Article

Cite This: J. Chem. Educ. 2020, 97, 112−117 pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc

Applications of 3D-Printing for Improving Chemistry Education

Cody W. Pinger,*,† Morgan K. Geiger,†,§ and Dana M. Spence†,‡
†
Institute for Quantitative Health Science & Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
‡
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
§
Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States

ABSTRACT: Wide accessibility and a broad range of applications have made 3D-printers
a commonplace tool in the science community. From tier-one research institutions to
community public libraries and high schools, 3D-printers are being used to enrich STEM
See https://pubs.acs.org/sharingguidelines for options on how to legitimately share published articles.

education through a variety of learning techniques and experiences. Reports of 3D-printed

Downloaded via UNIV AUSTRAL DE CHILE on January 26, 2020 at 21:50:50 (UTC).

models for improved visualization of chemical phenomena, as well as the educational use
of 3D-printed laboratory devices, are rapidly increasing. The objective of this review is to
provide a resource for educators interested in incorporating 3D-printing into their
chemistry classrooms by evaluating recent peer-reviewed reports that used this technology
to enhance chemistry education.

KEYWORDS: Laboratory Equipment / Apparatus, Materials Science, High School / Introductory Chemistry, Analogies / Transfer,
Hands-On Learning / Manipulatives, Undergraduate Research, Analytical Chemistry, Biochemistry

■ INTRODUCTION
The field of three-dimensional (3D) printing can be traced to
the late 1980s, when it was first introduced by Charles Hull in
a patent for an apparatus to create 3D objects by successively
“printing” layers of photopolymers on top of each other, a
technique known as stereolithography.1 Hull would later use
this technology to create the first 3D-printer available to the
general public, the SLA-250.2 Since its conception, 3D-printing
technology has improved to fit the needs of scientists,
engineers, and more recently, the general public.3 3D-printing
is maturing in capabilities and accessibility, as evident from its
widespread reported use in scientific literature to common
availability in public libraries.4 In fact, a 2015 report claimed
that 428 public library branches in the United States have 3D-
printers available for public use, up from 250 branches in the
previous year.5 This review will examine the increased use of
3D-printers in chemical education. The data in Figure 1, which Figure 1. Total citations that were generated per year for publications
is a summary of article citations generated per year focused on using 3D-printing to enhance chemistry education, through April 1st,
3D-printing in chemistry education since 2012, provides 2019. The data for the graph was retrieved by searching all literature
evidence of the increasing trend in popularity of using 3D- databases on Web of Science for peer-reviewed articles with the
printing as a tool for teaching chemistry. keywords of 3D-printing and education, and refining the search to the
To utilize a 3D-printer, the user must first create a topics of chemistry, biochemistry and molecular biology, or
computer-aided design (CAD) file of the object they want to electrochemistry.
print. This can be accomplished in a variety of commonly
available CAD software programs, such as AutoDesk, select .STL format. The .STL file describes the surface of the
TinkerCad, AutoCAD, SolidWorks, Blender, 3D Slash, and 3D-object via triangulated coordinates in a three-dimensional
more. Figure 2 shows an example of a simple CAD model of a Cartesian coordinate system, an example of which is shown in
sphere.3 Once finished, the drawing can be converted to a
printable file type, such as a .STL (STeroLithography, or Received: June 24, 2019
Standard Triangle Language) file. To perform this operation in Revised: August 27, 2019
AutoDesk, under File select Export, then CAD format, and Published: November 18, 2019
© 2019 American Chemical Society and
Division of Chemical Education, Inc. 112 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00588
J. Chem. Educ. 2020, 97, 112−117
Journal of Chemical Education
Figure 2. Information in an .STL file. The spherical object, left, was created in a CAD program and saved as an .STL file. The information displayed
in the .STL file is shown for the same object on the right. The zoomed-in view shows the triangulated surface of the object. Each triangle vertex is
stored as a special coordinate for the object in the .STL file. These are the coordinates that are transmitted to the printer for fabrication. Reprinted
with permission from ref 3. Copyright 2014 American Chemical Society.
