CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Product Description

In this section, several information regarding unbleached sugar was discussed. This
section provides basic understanding of the product and its by-products then presents its
underlying great significance, properties, applications and specifications.
1.1.1 Product Information
1.1.1.a Unbleached Sugar
Sugar is a class of carbohydrates that tastes sweet which consists essentially of
sucrose obtained from sugarcane or sugar beets. More often present in the sap of seed plants
and the milk of mammals and makes up the simplest group of carbohydrates. It is also a quick
and easy fuel for the body to use. All sugar is made by first extracting sugar juice from
sugarcane plants, and from there, many types of sugar can be produced. Some types of sugar
are lactose, glucose, fructose and sucrose. Through slight adjustments in the process of
cleaning, crystallizing and drying the sugar crystals and altering the molasses ratio, tons of
different sugar varieties are possible. Sugar of various crystal sizes provide distinct functional
characteristics that make the sugar suitable for different foods and beverages. Its colour is
primarily determined by the amount of molasses remaining on or added to the crystals, giving
pleasurable flavours and altering moisture. Some types of sugar are used only by the food
industry and are not available in the market. Sugarcane offers production alternatives to food,
such as feed, fibre and energy, particularly biofuels (sugar-based ethanol) and/or co-
generation of electricity. Sugarcane is generally regarded as one of the most significant and
efficient sources of biomass for biofuel production, and given expectations of rising oil
prices, the considerable potential for expansions in production for biofuel feedstock has
resulted in a heightened focus on sugar as an internationally traded commodity.
Unbleached sugar is a moist, coarsely crystalline mass with a sucrose content of 95-
97%. Raw sugars are products that are not completely refined. Early stages in the refining
process yield products that still contain natural impurities, but they are actually fit for
consumption.

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 Table 1: Composition of Unbleached Sugar (Godshall and Legendre, 2003)
Component Range of Concentration
Sucrose 96-99%
Glucose 0.3-0.6%
Fructose 0.3-0.6%
Moisture 0.1-0.5%
Ash 0.1-0.5%
Starch 50-400 ppm
Other Polysaccharides 800-1500 ppm
Insoluble Matter (Soil and Vegetable
200-500 ppm
particles)

1.1.1.b Cane Tops

Sugarcane tops consists of three distinct parts- the green leaves (blades), the bundle
leaf sheath and variable amounts of immature cane. Cane tops are a byproduct of sugarcane
harvesting and have no real market value. They can be compared to fair quality fodder with
an average feed value, when fresh, of about 2.8 megajoules of metabolize energy per kilo of
dry matter. However, cane tops should be collected and transported from the cane fields to
the sugar plantation and their value will be of minimal. Flowered tassels of sugarcane are not
normally utilized for feeding livestock by small breeders.
1.1.1.c Bagasse
After the sugarcane or sorghum stalks are crushed to extract their juice, a dry pulpy
fibrous residue that remains is called bagasse. Market value of the bagasse is generally
related to its fuel value. It is a byproduct rather than a waste in the cane industry as it is used
as a biofuel for the production of heat, energy, electricity, and in the manufacture of pulp and
building materials (paper, particle board, etc.). Bagasse is also essential in the production of
protein-enriched cattle feed and enzymes.
1.1.1.d Filter Muds
Filter muds are major residue of the sugar production subsequent to the treatment of
sugarcane juice through filtration and clarification. During clarification the juice is separated
into a clear juice that rises to the top then goes to manufacture, and a mud that collects at the
bottom. No particular problems have been reported on using sugarcane press mud in animal
feeding. However, the experience of feeding it to livestock is scarce; caution is therefore

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required because it is a mineral-rich filtration residue that could contain undesirable
substances. For instance, some samples were found to contain relatively high amounts of
copper (from 500 to 5700 mg/kg in van der Poel et al., 1998), which could be problematic for
sheep.
1.1.1.e Molasses
Molasses is a dark viscous product resulting from refining sugarcane or sugar beets
into sugar. It is the final effluent obtained in the preparation of sugar. Quality varies by
amount of sugar, method of extraction, and age of plant. It is primarily used for sweetening
and flavouring foods. Lighter grades of molasses derived from sugarcane are edible and is
used in baking and candy-making as well as alcohol. On the other hand, Blackstrap and other
low grades of cane molasses are used in mixed animal feed and in the production of various
goods such as vinegar and citric acid.
1.1.2 Product Properties
1.1.2.a Unbleached Sugar
Sugarcane juice is turbid and acidic with a pH of 5.3-5.7. Raw sugar is a moist,
coarsely crystalline mass with a sucrose content of 95-97%. It has a distinctive brown colour
due to the presence of molasses. The true density of sugar crystal is approximately 1.6 g/cm3.
The apparent density of granulated sugar varies considerably according to the form and the
regularity of the crystals. It varies generally between 0.8 and 0.9 g/cm3 (Hugot, 1986).
1.1.2.b Cane tops
With the low amount of digestible crude protein that can be obtain from sugarcane
tops, it is logical that the first supplement should be a nitrogen source. Quality of cane tops
varies significantly with origin, age at harvest, growing conditions and management
practices.
1.1.2.c Bagasse
Bagasse is a vegetable fibre mainly composed of cellulose which has relatively high
modulus. A by-product of sugar milling and important fuel resource for that industry. It is a
fibrous, low density material with a very wide range of particle sizes and high moisture
content. The dimension of the fibres affects its reinforcing properties. In general, bagasse has
a length of 1.2 mm and a diameter of 15 µm, thus an aspect ratio of 80 (Luz and Goncalves,
2007).
1.1.2.d Filter muds
Filter cake has a highly variable composition due to the different technologies
involved. The nature of precipitation or flocculation aids, temperature and the fineness of the
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filtration process are all factors that influence its composition. The product may be fresh (60-
80% water) or dried. Protein content and sugars are both in the 5-15% DM range. It can also
contain important amounts of fibre (probably due to the 15-30% of fine bagasse). Ash content
is usually between 9 and 20%, but some press cakes may contain up to 60% mineral matter, a
large part of it being silicon. Calcium content range between 1 and 9% (Van der Poel et al.,
1998). The content of protein, sugar and fibre makes filter press mud a potential feed
ingredient, but actual feed trials are scarce (Budeppa et al., 1989).
1.1.2.e Molasses
Molasses is composed of 22% water, 75% carbohydrates, and no protein or fat. In a
100 gram reference amount, molasses is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV)
of vitamin B6 and several dietary minerals, including Manganese, Magnesium, Iron,
Potassium, and Calcium. Cane molasses contain both protein and non-protein amino acids
and fatty acids. About 43-49% of total solids in molasses is sucrose. Phosphate in molasses is
much less than that in the juice. The higher the viscosity or the solids content of the
exhausted molasses, the lower the purity. The amount of sucrose recoverable amounted to
.017 to .023 tons per ton of molasses processed per unit drop in purity.
1.1.3 Product Specification
1.1.3.a Unbleached Sugar
The Philippine National Standard for the Specification of Raw Cane Sugar
(PNS/BAFPS 81:2010) was revised in 2010 in order to aid in boosting the local sugar
industry and ensure that the locally produced and traded sugars meet current international
standards for safety and quality. The Standard intended to provide specification of raw cane
sugar intended for human consumption.

Table 2: Essential Composition and Quality Factors of Raw Cane Sugar (Bureau of
Agriculture and Fisheries Standards (BAFS), 2016)

Composition and Quality Factors Specification as Produced

Polarization 97.4-99.5
Safety factor, Maximum 0.3
Colour (ICUMSA Units), Maximum Whole raw: 5000
Dextran, mg/kg, Maximum 400
Sulphur Dioxide, mg/kg, Maximum 20

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 Raw cane sugar shall be free from heavy metals in amounts which may represent a
hazard to human health. It shall comply with those maximum residue limits established by
the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) for this commodity. Raw cane sugar should
comply with any microbiological criteria established in accordance with the Principles for the
Establishment and Application of Microbiological Criteria for Foods (CAC/GL 21-1997) and
BFAD Guidelines for the Assessment of Microbiological Quality of Processed Foods (BFAD
Bureau Circular 01As. 2004).
1.1.3.b Molasses
The Agricultural Marketing Service of the United States Department of Agriculture
sets specifications for molasses grades. Sugarcane molasses is made from sugarcane and not
from sugar beets. Producers, suppliers, buyers and consumers use standard specifications to
distinguish products.
 U.S. Grade A (U.S. Fancy)
U.S. Grade A has a good flavour and good colour. The colour is bright and typical of
molasses processed derived from mature, sound sugarcane and meets glass colour
standard Number 1. Grade A is practically free from defects, which means that any
extraneous material does not affect the appearance or edibility. It must have a
minimum of 79 percent Brix solids and 63.5 percent total sugar, a maximum of 5
percent ash and maximum 200 parts per million sulphites. To be rated Grade A,
sugarcane molasses must rate at least 90 points on the scoring system.
 U.S. Grade B (U.S. Choice)
U.S. Grade B has a reasonably good flavour and colour that meets glass colour
standard Number 2. Grade B is reasonably free from defects, meaning that any
extraneous material does not affect the appearance or edibility. Grade B must have a
minimum of 79 percent Brix solids and 61.5 percent total sugar, a maximum of 7
percent ash and maximum 250 ppm sulphites. Grade B sugarcane molasses must
score at least 80 points.
 U.S. Grade C (U.S. Standard)
U.S. Grade C has a fairly good flavour and colour that meets glass colour standard
Number 3. It is fairly free from defects, which means that any extraneous material
does not seriously affect the appearance or edibility. It must have a minimum of 79
percent Brix solids and 58 percent total sugar, a maximum 9 percent ash and

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 maximum 250 parts per million sulphites. To be rated Grade C, sugarcane molasses
must score at least 70 points.
 Substandard
Substandard molasses fails to meet the requirements of U.S. Grade C. It has less than
79 percent Brix solids, less than 58 percent total sugar, more than 9 percent ash and
more than 250 parts per million sulphites.

1.1.4 Product Applications

1.1.4.a Unbleached Sugar
Sugar has tons of various functions in food technology.
 Sweetener
White and brown crystalline sugars are the one used as sweeteners in home
cooking and food industry. Powdered form sugars are appropriate for icing sugar in
baking and confectionary. While fluid form such as syrup is applied in beverages or
can be used as a base for fruit sauces, toppings and flavoured syrups. It can also act as
a neutralizer that counter the acidic and bitter tastes, e.g. in tomato sauces,
mayonnaise or in medical syrups.
 Colour
Cooked foods having the lovely golden brown colours are because of the sugar
it contains, can be obtain through two processes: the Maillard reaction and
caramelisation. The golden-brown crust of baked products such as toasted bread and
biscuits is due to the Maillard reaction, occurring under heat between sugars
(predominantly glucose and fructose) and amino acids (proteins). In caramelisation,
sugars (mainly sucrose, glucose and fructose) are broken down under heat, producing
new molecules which provide colour and flavour, e.g. in products like caramel sauce
and caramelised fruits and sweets.
 Texture, volume and moisture
Sugars play a major role in defining the bulk (volume) and texture (mouth
feel) of foods. Our tongues sense particles larger than about 0.02 millimetres. This is
why granulated varieties feel so gritty, powdered types feel smooth in our mouths.
Sugar added with a gelling agent (e.g. pectin) is responsible for the jelly texture of
jams. It is also significant in reducing the freezing point, important for developing

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 softer ice creams, and increase the boiling point, which is essential in manufacture of
sweets.
Table 3: Various Type of Sugar Crystals.
Types of Grains Size
Larger 1.0-2.0 mm
Standard Granulated 0.3-0.5 mm
Fine Granulated 0.1-0.3 mm
Powdered 0.01-0.1 mm

 Food Preservation
Sugars are also high and above in food preservation. Marmalades, syrupy fruit
desserts, candied fruits and other delicacies were born out of the historical need to
preserve fresh produce. High content of sugar prevents microbial growth and spoilage
by increasing the osmotic pressure, which limits microbial growth that make foods
has a longer shelf-life.
1.1.4.b Cane Tops
Although some losses of dry matter occur, the burnt cane tops are still valuable feed
for feeding livestock directly and processed (Pate and Coleman, 1975). As a livestock feed,
cane tops will act at best only as a low-quality roughage. Depending upon the type of stock to
which it is to be fed, sugarcane tops must be supplemented with a grain or protein source.

1.1.4.c Bagasse
Bagasse consists of fibers, water and relatively small amount of soluble solids-mainly
sugar. It is used for steam and power generation required for an industry to run and produced
adequate quantity of products.
 Electricity
Generates electricity from the bagasse via a high-pressure boiler and condensing
turbo-alternator. This acquired knowledge favors in a number of canes producing
countries such as Hawaii, Australia, Reunion and Mauritius for it leads to a more
efficient way of manufacturing.

