Microbiology – The science

Learning objectives:
• Define microbiology, pathogen, non-pathogen, and
opportunistic pathogen
• Differentiate between acellular microbes and
microorganisms and list several examples of each.
• List several reasons why microbes are important
(e.g., as a source of antibiotics)
• Explain the relationship between microbes and
infectious diseases
• Differentiate between infectious diseases and
microbial intoxication
• Microbes cause two
categories of diseases:
infectious diseases and
microbial intoxications
• A microbial intoxication
results when a person ingests
a toxin (a poisonous
substance) that has been
produced by a microbe.
• infectious disease results
when a pathogen colonizes
the body and subsequently
causes disease.
• infectious diseases cause far
more illnesses and deaths
Cell Structure and
Function

3
Cells
• Smallest living unit
• Most are microscopic
Organisms and Cells

a. c.

b. 50 m d. 140 m

5
Sizes of Living Things
0.1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 m 10 m 100 m 1 mm 1 cm 0.1 m 1m 10 m 100 m 1 km

protein
chloroplast
plant and mouse rose
animal frog egg
amino cells
acid
virus
ostrich
most bacteria human egg ant egg
atom
blue whale
electron microscope human

light microscope

human eye

6
 Cell Size
• Cells range in size from one millimeter down to one
micrometer
• Cells need a large surface area of plasma membrane to
adequately exchange materials.
• The surface-area-to-volume ratio requires that cells be
small
• Large cells - surface area relative to volume decreases
• Volume is living cytoplasm, which demands nutrients and
produces wastes
• Cells specialized in absorption utilize membrane modifications
such as microvilli to greatly increase surface area per unit
volume

7
 Microscopy Today: Compound Light
Microscope
•Light passed through specimen

•Focused by glass lenses

•Image formed on human retina

•Max magnification about 1000X

•Resolves objects separated by 0.2 mm, 500X

better than human eye 8
Compound Light Microscope

85 µm
amoeba, light micrograph

eye
ocular lens
light rays

objective lens
specimen
condenser lens

light source

a. Compound light microscope

© Robert Brons/Biological Photo Service 9

Microscopy Today: Transmission
Electron Microscope
•Abbreviated T.E.M.
•Electrons passed through specimen
•Focused by magnetic lenses
•Image formed on fluorescent screen
• Similar to TV screen
• Image is then photographed
•Max magnification 1000,000sX
•Resolves objects separated by 0.00002 mm,
100,000X better than human eye 10
Transmission Electron Microscope
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

200 nm
pseudopod segment, transmission electron
micrograph

electron source
electron beam

electromagnetic
condenser lens

specimen

electromagnetic
objective lens

electromagnetic
projector lens

observation screen
or
photographic plate

b. Transmission electron microscope

© M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited 11
 Microscopy Today: Scanning
Electron Microscope
•Abbreviated S.E.M.
•Specimen sprayed with thin coat of metal
• Electron beam scanned across surface of
specimen
• Metal emits secondary electrons
•Emitted electrons focused by magnetic lenses
•Image formed on fluorescent screen
• Similar to TV screen
• Image is then photographed 12
Scanning Electron Microscope
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

500 µm
amoeba, scanning electron micrograph

electron gun
electron beam

electromagnetic
condenser
lenses

scanning coil

final
condenser electron
lens detector
secondary
electrons TV
specimen viewing
screen

c. Scanning electron microscope

© Kessel/Shih/Peter Arnold, Inc. 13

Microscopy Today: Immunofluorescence Light
Microscope
•Antibodies developed against a specific protein
• Fluorescent dye molecule attached to antibody
molecules
• Specimen exposed to fluorescent antibodies
•Ultra-violet light (black light) passed through
specimen
• Fluorescent dye glows in color where antigen is
located
• Emitted light is focused by glass lenses onto human
retina
•Allows mapping distribution of a specific protein
in cell
14
Microscopy Today: Confocal Microscopy
•Narrow laser beam scanned across
transparent specimen

•Beam is focused at a very thin plane

•Allows microscopist to optically section a

specimen
• Sections made at different levels

• Allows assembly of 3d image on computer screen

that can be rotated 15
Microscopy and Amoeba proteus
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