Figure 2. The .STL is the gold-standard file type used to
communicate data between CAD software and 3D-printers,
although VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) files are
also now common for printing models with color information.
The file can then be submitted to the 3D-printer, which will
interpret the file and begin building the object. Chemical
education researchers have now published a variety of methods
for converting computer models of such complex three-
dimensional chemical structures as organic molecules and
proteins into printable file formats.6−8
There are many different types of 3D-printers, although the
most commonly available types are fused deposition modeling
(FDM), stereolithography (SLA), and Polyjet. FDM printers,
often referred to as “extruders,” are the type most often found
in libraries and used by the general public. These printers are
the least expensive, with some versions starting at just above
$100 (USD). Figure 3 contains a diagram of how an FDM
Figure 3. Graphical representation of a FDM (fused deposition
modeling) printer. A plastic filament is guided through a temperature
controlled nozzle, which slightly melts the material so it can be
deposited onto the stage in a controlled manner and subsequently
cooled to solidify. The stage can then lower, allowing a layer of plastic
to be printed on top of the previous layer. This process is repeated to
build the object layer-by-layer. Reprinted with permission from ref 3.
Copyright 2014 American Chemical Society.
113
Article
printer operates.3 Briefly, an extruder uses rollers to push a
long strand of filament through a heated nozzle that melts the
filament slightly and positions it according to the information
in the .STL file. The filament is made of a thermoplastic that
melts into a molten-liquid state when reaching a certain “glass
transition” temperature in the heated nozzle, and then rapidly
cools and solidifies on the build-stage to a temperature just
below the glass-transition temperature. The extruder nozzle
moves around the build-stage to print a layer, then the stage is
lowered, and another layer is printed. In this way, the object
from the file is built layer-by-layer, from the bottom up. More
complex FDM printers, such as the Prusia i3Multi-Material 2.0,
are capable of incorporating several different filaments within a
single print. This technology enables the user to create objects
with multiple colors or material-properties, which can be
applied to the chemical education platform by color coding the
area of interest to help students identify specific amino acids
on 3D-printed proteins or functional groups on molecules.9
■ TANGIBLE VISUAL AIDS FOR TACTILE LEARNING
The use of tangible 3D models for teaching tools is a
historically accepted approach to improve comprehension for a
variety of chemical concepts that are difficult to understand, or
perhaps abstract to the student.10−12 In many situations,
educators have noticed that student comprehension is
dependent upon their ability to visualize spatial relationships
in various structures and models.13,14 Traditional ball-and-stick
molecular model kits are now commonplace in the organic
chemistry classroom because they facilitate understanding
features such as bond angles, connectivity, and molecular shape
that are not intuitive from classical 2D Fisher projections.15 In
both introductory and upper-level undergraduate chemistry
classes, students are required to comprehend spatial relation-
ships between and within molecules.16,17 For this reason,
researchers have shown that tangible 3D models are powerful
tools for practicing visuospatial reasoning, as evident by
improved scores on pre- and post- comprehension examina-
tions.18−20
3D-printing has improved classroom approaches to tactile
learning by making 3D models available to a variety of
curriculum topics that were not previously using them. Rapid
prototyping has enabled educators to make tangible models of
objects that were previously too complex to construct. For
example, in an upper-division biochemistry laboratory,
students created their own 3D-printed leucine-zipper protein
domains to study the structure−function relationship of the
molecule.9 Students used Protein DataBank (PDB) files,
PyMol (molecular graphics software), and MeshLabs (a 3D
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00588
J. Chem. Educ. 2020, 97, 112−117
Journal of Chemical Education
mesh processing program) to convert PDB files of 7 specific
protein structures into printable .VRML files that were
subsequently printed using a MakerBot Replicator 2X FDM-
style printer. The models showed the solvent-accessible
surfaces of the proteins and allowed the students to visualize
the noncovalent interactions between amino acids that guide
protein-folding and protein−protein interactions. Facilitating
student understanding of the protein−protein interactions was
the ability to fit two different protein structures together and
observe different amino acid interactions. Importantly, differ-
ent amino acids were color-coded based on their charge. The
exercise successfully increased student understanding of
protein structure, protein-folding, and noncovalent interac-
tions, as assessed by pre- and postlab surveys.9
Several other publications have highlighted the benefits of
3D-printing in the undergraduate biochemistry classroom.