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  Particle board
The production of particle board from bagasse is a well-proven technology but it has
to compete with plywood and fiberboard. Its main drawback is the high cost of
imported resins which serves as a binder to the bagasse fibers composing the board.
 Furfural
A colorless, inflammable, volatile, aromatic liquid produced from a number of plant
materials containing pentosans- in the case of bagasse, 90 percent being xylan.
Furfural has many industrial uses, one of them being as a selective solvent for the
refining of lubricating oils and another as an intermediate in manufacturing nylon and
resins for moulding powders.
1.1.4.d Filter Muds
Precipitated impurities found in the cane juice, after removal by filtration, form a cake of
varying moisture content called filter muds. This cake contains much of the colloidal organic
matter anions that remains as clarification occurs, as well as certain non-sugars occluded
within these precipitates. It is mainly used as a soil conditioner, soil fertilizer and for wax
production.
 Ruminants
Filter mud as a feed. In Cuba, dried filter press mud has been used as a filter in
ruminant maintenance diet at a level of 10-30%, together with poultry manure, final
molasses, ground cane, urea and minerals.
Filter mud as an ensiling agent. In Cuba, Filter mud has been used as a compacting
and wetting agent in surface silos where 60% cane by-products are ensiled together
with 38% filter mud and 2% urea. As the cane by-products contains 60-70% DM, the
filter mud with 30% DM and granular consistency contributes to the moisture and
texture needed to ensure optimum silage (Perez, 1990).
 Poultry
With a mean value of 8.85 MJ/kg DM, sugarcane press mud was considered to be
a potential low-energy feed ingredient in the poultry diets in Sri Lanka (Rajaguru et
al., 1985). In the Philippines, dried filter press mud (6.6% crude protein) was fed at
10% poultry rations (Abrigo et al., 1986).
 Fish
Press mud has a chemical composition similar to that of cattle dung, which is very
common fish pond fertilizer in India. When added to the ponds of common carp

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 (Cyprinus Carpio), 10 t/ha of press mud were found to be optimal for fish growth and
survival. A significant effect of press mud on carcass protein was also observed.
Otherwise organoleptic quality of both raw flesh and cooked meat of carp was not
affected by the addition of press mud (Keshavanath et al., 2005).
1.1.4.e Molasses
A huge quantity of products can be derived from molasses as it acts as a resource
rather than a waste when it comes to efficiently obtaining various products. Main end-
products of molasses fermentation that are of economic important on an international scale,
namely rum, ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, butanol/acetone, citric acid, yeast and monosodium
glutamate.
 Rum
It is the alcoholic distillate from the fermentation of cane juice, syrup or molasses. It
has a characteristic taste and aroma.
 Ethyl Alcohol
Ethyl alcohol is amongst the most important fermentation products and is derived
from three types of raw materials:
i. Sacchrine products-mainly molasses, but also cane juice
ii. Starchy products- mainly maize
iii. Cellulosic products-mainly waste sulphite pulp liquor
 Acetic Acid
A colourless liquid with a pungent odor and a sharp acid taste. Its density is 1049 g/L.
Vinegar is a condiment made from sugary or starchy materials by alcoholic and
subsequent acetous fermentation. It contains at least 4 percent of acetic acid.
 Yeast
Yeast are complex, protein-rich, living unicellular organisms that have been selected
and isolated through research, and two strains are now mainly utilized, namely:
Sacchromyces cerevisiae to produce baker‘s yeast and Torula utilis to produce feed
yeast.
1.1.5 Product Benefits
1.1.5.a Unbleached Sugar
Unbleached sugar is a part of our daily lives as it is majorly found in our food but the
most interesting fact is that it also acts as a friendly nutrient inside and outside our system.
 Raw sugar soothes menstrual cramps in women

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  Helps in reducing swelling resulting from stings or insect bites
 When added to bath water, it hydrates your skin
 It also possesses natural cosmetic benefits and helps in cell regeneration
 Also helps in reducing skin pigmentation
 Used as cold remedies when accompanied with ginger and also helps in relieving
constipation
1.1.5.b Cane Tops
As it is used as a cattle fodder it is more beneficial for the livestock especially when
there is a scarcity of their daily food consumption.
1.1.5.c Bagasse
Using bagasse to generate heat and electricity at sugar mills offers loads of unique
benefits:
 Industries are self-sufficient in terms of energy they consume
 It removes the need for transporting the bagasse away
 Extra electricity produced can be fed back to into the grid for a profit
 Energy from bagasse generates less greenhouse gas emissions than conventional
fossil-fuel generation
1.1.5.d Filter Muds
Recycling organic residues is a sustainable activity. Organic residues acquired from
sugar agroindustry are of great potential for use in conservation agriculture. Cane industry
generates large quantities of byproducts like filter muds, which can be used as soil improvers
and substitutes for inorganic phosphorus and potassium fertilizers. However, the use of these
residues requires specific recommendations for each pedoclimatic condition to prevent
environmental damage. It is recognized that the use of filter muds which are low cost
material, can improve soil fertility.
1.1.5.e Molasses
Blackstrap molasses is beneficial for humans for it contains vital vitamins and
minerals such as Iron, Calcium, Magnesium, Selenium and Vitamin B6, resulting it to be
called as a super food.
 Bone booster
Calcium is responsible for building strong bones, on the other hand magnesium is
important in growing them. These two major nutrients that prevents osteoporosis are

10
 found in a blackstrap molasses. About 1 tablespoon of blackstrap molasses provides 8
percent of the daily value for calcium and 10 percent for magnesium.
 Good for the blood
One type of Anemia is caused by a lack of Iron in the diet. Blackstrap molasses is a
good source of Iron. About a tablespoon of blackstrap molasses contains 20 percent of
the daily value for Iron.
 Packed with Potassium
Bananas are packed with potassium as well as Blackstrap molasses. In fact, one
tablespoon of some blackstrap molasses brands can have as much potassium as half a
banana, which is about 300 milligrams per tablespoon. Potassium is touted as a good
way to ease muscle cramps after workouts. However, there‘s another muscle that
might benefit from the mineral, the heart. Taking a Potassium supplement may help
lower blood pressure and may also manage fluid retention.
 Hair de-frizzer
Blackstrap molasses is also amazingly essential in removing the frizziness in
bleached, permed, or colored hair.
1.2. Market Study
This section presents the market analysis of the feed and products considering their
supply, demand and selling price to project future market size and prices.

1.2.1. Unbleached Sugar

1.2.1.1 Demand

A. Global Consumption

For human consumption, sucrose is extracted then refined, from either sugar cane or
sugar beet. Sugar mills are located where sugarcane are grown to crush the cane and produce
raw sugar which is shipped around the world for refining into pure sucrose. On the other
hand, sugar beet factories are located in colder climates where the beet is grown and process
directly into refined sugar. Global production for 2019/20 is estimated down 6 million tons to
174 million primarily due to the 5-million ton drop in India resulting from lower area and
expected yields. Brazil and India are essentially tied as top producers. Consumption is
projected to continue to rise due to record use in India. Exports are estimated to be flat while

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 global stocks are projected down 5 million tons to 50 million with lower stocks in China,
India, and Pakistan.

Table 4: Product yield and Consumption of Raw Sugar. Including their remarks whether
there is an increase or decrease in the production.

Producing
Yield Consumption Remarks
Countries
7.8 million tons Significant decline in production is
United States Relatively flat
(4.0% declined) due to poor harvest conditions.

Due to more sugarcane being

Brazil 29.4 million tons Up slightly diverted to ethanol production rather
than in sugar.

Rising adequately,
5.0 million tons- 28.5 million tons,
India Due to lower area and yields.
29.3 million tons due to a growing
economy.
119,000 tons- 17.9
European Union Stable
million tons
1.0 million ton- Due to lower-than-expected
Thailand Up slightly
13.5 million tons precipitation.

Significant rise in the production rate

China 10.9 million tons Unchanged
due to expanded cane and beet area.

6.1 million tons

Mexico Projected flat Due to drought conditions.
(10% declined)

300,000 tons-5.2 Continues to grow at

Pakistan Due to reduced area.
million tons steady state

4.5 million tons

Australia Unchanged Due to dry weather.
(5.0% declined)

Developing countries account for 67 percent of global sugar consumption, and are
expected to be the primary sources of future demand growth, particularly in Asia. Global
consumption continues to expand, averaging between 1.5 to 2 percent, driven largely by
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rising incomes, population growth and shifting dietary patterns. The top ten sugar consuming
countries account for 64 percent of global sugar consumption, largely based on population
balance, particularly in the case of the EU, and the United States, where sugar demand is
largely saturated and mostly keeping pace with population growth rates. Sugar consumption
is only one part of total sweetener consumption in the case of the United States, where more
high-fructose (corn-based) sweetener is consumed annually per capita than sugar. Globally,
sugar consumption has continued to grow over the past decade, from 20.7 to 23.2 kg, driven
primarily by higher population and income growth in developing countries, particularly those
in the Far East. Global trends toward more westernized diets in many developing countries
have resulted in emerging dietary patterns that include more sugar-containing and processed
foods, as well as meat and dairy products.

Figure 1: Selected 2018/19 Revisions Since May 2019 Forecast

- Global production is up 966,000 tons to 179.9 million.

India is raised 1.2 million tons to 34.3 million on higher yields and recovery rate.
Thailand is boosted 391,000 tons to 14.6 million on a favourable extraction rate.

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 European Union is lowered 444,000 as drought impact was more severe than
previously estimated.

- Global exports are down 1.6 million tons to 54.9 million.

India is raised 1.3 million tons to 4.7 million on increased available supplies.
Pakistan is halved to 600,000 tons on a revised Post estimate.
Thailand is revised down 2.2 million tons to 9.3 million with reduced exports to
Burma and China.

- Global ending stocks are up 4.2 million tons to 55.1 million.

Thailand is up 2.6 million tons to 9.6 million on lower exports.

Pakistan is raised 600,000 tons to 2.7 million on lower exports.

SUGAR MARKETING YEARS

Countries are on a May-April Marketing Year with exceptions noted below.

BRAZIL-April-March

AUSTRALIA- July-June

EUROPEAN UNION-October-September

PHILIPPINES AND THAILAND- December-November

B. Consumption for the Past Years

In the Philippines, consumption is typically measured by monitoring sugar withdrawals

from the mills by traders and industrial users (as mills are the main holders of the country‘s
stocks). Sugar consumption in MY 2013/14 is increased to 2.27 MMT from 2.15 the previous
year. Consumption is expected to increase further to 2.28 MMT in MY 2014/15 and to 2.30
in MY 2015/16 due to expanding food processing demand, a strengthening economy and a
rising population.

Table 5: Domestic raw Sugar Withdrawals in Metric Tons

(Source: Philippine Sugar Regulatory Administration)
MONTH 2012/2013 2013/2014 2014/2015 2015/2016
December 229,174 214,155 178,726 142,395

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January 185,514 213,554 194,133 268,522
February 215,486 216,768 194,721 288,358
March 250,657 310,016 330,341 219,244
April 273,794 223,747 343,668 167,077
May 201,383 233,190 223,619 225,027
June 195,825 210,574 194,450 190,784
July 109,941 137,004 66,970 210,836
August 123,630 90,624 86,135 108,476
September 103,637 91,578 83,765 79,753
October 126,110 152,374 99,589 121,623
November 132,064 183,967 155,903 121,505

Roughly half of all domestic sugar consumption is accounted for by industrial users,
32 percent by households and the remaining 18 percent by institutions (e.g. restaurants,
bakeshops, hospital etc.). Traditionally, the largest Philippine sugar export market is the
United States, as prices under the U.S. tariff rate quota system are normally higher than the
world market prices. This trend has begun to reverse in recent years with sugar exported to
the world market now fetching a similar price.

1.2.1.2 Prices

Generally, there are two broad considerations in the determination of global sugar
prices - the related raw or refined sugar futures contract price together with the relative
premium or discount. Spot or cash price is the indicative price for immediate delivery. The
New York Contract Number 11 is widely used for settling maturing physical contracts as well
as a world indicator price for sugar. The key indicator price for white sugar is the Contract
Number 5 for refined FOB European ports. World sugar prices are volatile, and trade well
below average global production costs (raw sugar).

1.2.1.3 Trade

Cane sugar is the primary source of internationally traded sugar, as sugar beets are
grown and processed almost exclusively for internal domestic markets, and the most efficient
sugar beet processing technologies result in one-step production for refined (white food grade
standard) sugar. Sugarcane is harvested and milled into raw sugar (non-food grade) to further

15
refine at some later date or immediately refined into white (food grade) sugar. Specifications
for sugar purchases will vary according to the specific applications of the end users, with
trade volumes and prices broadly categorized as raw or refined types of sugar. Sugar
polarity, or degree of refining purity, is a measurement of the degree of purity of the sugar
(based on molasses content), how close the colour of the sugar is to pure white and dextran
content. Dextran is the fibrous content of the sugar that develops when sugarcane is cut
during harvest, which tends to make refining the cane more difficult.