85 µm 200 nm 500 µm
amoeba, light micrograph pseudopod segment, transmission electron amoeba, scanning electron micrograph
micrograph

electron source electron gun

eye electron beam
ocular lens electron beam
light rays
electromagnetic
condenser lens electromagnetic
condenserl
enses
specimen

electromagnetic
objective lens
objective lens scanning coil
specimen
condenser lens
final
electromagnetic
Condenser electron
projector lens
lens detector
secondary
observation screen electrons TV
or specimen Viewing
light source photographic plate screen

a. Compound light microscope b. Transmission electron microscope c. Scanning electron microscope

a: © Robert Brons/Biological Photo Service; b: © M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited; c: © Kessel/Shih/Peter Arnold, Inc. 16

Microscopy and Cheek Cells
30 m
Bright-field. Light
passing through the
specimen is brought
directly into focus. Usually,
the low level of contrast
within the specimen
interferes with viewing all
but its largest components.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
30 m 25 m 25 m 25 m
Bright-field (stained). Differential interference Phase contrast. Density Dark-field. Light is passed
Dyes are used to stain contrast. Optical methods differences in the through the specimen at
the specimen. Certain are used to enhance specimen cause light rays an oblique angle so that
components take up density differences within to come out of “phase.” the objective lens receives
the dye more than other the specimen so that The microscope enhances only light diffracted and
components, and therefore certain regions appear these phase differences so scattered by the object.
contrast is enhanced. brighter than others. This that some regions of the This technique is used to
technique is used to view specimen appear brighter view organelles, which
living cells, chromosomes, or darker than others. The appear quite bright against
and organelle masses. technique is widely used a dark field.
to observe living cells and
organelles.
(Bright field): © Ed Reschke; (Bright field stained): © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
(Differential, Phase contrast, Dark field): © David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited
17
 Prokaryotic Cells
•Lack a membrane-bound nucleus
•Have their DNA located in the region called
nucleoid.
•Prokaryotic cells are placed in two
taxonomic domains:
•Bacteria
•Archaea
• Live in extreme habitats
•Domains are structurally similar but
biochemically different 18
 The Structure of Bacteria
•Extremely small - 1–1.5 μm wide and 2–6 μm
long
•Occur in three basic shapes:
- Spherical coccus,
- Rod-shaped bacillus,
- Spiral spirillum (if rigid) or spirochete (if
flexible).
•Cell Envelope includes:
•Plasma membrane - lipid bilayer with imbedded
and peripheral protein
• Form internal pouches (mesosomes) 19
•Cell wall - maintains the shape of
the cell and is strengthened by
peptidoglycan
•Glycocalyx - layer of
polysaccharides on the outside of
the cell wall
- Well organized and resistant to
removal (capsule)

20
The Structure of Bacteria

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

spirillum

spirochete bacillus

coccus

21
The Structure of Bacteria
protein
molecules

phospholipid
bilayer

22
The Structure of Bacteria
Ribosome: Fimbriae:
site of protein synthesis hairlike bristles that
allow adhesion to
the surfaces
Inclusion body:
Conjugation pilus:
stored nutrients for
elongated, hollow
later use
appendage used for
Mesosome: DNA transfer to other
plasma membrane bacterial cells
that folds into the Nucleoid:
cytoplasm and location of the bacterial
increases surface area chromosome
Plasma membrane:
sheath around cytoplasm
that regulates entrance
and exit of molecules
Cell wall:
covering that supports,
shapes, and protects cell

Glycocalyx:
gel-like coating outside
cell wall; if compact, called
a capsule; if diffuse, called
a slime layer
Flagellum:
rotating filament present Escherichia coli
in some bacteria that
pushes the cell forward

© Howard Sochurek/The Medical File/Peter Arnold, Inc.

23
•Ribosome: site of protein synthesis
•Inclusion body: stored nutrients for later
use
•Mesosome: plasma membrane that folds
into the cytoplasm and increases surface area
•Fimbriae: hair like bristles that allow
adhesion to the surfaces
•Conjugation pilus: elongated, hollow
appendage used for DNA transfer to other
bacterial cells
24
•Nucleoid: location of the bacterial
chromosome
•Plasma membrane: sheath around
cytoplasm that regulates entrance and exit of
molecules
•Cell wall: covering that supports, shapes, and
protects cell

25
•Glycocalyx: gel-like coating outside cell
wall; if compact, called a capsule; if
diffuse, called a slime layer.
•Flagellum: rotating filament present in
some bacteria that pushes the cell
forward
•Nucleoid: location of the bacterial
chromosome

26
•Plasma membrane: sheath around
cytoplasm that regulates entrance
and exit of molecules
•Cell wall: covering that supports,
shapes, and protects cell

