his
studies on different species of Calamagrostis of tribe Aveneae and noted the leaf epidermis
in Calamagrostis are of festucoid type and, intercostals long cells were elongated in all
species and silica bodies were usually elongated with a sinuous outline. In the present
studies in Koeleria argentia and Avena fatua elongated silica bodies with smooth or sinuous
outline are recorded. It is observed that leaf epidermal features help to elucidate taxonomic
relationship at species, generic and tribe level.

The adaxial surface is with slight ribs and furrows in all the species, abaxial surface is
also with slight ribs and furrows. Burr and Turner (1933) described the leaf of A. fatua as
having low, flattened and adaxial ribs. In Phalaris minor ribs are wider on the adaxial
surface, as studied by Metcalfe (1960). Strecker (1913) observed moderately tall adaxial ribs
and none on the abaxaial side. Keel is conspicuous and rounded in Avena species (Plate 58
& 59E), while in Koeleria argentia and Phalaris minor, keel is fairly conspicuous. Keel is
not conspicuous in Polypogon species and all the species have solitary median vascular
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bundle in the keel region. Chlorenchyma cells are irregularly arranged in all the species, it
shows the festucoid type of leaf character as described by Gould (1968). Small vascular
bundles are without sclerenchyma strands or girders while sclerenchyma strands and girders
are present opposite to large vascular bundles of basic type. Sclerenchyma girders are not
well developed in these species because of their moist habitat.
According to Ellis (1976) grasses from arid areas have well developed sclerenchyma tissue
while many tropical grasses have high proportion of smaller bundles not accompanied by
sclerenchyma. Mostly bulliform cells are in fan shaped groups or in the form of uniform
regular groups. In Phlaris minor middle cell is longer than remaining cells of the group. In
Polypogon monspeliensis bulliform cells are found both adaxially and abaxially.
In most species studied in this tribe, small vascular bundles seem to have a single bundle
sheath, as inner sheath is not conspicuous, while large varcular bundle are with double and
complete sheath. In Phalaris minor bundle sheaths are double in large and small vascular
bundles, and outer sheath is with girder like extension towards sclerenchyma girder (Plate
61E). Prickles are observed in Agrostis viridis both adaxially and abaxially and in Koeleria
argentia large pointed prickles are present in abaxial surface only (Plate 60F) while not
observed in other species. Cai and Wang (1994) considered that in grasses, prickles and
thickened walls of long cells are adaptations to cold climate. These considerations are
opposite to our findings as it is observed that these species grow only in the moist and shady
soil in spring season, when temperature is not hot but long cells with thin walls are
observed. According to Turpe (1962) and Escalona (1991) variations in epidermal features
such as morophology and distribution of micro papillae, length and distribution pattern of
prickles are correlated with environmental factors, so these characters are not reliable for
taxonomic studies. Other characters such as nature of adaxial and abaxial surface, position
and form of bulliform cells, nature of keel and position of vascular bundles have taxonomic
value.
4.10 Tribe: Bromeae