The Philippines, with close instruction from SRA, typically exports an average of
250,000 tons of sugar per year. Post forecasts total raw sugar exports to all countries
(including United States) for MY 2014/15 will reach 300,000 MT, due to increasing world
market prices. The Philippines has long maintained high tariffs on raw and refined sugar
imports, but significant changes are underway.

Trade in raw sugar is typically differentiated polarity and colour, based on ICUMSA
ratings. Refineries pay premiums for raw sugar with polarity over 96 degrees. The higher the
polarity, the less additional refining throughput is necessary, lowering overall refining costs.
Payments of premiums above or below the notice price against the New York Number 11 raw
sugar contract are determined through polarization samples upon delivery. A standard
discount of 5.5 percent is charged against the contract price when the sampled raw sugar is
between 95 to 96 polarity. Premiums are paid polarity above the contract standard of 96
percent, ranging from 1.5 percent for 96 to 97 polarity to 3.79 percent for 99.3 percent
polarity.15

Global Sugar Trade

According to ISO data, world sugar trade averages some 46 million metric tons per
year, with nearly 90 percent based on ocean or seaborne trade. Raw sugar accounts for more
than 50 percent of internationally trade volumes. Nearly 12 million tons of global raw sugar
trade is conducted under preferential agreements. Although many countries produce sugar,
ten countries dominate global raw sugar exports, with Brazil, Australia, Thailand, Cuba,
Guatemala, South Africa, Mauritius, Colombia, El Salvador and Fiji, accounting for nearly
90 percent of global export trade. Brazil, as the largest producing and exporting country in
the world, dominates world trade, accounting for 51 percent of global export trade in 2005,
up from 21 percent in 2000 and evidence of the significant expansion of the sugar-ethanol
complex in Brazil over the past 10 years. The Russian Federation, EU-25, United States,

16
South Korea and Japan are the world‘s largest importing nations, although India also emerged
as an important importer of raw sugar in 2004 and 2005.

Preferential trade agreements

There are two major preferential trade agreements that govern raw sugar imports by
the EU and the United States, although preferential arrangements also exist between Cuba
and China. Globally, preferential trade typically accounts for approximately 4.5 million
metric tons of global trade, with nearly all raw sugar trade by ocean going vessel, while a
large part of refined sugar trade is based on land transport.

Major destinations for raw sugar are the Russian Federation, European Union, the
United States, South Korea and Japan. Brazil is a key exporter to the Former Soviet Union
(FSU), Middle East and North America. Far East origins, such as Thailand, supply a major
portion of the deficit in the Far East as well as exports to North America, Western Europe and
the Former Soviet Union. Sugar exports from Sub-Saharan Africa are typically directed to
Western European destinations.

1.2.2 Molasses

1.2.2.1 Supply

In the Philippines, ethanol producers are seeking permission to import molasses for
feedstock due to the high prices of domestic molasses supplies. El Niño is expected to boost
sugarcane yields for the next crop but this season was poor, leaving less molasses availability
that has pushed up prices beyond what is viable for the cost of production. The country has an
E10 policy but only a fraction of that is supplied by domestic production due to high
feedstock prices. Table 7 shows the supply situation of molasses in the year 2017-2019.

Table 6: Supply Situation of Molasses

CY 2018-2019 CY 2017-2018
Supply
(Metric Tons) (Metric Tons)
Production 1,077,268.27 1,319,884.23

17
 Table 7: Latest Cost of Molasses in Manila average and Negros Average.

PERIOD Molasses- Manila Average Molasses- Negros Average

(Peso per Metric Ton) (Peso per Metric Ton)
September 2018 8,020.00 8,020.00
October 2018 8,057.80 8,057.80
November 2018 8,028.60 8,146.35
December 2018 7,879.34 8,594.07
January 2019 8,466.97 9,286.40
February 2019 9,549.68 10,406.77
March 2019 10,331.20 11,423.06
April 2019 10,580.73 11,116.76
May 2019 10,532.23 11,057.67

18
 CHAPTER 2

DEVELOPMENT OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS

2.1 Process Selection

To have a clearer view of the development of manufacturing process of raw sugar,

this section presents the data and general information that were obtained from a number of
sources such as books and literatures. These data were reviewed for information on the
industry and processes, and to supplement the other information presented. This chapter also
presents the different manufacturing processes of sugar industry, wherein the most suitable
process under given conditions were selected to obtain the desired product. Moreover, the
operating parameters of major processes were also discussed.

2.2 History of Raw Sugar Production

Sugar cane is a member of the grass family and is a stalk that looks like a bamboo.
The sugar is stored in the stalks. It grows best in tropical climates and is one of the cheapest
in Africa and Southeast Asia. The sugar was first produced from sugar cane plants in northern
India sometime in first century CE (Sato & Tsugitaka, 2014). The derivation of the word
―sugar‖ is thought to be Sanskrit, meaning ―ground or candied sugar‖, originally ―grit,
gravel‖. Sanskrit literature from ancient India, written between 1500-500 BC provides the
first documentation of the cultivation of sugar cane and the manufacture of sugar in Bengal
region of Indian subcontinent. The Sanskrit name for a crudely made sugar substance was
guda, meaning ―to make into a ball or to conglomerate‖.

The history of sugar has five main phases:

1. The extraction of sugar cane juice from the sugarcane plant, and the subsequent
domestication of the plant in tropical Southeast Asia sometime around 4,000 BC.
2. The invention of manufacture of cane sugar granules from sugarcane juice in India a
little over two thousand years ago, followed by improvements in refining the crystal
granules in India in the early centuries AD.
3. The spread of cultivation and manufacture of cane sugar to the medieval Islamic
world together with some improvements of production methods.
4. The spread of cultivation and manufacture of cane sugar to the West Indies and
tropical parts of the Americas beginning in the 16th century, followed by more

19
 intensive improvements in production in the 17th through 19th centuries in that part of
the world.
5. The development of beet sugar, high fructose corn syrup and other sweeteners in the
19th and 20th centuries.

Known worldwide by the end of the medieval period, sugar was very expensive and
was considered a ―fine spice‖, but from about the year 1500, technological improvements and
New World sources began turning it into a much cheaper bulk commodity (Bernstein, 2009).

In the early civilization, the crucial problem with sugar production was that it was
highly labour-intensive in both growing and processing because of its huge weight and bulk
which is costly and hard to transport. The production process has a lot of intensive operations
which took hours. And as time goes by, the production of sugar became increasingly
mechanized. With the great ideas of the skilled scientists and inventors, machines used in the
production of sugar were developed. This was a stepping stone and a great help in the society
because it is less labour-intensive and it has higher yield of production.

2.3 Manufacturing of Unbleached Sugar Production

Sugar emerged as a very important commodity with its production process already
improved and perfected. Tons of manufacturing guidelines are established including
environmental (Solid Waste and By-products), health (Physical Hazards, Exposure to dust
and biological hazards etc.) and safety (Accidents and Fatality Rates and Occupational Health
and Safety Monitoring) guidelines. EHS Guidelines for Sugar Manufacturing include
information relevant to sugar manufacturing facilities. Handbooks and Rule of Thumbs were
established which serves as a common baseline for plant design and construction. A typical
sugar production process involves sugarcane harvesting, cane preparation, juice extraction,
clarification, filtration, evaporation, crystallization, centrifugation and sugar drying.

2.3.1 Sugarcane Harvesting

Sugarcane manufacturing is typically located adjacent to the sources of raw materials

to reduce costs and transportation time, and to ensure fresh raw material. Sugar canes are
unloaded from the transportation vehicles after a sample has been taken for assessment of
sugar and dirt content. Sugar cane production line usually has to stop every approximately 14
days to facilitate removal of encrustations on heating surfaces. Cane processing facilities

20
typically have substantial areas to stockpile enough raw materials to facilitate continuous
production.

2.3.2 Cane preparation

Traditionally, cane has been burned in the field before transport to process9ng
facilities to remove any leaves from the cane stalk. The current trend is to harvest green
unburned cane, returning leaves to the field where the crop residue promotes soil
conservation. Cane factories may have washing operations followed by disaggregation of the
raw material using knives and hammer mills.

2.3.3 Juice Extraction

Extraction of the sugar juice is achieved with roller mills which press out the juice.
The remains of the cane stalk are called ―bagasse‖, which contains cellulose fibre. This is
mostly used in the process facility as fuel for energy supply. Where fuel is available from
another source, the bagasse may be used for further processing in the cellulose industry. Cane
juice extraction may also be achieved by a diffusion leaching process, which can result in
higher rates of extraction with 50 percent less energy consumption than a mechanical mill.

2.3.4 Clarification

The juice from the mills or diffuser is strained to remove large particles and then
clarified. The juice resulting from the extraction process is clarified by mixing it with milk of
lime, after which it is filtered to remove the mud. The lime is added to neutralize the organic
acids and the temperature of the juice raised to about 95℃ (200℉). A heavy precipitate forms
which is separated from the juice in the clarifier. The Phosphates acts as a flocculating agent.
There are many different forms of clarifiers, many variations of the clarification process, and
many different additives used as clarification aides.

2.3.5 Filtration

The lime is then filtered, resulting in lime sludge, and dried for use as a soil
conditioning agent in agriculture. This process includes filtering the mud from the
clarification process in order to separate suspended matter and insoluble salts formed (fine
bagasse is entrained with these) from the juice. The resultant clear solution of juice is called
―thin juice‖. The mud filtered and the filter cake is washed with water and the wash water is

21
added to the juice recovered during filtration. These juices may require further clarification
prior to evaporation.

2.3.6 Evaporation

After clarification, the thin juice has a sugar content of approximately 15 percent.
Concentrations greater than 68 percent are needed to allow sugar crystallization, and this is
achieved through evaporation. Water is removed from the thin juice in a series of evaporating
vessels until a syrup with a dry matter content of 68-72 percent is obtained. This thick juice is
further evaporated until sugar crystals form, and the crystals and the accompanying syrup are
then centrifuged to separate the two component.

2.3.7 Crystallization

Crystallization of sugars begins at the vacuum pan, where it is further evaporated,

under vacuum, to super saturation. There are several pan designs, each with different models
and sizes. This can be done batch wise or continuous processes, batch systems usually
consists of sequence of multiple (2 or 3) pan boiling. The concept of crystallization is that
there is an excess amount of sugar in the sugar vs. water ratio, thus crystals form as the water
gradually evaporates (turns from liquid to gas).

2.3.8 Centrifugation

From the crystallizer, the massecuite (A massecuite) is then transferred to high-speed

centrifugal machines, in which the mother liquor (molasses) is centrifuged to the outer shell
and the crystals remain in the inner centrifugal basket. Resulting crystals are washed with
water and the wash water centrifuged is returned to a vacuum pan and re-boil to achieved a
second massecuite (B massecuite), that in turn yields a second batch of crystals. The second
acquired massecuite proceeds to the crystallizer and then centrifugal, and the cane sugar is
separated from molasses. This cane sugar is combined with the first crop of crystals. The
molasses obtained from the second boiling is of much lower purity than the first molasses. It
is re-boil to generate a low grade massecuite (C massecuite) which goes to the crystallizer
and then to a centrifugal. This low-grade sugar crystal is mingled with syrup and is used in
vacuum pans as seeding solution. The final molasses from the third stage (Blackstrap) is a
heavy, viscous material used mainly as a supplement in cattle feed.

22
2.3.9 Drying and Storage

This is the final step in the processing of cane sugar before it is packed. The drying
process facilitates suitable storage of the sugar crystals and inhibits microbial growth. The
cane sugar from the combined A and B massecuites is dried in fluidized bed or spouted bed
driers then cooled. Subsequent to cooling, cane sugar is bagged in some areas. Cane sugar is
then generally bulk loaded to trucks, railcars or barges ready for distribution.

23
 Figure 2: Simplified process flow diagram for cane sugar production by J.C.P Chou and C.
Chou (1999)

2.4 Production Operating Parameters

2.4.1 Milling Operation

Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which
can create of variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material

Parameters

 Cutting feed
 Cutting speed
 Spindle speed
 Feed rate
 Axial depth of cut

24
  Radial depth of cut

2.4.1.1 Milling Tandem

The tandem rolling mill consists of several stands that the work material constantly
passes through. At each stand, the thickness of the work strip is reduced a certain amount.
The total reduction between the first and last stand can be significant. There are technical
problems associated with tandem rolling, caused particularly by the fact that the speed of the
work material increases as it passes through each stand.