27
The Structure of Bacteria Cytoplasm &
Appendages
•Cytoplasm
•Semifluid solution
• Bounded by plasma membrane
• Contains water, inorganic and organic molecules,
and enzymes.
•Nucleoid is a region that contains the single,
circular DNA molecule.
•Plasmids are small accessory
(extrachromosomal) rings of DNA
28
Appendages
•Flagella – Provide motility
•Fimbriae – small, bristle-like fibers
that sprout from the cell surface
•Sex pili – rigid tubular structures
used to pass DNA from cell to cell

29
Eukaryotic Cells
•Domain Eukarya includes:
•Protists
•Fungi
•Plants
•Animals

30
Cells contain:
•Membrane-bound nucleus that
houses DNA
•Specialized organelles
•Plasma membrane
•Much larger than prokaryotic cells
•Some cells (e.g., plant cells) have a cell
wall
31
Hypothesized Origin of Eukaryotic Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Original
prokaryotic cell

DNA

1. Cell gains a nucleus by the

plasma membrane invaginating
and surrounding the DNA
with a double membrane.

2. Cell gains an endomembrane

system by proliferation
of membrane.

3. Cell gains mitochondria.

aerobic
bacterium

mitochondrion

4. Cell gains chloroplasts.

chloroplast
photosynthetic
bacterium
Animal cell
has mitochondria,
but not chloroplasts.

Plant cell
has both mitochondria
and chloroplasts.

32
Eukaryotic Cells: Organelles
•Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized
•They contain small structures called
organelles
• Perform specific functions
• Isolates reactions from others
•Two classes of organelles:
•Endomembrane system:
• Organelles that communicate with one another
• Via membrane channels
• Via small vesicles
•Energy related organelles
• Mitochondria & chloroplasts
• Basically independent & self-sufficient 33
Plasma Membrane

protein
molecules

phospholipid
bilayer

34
 Cell Fractionation and Differential
Centrifugation
•Cell fractionation is the breaking apart of
cellular components
•Differential centrifugation:
• Allows separation of cell parts
• Separated out by size & density

•Works like spin cycle of washer

•The faster the machine spins, the smaller the
parts that are settled out
35
 Cell Fractionation and Differential
Centrifugation

Grind cells Centrifuge cells at

different speeds

speed of 600 g speed of 15,000 g speed of 100,000 g soluble portion

for 10 min for 5 min for 60 min of cytoplasm

nuclei mitochondria and lysosomes ribosomes and endoplasmic

in sediment in sediment reticulum in sediment

36
Animal Cell Anatomy
Plasma membrane:
outer surface that
regulates entrance and
exit of molecules

protein

phospholipid Nucleus: command center of cell

Nuclear envelope: double

Cytoskeleton: maintains membrane with nuclear pores
cell shape and assists movement that encloses nucleus
of cell parts: Chromatin: diffuse threads
containing DNA and protein
Microtubules: protein Nucleolus: region that produces
cylinders that move subunits of ribosomes
organelles
Endoplasmic reticulum:
Intermediate filaments: protein and lipid metabolism
protein fibers that provide Rough ER: studded with
stability of shape ribosomes that synthesize
Actin filaments: protein proteins
fibers that play a role in Smooth ER: lacks
change of shape ribosomes, synthesizes
lipid molecules

Centrioles*: short Peroxisome: vesicle

cylinders of microtubules
of unknown function
Centrosome: microtubule
organizing center that
contains a pair of centrioles
Lysosome*: vesicle that
digests macromolecules
and even cell parts
Vesicle: small membrane-
bounded sac that stores
and transports substances
Cytoplasm: semifluid
matrix outside nucleus
that contains organelles
*not in plant cells
that is involved in
fatty acid metabolism
Ribosomes:
particles that carry
out protein synthesis
Polyribosome: string of
ribosomes simultaneously
synthesizing same protein
Mitochondrion: organelle
that carries out cellular respiration,
producing ATP molecules
Golgi apparatus: processes, packages,
and secretes modified proteins
Plant Cell Anatomy
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Nucleus: command center of cell