This tribe belonging to sub Family Pooideae, has two genera Bromus and Boissiera
in the world, mainly found in the northern hemisphere. Both these genera with 18 species
are present in Pakistan (Cope, 1982). The genus Bromus is reported to have about 100
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species in the world, found in the temperate and cool regions of the world (Gould 1968). In
Pakistan 17 species of Bromeae are reported.
In Salt Range this tribe is represented by genus Bromus having two species B.
pectinatus and B. catharticus
4.10.1 Morphology
Both species are annual, found at moist and shady places, ranging in height from
13 – 47 cm long. Bromus pectinatus is taller than B. catharticus, however their height also
depends on the environmental conditions in which these species grow i.e in soil with high
moisture contents, species with maximum height are observed. A few striking differences
are observed in both species. Both species differ from each other in different morphological
characters. In B. pectinatus, upper glume is 7 nerved and lower glume is 3 nerved and lower
floret lemma is with awn, 4 – 11 mm long, emerging just behind the tip. In contrast in B.
catharticus upper glume is 11 nerved and lower glume is 7 nerved and lemma is with an
awn point 0.7 mm long that is strongly keeled and laterally flattened, hence both these
species can be easily identified by studying their morphology (Plate 65 & 66A).
4.10.2 Palynology
The pollen studies show that both species of Bromus differ in quantitative characters
however the qualitative characters are not helpful in identification of species. Pollen are
circular in polar view and spheroidal to prolate spheroidal in equatorial view, and are mono
porate and ectoporte as in most species of grasses. Zahur et al., (1978) and Meo et al.,
(1988) reported that pollen grains in Poaceae are usually monoporate, annulate spheriodal
and psilate, with wall layers about 1m thick. Pollen size in B. catharticus is higher than B.
pectinatus, having polar diameter 44m and equatorial diameter 43m, while in B.
pectinatus polar diameter is 30.4m and equatorial diameter is 29.30m. Pore diameter and
exine thickness are also recorded more in B. catharticus that are 3.64m and 1.25m
respectively, while in B. pectinatus pore diameter is 3m and exine thickness is 1m.
Bromus catharticus has rugulate pollen sculpturing ( Plate 64B ) while verrucate type of
sculpturing with narrowly spaced verrucae is found in Bromus pectinatus ( Plate 65B ). On
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the basis of grain size, pore diameter and exine thickness and sculpturing pattern, these two
species can be distinguished from each other.

In both species, long cells with non sinuous walls are present and in B. pectinatus,
long cells are observed with maximum length of 275 m. Average length of long cells in
both species is 30 – 275 m. Rectangular shaped short cells are present between long cells at
regular intervals (Plate 65C). Burr and Turner (1933) observed elliptical or rectangular short
cells in B. macrostachys. Metcalfe (1960) studied different species of Bromus and found that
long cells are with smooth walls, and short cells are infrequent or absent.
Stomata are large in size (52.5 – 65 m long) in B. pectinatus as compared to B. catharticus
in which stomatal complex is 47.5 – 52.5 m long and stomata are frequent near the leaf
margins as observed by Zarinkamar (2006). Guard cells are dumb bell shaped and subsidiary
cells are low dome shaped or parallel sided (Plate 65 & 66C). It is noted that guard cells are
dumb bell shaped in most grasses. According to Hetherington and Woodward (2003), the
linear dumb bell shaped stomata of grasses are generally believed to represent a more
evolutionary advanced form than their kidney shaped counter parts. Microhairs are absent in
both species that is characteristic of subfamily Pooideae (Prat, 1936, Watson et al., 1985,
Amarasinghe and Watson, 1988). Long machroharis with swollen base are present in both
species and these are found abundant in Bromus pectinatus on the abaxial side, and this
species has longest macrohairs reaching in length to 575 m. Gunzil (1921) and Metcalfe
(1960) observed macrohairs in different species of Bromus. It is indicated that morphology
of hairs is an important feature in Bromus.
Silica bodies do not show variations in form, these are with straight and non sinuous walls in
B. catharticus (Plate 64D) while horizontally elongated silica bodies with non sinuous walls
and rounded ends are present in B. pectinatus (Plate 65D). According to Clayton (1981) and
Prat (1932) silica bodies in sub family Pooideae are simple in from and not diverse.
_______________________________________________________________________