New software, such as MolPrint3D, has been developed to turn
complex molecular structures into 3D-printed models for
tactile learning.8 Using this software, researchers created
models of biomacromolecules, such as DNA and RNA, and
different isomers of complex organic molecules for as little as
$0.22 (USD) per model.8 Other software packages, such as
PyMol or UCSF Chimera, have been used to create 3D-
representations of biomacromolecules and export them as
either .STL or .VRML files.6,21 These files need to be “fixed”
for 3D-printing by a secondary software, such as Magics,
Netfabb, Blender (a free and open source), or the online
service Make Printable, which unifies parts and corrects any
defects in the file prior to printing. The files will not be
printable without first performing this crucial step. Biochem-
istry instructors have used these techniques to model enzyme−
substrate relationships and successfully report increased
student knowledge integration.16,17
Creating ball-and-stick molecular models for classroom
learning has been a popular use of 3D-printing.18 Several
work-flows have been published for educators to incorporate
this application into their classes. These models are helpful
tools for teaching VSEPR theory, point-group symmetry,
visualizing hydrogenic orbitals, and displaying strained and
unstrained pi bonds.22 Figure 4 shows a molecular model of
H2O that was downloaded from the National Institutes of
Health (NIH) 3D-Print Exchange, an online database where
public users can freely upload and download printable files.
Feducia et al. incorporated a “student guided” 3D-printing
Figure 4. A virtual model of a water molecule that can be downloaded
free-of-charge from the NIH file exchange (open-source) for printing.
114
Article
activity into a large organic chemistry class where students
printed their own molecules.23 The students worked in groups
and were instructed to choose a molecule of interest to them,
convert it to a digital 3D-computer model, and print it. The
students chose what to print and how to print it, thus creating
a platform for constructivist teaching, as educators are
encouraging students to teach themselves how to use the
technology. In an end-of-semester survey, first-semester
organic chemistry students overwhelmingly agreed that the
activity increased their engagement in the course (91 out of 99
students).
■ NONCONVENTIONAL VISUAL AIDS
3D-printing as a pedagogical tool for tactile-learning has been
incorporated into a wide variety of chemistry topics. A recent
example is the printing of 3D topographic periodic tables to
display periodic trends.24 The models were used to display
conventional trends, such as atomic radius and electro-
negativity, as well as nonconventional trends, such as
abundance in the human body and stable-isotope abundance.
Student surveys reported that the 3D models helped facilitate
the learning of the material. A creative and innovative approach
to teaching the principles of a diffraction grating in an
analytical chemistry course was performed using 3D-printed
models.25 The educators printed tangible models of sinusoidal
waves in full color to demonstrate the dispersion of light, in all
directions, by diffraction. After utilizing these conceptual
models, the educators performed a demonstration using a CD/
DVD as a diffraction grating. The disc was placed in a 3D-
printed holder and multiple laser pointers of different colors
were directed on it at different angles to demonstrate
diffraction and interference-based wavelength selection. The
use of 3D-printing helped students to visualize a phenomenon
that is typically difficult to comprehend.