Central vacuole*: large, fluid-filled
Nuclear envelope: double membrane with
sac that stores metabolites and
nuclear pores that encloses nucleus
helps maintain turgor pressure
Nucleolus: produces subunits of ribosomes
Chromatin: diffuse threads containing Cell wall of adjacent cell
DNA and protein
Nuclear pore: permits passage of Middle lamella:
proteins into nucleus and ribosomal cements together the
subunits out of nucleus primary cell walls of
Ribosomes: carry adjacent plant cells
out protein synthesis Chloroplast*: carries
Centrosome: out photosynthesis,
microtubule organizing producing sugars
center (lacks centrioles)
Granum*: a stack
Endoplasmic of chlorophyll-containing
reticulum: protein thylakoids
and lipid metabolism in a chloroplast
Rough ER: studded Mitochondrion: organelle
with ribosomes that that carries out cellular
synthesize proteins respiration, producing
ATP molecules
Smooth ER: lacks
ribosomes, synthesizes Microtubules: protein cylinders
lipid molecules that aid movement of organelles
Peroxisome: vesicle that Actin filaments: protein fibers
is involved in fatty acid that play a role in movement of
metabolism cell and organelles
Golgi apparatus: processes,
Plasma membrane: surrounds
packages, and secretes
cytoplasm, and regulates entrance
modified proteins
and exit of molecules
Cytoplasm: semifluid matrix outside Cell wall*: outer surface that shapes,
nucleus that contains organelles supports, and protects cell

*not in animal cells

38
 Nucleus

•Command center of cell, usually near center

•Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear
envelope
•Contains chromatin in semifluid nucleoplasm
•Chromatin contains DNA of genes, and proteins
•Condenses to form chromosomes (Chromosomes
are formed during cell division)
•Dark nucleolus composed of rRNA (Produces
subunits of ribosomes)
39
Anatomy of the Nucleus
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

nuclear
envelope

nucleolus

Nuclear envelope: nuclear

inner membrane pore
outer membrane chromatin
nucleoplasm
nuclear pore

phospholipid

(Bottom): Courtesy Ron Milligan/Scripps Research Institute; (Top right): Courtesy E.G. Pollock 40
Ribosomes: Protein factories of the cell

•Are the site of protein synthesis in the

cell
•Composed of rRNA
•Consists of a large subunit and a small
subunit
•Subunits made in nucleolus

41
Bound ribosomes
- for proteins integrated in the
membrane and for export outside the
cell.
- On the endoplasmic reticulum (thereby
making it “rough”), or
Free ribosomes
- produced proteins needed in the
cytosol (exclusive for the cell)
- Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or
in groups, called polyribosomes 42
Nucleus, Ribosomes, & ER

Cytoplasm
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)

ER membrane
protein
4. An enzyme removes
the signal peptide. Lumen of ER

5. Ribosomal subunits and

mRNA break away. The
protein remains in the ER enzyme
and folds into its final shape.

mRNA receptor

SRP
signal recognition
particle (SRP)

2. Signal recognition
3. SRP attaches to receptor (purple); particle (SRP) binds
a channel opens; and the to signal peptide.
polypeptide enters ER..

signal peptide
ribosomal
subunits nuclear pore
ribosome

mRNA

mRNA DNA

1. mRNA is leaving the

nucleus and is attached Nucleus
to the ribosome; protein
synthesis is occurring.

43
Plasma Membrane

•Functions as a selective barrier

(semipermeable)
•Controls the passage of nutrients
and waste
•Boundary between cell and external
boundary

44
Endomembrane System
•Series of intracellular
membranes that
compartmentalize the cell
•Restrict enzymatic reactions
to specific compartments
within cell
45
Consists of:
•Nuclear envelope
•Membranes of endoplasmic reticulum
•Golgi apparatus
•Vesicles
•Several types
•Transport materials between organelles
of system
46
Endoplasmic Reticulum

•Is continuous with nuclear

envelope
•Folded membranes that
serves as channels through
which materials are
transported in the cell.
47
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
• A system of membrane channels and saccules (flattened
vesicles) continuous with the outer membrane of the
nuclear envelope
• Rough ER
• Studded with ribosomes on cytoplasmic side
• Protein anabolism
• Synthesizes proteins
• Modifies and processes proteins
• Adds sugar to protein
• Results in glycoproteins

• Smooth ER
• No ribosomes
• Synthesis of lipids
• Site of various synthetic processes, detoxification, and storage
• Forms transport vesicles
48
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

ribosomes nuclear envelope

rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

0.08 m
© R. Bolender & D. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited

49
Golgi Apparatus:
Shipping and receiving
center
•Manufacture, process, and
package of certain molecules
•Packaging factories of the cell