2.4.2 Liming of Cane Juice

However, the liming station is sometimes neglected, but it is one of the most important
stations in producing a raw-cane sugar for the reason that it will provide a good clarification
and purification of the juice. The importance of treating the raw cane juices with milk of lime
is to raise the pH and to react with impurities to form insoluble calcium organic compounds
that can be removed. The addition of milk of lime to the raw cane juice is a chemical
treatment, and as in all chemical treatments, the correct procedure must be accurately
followed. And also, the requisite capacity of liming tanks should be considered.

2.4.2.1 Composition of Sugar Cane Juice

Although, mixed juices are often treated as a solution of sucrose in water, a variety of
other extracted compounds may be present, some of which may affect clarification and
successive processing. When it comes from the mill tandem, the juice is an opaque liquid
varying in color from greenish-gray to dark green, and it carries suspended matter such as
fine bagasse (bagacillo), gums, albumin, wax, coloring matter, particles of soil, sand, clay
and muck. The normal raw cane juice has pH 5.2—5.4.

2.4.2.2 Quality of Lime

Good-quality milk of lime is required in sugar process for sugar juice

purification/clarification. A good lime should contain over 95% of calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2) and not more than 1% of magnesium oxide (MgO), and should be almost free of
iron, aluminum oxides and sand. The lime should be finely ground and pass through a 400
mesh. Lime which meets these specifications will actually be more economical to use than a
cheaper grade of lime, because in preparation of milk of lime of about 5°Baumé all the lime

25
will be in suspension, and when dispersed in the raw cane juice it will react much faster with
acids and compounds in the sugar cane juice.

2.4.2.3 Preparation of Milk of Lime

In the preparation of milk of lime, dry lime is added to water in a tank equipped with a
slow-moving agitator. To avoid too much handling, the milk of lime can be prepared at 15°
Baume. This station should comprise two equal size tanks, one for 15° Baume milk of lime
and the other for milk of lime diluted to 5° Baume. Thus, one tank will hold a supply of milk
of lime at 15° Baume for 24-h production, and the other, containing diluted milk of lime of 5°
Baume, will be sufficient for 8-h production. The tanks should be provided with long-arm
stirrers revolving at a rate of 8-15 r.p.m. Normally, between 1-1.6 lb of lime are used per ton
of cane. Hence, for each 1000 tons of sugar cane ground per day, 600 gal of milk of lime at
15° Baume (2500 liters per 1000 tones) will be required. For 3000 ton daily grinding, it is
advisable to have two tanks of 2000 gallon (ca. 7500 L) each. If the grinding is doubled, the
same tanks can be used, but the 15°Baume milk of lime will have to be prepared every 12
hours instead of once every 24 hours.

2.4.2.4 Different Liming Methods

There are three possible procedures for liming: cold, hot, and fractional liming and double
heating (FL and DH). Cold liming appears to be the best method for treatment of raw sugar
cane juice prior to the clarification process. The danger of sucrose inversion is reduced to a
minimum, since the juices are neutralized before they are heated to boiling temperature.
Besides, lime is more soluble in cold juices than in hot. With an increase in sucrose content
of the cane juice, the solubility of lime also increases. Cold liming, however, requires a
special technique and will give the best results only when the liming station is properly
installed and operated. As mentioned above, lime is the most effective material to combine
with phosphates, acids and impurities in sugar cane juice and form mud which settles in
clarifiers. As all chemical reactions require a certain time to complete, especially in the cold,
the contact of milk of lime with mixed raw cane juice before it is heated must be for a
minimum of 15 min, and preferably 20 min. If the length of contact of milk of lime with cold
mixed juice is insufficient, a certain amount of lime will remain free and will tend to
precipitate upon heating, causing scaling of heaters and evaporators. When milk of lime is
mixed with raw mixed juice, it forms a mechanical mixture, and a desirable pH may be
indicated, but the actual reaction does not take place if the mixture is heated too soon. For

26
this reason, stirring for 15-20 min is necessary. If the correct amount of lime is added to the
cold raw mixed juice and it is given sufficient time to neutralize the acids and to form
compounds with non-sugars (which will be precipitated in the clarifier), there will not be any
appreciable drop in pH of the clarified juice or, at a later stage, in the syrup. Contact of milk
of lime with cold raw juice for 20 min gives very satisfactory results in purification and
clarification of cane juices.

2.4.2.5 Heating of Limed Juice

Before limed juice is sent to the continuous clarifier, it must be heated to 104-107°C
(220-225°F) in heaters. According to Baikow (1982), the heaters can be divided into primary
and secondary heaters. In primary heaters the limed juice is preheated to about 82-93°C (180-
200°F) with the vapors from the second body evaporator, and in secondary heaters to 104-
107°C (220-225°F) with the vapors from the first body evaporator or pre-evaporator. The
heating surface (HS) in heaters must be 1.2-1.5 ft2 per short ton of sugar cane ground per day
(0.12-0.15 m2 HS per ton of cane). On the other hand, it was specified by Philippine Sugar
Technologies Association Incorporation that juice heating is generally done in stages. The
target values for four-stage juice heating is summarized in Table 7.

Table 8: Target Values for Four-stage Juice Heating

TARGET
Parameters Inlet Temp (˚F) Outlet Temp (˚F)
1st Juice Heater 104 130
2nd Juice Heater 130 170
3rd Juice Heater 170 200
4th Juice Heater 200 220
Exhaust Steam Temperature 116 °C
Exhaust Steam Pressure 0.5-0.12-kg/cm2

2.4.3 Clarification of Cane Juice

The sugar cane juice from the extraction process contains many impurities. Clarification
affects the juice filterability, evaporator scale composition, sucrose crystallization and the
quality and quantity of raw sugar produced. Clarification also affects the color crystal
morphology, crystal content, ash and polysaccharide contents of raw sugar. The clarification

27
of sugar cane occurs by coagulation, flocculation, and precipitation of the colloids and
pigmented substances, which will be eliminated by decanting and filtration. The juice is
heated and purified by the addition of flocculation aids and lime. Flocculation can be carried
out by changing the pH, using chemical reagents, or through heating. A good flocculant
should increase the settling rate of the insoluble solids, decrease the mud volume, produce
good clarity of clarified juice with the least turbidity and should produce good filterability of
mud, with good clarity of filtrate. For coagulation to occur, the medium must be alkaline and
produced by he medium or by the process of alkalinizing agents such as calcium oxide (quick
lime), calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), sodium hydroxide, or sodium carbonate. When it is
added to the cane juice, the modification of pH starts, and together with the effect of
temperature, form precipitates which remove impurities.

2.4.3.1 Temperature for Clarification

One of the most important parameters in the clarification process is the temperature. Heat
helps to kill natural enzymes of the juice, which would otherwise break down the sucrose.
The limed raw juice that enters the clarifier is heated in heaters to 104°C (220°F), slightly
above the boiling point of cane juices of 13-16° Brix. At this temperature, the viscosity of
cane juices is reduced, and when juice passes through the flash tank, the occluded gases are
eliminated. At a lower temperature, clarification becomes more difficult because of slower
settling of suspended matters in juice. Elevated temperature is important because it aids the
necessary coagulation of albumin and nitrogen substances and flocculation of lime and
phosphates in juice. Other parameters that must be noted are destruction of invert sugar,
variations of pH in the clarifier and the effect of retention time on juices.

2.4.3.3 Clarification Optimization

Each type of continuous clarifier for sugar cane juice can produce good quality clarified
juice with the required brilliancy and clarity, provided it is properly operated and raw cane
juice is correctly treated. To accomplish this, the following recommendations are made:

1. In case the sugar cane is mechanically harvested and loaded, and therefore contains a
large proportion of field dirt (which may be sand, clay, muck etc.), it is advisable to
wash the cane prior to processing, or clean mixed juices to prevent excessive retention
of hot juice in clarifiers, or the sugar cane can be dry cleaned by fans blowing air.
Today, such fans are installed in the harvester

28
 2. If cane juice is difficult to clarify it should be treated with phosphoric acid before
continuous liming. In some cases, poly-electrolytes can be used to increase rate of
coagulation. However, exaggerated doses may affect boiling of low-grade massecuite.
3. There must be correct liming and proper contact time to accomplish complete reaction
and flocculation.
4. Prior to clarification the cane juice must be rapidly heated to 104°C (220°F), and
pumping of juice must be uniform. The hot juice must flow through the flash tank and
gases must be separated from the juice.
5. The pH of cane juice must be the same in all compartments of the clarifier.
6. The retention time in the clarifier should be as brief as possible (2-3 hours or less).
7. Clarified juice should be screened and adjusted if necessary, to ca. pH 6.8-7.2 with a
small amount of soda ash (Na2CO3) before it is reheated and pumped to evaporators.

2.4.4 Filtration of Mud from Clarifiers

The settled mud from the clarifier with 6.8 to 7.0 pH and 22 to 24 Bx contains the muddy
juice temperature above 80°C. For better filtration, temperature should be on higher side. As
viscosity of juice id inversely proportional to temperature. Low viscosity favors the filtration.

2.4.4.1 Vacuum (Low and High vacuum levels)

Low Vacuum: 8 to 12”

If too low, the filter cake will either not form of will not have the necessary consistency.
When washing the cake with water under pressure from the sprays, the filter cake will drop
off the screens which affect the filter operating capacity. If too high, more solid goes through
the heavy filtrate and screens will be chocked.

High Vacuum: 15 to 20”

If too low, the washing and drying of cake would be deficient. This would result in filter cake
with high sucrose. If too high, filtrate would be cloudier and there would be a tendency for
the screens and suction tube to clog.

2.4.4.2 Bagacillo
Bagacillo act as a filtering medium and increase the porosity of cake. Hence, bagacillo should
be uniform in size and is adequate quantity. Bagacillo quantity depends on the texture or

29
density of mud. If the mud is too diluted it will be necessary to apply more bagacillo and vice
versa.

a) Normally, the quantity of bagacillo is from 6 to 8 kg per ton of cane crushed.

b) Excess of bagacillo educe the operating capacity of the filter. Adversely affect the
exhaustion of the filter cake and increase the polarization and sugar losses.
c) Lower bagacillo quantities reduces the filtering action. The filtrates are a lot of
cloudier and it may cause clogging of the screens and suctions tube due to the great
number of solids that pass with the juice. The action of the scrapper is also affected
which does not clean the screen.

2.4.4.2 Speed of Rotary Filter: 3 to 5 r.p.m

a) If too slow, the filter cake is too thick which would result in higher pol. The mud
volume should be increased, reduce the capacity.
b) If too high, exhaustion and washing should not be proper.

2.4.4.4 Thickness of Filter Cake: ¼” to ½”

a) If too much, the exhausting of the sucrose in the mud is less, the pol in mud will be higher
and sugar losses will be filtered.

b) If too thin, operating capacity of the filter is adversely affected, cloudier filtrate, risk of
clogging in the screens and suctions tubes.

2.4.4.5 Mud Temperature and Trough Level

It is 80 to 85°C after the addition of the bagacillo. Below that temperature, there is a risk
of waxes blocking the gauge. If trough level is higher, the cake should be thin. If trough level
is lower, the cake should be thick.

2.4.4.6 Size of Rotary Filter

The desirable size of a rotary filter with standard 8 ft (2.43 m) diameter drum depends on
the amount of mud which has to be filtered. The Oliver Campbell vacuum filters built by
Don-Oliver Company, vary in size from 8 to 32 ft (2.43-9.75 m) long with filtering area of
200-1300 ft2 (18.6-120.8 m2).
2.4.5 Juice Evaporation
Clarified juice is concentrated to a syrupy consistency before it is sent to the vacuum pans
to be crystallized into raw sugar. The concentrate is made in several evaporators connected in
series, called a 'multiple-effect'. The juice travels from one vessel (or 'body') to another

30
because of the gradual increase of vacuum. The last body of the multiple effect has a
maximum vacuum of ca. 0.86-0.93 kg cm2 (25-27 in). The vapors obtained in each body of
the multiple-effect serve to heat the calandria tubes and to evaporate additional water in the
following vessel. A multiple-effect consisting of three bodies is called a triple-effect, four
bodies is a quadruple-effect, and five bodies is a quintuple-effect.

2.4.5.1 Heat-transfer coefficients for various vessels

Hugot (1986) listed the commonest heat transfer coefficients, taking scaling into account,
and based on apparent temperature drops. Table 8 summarizes the apparent heat transfer
coefficients.

Table 9: Apparent Heat Transfer Coefficients (Hugot, 1986)

Triple Quadruple Quintuple

1st Vessel 400-500 400-500 400-500

2nd Vessel 300-375 275-375 275-375

3rd Vessel 150-200 200-275 250-300

4th Vessel 125-150 150-200

5th Vessel 100-125

In addition, pressure distribution in multiple-effect evaporator is given by Hugot (1986)

summarized in Table 10.