Transition-state theory is an important topic of chemical
kinetics that is often covered in introductory chemistry
courses, as well as upper level physical chemistry courses,
and is conveyed by potential energy diagrams. The potential
energy diagrams are useful to students because they provide a
graphical representation of the potential energy in atomic
interactions as a function of reaction coordinate. However, the
term “reaction coordinate” can be difficult to properly
understand from two-dimensional representations, as it refers
to the distance or distances between atoms in a reaction along
the path of lowest energy.26 In 1957, a 3D potential energy
diagram was successfully fabricated from plywood, steel “shim-
stocks”, and molding clay.26 Balls were rolled upon the “path of
lowest energy” on the model to represent the interaction
between hydrogen and bromine, and reaction details were
illustrated such as the interconversion between translational
and vibrational energies, the path of lowest energy, and the
activated complex. Though effective, the fabrication process of
the plywood model may be overwhelming for some educators
and act as a barrier to implementing this pedagogical tool into
their classroom. In 2014, researchers thoroughly described how
to create 3D-printed potential energy diagrams for a variety of
diatomic systems.27−30 The ability to rapidly manufacture
these models enables students to create and compare several
models of different diatomic systems. The authors report that
the models, when complemented with textbook drawings and
computer generated images, help provide students with an
increased comprehension of structure-energy relationships.27
In a similar application, researchers created 3D-printed models
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00588
J. Chem. Educ. 2020, 97, 112−117
Journal of Chemical Education
Figure 5. A 3D-printed device for performing equilibrium dialysis measurements. The photograph on the left shows the device fitting directly into a
commercial plate-reader for automated spectroscopy measurements. The schematic on the right shows the principle of equilibrium-dialysis, where a
size-exclusion membrane is used to separate proteins from unbound ligands so that they can be quantified separately. Using this technique, binding
constants between ligands and proteins can be measured in a time frame that is amenable to lab-periods. Reprinted with permission from ref 39.
Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society and the ACS Division of Chemical Education.
of reaction progress surfaces generated from spectroscopy data
(IR, HPLC-UV−vis, and NMR data).31 The lab activity
provides a tactile pedagogical platform for concepts of
chemical kinetics that are typically conveyed through two-
dimensional images.31
■
PRINTED LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
3D-printers are now widely used in the chemistry laboratory,
both at the high school level and at research-intensive
institutions.3 The rapid manufacturing of custom laboratory
devices and equipment with a 3D-printer provides the user
with a platform to solve problems that were previously either
not possible, or required a highly skilled technician such as a
glass blower or a machinist.32 Recently, separate groups have
reported methods for fabrication of colorimeters and
fluorometers for spectroscopy experiments.33,34 The authors
suggest that allowing students to build and create the
instruments themselves (with LED sources, circuit compo-
nents, simple phototransistors, and 3D-printed apparatuses)
helps them to avoid the “black box” perception of analytical
instrumentation. Calcabrini et al. reported having second-year
undergraduate students assemble a 3D-printed spectropho-
tometer to study the diffusion of analytes through gels.35 The
custom built spectrophotometer was used to measure
scattering intensity and absorbance profiles, which could later
be analyzed to study Fickian and non-Fickian diffusion
behavior of ionic dyes in gels. Having the students assemble
the spectrophotometer to perform measurements provided
them with the opportunity to work through problems in a
holistic manner.
Recently, a 3D-printed smart phone spectrophotometer was
utilized to teach students about absorbance spectroscopy.36
This device included a 3D-printed housing unit around a 3D-
printed removable slit, cuvette holder, mirror, and diffraction
grating. The smart phone was also positioned within the
housing unit and could easily be changed in the 3D CAD
software to accompany other phone types. The removable slit
enabled students to visualize the effect of slit width on
resolution and signal-to-noise ratios. By printing several slit
widths, the students can obtain spectral data and determine the
full-width at half-maximum (fwhm) for each peak to compare
resolution. Students can experiment with a variety of light
source types and visualize the resulting light spectra on their
smart phone, which can subsequently be quantitatively
analyzed with ImageJ software to plot intensity versus pixel
position and converted into wavelength. In addition, the
authors demonstrated that the device has the requisite
sensitivity to detect different absorbances corresponding to
varying concentrations of a cherry flavored drink powder. This
115
Article
method provides students with a visualized representation of
the Beer−Lambert Law.
Similarly, instructions were reported for converting a
conventional light microscope into an epifluorescence micro-
scope with 3D-printed parts for use in biochemistry lab
courses.37 A 3D-printed temperature-controlled sample-hold-
ing apparatus was introduced into a physical chemistry
laboratory for studying transient absorption spectroscopy.38
These recent examples, along with several others not
mentioned here, show the increasing interest in utilizing 3D-
printing for facilitating instruction of spectroscopy in the lab.