There is difference in both species in adaxial and abaxial side, as adaxial and abaxial
side is with slight ribs and furrows and ribs are slightly wider on the adaxial side in B.
chatharticus while in B. pectinatus adaxial and abaxial surface is smooth. Turner (1933) and
Metcalfe (1960) observed adaxial side in different species of Bromus and found that in some
species slightly rounded ribs and shallow furrows are present and some are with smooth
surface, so this character is not constant and has a limited value taxonomically at the species
and generic level in this tribe. Keel is fairly conspicuous and having a solitary median
vascular bundle (Plate 64F & 65E). Burr and Turner (1933) and Gunzel (1921) studied
different species of Bromeae and found that mid rib is prominent except few species in
which mid rib is not prominent. Chlorenchyma cells are not radially arranged around the
vascular bundles. Large vascular bundles are with well defined sclerenchyma strands and
girders and very small vascular bundles are without sclerenchyma in both species (Plate 64
& 65E). Bulliform cells are observed in uniform regular groups and bundle sheath is double
in both species. In small vascular bundles inner sheath is not conspicuous. In large vascular
bundles, inner sheath is complete and outer sheath is complete or interrupted adaxially and
abaxially (Plate 65E). The studies show the festucoid type of leaf characters which is the
characteristic of temperate grasses
4.11 Tribe Hainardeae

It includes 6 genera in the world. In Pakistan only one genus Parapholis is present.
According to Flora of Pakistan by Nasir and Ali (1970-2002), this genus has only one
species, Parapholis incurva present in Pakistan. In the present studies another species of this
genus Parapholis strigosa is collected from Salt Range of Pakistan, hence it is new report
from Pakistan.
4.11.1 Morphology
The morphological studies of Parapholis strigosa, show that spikelets are arranged
alteranatively on the axis, spikelets are sessile having one floret. One side of the spikelet is
completely embedded in the cavity of the axis and it is the distinguishing character of this
tribe. Glumes are laterally keeled and broad lanceolate, lower glume is thin and pointed and
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closely adhering to axis, while upper glume is hardened, coriacious and 7 nerved (Plate
66A).
Parapholis strigosa is very similar to P. incurva, but according to Hubbard (1968), P.
incurva is usually smaller (2.0 – 20 cm long), and has more rigid shorter curved spikes, and
another character which is used to differentarate these species is the length of anthers. In
Parapholis incurva anthers are very small, ranging in length from 0.5- 1 mm, while in P.
strigosa thay range in length from 1.5 – 4.00 mm.
These characters helped in the identification of species. Parapholis strigosa is
collected from moist and shady places of Kallar Kahar garden, in the Salt Range of Pakistan.
Its height was recorded upto 76 cm while in P. incurva maximum height is 25 cm and
anthers in this spcies are 1.5 – 1.8 mm long while in P.incurva, anthers are very small, 0.5 –
1 mm long. So the plant height, straight spikes and length of anthers are the characters
which justify it as Parapholis strigosa.
4.11.2 Palynology
Previously palynological studies of this genus or tribe are not reported. Pollen are
circular in polar view and equatorial view is sub prolate. Polar diameter is 22.5 – 45 m in
this species and equatorial diameter is 20 – 30 m. Pollen size in this species, range from
small to medium size grains, according to the pollen size classes, suggested by Erdtman
(1952). Pollen are monoporate and ectoporate as in mostly grass species. Pore diameter is
recorded 2.5 – 4.0 m in this species and exine thickness is from 1 – 1.5 m. Parapholis
strigosa shows the scabrate type of sculpturing (Plate 66B).