Table 10: Pressure and Temperature Drops in °F and psia

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Steam
Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect
Pressure 28.8 19 10.2 2.3
Triple Effect
Temperature 248 225 194 131
Quadruple Pressure 28.8 21.5 14.5 8.2 2.3
Effect Temperature 248 232 212 185 131
Quintuple Pressure 28.8 23 17.4 12.1 7 2.3
Effect Temperature 248 235 221 203 175 131

31
2.4.5.2 Rate of Evaporation

The clarified juice must be evaporated to 55-65°Brix regardless of which system of

multiple-effect evaporators is used. The rate of evaporation per square foot of heating surface
(HS) will vary inversely to the number of vessels in the multiple-effect, the highest rate of
evaporation being in a triple effect, and the lowest in a quintuple-effect, and conversely,
steam economy will be greatest in a quintuple- rather than triple-effect, because one pound of
steam will evaporate approximately five pounds of water, while in a triple effect it will
evaporate only about three pounds. The larger rate of evaporation in a triple-effect is due to
the greater temperature differential between the vessels than in other effects. A multiple-
effect with more than five vessels is not practicable, because the temperature of vapors in the
last body would be too low for further evaporation of water. The evaporation capacity of
several vessels working under the conditions specified in Table 11 is summarized as

Table 11: Evaporation Capacity of Vessel in lb/ft2/h

1st Vessel 2nd Vessel 3rd Vessel 4th Vessel 5th Vessel
Triple Effect 11 9.8 8.8
Quadruple Effect 7.6 7.2 6.6 5.7
Quintuple Effect 5.7 5.3 5.1 5.1 3.5

2.4.6 Juice Crystallization

Vacuum pans are single-effect evaporators varying in size up to 14 ft diameter (4.270 m),
and sometimes even larger. There are several types of vacuum pan, including the coil, regular
calandria, and ribbon calandria. Recently, the Fives-Cail-Babcock Company has developed a
horizontal vacuum pan with heating plates. There is also the Swenson F.C. continuous
vertical crystallizer and the Langreney horizontal vacuum pan.

2.4.6.1 Condenser for Vacuum Pans

The type of condenser for a vacuum pan must be selected according to the availability of
water and the maximum rate of evaporation, which may be 17 lb ft2/h (83 kg m2/h) for
footing strike, 14 lb-ft2/h (68 kg-m2/h) for Ά'- and 'B'-grade strikes and 8 lb ft 2 hf 1 (39 kg
m2/h) for 'C'-grade strikes (Nash international, 1945). When using counter-current type
condensers, approximately the following amounts of injection water are required per 1000 ft2
(93 m2) of heating surface (HS) of vacuum pan at 85°F (29°C) and 95°F (35°C), respectively:

32
900 gal/min (3.4 m3/min ) and 1100 gal/min (4.15 m3/min); for a multi-jet condenser 1200
gal/min (4.54 m3/min) and 2000 gal/min (7.57 m3/min). If a counter-current condenser is too
small for the vacuum pan, or there is not enough water, the vacuum can be increased by
installing a vacuum pump. However, vacuum pumps do not work satisfactorily with multi-jet
condensers. The connection between condenser and leg pipe must be a steep cone, which will
accelerate water discharge from the condenser and prevent bridging.

2.4.6.2 Boiling of Raw Sugar Massecuites

The most commonly used methods of crystallizing sugar and exhausting the final
molasses are two-, two and a half-, three- and four-strike boiling systems. Ideally, maximum
crystal yield and maximum exhaustion of final molasses should be obtained, with the fewest
possible strikes. However, in practice, the purity of the footing strike, purity of syrup, purity
drop from strike to molasses and purity of low-grade massecuite to be boiled must all be
taken into consideration. If apparent purity is used as an index, then the amount of invert
sugar present is an important factor. In most cases, apparent purity of the low-grade
massecuite ('C') must be in the range 58—61° to have satisfactory exhaustion of final
molasses and maximum recovery of sucrose. In current practice, all strikes are boiled and
crystallized on existing or specially prepared footing. Generally, for low-grade 'C massecuite
a special footing strike is boiled, but footing for higher grade massecuites is prepared by
making a magma from 'C sugar mixed with syrup, clarified juice or water. It is advisable to
use hot clarified juice or water for preparing magma, because more fines, false grain and
undesirable types of grain will be dissolved, and the grain of the magma will be more
uniform. The Brix of the footing magma must be about 88° in all cases, and a smaller volume
of juice or water than of syrup will therefore be used in preparation of magma. Purity of the
footing magma has an important effect on the quality of raw sugar produced.

2.4.6.3 Footing Strike

In order to have good quality and high purity 'C'-grade sugar which will exhaust molasses
to the maximum, the footing strike must be very well boiled, and even-sized, uniform and
hard crystals free from conglomerates must be obtained. Webre (1962) has developed a
system of graining on ‗A‘-grade molasses by which very uniform crystals are obtained.
However, correct development of this type of crystal requires additional time in the vacuum
pan, and apparent purity of ‗A‘-grade molasses should not be below 68°. It is possible to
grain on lower purity molasses, but the resulting footing strike will be of poor quality and

33
certainly will not be desirable for use as footing for *C massecuite, if high-quality sugar is to
be developed from 'C sugar used as footing. In some cases, it is advisable instead to grain on
syrup of 78—85° purity in order to have a hard and sharp crystal, and feed the strike with ‗E‘
molasses, after a good crystal has already been established. Irrespective of the boiling system
used, a good footing strike must be boiled. The footing strike can be grained on syrup, a
mixture of ‗A‘ molasses and syrup, ‗A‘ molasses alone, providing the purity of this charge is
not less than ca. 68° apparent purity.

2.4.6.4 Preparation of Seed and Graining

It is desirable to grain with fondant sugar or 10X powder suspended in isopropyl alcohol
or polyethyleneglycol 200, which is most advisable for fondant sugar suspension. However,
if alcohol is not available, the powder can be used dry. For seeding a footing strike the
amount of powder required is 1 lb per 1000 ft3 (16.9 g/m3) of finished 'C massecuite.
However, the amount can be varied depending on local conditions. The correct amount can
be determined by experimentation. One footing strike can be boiled for two, three or four 'C
strikes. The amount of grain to be developed depends on the number of 'C strikes to be boiled
from one footing strike. The more 'C strikes to be boiled out of one footing strike, the more
grain the footing strike must have. When the vacuum pan has no instruments for
determination of supersaturation, the syrup can be tested by taking a little between thumb and
index finger. If it has boiled to such a consistency that the fingers can be separated about an
inch without breaking the thread, then it can be seeded. Of course, for more accurate work it
is preferable to use instruments indicating supersaturation. A popular example of one such
instrument is that manufactured by Fisher and Porter. Apparent purity of the initial charge
must be calculated in such a way that apparent purity of the completed footing strike will not
exceed 68—70°.
2.3.7 Centrifugation

Both batch and continuous centrifugals are used to separate the liquid and hard phases of
raw sugar. All types of batch centrifugal used in the sugar industry are similar, differing only
in size, capacity and accessories.

2.4.7.1 Batch Centrifugals

1. Baskets
The centrifugal basket into which the massecuite is loaded is suspended by a spindle
attached directly to a vertical driving motor. The basket is made of mild steel, steel and

34
nickel alloy, stainless steel, or stainless-steel sheet rolled and welded. The sides are
perforated for good drainage, and the holes are chamfered. The complete assembly is
dynamically balanced. Some manufacturers of centrifugals use hoops, but others prefer a
welded basket without hoops, claiming that the hoops shrink unequally when fitted to the
basket, and therefore the pressure is not evenly distributed, resulting in some hoops being
under greater strain than others. However, in recent years centrifugal baskets without
reinforcing hoops have failed catastrophically in several areas. It is vitally important for
safety to provide centrifugal baskets with high-tensile alloy steel reinforcing rings equally
spaced and shrink-fitted in place on the basket sheet. If the capacity of the sugar factory
or refinery is increased, the baskets can be replaced by 48 X 36 X 7 in baskets, increasing
the capacity of the centrifugal from 675 to 810 kg (15.7-18.8 ft3). All baskets are built in
such a way that dripping into the sugar conveyor is impossible.

2. Basket Capacity
The capacity of a batch centrifugal is determined by the size of the basket. For 4 A'
and Έ' massecuites, the baskets most frequently used are 48 X 30 X 7 in, which can be
loaded with 15.79 ft3 (0.447 m3) of massecuite. If needed, even larger machines are
available. Five-Cail-Ba\bcock manufactures 54 Χ 42 Χ 7 in centrifugals capable of curing
360 tons of sugar per day, and BMA builds a centrifugal with dimensions of 1.34 X 0.83
m (52.76 X 32.68 in), which can be loaded with 1000 kg (2200 lb) of massecuite). The
BMA machine operates at a maximum speed of 1500 r.p.m., and can be driven by a three-
phase AC (pole-changing asynchronous) motor, or by a DC motor (auxiliary DC motor
fed by selenium current motors). The Western States Machine Co. builds a 54 X 40 X 7
in centrifugal with a capacity of 1030 kg (23.9 ft3), with speeds from 860 r.p.m. for 60-
cycle motors up to 1160 r.p.m. for 5-cycle. Other manufacturers also build large
centrifugals for low- or high-grade massecuites. However, the centrifugal station is less
flexible with large capacity centrifugals, and the 48 in-diameter centrifugal remains the
most popular size.

3. Motors
The 48-in centrifugals are generally driven by AC motor with two-speed, single-
winding, consequent-pole, single-end, self-ventilated induction motor designed to provide
the necessary acceleration to fit the load to load duty cycle for which the centrifugals are

35
 intended. Two-speed motors are used to reduce the power loss during acceleration and to
provide regenerative electric braking to approximately half speed.

4. Speed
These centrifugals develop 1160 r.p.m. Corresponding centrifugals in metric measures
have baskets with diameter 1.25 m, height 0.80 m and 117 mm cap. These machines also
develop about 1160 r.p.m., or 1450 r.p.m. if operated on 50-cycle current.

2.4.7.2 Continuous Centrifuge

In recent years, continuous centrifugals have been designed and perfected to the point that
they can be successfully used for purging low-grade massecuites, thus replacing batch
machines. The purging of massecuites in continuous centrifugals is based on the 'thin layer
principle'. The massecuite is fed in at the bottom of the centrifugal in a continuous flow.
Because the centrifugal basket is an inverted cone, the crystals of sugar thrown by centrifugal
force toward the basket wall will move upward in the direction of least resistance until they
reach the upper edge of the basket and are thrown out, leaving room for new crystals to
follow the same course. As the massecuite moves up, the liquid phase is thrown out by
centrifugal force through the screen perforations. Since the movement of sugar upward is
very rapid, the layer of massecuite in the basket always remains very thin, unless the
centrifugal is overloaded. The continuous centrifugal has a cylindrical bottom section without
outlet. This is the loading bowl, serving to distribute the inflowing massecuite. The largest
basket diameter is 1 m (ca. 40 in). In the continuous centrifugal, it is of prime importance that
the mother liquor acts as a lubricant for the crystal on its way out of the basket through the
perforated screen. As in batch centrifugal, if the crystal reaches the basket side before the
mother liquor because of the difference in specific gravity, the drainage of molasses through
the tightly lodged sugar becomes difficult, even though the layer is thin. Perhaps for this
reason, several types of continuous centrifugal use a large amount of water, e.g. 2-12 1 (0.5-
3.0 gal/ min) to dilute the mother liquor and facilitate its exit from the basket before it reaches
the top of the basket together with the sugar (Ramirez & Nazario, 1964).

1. Location of Feed
Many continuous centrifugal are designed in such a way that the massecuite is fed
near the side of the loading bowl instead of at its center, to prevent separation of crystal
from mother liquor. In some continuous centrifugal, the bowl is perforated and covered

36
with a screen. There is no separation of crystals from the mother liquor before the run-off
starts draining in the cylindrical bottom section. Approximately 5% of the mother liquor
leaves the massecuite in that section. This means a liquid film is continuously moving
between the screen lining and sugar crystals and attrition is therefore prevented. Because
of this, much less water is required in purging low-grade massecuites in a continuous
centrifugal. On account of displacement of the massecuite feed toward the side, it is
possible to lower the basket on the spindle, increasing the basket's stability. Practically all
manufacturers of batch centrifugal also manufacture either vertical or horizontal
continuous-centrifugal, the diameter of baskets at the top varying from 0.85 to 1.0 m
(33.4-40 in).