A 3D-printed device was designed for teaching protein−
ligand binding relationships.39 The device enabled equilibrium-
dialysis experiments, which typically take 6−8 hours, to be
completed during a single 1-hour lab period.40 The authors
provide instructions for designing and fabricating a device in
the first lab period, and then use the device to measure a
binding constant between a physiologically relevant protein
and small binding molecule in the following lab period. The
device, shown in Figure 5, can be placed into a standard plate
reader for direct measurements via fluorescence spectroscopy.
Instructions for calculating a binding constant from the
equilibrium dialysis data were included, as well as sample
prelab questions. Allowing students to design and fabricate
fluidic devices for the use of performing physiologically
relevant measurements provides a valuable educational
experience, as aspects of engineering, automation, analytical
chemistry, and biochemistry are combined to teach students to
think about problems in a holistic manner.
In addition to optical methods, 3D-printing has also proven
useful in teaching students various principles of electro-
chemistry. Although Ag/AgCl reference electrodes are
common in an electrochemical experiment, budget restrictions
may limit their use in the teaching laboratory due to costs
(commercial electrodes range from $60 to $100 CAD). A 3D-
printed reference electrode was fabricated by FDM printing of
the outer casing and lid, adding an agar plug, and then filling
the device with 3 M KCl and adding a Ag wire coated with
AgCl.41 The “in-house” manufactured device is shown in
Figure 6. Students designed the device with TinkerCad, a free
online program that is relatively simple for beginners. This
device costs approximately $5 (CAD) and allows students to
understand the fabrication of the electrode, as well as needed
modifications. Another benefit to the manufactured electrode
is the ease by which it could be repaired; simple modifications
could be performed to mend the device, as opposed to
commercial electrodes that are often in sealed components
making modifications more difficult.
Chemical engineering education may also benefit from the
use of 3D-printing. The technology allows users the freedom to
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00588
J. Chem. Educ. 2020, 97, 112−117
Journal of Chemical Education
Figure 6. A photograph and schematic diagram of an “in-house
manufactured” Ag/AgCl reference electrode with 3D-printed
components. Reprinted with permission from ref 41. Copyright
2018 American Chemical Society and the ACS Division of Chemical
Education.
design fluidic devices for a variety of useful laboratory
applications. As fluidic devices and flow chemistry are
important aspects of academia and industry research, students
should be trained in working on these problems. A recent
publication suggests having students print large microfluidic
reactors to study fluid dynamics and chemical kinetics.42 Lab-
on-a-chip studies have previously been incorporated into high
school curriculums using traditional microfluidic device
fabrication approaches.43 However, the authors do not
recommend letting the students fabricate the devices
themselves, as the PDMS casting procedure is time-consuming
and contains many safety precautions. For undergraduate
education, 3D-printing technology has great advantages over
prior techniques for microfluidic device fabrication, including
ease of use, short fabrication time, high cost efficiency, no
harmful reagents (i.e., piranha solution) and high reproduci-
bility of devices.42
3D-printing also enabled the fabrication of a convertible
two/four-point probe station for increasing student under-
standing of electrical conductivity in material science.44 The
device is attached to a microcontroller board, stepper motor,
and driver that enables measurements to be made automati-
cally and reproducibly. The probe head drops needles into four
grooves with conductive foils inside that are connected to test
lead wires. After the needles come in contact with the sample,
the needles are secured between the electrical contact and a
compressible rubber sheet, and an electrical signal is applied.