A very few comparative anatomical studies on Pooideae taxa have been conducted
since 1960 (Connor (1960), Aiken and Lefkovitch (1984), Aiken et al., (1985). Leaf
anatomy might provide information to resolve systematic problems surrounding particular
taxa (Ellis, 1986). Abaxial and adaxial intercostal long cells are observed with thin sinuous
walls, ranging in length from 140 – 225.5 m and 16.5 – 22.25 m wide. Stomatal complex
is 30 – 40.5 m long and subsidiary cells are low dome shaped (Plate 66C & D). In the
costal zone silica bodies are mostly rounded or elliptical in shape, 6.0 – 8.5m long.
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Microhairs and macrohairs are not observed in the species, as according to Prat (1936)
Pooideae has no microhairs. Metcalfe (1960) also studied Parapholis strigosa and same
observations were recorded. Presence of rounded or oblong silica bodies was noted in
Parapholis by Portzal (1953) while in Parapholis strigosa rounded, elliptical or crescent
shaped silica bodies are also observed.
The T.S. studies of leaf of Parapholis strigosa show that adaxial and abaxial surface
is smooth, having no ribs and furrows. On the adaxial side in the mid rib region, pointed
prickles are observed. These observations are different from Metcalfe (1960) who found in
this species rounded to slightly triangular ribs, separated from one another by narrow, deep
and V. shaped furrows. Same observations were made by Pee- Laby (1898) who observed
adaxial ribs and furrows on adaxial side in Parapholis incurva. Keel is fairly conspicuous
and V.shaped in this species (Plate 66E). Large vascular bundles of basic type have 4-5
small vascular bundles on each side. There are variations in presence of sclerenchyma cells,
opposite to different sizes of vascular bundles. Large vascular bundles are with adaxial and
abaxial girders (Plate 66F). Medium vascular bundles are with abaxial strands only and
small vascular bundles are without sclerenchyma strands and girders. Bulliform cells are
arranged adaxially in regular groups. Vascular bundles are with double sheath, inner sheath
is complete, while outer sheath is interrupted adaxially and abaxially by sclerenchyma
girders.This species has festucoid type of leaf characters. In festucoid type leaf,
chlorenchyma cells are irregularly and diffusely arranged. Most of the grasses from
temperate regions have diffusely arranged cells of chlorenchyma having festucoid (Pooid)
Pattern (Metcalf, 1960). It shows non kranz type of leaf anatomy. The grasses with this type
of anatomy follow the C3 photosynthetic pathway (Salisbury and Ross, 1995).
4.12 Tribe Poeae

There are about 45 genera of this tribe, found in the temperate regions of both
hemispheres. There are 18 genera and 82 species in Pakistan. In the Salt Range of Pakistan
tribe Poeae is represented by two genera, Poa and Lolium. Poa has two species, Poa annua
and Poa infirma while Lolium is represented by one species Lolium persicum.
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4.12.1 Morphology
Some genera in this tribe such as Lolium is very much similar to Parapholis in tribe
Hainardeae, but Lolium can be differentiated by the presence of lower glume only in the
terminal of top spikelet, while in all other spikelets lower glume is absent. Lolium persicum
is 35-53 cm long, tufted annual with auriculate leaf blades. One specific character which
differentiates this genus Lolium from other genera of the tribe is the presence of alternate
spikelets with one edge embedded in hollows in the continuous axis and spikelets are
present at a distance of 1.4-2.0 cm with each other (Plate 67A). Lemma is oblong lanceolate
with scabrid awns, arising behind the tip from 5-8 mm long. Palea is tightly attached to the
caryopsis, ranging in length from 3.0-3.5 mm and 0.6 – 0.8 mm wide, pointed at one and
broader on the other side while in Poa, caryopsis is small, 0.8 – 1.4 mm long.
Poa is the largest genus of grasses with some, 500 – 575 species that occur in a wide
range of habitats, throughout the world (Gillespie & Soreng, 2005). This genus is
characterized by having small multi flowered spikelets, 5 nerved and unawned lemma that
are keeled and leaf blades are hooked or boat shaped at the tip. Poa annua is differentarated
from Poa infirma by its longer anthers from 0.5 – 0.8 mm long. In Poa infirma, anthers are
0.3 – 0.5 mm long, a little longer than their width (Plate 68 & 69A).
4.12.2 Palynology:
Pollen are circular in polar view in both Poa species while polar view is circular to
slightly irregular in Lolium persicum. In Poa annua and Lolium persicum equatorial view is
oblate spheroidal and prolate spheroidal in Poa infirma. Maximum polar diameter is
observed in Lolium persicum (30 m) followed by P. annua (27.5 m) and P. infirma (25
m) while equatorial diameter (30 m) is more in P. annua. Meo (1999) observed the polar
diameter in P. annua (24.13 m) and equatorial diameter was 24.88 m. In the present
studies polar diameter and equatorial diameter recorded, in this species is 25.76 m and
26.16m respectively. The studies show that pollen size ranges from small to medium.
Pollen are ectoporate and monoporate in all the species, as found in most of the grasses.
There are no variations in the size of pore, and exine thickness. Pore diameter ranges from
2-3.5 m in all the 3 species while exine thickness is 0.75-1.25 m. All the three species in
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this tribe showed the scabrate type of sculpturing (Plate 67-69B). Quantitative characters
studied in the 3 species of this tribe are not much valuable in their identification and
differentiation from each other, however the pollen size may prove helpful.