50
The Golgi Apparatus
•Golgi Apparatus
- Consists of 3-20 flattened, curved saccules
- Resembles stack of hollow pancakes
- Modifies proteins and lipids
a. Receives vesicles from ER on cis (or inner face)
b. Packages them in vesicles
c. Prepares for “shipment” in v Packages them in vesicles
from trans (or outer face)
1. Within cell
2. Export from cell (secretion, exocytosis)
51
Golgi Apparatus

secretion

transport saccules
vesicle
transport
vesicle

trans face

cis face

Golgi apparatus

Nucleus

0.1 m

Courtesy Charles Flickinger, from Journal of Cell Biology 49: 221-226, 1971, Fig. 1 page 224 52
Endomembrane System: Lysosomes
•Membrane-bound vesicles (not in plants)
• Produced by the Golgi apparatus
• Contain powerful digestive enzymes and are
highly acidic (hydrolytic enzymes)
• Digestion of large molecules
• Recycling of cellular resources
• Apoptosis (programmed cell death, like tadpole losing
tail)
•Some genetic diseases
• Caused by defect in lysosomal enzyme
• Lysosomal storage diseases (Tay-Sachs)
53
Lysosomes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

lysosome

mitochondrion peroxisome fragment

a. Mitochondrion and a peroxisome in a lysosome

b. Storage bodies in a cell with defective lysosomes

a: Courtesy Daniel S. Friend; b: Courtesy Robert D. Terry/Univ. of San Diego School of Medicine 54
Endomembrane System: Summary

• Proteins produced in rough ER and lipids from

smooth ER are carried in vesicles to the Golgi
apparatus.
• The Golgi apparatus modifies these products and
then sorts and packages them into vesicles that go
to various cell destinations.
• Secretory vesicles carry products to the membrane
where exocytosis produces secretions.
• Lysosomes fuse with incoming vesicles and digest
macromolecules.
55
Endomembrane System: A Visual Summary
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
secretion
plasma
membrane

incoming vesicle secretory vesicle

brings substances into the fuses with the plasma
cell that are digested when membrane as secretion
the vesicle fuses with a occurs
lysosome

enzyme

Golgi apparatus
modifies lipids and proteins
lysosome from the ER; sorts them
contains digestive enzymes and packages them in
that break down worn-out vesicles
cell parts or substances
entering the cell at the
plasma membrane protein

transport vesicle
transport vesicle shuttles proteins to
shuttles lipids to various various locations such as
locations such as the the Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus
lipid

rough endoplasmic
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
reticulum synthesizes proteins and
synthesizes lipids and packages them in vesicles;
also performs various vesicles commonly go to
other functions the Golgi apparatus

ribosome Nucleus

56
Peroxisomes

• Similar to lysosomes
• Membrane-bounded vesicles
• Enclose enzymes
• However
• Enzymes synthesized by free ribosomes in cytoplasm
(instead of ER)
• Active in lipid metabolism
• Catalyze reactions that produce hydrogen peroxide H2O2
• Toxic
• Broken down to water & O2 by catalase

57
Peroxisomes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

100 nm
© S.E. Frederick & E.H. Newcomb/Biological Photo Service

58
 Vacuoles
•Membranous sacs that are larger than
vesicles
- Store materials that occur in excess
- Others very specialized (contractile vacuole)
•Plants cells typically have a central vacuole
- Up to 90% volume of some cells
- Functions in:
a. Storage of water, nutrients, pigments, and waste
products
b. Development of turgor pressure
c. Some functions performed by lysosomes in other
eukaryotes 59
Vacuoles
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

100 nm
© Newcomb/Wergin/Biological Photo Service

60
Energy-Related Organelles:
Chloroplast Structure
•Bounded by double membrane
•Inner membrane in folded
- Forms disc-like thylakoids, which are stacked to form
grana
- Suspended in semi-fluid stroma

•Green due to chlorophyll

- Green photosynthetic pigment
- Found ONLY in inner membranes of chloroplast 61
Energy-Related Organelles: Chloroplasts
•Membranous organelles (a type
of plastid) that serve as the site
of photosynthesis

•Captures light energy to drive

cellular machinery

62
Photosynthesis
- Synthesizes carbohydrates from CO2 & H2O

- Makes own food using CO2 as only carbon source

- Energy-poor compounds converted to energy-rich

compounds

solar energy + carbon dioxide + water → carbohydrate +

oxygen

- Only plants, algae, and certain bacteria are capable of

conducting photosynthesis
63
Chloroplast Structure
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

a. 500 nm

outer thylakoid
membrane grana space stroma thylakoid membrane
double inner
membrane membrane

b.

a: Courtesy Herbert W. Israel, Cornell University

64
Energy-Related Organelles: Mitochondria
• Powerhouse of the cell

• Contain ribosomes and their own DNA

• Surrounded by a double membrane

• Inner membrane surrounds the matrix

and is convoluted (folds) to form cristae.