The probe station can be assembled within 4 h for less than
$100 (USD), and multiple measurements can be made within
15 min. The two-point design demonstrates the difference for
ohmic and nonohmic materials as well as varying levels of
resistivity by monitoring the current as the students change the
potential across the two electrodes. The four-point probe is
advantageous by allowing students to measure the voltage drop
with the other two electrodes to reduce effects from contact
resistance in the two-point design. Not only does assembling
the probe station provide students with a better understanding
116
Article
of how the measurement is made, but it also gives them an
opportunity to build team-building skills during this group
project.44
■ CONCLUSION
3D-printing has recently been incorporated into chemistry
curricula for a wide variety of applications. Educators are
finding creative and useful ways to incorporate tactile learning
and new visual aids into their curriculum in ways that were not
previously possible without 3D-printers. Additionally, educa-
tors are able to use printers to fabricate custom tools and
equipment for bettering laboratory courses. As the cost of
printers continues to decrease, their availability to educators
will improve, allowing educators to continue to find novel ways
of incorporating 3D-printing into their courses. However, a
critique of the current literature is that very little has been
reported on whether 3D-printing has actually improved the
comprehension of certain topics. Researchers should focus on
collecting data from quizzes and test scores and using statistics
to prove whether using 3D-printing in the classroom is truly
beneficial to enhancing chemistry education. Still in its infancy,
the technology is widely accepted to be useful for teaching a
variety of chemical topics.
■
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail: pingerco@msu.edu.
ORCID
Cody W. Pinger: 0000-0003-0636-828X
Dana M. Spence: 0000-0002-4754-6671
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
■
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Financial support for this project is from the National
Institutes of Health (RO1 DK110665 and R01 NS105888).
■ REFERENCES
(1) Hull, C. Apparatus for Production of Three-Dimensional
Objects by Stereolithography. US Patent 1986, US4,575,330.
(2) SPIE-Professional Chuck Hull: Pioneer in Stereolithography.
http://spie.org/x91418.xml (accessed March, 2019).
(3) Gross, B. C.; Erkal, J. L.; Lockwood, S. Y.; Chen, C.; Spence, D.
M. Evaluation of 3D printing and Its Potential Impact on
Biotechnology and the Chemical Sciences. Anal. Chem. 2014, 86,
3240−3253.
(4) Bharti, N.; Singh, S. Three-Dimensional (3D) Printers in
Libraries: Perspective and Preliminary Safety Analysis. J. Chem. Educ.
2017, 94 (7), 879−885.
(5) Wapner, C. Toward a More Printed Union; American Library
Association, 2015.
(6) Van Wieren, K.; Tailor, H. N.; Scalfani, V. F.; Merbouh, N.
Rapid Access to Multicolor Three-Dimensional Printed Chemistry
and Biochemistry Models Using Visualization and Three-Dimensional
Printing Software Programs. J. Chem. Educ. 2017, 94 (7), 964−969.
(7) Scalfani, V. F.; Vaid, T. P. 3D Printed Molecules and Extended
Solid Models for Teaching Symmetry and Point Groups. J. Chem.
Educ. 2014, 91 (8), 1174−1180.
(8) Paukstelis, P. J. MolPrint3D: Enhanced 3D Printing of Ball-and-
Stick Molecular Models. J. Chem. Educ. 2018, 95 (1), 169−172.
(9) Meyer, S. C. 3D Printing of Protein Models in an Undergraduate
Laboratory: Leucine Zippers. J. Chem. Educ. 2015, 92 (12), 2120−
2125.
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00588
J. Chem. Educ. 2020, 97, 112−117
Journal of Chemical Education
(10) Hauser, E. A. A Simple Method of Building Close-Packed
Molecular and Crystal Models. J. Chem. Educ. 1941, 18 (4), 164.
(11) Stone, A. H.; Siegelman, I. An Atomic and Molecular Orbital
Models Kit. J. Chem. Educ. 1964, 41 (7), 395.
(12) Halkides, C. J. Using Molecular Models To Show Steric Clash
in Peptides: An Illustration of Two Disallowed Regions in the
Ramachandran Diagram. J. Chem. Educ. 2013, 90 (6), 760−762.
(13) Carlisle, D.; Tyson, J.; Nieswandt, M. Fostering Spatial Skill
Acquisition by General Chemistry Students. Chem. Educ. Res. Pract.
2015, 16 (3), 478−517.