In Poa intercostal long cells are cubical in shape and with thin non sinuous outline
(Plate 68 & 69C), however in Lolium persicum long cells with slightly sinuous walls are
observed near the costal zone. Long cells with maximum length are observed in Lolium
persicum ranging in length from 170-350 m (Plate 67D). The end walls are at right angle to
the long axis of the cells. Stomata are not seen on the adaxial side in Lolium persicum,
however 1-2 stomatal rows with non frequent stomata are present between two costal zone
on the abaxial side (Plate 67C & D). Macrohairs and microhairs are absent. The absence of
microhairs is the charactristic feature of subfamily Pooideae (Prat,1936). In genus Poa,
microhairs are absent in both species, while macrohairs are found in Poa infirma, ranging in
length from 99-107.5 m, thus Poa infirma can be distinguished from Poa annua by the
presence of macrohairs. Subsidiary cells are parallel sided or low dome shaped in Poa
species ( Plate 68& 69C ) while Lolium persicum showed parallel sided subsidiary cells
only on the abaxial side ( Plate 67C ). According to Metcalfe (1960) these genera are found
to have parallel or low dome shaped subsidiary cells. Peterson et al., (2006) also studied a
few species of Poa and observed parallel sided subsidiary cells and found that low dome
shaped stomata are infrequent. According to Freire et al., (2005), three characters i.e. shape
of stomata subsidiary cells, microhairs and shape of silica bodies are mainly employed to
distinguish different species of grasses. He studied three species of Lolium and found that no
one had microhairs. Both types of stomata with low dome shaped and parallel sided
subsidiary cells and rounded or elongated silica bodies are observed, as Markgraf-
Dannenberg (1980) pointed out that silica bodies are rounded or elliptical in tribe Poeae. In
the present studies Lolium persicum showed only parallel sided subsidiary cells on the
adaxial side, while absent on the abaxial side and silica bodies are elongated and with
sinuous outline. Lolium persicum can be easily differentiated from Poa species, on the basis
of leaf anatomical characters such as long cells are much longer in Lolium than Poa and
stomata are absent on abaxial side, if present then rare in number. The distribution and
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frequency of stomata is important taxonomic character. Silica bodies with elongated sinuous
walls are present in Lolium, in contrast Poa has elongated silica bodies with straight walls
(Plate 68C). It is observed that Poa can not tolerate the dry and hot conditions, so the
presence of sinuous walls in long cells seems an adaptation by grasses present in the hot and
dry habitat as Fisher (1939) suggested that sinuous walls add rigidity to the leaf and prevent
it from collapse when water is withdrawn. Length of long cells, distribution and size of
stomata and silica bodies and presence or absence of macrohairs are the characters which
can be used to differentiate different genera and tribes in the sub family.