• Matrix – Inner semifluid containing

respiratory enzymes
65
•Involved in cellular respiration
•Produce most of ATP utilized by
the cell
•ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate:
Energy currency of the cell

66
Mitochondrial Structure
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

a. 200 nm
outer
membrane cristae matrix
double
inner
membrane
membrane

b.

a: Courtesy Dr. Keith Porter

67
 The Cytoskeleton

•Maintains cell shape

•Assists in movement of cell and organelles

•Three types of macromolecular fibers

- Actin Filaments

- Intermediate Filaments

- Microtubules

•Assemble and disassemble as needed 68

 The Cytoskeleton: Actin Filaments

•Extremely thin filaments like

twisted pearl necklace
•Dense web just under plasma
membrane maintains cell shape
•Support for microvilli in intestinal
cells
•Intracellular traffic control
- For moving stuff around within cell
- Cytoplasmic streaming
69
•Function in pseudopods of
amoeboid cells
•Pinch mother cell in two after
animal mitosis
•Important component in
muscle contraction (other is
myosin)

70
The Cytoskeleton: Actin Filament Operation

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

actin filament

ATP ADP + P myosin

molecules

tail head membrane

71
The Cytoskeleton: Intermediate Filaments
•Intermediate in size between actin filaments
and microtubules
•Rope-like assembly of fibrous polypeptides
•Vary in nature
- From tissue to tissue
- From time to time
•Functions:
- Support nuclear envelope
- Cell-cell junctions, like those holding skin cells
tightly together 72
The Cytoskeleton: Microtubules

•Hollow cylinders made of two globular

proteins called a and b tubulin
•Spontaneous pairing of a and b tubulin
molecules form structures called dimers
•Dimers then arrange themselves into
tubular spirals of 13 dimers around

73
•Assembly:
- Under control of Microtubule
Organizing Center (MTOC)
- Most important MTOC is
centrosome
•Interacts with proteins kinesin
and dynein to cause movement
of organelles

74
The Cytoskeleton: Microtubule Operation

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

ATP
vesicle
kinesin
kinesin receptor

vesicle moves, not microtubule

75
The Cytoskeleton
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

actin
subunit

Chara

a. Actin filaments

fibrous
subunits

peacock
b. Intermediate filaments

tubulin
dimer

chameleon
c. Microtubules

a(Actin): © M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited; b, c(Intermediate, Microtubules): © K.G. Murti/Visuals Unlimited; a(Chara): The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./photo by
Dennis Strete and Darrell Vodopich; b(Peacock): © Vol. 86/Corbis; c(Chameleon): © Photodisc/Vol. 6/Getty Images 76
Microtubular Arrays: Centrioles

•Short, hollow cylinders

- Composed of 27 microtubules
- Microtubules arranged into 9 overlapping triplets
•One pair per animal cell
- Located in centrosome of animal cells
- Oriented at right angles to each other
- Separate during mitosis to determine plane of
division
•May give rise to basal bodies of cilia and
flagella
77
Cytoskeleton: Centrioles
empty center
of centriole

one microtubule
triplet

one centrosome: one pair of centrioles

two centrosomes: two pairs of centrioles 200 nm

78
Microtubular Arrays: Cilia and Flagella

•Hair-like projections from cell surface that aid in

cell movement
•Very different from prokaryote flagella
- Outer covering of plasma membrane
- Inside this is a cylinder of 18 microtubules arranged in
9 pairs
- In center are two single microtubules
- This 9 + 2 pattern used by all cilia & flagella
•In eukaryotes, cilia are much shorter than flagella
- Cilia move in coordinated waves like oars
- Flagella move like a propeller or cork screw
79
Structure of a Flagellum
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

outer
Flagellum microtubule
doublet
radial
spoke
central
shaft The shaft of the microtubules
flagellum has a ring
of nine microtubule
doublets anchored dynein
to a central pair of side arm
microtubules.

25 nm
Flagellum cross section

The side arms dynein

Sperm of each doublet side arms
plasma are composed
triplets membrane of dynein, a
motor molecule.

Basal body
ATP

In the presence of
ATP, the dynein side
arms reach out to
their neighbors,
The basal body of a flagellum has and bending occurs.
100 nm a ring of nine microtubule triplets
Basal body cross section with no central microtubules.

80
Review of Eukaryotic Cells
Review of Eukaryotic Cells