(14) Wu, H. K.; Shah, P. Exploring Visuospatial Thinking in
Chemistry Learning. Sci. Educ. 2004, 88 (3), 465−492.
(15) Al-Balushi, S. M.; Al-Hajri, S. H. Associating Animations with
Concrete Models to Enhance Students’ Comprehension of Different
Visual Representations in Organic Chemistry. Chem. Educ. Res. Pract.
2014, 15 (1), 47−58.
(16) Babilonia-Rosa, M. A.; Kuo, H. K.; Oliver-Hoyo, M. T. Using
3D Printed Physical Models to Monitor Knowledge Integration in
Biochemistry. Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. 2018, 19 (4), 1199−1215.
(17) Herman, T.; Morris, J.; Colton, S.; Batiza, A.; Patrick, M.;
Franzen, M.; Goodsell, D. S. Tactile Reaching: Exploring Protein
Structure/Function Using Physical Models. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Educ.
2006, 34 (4), 247−254.
(18) Penny, M. R.; Cao, Z. J.; Patel, B.; Sil dos Santos, B.; Asquith,
C. R. M.; Szulc, B. R.; Rao, Z. X.; Muwaffak, Z.; Malkinson, J. P.;
Hilton, S. T. Three-Dimensional Printing of a Scalable Molecular
Model and Orbital Kit for Organic Chemistry Teaching and Learning.
J. Chem. Educ. 2017, 94 (9), 1265−1271.
(19) Bain, G. A.; Yi, J.; Beikmohamadi, M.; Herman, T. M.; Patrick,
M. A. Using Physical Models of Biomolecular Structures To Teach
Concepts of Biochemical Structure and Structure Depiction in the
Introductory Chemistry Laboratory. J. Chem. Educ. 2006, 83 (9),
1322.
(20) Mohamed-Salah, B.; Alain, D. To What Degree Does Handling
Concrete Molecular Models Promote the Ability to Translate and
Coordinate Between 2D and 3D Molecular Structure Representa-
tions? A Case Study with Algerian Students. Chem. Educ. Res. Pract.
2016, 17, 862.
(21) Rossi, S.; Benaglia, M.; Brenna, D.; Porta, R.; Orlandi, M.
Three Dimensional (3D) Printing: A Straightforward, User-Friendly
Protocol To Convert Virtual Chemical Models to Real-Life Objects. J.
Chem. Educ. 2015, 92 (8), 1398−1401.
(22) Dean, N. L.; Ewan, C.; McIndoe, J. S. Applying Hand-Held 3D
Printing Technology to the Teaching of VSEPR Theory. J. Chem.
Educ. 2016, 93 (9), 1660−1662.
(23) Fourches, D.; Feducia, J. Student-Guided Three-Dimensional
Printing Activity in Large Lecture Courses: A Practical Guideline. J.
Chem. Educ. 2019, 96 (2), 291−295.
(24) LeSuer, R. J. Incorporating Tactile Learning into Periodic
Trend Analysis Using Three-Dimensional Printing. J. Chem. Educ.
2019, 96 (2), 285−290.
(25) Piunno, P. A. E. Teaching the Operating Principles of a
Diffraction Grating Using a 3D-Printable Demonstration Kit. J. Chem.
Educ. 2017, 94 (5), 615−620.
(26) Dye, J. L. Model of a potential energy surface. J. Chem. Educ.
1957, 34 (5), 215.
(27) Blauch, D. N.; Carroll, F. A. 3D Printers Can Provide an Added
Dimension for Teaching Structure−Energy Relationships. J. Chem.
Educ. 2014, 91 (8), 1254−1256.
(28) Kaliakin, D. S.; Zaari, R. R.; Varganov, S. A. 3D Printed
Potential and Free Energy Surfaces for Teaching Fundamental
Concepts in Physical Chemistry. J. Chem. Educ. 2015, 92 (12),
2106−2112.
(29) Lolur, P.; Dawes, R. 3D Printing of Molecular Potential Energy
Surface Models. J. Chem. Educ. 2014, 91 (8), 1181−1184.