Adaxial surface in Lolium persicum is observed to have tall ribs and deep and wide
furrows while ribs are not tall and furrows are shallow on the abaxial side, while in both
species of Poa slight ribs are present on the adaxial and abaxial side. Burr and Turner (1933)
described the Lolium perenne and found the adaxial surface is with unequal and somewhat
rounded ribs. Chlorenchyma cells are not radially arranged around the vascular bundles
(Plate 68 & 69F). Keel is conspicuous with s single median vascular bundle of basic type in
Lolium persicum (Plate 67E) but keel is not conspicuous in the Poa species. In the Lolium
persicum bulliform cells are in fan shaped groups and shrinked in the leaf material
examined. According to Esau (1977), during excessive water loss, the bulliform cells in
conjunction with or without colourless cells become flaccid and enable the leaf either to fold
or to roll. In Poa species the bulliform cells are in irregular groups and there are generally
two rows of bulliform cells on either side of mid nerve as observed by Peterson et al.,
(2006). Bobrov (1955) studied Poa annua and found that adaxial surface is rib less, keel is
well developed, with sclerenchyma most abundant in the keel, but in present studies adaxial
surface is with slight ribs, keel is not conspicuous and 2 – 5 cells wide thin sclerenchyma
strands are observed adaxially and abaxially in Poa. So these characters may vary even
within the same species. Vascular bundles are with double and complete sheath, the outer
sheath is composed of large cells and inner composed of small cells in Poa but in Lolium
outer sheath is not clear and interrupted abaxially and the inner sheath is complete (Plate
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67E).These species show the festucoid (Pooid) leaf characters as Prat (1936) pointed out that
Poa and Lolium have typical festucoid characters.
4.13 Pollen fertility estimation