Figure 3: Sugar production process diagram

37
 CHAPTER 3

DESIGN OF MAJOR EQUIPMENT

3.1 Plant Description

The sugar industry process sugar cane to manufacture edible sugar. More than 60% of
the world‘s sugar production is from sugar cane and the rest is derived from sugar beets. Raw
sugar production averages 2.2-2.4 million metric tons per year. The Philippines Sugarcane
Industry contributes no less than P70 Billion to our economy annually. However, the
Philippines has a low sugar yield at 5.1 tons sugar per hectare. Out of the total land area of
about 30 million hectares, sugarcane is planted to about 422,500 hectares in the Philippines,
with about 62,000 farmers. Close to 700,000 Filipinos are directly employed in sugar
production, and about 5-6 million more are indirectly employed, representing close to 7
percent of the country‘s population. Bacolod is the capital of Negros Occidental, known as
the ―sugar bowl‖ of the Philippines being the country‘s leading producer of sugar.
Approximately 10 percent of the sugar cane can be processed to commercial sugar, using
approximately 20 cubic meters of water per metric ton of cane processed.

Sugar cane is a grass native to Asia and grows mostly in tropical and subtropical
areas. Sugarcane is grown by replanting part of a mature cane stalk. Farmers cut some of the
fully grown cane stalks into 40 cm lengths called ―setts‖. These ―setts‖ are planted by special
machines, which drop them into furrows, add fertilizer and cover them with soil. At the sugar
mill, the sugar cane stalks are washed and cut into shreds. Huge rollers press sugar cane juice
out of the shredded stalks. The raw sugar is melted and filtered to remove remaining
impurities primarily molasses.

3.2 Process Description

3.2.1 Cane Preparation

In tropical and semitropical regions where sugarcane is grown, cane is cut by man or
machine. Cane preparation involves weighing and unloading the cane from the transport and
preparing it for feeding into the mills or the diffuser. Cane is moved either by cranes or by
tipping the trucks, onto feed tables and hence to cane carriers which move it into the factory.
Breaking the cane uses revolving knives, shredders, crushers, or a combination of these
processes.

38
3.2.2 Milling Operation

The prepared cane which arriving at the head of carriers is fed into a crusher by a
hopper. At the mill, the sugar cane is crushed by large rollers. Juice extraction is done by
milling, the process of squeezing the juice from the cane under a set of mill using high
pressure between heavy iron rollers. Those mills can have from 3 up to 6 rolls; every set of
mills is called a tandem mill or mill train. The fibre is squeezed so thoroughly it is dry
enough to be used as fuel to fire the mill‘s boilers.

3.2.3 Cold Liming

Cold liming appears to be the best method for treatment of raw sugar cane juice prior
to the clarification process. In the United States, particularly Louisiana and Florida, ―cold‖
lime clarification is still the clarification process of choice. The danger of sucrose inversion is
reduced to a minimum, since the juices are neutralized before they are heated to boiling
temperature. Besides, lime is more soluble in cold juices than in hot. The higher the sucrose
content the more soluble the lime is.

As all chemical reactions require a certain time to complete, especially in the cold, the
contact of milk of lime with mixed raw cane juice prior to heating must be for a minimum of
15 minutes, and preferably 20 minutes as it gets very satisfactory. During liming, the mixed
cane juice must be stirred continuously to disperse the milk of lime properly and evenly all
throughout the juice results in purification and clarification of cane juices.

3.2.4 Juice Heaters

Before limed juice is sent to the continuous clarifier, it is important to subject it to

104-107°C (220-225°F) in heaters. It is a necessity as treating the juice in the next process
requires it to be heated at least once. It has a potential to eliminate the microorganisms by
sterilization, completion of chemical reactions with the alkalizing agent, flocculation and
removal of gases in the upcoming steps. The raw cane juice, with 14°Brix and 40℃, is
gradually heated through four-stage juice heating until it reaches the temperature of 104℃,
the maximum requirement temperature for clarification stage.

3.2.5 Flash Tank

Subsequent to heating the raw cane juice, gas elimination is obtained by flashing in a
flash tank. Here, lime is added to give good clarification and good settling, with a pH of

39
clarified juice close to 7.0. It passes immediately afterwards to the subsiders, where the
precipitate formed by the limed is settled.

3.2.6 Clarifier

A type of a settling tank built with mechanical means for continuous removal of solids
being deposited by sedimentation. The clarification of cane juice occurs by coagulation,
flocculation, and precipitation of the colloids and pigmented substances, which are later
eliminated by decanting and filtration. Its purpose is the precipitation and removal of all
possible non-sugars, organic and inorganic, and the preservation of the maximum sucrose and
reducing sugars possible in the clarified juice. Clarification process was required to reduce
particles in sugarcane juice such as impurities before heating to produce syrup.

3.2.7 Rotary Vacuum Filter

This equipment consists of a drum rotating in a tub of liquid to be filtered. The

technique is well suited to slurries, and liquids with a high solid content, which could clog
other forms of filter. The drum is pre-coated with a filter aid, typically of diatomaceous earth
or Perlite. ` Rotary Vacuum filters are used to desweeten and dewater the mud that is
separated from the juice in the clarifier. During the process of clarification, the suspended
matter and heavy particles coagulated by lime and heat settle on the surface of clarifier trays
in the form of sludge or ‗mud‘ as it is called. This mud is removed from the clarifier trays
into the mud-thickening compartment with long arms to which squeegees are attached. From
the thickening compartment of the clarifier the mud is lifted, by means of suction diaphragm
pumps, into the mud box, from which it flows by gravity to the mud filter station.

3.2.8 Juice Holding Tank

Cane juice is quite acidic and it emits a gaseous discharge. If the equipment is a free-
standing holding tank with no moving parts, then sugarcane juice quickly erodes the holding
tank‘s material. Therefore proper specifications is needed for choosing and using a certain
type of holding tank, as the clarified juice from the clarifier and the filtrate from the rotary
vacuum filter is stored in the juice holding tank before feeding the juice into the evaporator.

3.2.9 Evaporator

A device that is designed to turn the liquid form of a chemical substance such as water
into its gaseous form or vapour. Evaporator in a cooling system in which the liquid

40
evaporates and this order is Refrigerant device that extracts heat from its environment. After
removing the impurities as far as possible in the clarification stage, the clarified juice
proceeds to multiple effect evaporation section to perform the first step in the process of
recovering sugar from the juice – the evaporative removal of water. As evaporation is
performed, the Brix concentration relatively increase from 16°Brix to 65°Brix.

3.2.10 Vacuum Pan

Syrup from the evaporators is sent to vacuum pans, where it is further evaporated,
under vacuum, to super saturation. Fine seed crystals are added, and the sugar ―mother
liquor‖ yields a solid precipitate of about 50 percent by weight crystalline sugar. In the pan
boiling process, syrup is evaporated until it reaches the stage of being supersaturated. At this
point, the crystallization process is initiated by ―seeding‖ or ―shocking‖ the solution. As the
volume of the mixture of liquor and crystals, known as massecuite, reaches the capacity of
the pan, the evaporation is allowed to proceed until the final massecuite is formed. The pan is
depressurized to 580 mmHg and super saturation of syrup begins. When boiling occurs, the
concentration of the clarified syrup is continued up to the concentration from which the syrup
is seeded with smaller crystals, triggering the formation of crystals. The pan boiling raises the
Brix by 96°Brix forming massecuite. The massecuite is then fed to a centrifuge in order to
separate sugar crystals from molasses.

3.2.11 Crystallizer

In industrial sugarcane processing, crystallization is conducted under vacuum in order

to lower operating temperatures, but some sugars produced in the tropics by ―open pan‖
processes. Crystallization is a serial process. Crystallizers are the most useful for operations
in which the solution‘s boiling point is extremely high, or when such low temperatures are
required that evaporation by vacuum is not possible.

3.2.12 Centrifuge

To acquire the sugar crystals from the molasses, high-speed (1800-2000 rpm) rotating
spin applied to the massecuite, resulting by the action of centrifugal force sugar crystals and
mother liquor separates. The high-speed centrifugal action is done by revolving machines
called centrifugals. The final molasses (Blackstrap molasses) that contains sucrose, reducing
sugars, organic non-sugars, ash and water proceeds to large storage tanks.

41
3.2.13 Dryer

When drying sugar crystals it is important that the syrup clinging to the crystal surface
also undergoes crystallization. This process takes both time and crystal nuclei. A counter
current drying drum offers perfect conditions for effective drying of the moist sugar crystals
after centrifugation. Drum dryer combines the mechanical treatment of the crystal surface and
slow drying conditions in an ideal manner. To control the drying effect in the drum dryer,
heated air can additionally be fed into the dryer through a central pipe. With this type of
dryer, there is a perfect balance between energy input and water evaporation rate.

3.3 Material Balance Summary

Table 12: Material Balance Summary

Equipment
Description Input (tons/hr) Output (tons/hr)
Name
Sugarcane 25
Imbibition water 6.25
Mill
Bagasse 6.85
Raw Cane Juice 24.4
Raw Cane Juice 24.4
Cold Liming Milk of lime 0.0125
Limed Juice 24.4125
Limed Juice 24.4125
Juice Heaters
Product juice 24.4125
Product juice 24.4125
Flash Tank Limed Juice 24.4125
Incondensable negligible
Limed Juice 24.4125
Clarifier Clarified Juice 20.6567
Mud 3.7558
Mud 3.7558
Rotary Vacuum
Filtrate 3.6056
Filter
Filter Cake 0.1502
Clarified Juice 20.6567
Juice Holding
Filtrate 3.6056
Tank
Total Juice 24.2623
Total Juice 24.2623
Evaporator
Total product 5.2555
Evaporated Juice 5.2555
Seeding solution 0.00053
Vacuum Pan
Vapour 1.69707
Massecuite 3.55896
Massecuite 3.55896
Centrifuge Molasses 2.0642
Raw Sugar 1.49476
42
3.4 Energy Balance Summary

Table 13: Energy Balance Summary

Equipment Flow rate of Heat Transfer Heat gained

Name steam (lb/hr) Area (ft2) (BTU/hr)

1,418.05 6.3641 ---

2,181.6154 138.878 ---
Juice Heater
1,636.2116 170.9129 ---
1,090.8077 208.9149 ---
1,332.573838 13,359,965.54
Evaporator 14,110.65224 1,272.056495 12,753,231.36
1,438.86546 14,425,604.67
Vacuum Pan 3,671.713291 --- 3,476,157.841

43
 CHAPTER 4

PLANT LAY-OUT

4.1 Equipment Arrangement and Location

44
 CHAPTER 5

DESIGN OF AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT

5.1 Equipment Design Calculations

5.1.1 Mill
Design Input:
 Properties of Material Handled (Based from Hugot)
Mill Size:
 Length L = 45‘‘ or 3.75 ft
 sWidth W = 90‘‘ or 7.5 ft
4 Mill (3 rollers) N= 4×3 = 12
Preparation Device Factor a = 1. 05
Fiber Loading FL = 0.232 kg/dm2
Fiber Index Fi = 0.81 kg/dm3
Ratio for Mill Ratio = 2.0-4.0
3-Roller Outer Diameter:
 Top Roller ODTR = 3.99 ft
 Feed Roller ODFR = 3.75 ft
 Discharge Roller ODDR = 3.61 ft
Roller Speed n = 2.8 rpm

 Flow of Material Handled

Operation Basis = 1 hour
Mass flow of Feed Sugarcane F1 = 25 ton/hr
Mass flow of Imbibition Water F2 = 6.250 ton/hr
Mass flow of Raw Cane Juice F3 = 24.4 ton/hr
Mass flow of Bagasse F4 = 6.85 ton/hr
Fiber % Content % fiber = 13%
F2 = 6.25 tons/hr

F1 = 25 tons/hr MILL F3 = 24.4 tons/hr

F4 = 6.85
tons/hour
Design Calculations: (Based From Hugot)

 Design milling capacity

45
 √
(65)( fibre)
√
(13)(65)

 Delivery working opening,

 Feed opening,

 Mean diameter of the top roller,

The roller is provided with V-groove of 0.164 ft height then the groove correction is
0.082 ft.

 Mean diameter of feed roller,

 Mean diameter of delivery roller,

Set the largest diameter for the top roller, second largest for the feed and the smallest for
the delivery roller with a hydraulic lift of 6 mm (0.01969 ft) and the top angle of 76°.