(30) Teplukhin, A.; Babikov, D. Visualization of Potential Energy
Function Using an Isoenergy Approach and 3D Prototyping. J. Chem.
Educ. 2015, 92 (2), 305−309.
117
Article
(31) Higman, C. S.; Situ, H.; Blacklin, P.; Hein, J. E. Hands-On Data
Analysis: Using 3D Printing To Visualize Reaction Progress Surfaces.
J. Chem. Educ. 2017, 94 (9), 1367−1371.
(32) Gross, B.; Lockwood, S. Y.; Spence, D. M. Recent Advances in
Analytical Chemistry by 3D Printing. Anal. Chem. 2017, 89, 57−70.
(33) Clippard, C. M.; Hughes, W.; Chohan, B. S.; Sykes, D. G.
Construction and Characterization of a Compact, Portable, Low-Cost
Colorimeter for the Chemistry Lab. J. Chem. Educ. 2016, 93 (7),
1241−1248.
(34) Porter, L. A.; Washer, B. M.; Hakim, M. H.; Dallinger, R. F.
User-Friendly 3D Printed Colorimeter Models for Student Explora-
tion of Instrument Design and Performance. J. Chem. Educ. 2016, 93
(7), 1305−1309.
(35) Calcabrini, M.; Onna, D. Exploring the Gel State: Optical
Determination of Gelation Times and Transport Properties of Gels
with an Inexpensive 3D-Printed Spectrophotometer. J. Chem. Educ.
2019, 96 (1), 116−123.
(36) Grasse, E. K.; Torcasio, M. H.; Smith, A. W. Teaching UV−Vis
Spectroscopy with a 3D-Printable Smartphone Spectrophotometer. J.
Chem. Educ. 2016, 93 (1), 146−151.
(37) Stewart, C.; Giannini, J. Inexpensive, Open Source Epifluor-
escence Microscopes. J. Chem. Educ. 2016, 93 (7), 1310−1315.
(38) Davis, E. J.; Jones, M.; Thiel, D. A.; Pauls, S. Using Open-
Source, 3D Printable Optical Hardware To Enhance Student Learning
in the Instrumental Analysis Laboratory. J. Chem. Educ. 2018, 95 (4),
672−677.
(39) Pinger, C. W.; Castiaux, A.; Speed, S.; Spence, D. M. Plate
Reader Compatible 3D-Printed Device for Teaching Equilibrium
Dialysis Binding Assays. J. Chem. Educ. 2018, 95 (9), 1662−1667.
(40) Pinger, C. W.; Heller, A. A.; Spence, D. M. A Printed
Equilibrium Dialysis Device with Integrated Membranes for Improved
Binding Affinity Measurements. Anal. Chem. 2017, 89 (14), 7302−
7306.
(41) Schmidt, B.; King, D.; Kariuki, J. Designing and Using 3D-
Printed Components That Allow Students To Fabricate Low-Cost,
Adaptable, Disposable, and Reliable Ag/AgCl Reference Electrodes. J.
Chem. Educ. 2018, 95 (11), 2076−2080.
(42) Tabassum, T.; Iloska, M.; Scuereb, D.; Taira, N.; Jin, C.;
Zaitsev, V.; Afshar, F.; Kim, T. Development and Application of 3D
Printed Mesoreactors in Chemical Engineering Education. J. Chem.
Educ. 2018, 95 (5), 783−790.
(43) Wietsma, J. J.; van der Veen, J. T.; Buesink, W.; van den Berg,
A.; Odijk, M. Lab-on-a-Chip: Frontier Science in the Classroom. J.
Chem. Educ. 2018, 95 (2), 267−275.
(44) Lu, Y.; Santino, L. M.; Acharya, S.; Anandarajah, H.; D’Arcy, J.
M. Studying Electrical Conductivity Using a 3D Printed Four-Point
Probe Station. J. Chem. Educ. 2017, 94 (7), 950−955.
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00588
J. Chem. Educ. 2020, 97, 112−117