The degree of fertility of hybrids may give some indication of the degree of
relationship between its parents. In general hybrids between species of a genus that are not
closely related tend to be sterile or of low fertility, whereas hybrids between taxonomically
more closely related species or intra-specific taxa tend to be more fertile (Khan, 1991). Thus
there is a correlation between hybrid fertility and taxonomic relationship. Pollen fertility is a
valuable tool in taxonomic studies to distinguish putative hybrids from the parent plants and
is also useful to determine the degree of fertility in those plants that are grown under
unfavourable conditions (Lawrence, 1951).
In grasses studied from Salt Range maximum pollen fertility was recorded in Bromus
catharticus (97.78%) followed by Dactyloctinium scindicum and Sorghum halepense having
pollen fertility 96.36 % and 95.59 % respectively. Minimum pollen fertility (53.84 %) is
found in Chloris barbata .The maximum average pollen fertility (94.94 %) is found in tribe
Bromeae followed by tribe Hainardeae (93.66 %), while tribe Chlorideae showed minimum
pollen fertility (77.37 %) (Table1). The genetic variations of a flora can be observed by
studying their pollen fertility (Tellaria, 1991). It is a helpful tool to assess the stability of
species in a particular area.
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CONCLUSION
It is concluded from the present studies that morphological and anatomical studies are
helpful in the identification and classification of the species at the generic and tribe level.
The qualitative characters in pollen and sculpturing patterns are not much helpful as mostly
pollen in grasses are circular in polar view and spheroidal in equatorial view and are psilate ,
however the quantitative characters seem valuable in grass systematics .
Morphology
The studies regarding morphology revealed that different micromorphological
characters are helpful in identification of species, as in tribe Arundineae ,two species Arundo
donax and Pharagmites karka look similar morphologically but these species can be
differentiated on the basis of ligule as it is lacerate membranous in A. donax and a fringe of
hairs in P. karka. In all the genera of tribe chlorideae, glumes are one nerved, the upper
glume is longer than lower glume. In most of the species of tribe Eragrostideae, spikelets are
laterally compressed. A few characters that are common in all the species of the tribe, is the
presence of laterally compressed spikelets, keeled upper and lower glume , 3 nerved lemma
and rugose caryopsis, and most species have secund spikes. The shape and size of caryopsis
is helpful in the identification of different genera. Tribe Paniceae is best recognized by the
upper lemma enclasping its lemma and palea.
In all the species of tribe Andropogoneae except 3 species, i.e Saccharum spontaneum,
Vetiveria zizanoides and Imperata cylendrica, the upper lemma is with an awn. A short awn
point ranging in length from 0.6- 0.8 mm is observed in S. bengalense, and awn with
maximum length is present in Cymbopogon serrulatus. So the presence of awn on the upper
lemma in most of the species is characteristic feature of this tribe. Tetrapogon cenchriformis
of tribe Chlorideae and Parapholis strigosa of tribe Hainardeae that are new reports from
Pakistan are also identified on the basis of morphological characters. It is indicated that
species in each tribe can be identified by their specific morphological characters.
_______________________________________________________________________
Palynology
Palynological studies showed that pollen in all tribes are psilate, scabrate, rugulate
and verrucate and are circular to spheroidal in polar view. At the specific and generic level
qualitative characters overlap with each other, however differences are observed in
quantitative characters at the species, generic and tribe level. Maximum polar and equatorial
diameter is observed in tribe Bromeae, followed by tribe Andropogoneae, while minimum
polar and equatorial diameter are observed in tribe Zoysieae and Aristideae respectively.
Pore diameter is also maximum in Bromeae followed by Poeae and Hainardeae.Tribe
Eragrostideae showed maximum exine thickness followed by Andropogoneae, while
minimum exine thickness was observed in Chlorideae. Pollen fertility ranged between 77.37
% to 94.94 %. Maximum pollen fertility is observed in Bromeae.
The SEM of pollen showed three types of patterns of sculpturing that are scabrate,
rugulate and verrucate and the sculpturing pattrn differ within the same genus and same
tribe and hence not useful at specific, generic and tribe classification of grasses.
Anatomical studies
Anatomical studies revealed that tribe Arundineae and all the tribes in sub family
Pooideae show festucoid type of leaf charactes, subfamily chloridoideae has chloridoid type
of leaf and tribe Andropogoneae and Paniceae have panicoid type of leaf. The characteristic
feature of the tribe Chlorideae and Eragrostideae is the presence of microhairs with
hemispherical distal cell. Shape of microhairs is beleived to be more constant and
taxonomically useful, however the shape of silica bodies is not always correlated with
systematic grouping. Another character that is observed in most species of the tribes of sub
family Chloridoideae is the separation of vascular bundles by colourless and bulliform cells
and making girder to abaxial side, and middle cell is larger and deeply penetrates the
mesophyll, that is the character of chloridoid type of leaf.
Tribe Andropogoneae and Paniceae show the panicoid type of leaf characters. In
these tribes bicellular microhairs have thin walled distal cell and sometimes it appears, that
microhair is unicellular and basal cell is blunt at the end, as the distal cell due to its thin wall
_______________________________________________________________________
is not easily magnified or collapses. In tribe Andropogoneae bicelled microhairs of Panicoid

type are present in all the species except Eulaliopsis binata in which microhairs are found
absent. A diversity of silica bodies is observed in these tribes. Bulliform cells are in fan
shaped groups or in irregular groups in most of the species of the tribe. Mostly bulliform
cells are found adaxially.Variations are observed in the position of bulliform cells that are
valuable taxonomically. Bulliform cells may be found adaxially and abaxially, on the
adaxial side only, at the mid rib region or at the margins.
In all the tribes of Pooideae mostly long cells are longer and with non sinuous walls.
Long cells with maximum length (250 – 625 m) are found in Avena fatua. As these species
mostly grow in moist and shady places and length of long cells is adaptation to humid and
shady situations, confirming the observations of Stace (1965). Silica bodies with simple
shape, absence of microhairs and parallel sided subsidiary cells are generally found in all the
tribes of subfamily Pooideae, and exhibit the festucoid (Pooid) leaf characters. Shape of
distal cell in microhairs and shape and position of bulliform cells are of diagnostic value in
the identification of grasses.
It is concluded that morphology along with palynology, and anatomical charactes

play a vital role in identification of grasses and their classification at the species, generic and
tribe level. It is suggested that molecular systematics can also be used as an alternative
approach for identification of grasses in future.
Future Recommendations
 Local people of the area must be provided awareness about floral biodiversity
and conservation.
 Measures should be taken to conserve rare species such as Vitiveria zizanoides
that is near extinction in Salt Range.
 Elemental studies of grasses to assess their nutritional value.
 Molecular studies as an alternative approach in grass systematics.
_______________________________________________________________________
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TAXONOMIC STUDIES OF GRASSES OF SALT