 Delivery setting,

46
  Feed setting,

CTC (center to center) works and CTC sets for the respective mill

 CTC work for feed

 CTC work for delivery

 CTC set for feed

 CTC set for delivery

5.1.2 Liming Tank

Design Input:

 Properties of Material Handled

47
 Density of Lime ρlime = 2.340 kg/m3
Density of Cane Juice ρcane juice = 272 kg/m3
Thickness of the tank t = 0.25 (standard)
 Flow of Material Handled

Operation Basis = 1 hour

Amount of Raw Cane Juice M3 = 24.4 tons/hr
Amount for Milk of Lime M5 = 0.0125 tons/hr
Amount of Limed Juice M6 = 24.4125 tons/hr

F5 = 0.0125 tons/hr

F3 = 24.4 tons/hr LIMING TANK

F6 = 24.4125 tons/hr

Design Calculations:

For the Tank of Lime

 Volume of lime

Rule of thumb:

1. 10% allowance must be allocated to tank and vessels for optimum design

2. The height of tank and diameter ratio (H:D) is about 3:1

 Volume of tank

 Tank Dimensions

Assume H/D = 3. Solving for tank height and diameter,

48
 √ √

For Liming Tank

 Volume of raw cane juice,

 Volume capacity of Liming tank,

√
√

 Total volume of the liming tank,

 Tank dimensions:

Where H1=ac,

49
 √

√ ( *

 Impeller Diameter,

 Impeller distance from tank to bottom

 Baffle width

5.1.3 Juice Heaters

Design Input:

 Properties of Material Handled

 Juice % on Cane  P = 97.6%

 Velocity of Juice  Vj = 1.9812 m/s
 Density of Juice  ρ = 272 kg/m3
 Tube OD  OD = 45 mm

50
  Tube ID  ID = 42.66 mm
 Tube Length  L = 6000 mm
 Specific Heat of Juice  Cp = 0.916 Kcal/kg/°C
 Legment  Lg = 12 mm
 Vapour Inlet Temperature  Tv = 116°C
 Juice Inlet Temperature  Ti = 40°C
 Juice Outlet Temperature  To =104 °C
 Tube Plate Thickness  t = 25 mm
 Velocity of Vapour  Vv = 40 m/s
 Heater Heating Surface  S = 73 m2
 Velocity of Condensate  Vc = 1 m/s
 Proportional Factor  β = 0.7
 Latent Heat of Vapour  λ = 528.56 Kcal/kg
 Specific Volume of Vapour  µ = 2.83 m3/kg
 Flow of Material Handled

F6=24.4125 ton/hr Juice Heater F7 = 24.4125 ton/hr

tons/hr tons/hr

Amount of Feed Sugarcane F1 = 25 tons/hr

Amount of Limed Juice F6 = 24.4125 tons/hr
Amount of Product Juice F7 = 24.4125 tons/hr

Design Calculations:

First Heater

 Number of tubes per pass

a. Volume of the Juice

( *

( * ( )

51
 b. Area of each tube

c. Number of tubes per pass

Assume juice velocity is at 1.9812 m/s (Hugot E. , 1986)

( )

 Number of tubes

a. Mean diameter,

b. Effective tube length,

c. Number of the tubes,

52
 Number of passes

 Number of compartments

 Actual number of tubes

( *

 Actual heating of surface, S

 Actual velocity,

53
  Pressure drop across the juice heater,

( *

( )( *

 Tube plate diameter

a. Tube pitch

b. Tube plate area,

Taking 10% extra,

c. Tube plate diameter

 Diameter of juice inlet pipe

a. Area of juice pipe,

54
 b. Diameter of juice pipe,

 Vapour inlet diameter

a. Juice Flowrate,

b. Weight of the juice

( *( * ℃ ℃

c. Weight of Vapor

( *

d. Area of vapour pipe,

( )

55
 e. Diameter of vapour pipe,

 Calandria shell thickness

Required data Value Unit of Measurement Symbol

Maximum allowable pressure 3 Kg/cm2 P
ID of the juice heater 1750 mm Di
Allowable stress 1400 Kg/cm2 S
Welding joint efficiency 0.75 E
Corrosion allowance 1.5 mm C

Solving for Calandria shell thickness,

( *

 Tube plate thickness

Required data Value Unit of Measurement Symbol

Corrosion allowance 3 Mm C
2
Allowable stress 1400 Kg/cm S
Maximum allowable pressure 3 Kg/cm2 P
Modulus factor for mild steel sheet 2100000 Kg/cm2 Es
Modulus factor for brass sheet 1900000 Kg/cm2 Et
ID of the shell 1750 mm Di
Thickness of the shell 1.2 mm ts
Thickness of tube 1.22 mm tt
OD of the tube 45 mm Dot
OD of the calandria sheet 1700 mm Dos
Number of tubes 90 tubes Nt

56
 a. Safety factor, f

( *

( *

b. Tube plate thickness,

 Thickness of the cover plate

Required data Value Unit of Measurement Symbol

ID of the shell 1750 mm Di
Flat joint 0.3 K
Design pressure 3 Kg/cm2 P
2
Allowable stress 1400 Kg/cm S
Corrosion allowance 1.5 Mm C

Computer Calculation for Juice Heater 1:

Shell and Tube Tubular Heater Design Calculation

Particulars Values UOM
Crushing rate 25 TCH
Juice% cane 97.6 %

57
 Velocity of juice 1.9812 m/s
Tube OD 45 mm
Tube Thickness 1.2 mm
Tube ID 42.6 mm
Tube Length 6000 mm
Specific heat of juice 0.916 Kcal/kg˚C
Legment 12 mm
Vapour inlet temperature 116 ˚C
Juice Inlet temperature 40 ˚C
Juice Outle temperature 104.4 ˚C
Tube plate thickness 25 mm
Velocity of vapour 40 m/s
Heater Heating Surface 73 m2
Velocity of Condensate 1 m/s
Proportional factor 0.7
Latent Heat of Vapour 528.56
Specific Volume of Vapour 2.083 m3/kg

Results for Juice Heater 1:

Number of tubes per pass 9 Tubes/pass

Number of tubes 89 Numbers
Number of passes 10 number of passes
Number of compartments 3
Actual number of tubes 105 numbers
Actual heating surface 73.562 m2
Actual velocity 17.427 m/sec
Pressure drop across the juice heater 62.583 MWC
Pitch 57.6 mm
Tube plate area 0.369 m2
Tube plate diameter 719 mm
Diameter of juice inlet pipe 0.0427 m
Vapour inlet pipe 0.2738 m

Calculation for Juice Heater 2:

Shell and Tube Tubular Heater Design Calculation

Particulars Values UOM
Crushing rate 25 TCH
Juice% cane 97.6 %
Velocity of juice 1.9812 m/s
Tube OD 45 mm
Tube Thickness 1.2 mm
Tube ID 42.6 mm
Tube Length 6000 mm
Specific heat of juice 0.916 Kcal/kg˚C
Legment 12 mm
Vapour inlet temperature 116 ˚C
Juice Inlet temperature 54.4 ˚C
Juice Outlet temperature 76.67 ˚C
Tube plate thickness 25 mm

58
 Velocity of vapour 40 m/s
Heater Heating Surface 157 m2
Velocity of Condensate 1 m/s
Proportional factor 0.7
Latent Heat of Vapour 528.56
Specific Volume of Vapour 1 m3/kg

Results for Juice Heater 2:

Number of tubes per pass 9 Tubes/pass

Number of tubes 150 numbers
Number of passes 20 number of passes
Number of compartments 5
Actual number of tubes 174 numbers
Actual heating surface 147.124 m2
Actual velocity 17.427 m/sec
Pressure drop across the juice heater 125.166 MWC
Pitch 57.6 mm
Tube plate area 0.738 m2
Tube plate diameter 1051 mm
Diameter of juice inlet pipe 0.0427 m
Vapour inlet pipe 0.2738 m

Calculation for Juice Heater 3:

Shell and Tube Tubular Heater Design Calculation

Particulars Values UOM
Crushing rate 25 TCH
Juice% cane 97.6 %
Velocity of juice 1.9812 m/s
Tube OD 45 mm
Tube Thickness 1.2 mm
Tube ID 42.6 mm
Tube Length 6000 mm
Specific heat of juice 0.916 Kcal/kg˚C
Legment 12 mm
Vapour inlet temperature 116 ˚C
Juice Inlet temperature 76.67 ˚C
Juice Outlet temperature 93.33 ˚C
Tube plate thickness 25 mm
Velocity of vapour 40 m/s
Heater Heating Surface 118 m2
Velocity of Condensate 1 m/s
Proportional factor 0.7
Latent Heat of Vapour 528.56
Specific Volume of Vapour 1 m3/kg

59
Results for Juice Heater 3:

Number of tubes per pass 9 Tubes/pass

Number of tubes 237 numbers
Number of passes 10 number of passes
Number of compartments 6
Actual number of tubes 250 numbers
Actual heating surface 220.686 m2
Actual velocity 17.427 m/sec
Pressure drop across the juice heater 127 MWC
Pitch 57.6 Mm
Tube plate area 1.107 m
Tube plate diameter 1183 mm
Diameter of juice inlet pipe 0.0427 m

Calculation for Juice Heater 4:

Shell and Tube Tubular Heater Design Calculation

Particulars Values UOM
Crushing rate 25 TCH
Juice% cane 97.6 %
Velocity of juice 1.9812 m/s
Tube OD 45 mm
Tube Thickness 1.2 mm
Tube ID 42.6 mm
Tube Length 6000 mm
Specific heat of juice 0.916 Kcal/kg˚C
Legment 12 mm
Vapour inlet temperature 116 ˚C
Juice Inlet temperature 93.33 ˚C
Juice Outlet temperature 104.44 ˚C
Tube plate thickness 25 mm
Velocity of vapour 40 m/s
Heater Heating Surface 236 m2
Velocity of Condensate 1 m/s
Proportional factor 0.7
Latent Heat of Vapour 528.56
Specific Volume of Vapour 17.472 m3/kg

Results for Juice Heater 4:

Number of tubes per pass 9 Tubes/pass

Number of tubes 287 numbers
Number of passes 12 number of passes
Number of compartments 7
Actual number of tubes 301 numbers
Actual heating surface 294 m2
Actual velocity 17.427 m/sec
Pressure drop across the juice heater 130 MWC
Pitch 57.6 mm
Tube plate area 1.476 m

60
 Tube plate diameter 1270 mm
Diameter of juice inlet pipe 0.0427 m

5.1.4 Flash Tank

Design Input

 Properties of Material Handled

Juice inlet temperature Ti = 104.44°C

Juice outlet temperature To = 100.56°C
Specific heat of juice Cp = 0.916 Kcal/kg
Juice density ρL =1110kg/m3
Flash vapour density ρV =0.65 kg/m3
Juice inlet velocity Vi = 1.5 m/s
Juice outlet velocity Vo = 0.6 m/s
Flash vapour velocity in vent pipe Vf = 4 m/s
Latent heat of flash vapour λ = 535.75 Kcal/kg
Specific volume of the flash tank V = 1.591 m3/kg
Coefficient C = 0.006 m/s

 Flow of Material Handled

F6=24.4125 ton/hr Flash Tank F8= 24.4125 tons/hr

tons/hr

Amount of Product Juice M6 = 24.4125 tons/hr

Amount of Limed Juice M8 = 24.4125 tons/hr

Design Calculations:

 Velocity of flash vapour,

0.5
ρL ρV
C( )
ρV
kg kg 0.5
m (1110 * (0.65 *
m3 m3
0.006 ( )
sec kg
0.65 3
m

61
 Flash vapor quantity,

M
λ
tons kcal
(24.4125 * (0.916 * 104.44 100.56C
hr kgC
kcal
535.75
kg
kg 1m3 1hr
161.949 x x
hr 0.65kg 3600s

 Flash tank juice inlet diameter

a. Juice flow rate, Q

tons 1000kg 1m3 1hr

Q 24.4125 x x x
hr 1ton 1110kg 3600s

b. Area of juice inlet pipe,

c. Juice pipe diameter,

 Flash tank diameter

a. Area of flash tank

62
 Q
Area
V
m3
0.0692 s
Area m
0.2479 s

b. Flash tank diameter,

 Flash tank vapor vent pipe diameter

a. Area of vent pipe

b. Flash tank vapor vent diameter,

 Flash tank juice outlet diameter

a. Area of exit pipe

63
 b. Diameter of juice exit pipe,

Check juice exit pipe diameter

( )

Therefore, juice exit pipe diameter is permissible.

 Height of flash tank, H

5.1.5 Clarifying Tank

Design Input:

 Properties of Material Handled

Juice flow per unit volume (Hugot E. , 1986) q = 650 kg/hr m3

Short retention time (Hugot E. , 1986) t = 40 to 50 minutes

 Flow of Material Handled

Operation Basis = 1 hour

Amount of limed juice F9 = 24.4125 tons/hr
Amount of clarified juice F10 = 254.69519 tons/hr
Amount of mud F11 = 3.7558 tons/hr

F9 = 24.4125 tons/hr Clarifier F10 = 254.69519

kg/hr tons/hr kg/hr

F11 = 3.7558 tons/hr

64
  Operating Parameters

Operating Pressure T = 25˚C

Operating Temperature P = 1 atm
Design Calculations:

 Volume of Juice,

Rule of Thumbs:

1. Tanks greater than 23,700 gallons (90 m3) should be field-erected. Thus, the tank will be
constructed to the dimensions given by the American Petroleum Institute (API) Standards
(Bassel, 1974).