Department of Plant Sciences

A Thesis Submitted to the Quaid-i-Azam University in Partial

Department of Plant Sciences

The Most Merciful

The Most Beneficent

For those who believe in

Allah, no argument is necessary and

For those who do not believe in Allah

This thesis, submitted by Mr. Farooq Ahmad, is accepted in its present

(Prof. Dr. Mir Ajab Khan)

(Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad)

EXTERNAL EXAMINAR-1 ____________________________

EXTERNAL EXAMINAR-2 ____________________________

(Department of Plant Sciences)

CHAPTER: 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Collection and preservation of grasses 23

CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES 341

I am greatly indebted to my co-supervisor Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad, Assistant

Sincere thanks are extended to Muhammad Zafar, Herbarium Botanist,

Morphological markers are helpful in the identification, differentiation and

1.1 Geography and location of Salt Range

1.2 Geo Climate

Average minimum temperature is 1Co (January) and average maximum temp is

1.2.5 Water Resources

1.3 Plant Resources of Salt Range

Plate 1: (a) Panorama of Scrub vegetation in Salt Range

(b) A view of Grasses near Kalar Kahar Lake

1.3.4 Grasses of Salt Range

Plate2: (a) Author collecting grasses from the area

Plate2 : (b) A view of grasses

Other important grass species are Dactylocteniun scindicum, Dactyloctenium

1.4 World wide overview of Grasses

1.5 Historical background and previous work on grasses in the World

In the classification system of Bentham (1881), 13 grass tribes were grouped in

There are striking differences between grasses of Festucoideae and those of

In first edition of Species Plantarium (1753) by Linnaeus, he listed 40 grass genera,

In 1881 Bentham grouped 13 tribes of grasses in two subfamilies. Tribe Paniceae,

Brown (1958) suggested four additional types (Bambusiod, Arundinoid, Aristidoid

Grasses of Festucoideae and those of Panicoideae have numerous differences

Metcalfe (1960) published a comprehensive work on the anatomy of family

Lazarides et al., (1991) described and illustrated a new monotypic genus

Saini et al., (2007) conducted experiment on four genotypes of Cenchrus ciliaris,

Lu et al., (2003) observed the phytolith (Microscopic silica bodies) of 32 grass

A comprehensive study of leaf anatomy of Aniselytron Merr. And Calamagrestics

Kharazian (2006) evaluated leaf anatomical characters of 26 accessions of the

Leaf epidermal studies of Cymbopogon citratus and Cymbopogon giganteus were

1.6 Work on Grasses in Pakistan

Cytomorphological and palynological studies of 17 different species of grasses

Different accessions of Cenchrus ciliaris L. were collected from different habitats

1.7 Work on Grasses in Salt Range

1.8 Background and Justification of the present Project

Taking this problem in consideration a comprehensive study of grasses of Salt

Grasses of Salt Range growing in different habitat have undergone different

2.1 Collection and Preservation of Grasses

2.2 Morphological Studies

2.2.1 Vegetative Characters

a) Habit: Annual or perennial, erect, prostrate or decumbent.

2.2.2 Reproductive Characters

a) Inflorescence: Length and shape of Panicle, raceme or spike (open, contracted,

2.3 Palynological Studies

2.3.1 Method of pollen study by light microscopy

2.3.2 Formation of Glycerin Jelly