2. 10% freeboard must be allocated to tanks and vessels for optimum design.

 Volume of Tank,

 Tank Dimensions

By interpolating the values on the API Standards table, the following optimum diameter and height of
the tank are obtained.

Table 14: Typical Sizes of API Field Constructed Tanks ( Bassel, 1974)

Diameter Approx. Height Volume

Capacity
ft m gal/ft m3/m ft m gal m3
15 4.6 1320 16.4 18 5.5 23,700 90
20 6.1 2350 28.0 18 5.5 42,500 161
25 7.6 3670 45.6 18 5.5 66,000 250
25 7.6 3670 45.6 24 7.3 88,000 334
30 9.1 5290 65.6 24 7.3 127,000 481
35 10.7 7190 89.3 30 9.1 216,000 819
45 13.7 11900 148 36 11 429,000 1625
70 21.3 28800 358 36 11 1040,000 3940
100 30.5 58700 728 36 11 2110,000 8000
120 36.6 84500 1050 48 14.6 4060,000 15400
180 54.9 190000 2380 48 14.6 9150,000 34700

65
 a. Tank diameter,

b. Tank height,

 Total Settling Area

Assume the area to be treated is 8 m2. This suit a typical design for 2 compartments in
mud concentration and 4 compartments for treatment of juice or molasses. The ratio then is,

This gives a total settling area of 16m2 which is in the typical range from 11-22 m2.

Material of Construction:

The diameter of the flash tank should be based on the maximum liquid flow rate that the flash tank
will receive. The amount of maximum flow rate needs to be computed, and the diameter chosen to
prevent entrainment of liquid.

5.2.6 Rotary Vacuum Filter

Design Input:

 Properties of Material Handled

Size of rotary vacuum filter drum S = 12‘ x 24‘

Juice % cane JC = 97.6%
Filter juice temperature Tj = 85˚C
Mud temperature Tm = 85˚C
Mud juice % cane MC = 20%
Vacuum filtering area Avf = 0.6 m2/TCH
Filter cake production Pfc = 60 kg/m2/hr
Filtration rate Rf = 250 Lt/m2/h
Cake wash quantity Qcw = 100%
Air entering into the steam mair = 0.3 m3/min/m2
Humid air density ρair = 0.2 kg/m3
Velocity of vapour and humid air Vvapour&air = 40 m/sec
Mud tank retention time tm = 10 min

66
  Flow of Material Handled

Operation Basis = 1 hour

Amount of feed sugarcane F1 = 25 tons/hr
Amount of mud F11 = 3.75580 tons/hr
Amount of filtrate F12 = 3.6056 tons/hr
Amount of filter cake F13 = 24.2623 tons/hr

Rotary Vacuum
F11=3.75580 tons/hr F12 = 3.6056 tons/hr
Filter
ton/hr

F13=24.2623 ton/hr
Design Calculations:

 Mud juice flow available

 Mud pump capacity required

 Mud tank capacity required

 Mud mixer capacity required

 Vacuum filter drum sizing requirement,

67
RVF accessories:

 Filtration area of the vacuum filter,

( *

 Filter cake production:

 Filter juice quantity obtained:

 Cake wash water quantity required:

 Air load on this system,

Materials of Construction:

Rotary vacuum filter is typically constructed using stainless steel (316L). 316L stainless steel
is the most common austenitic stainless steel after 304. It is commonly used in petrochemical and
food industry.

5.1.7 Juice Holding Tank

Design Input:

 Properties of Material Handled

68
 Density of mixed juice ρJuice = 1005 kg/m3

 Flow of Material Handled

Operation Basis = 1 hour

Amount of clarified juice F10 = 20.6567 tons/hr
Amount of filtrate F12 = 3.6056 tons/hr
Amount of total juice F13 = 24.2623 tons/hr

F12 = 3.6056 tons/hr

F10 = 20.6567 tons/hr Juice Holding Tank F13 = 24.2623 tons/hr

 Operating Parameters

Operating Temperature T = 20˚C

Operating Pressure P = 1 atm

Design Calculations:

 Volume of the Juice,

( *

 Tank Dimensions

Rule of thumbs:

1. Vessels beyond 40 m3 is vertical tank bottom with L/D ratio of a range 0.5 to 1.5.

2. 10% freeboard must be allocated to tanks and vessels for optimum design.

 Volume of tank,

(1.1)
(24.142m3 ) 1.1

69
Since , the tank should be field erected

Since , the tank should be vertically mounted on a concrete foundation

Height to Diameter Ratio:

L
1.5
D
a. Tank Diameter

D2 L
V
4
Where, L 1.5D
D2 1.5D
V
4
1.5 D3
V
4

b. Tank Height

 Thickness of Shell

Using 1 foot method,

2.6D H 1 G
t CA
S

Where

H = fluid height in feet

D = Nominal tank diameter

G = Specific gravity of the contents

S = tank wall material allowable tensile stress

CA = Corrosion allowance

The specific gravity of mixed juice is 1.005 and let the corrosion allowance be equal to 0.03125 inch
and the maximum allowable stress is 10000 psi.

70
For the lower course thickness:

For the upper course thickness:

( )

( *

Material of Construction:

Of currently used storage tank designs, the fixed-roof tank is the least expensive to construct and is
generally considered the minimum acceptable equipment for storing liquids. A typical fixed-roof tank
consists of a cylindrical steel shell with a cone- or dome-shaped roof that is permanently affixed to the
tank shell. Storage tanks are usually fully welded and designed for both liquid and vapor tight, while
older tanks are often have a riveted or bolted construction and are not vapor tight (Werner Solken,
2008).

5.1.8 Evaporator

Design Input:

 Properties of Material Handled (Hugot E. , 1986)

Heating Surface A = 1734.133 m2

Tube OD OD = 45 mm
Tube thickness tt = 1.22 mm
Tube length tl = 3352.8 mm
Tube plate thickness ttp = 32 mm
Tube expansion allowance Et = 5 mm
Legment L = 10 mm
Tube clearance Tc = 0.3 mm
Tube plate hole clearance Tpc = 0.1 mm
Proportional factor F = 0.9
Percentage of downtake diameter %Dd = 20
Inlet vapour temperature Ti = 111.7 °C
Outlet vapour temperature To = 100.3 °C
Velocity of inlet vapour Vi = 25 m/s
Velocity of outlet vapour Vo = 30 m/s
Velocity of condensate Vc = 0.6 m/s
Evaporation rate of the body E = 37 kg/m2hr
Inlet vapour specific volume Svi = 0.891 m3/kg

71
 Outlet vapour specific volume Svo = 1.147 m3/kg

 Flow of Material Handled

Amount of total juice F14 = 24.2623 tons/hr

Amount of vapour in the 1st effect V1 = 6.014 tons/hr
Amount of vapour in the 2nd effect V2 = 6.3227 tons/hr
Amount of vapour in the 3rd effect V3 = 6.670 tons/hr
Amount of product in the 1st effect P1 = 18.248 tons/hr
Amount of product in the 2nd effect P2 = 11.926 tons/hr
Amount of product in the 3rd effect P3 = 5.255 tons/hr

Design Calculations:

1. Number of tubes

a. Mean diameter of tubes,

b. Effective length of tube,

c. Number of tubes

2. Tube plate

a. Tube pitch,

b. Tube plate area require for tubes only,

72
 ( )

c. Tube plate diameter,

3. Downtake diameter

a. Diameter of single downtake,

b. Area of downtake,

( *

c. Total area of tube plate

d. Final diameter of tube plate,

e. Total area of peripheral downtake,

73
 Consider each peripheral downtake diameter = 200mm

Consider number of peripheral downtakes = 8

f. Available area for central downtake

g. Diameter of central donwtake

4. Diameter required for vapour inlet

a. Vapor required for calandria

Number of steam entries = 2

Evaporation rate of the body=

b. Total area of vapour entry

74
 c. √

Diameter of each steam entry

5. Calandria diameter at the entry of steam/vapour jocket

6. Diameter of calandria at the point of radial steam entry

a. Area of each steam entry

( *

b. Height of each steam entry

c. Width of each steam entry

d. Diameter of calandria at the point of radial steam entry,

7. Vapour outlet diameter

a. Vapour volume

b. Vapour outlet diameter

75
 √

( *
√
( )

8. Diameter of condensate line

a. Volume of condensate

( )

b. Condensate pipe diameter each

Assume 2 condensate withdrawals

( *
√
( )

9. Noxious gases

a. Cross section area of non-condensable gases

Generally, 10m2 heating surface area requires 1cm2 area for removal of non-condensable gases.

b. Diameter of each non-condensable gases line

Assume number of non-condensable gases withdrawal points is 6

76
 √

10. Calandria shell thickness

Required data Value Unit of Measurement Symbol

Maximum allowable pressure 3 Kg/cm2 P

ID of the evaporator 3958 Mm Di

Allowable stress 1400 Kg/cm2 S

Welding joint efficiency 0.7 E

Corrosion allowance 1.5 Mm C

Solving for Calandria shell thickness,

( *

11. Vapour shell thickness

Required data Value Unit of Measurement Symbol

Maximum allowable pressure 2 Kg/cm2 P

ID of the evaporator 3958 Mm Di

Allowable stress 1400 Kg/cm2 S

Welding joint efficiency 0.7 E

77
 ( *

12. Tube plate thickness

Required data Value Unit of Measurement Symbol

Corrosion allowance 1.5 mm C

Allowable stress 1400 Kg/cm2 S

Maximum allowable pressure 2.72 Kg/cm2 P

Modulus factor for mild steel sheet 2100000 Kg/cm2 Es

Modulus factor for brass sheet 1900000 Kg/cm2 Et

ID of the shell 3958 mm Di

Thickness of the shell 8 mm Ts

Thickness of tube 1.22 mm Tt

OD of the tube 45 mm Do

OD of the calandria sheet 3990 mm Do

Number of tubes 3244 Tubes Nt

a. Safety factor, f

( *

( *

78
 b. Tube plate thickness,

5.1.9 Vacuum Pan

Design Input:

 Properties of Material Handled

Sucrose content of the juice syrup Surose = 65˚Brix

 Flow of Material Handled

Operation Basis = 1 hour

Amount of juice syrup P3 = 5.2555tons
Amount of seeding solution F13 =24.2623 tons

P3 = 5.2555tons Vacuum Pan F13 =24.2623 tons

F17 =3.55986 tons

 Operating Parameters

Operating Temperature T = 63.45˚C

Operating Pressure P = 0.7799 bar

Design Basis:

Considered 20% extra area to arrange vapour distribution in calendria of batch vacuum pan

Circulation of the pan (minimum) = 2.5

For batch pan with 3rd vapour has a heating medium = 6.6 to 6.7 m2/ m2

Safety Factor

79
Design Calculations:

Outside Diameter (OD) 102 mm

Length 800 mm
Thickness of tube 1.625 mm
Graining volume 30 m3
Diameter of vapor dome 2000 mm
Diamater of the pan 6100 mm
Calendria thickness 12 mm
Legment of the tubes 16 mm

1. Heating Surface:

Heating surface is the basis of S/V ratio

Where:

S = heating surface

V = strike volume

a. Strike Volume

b. Heating surface

2. Number of tubes

Where:

S = heating surface area of the pan (m2)

D = mean diameter of the tube (mm)

L = effective length of the tube (m)

80
 N = number of tubes

a. Mean diameter

b. Effectivelength
̅

c. Number of tubes

3. Diameter of the Downtake and Tube plate

Where:

N = no. of tubes

P = pitch of the tube (m)

a. Total cross section area of the tubes (m2)

( )

b. Area of the Downtake

81
 c. Diameter of the Downtake

√
√

4. Pitch of the tube

5. Area of the tube plate

( ) 0.1186
0.1186

6. Diameter of the tube plate

7. Internal diameter of the tube

8. Volume of massecuite in tubes

9. Volume of the downtake

10. Volume of the bottom ring

82
 11. Height of the bottom cone

( *

( *

 Area of the pan

 Area of the inverted cone

12. Calandria shell thickness

Required data Value Unit of Measurement Symbol

Maximum allowable pressure 3 Kg/cm2 P

ID of the calandria 6068 mm Di

Allowable stress for mild steel 1400 Kg/cm2 S

Welding joint efficiency 0.75 E

Corrosion allowance 3.0 mm C

Solving for Calandria shell thickness,

( *

13. Tube plate thickness

Required data Value Unit of Measurement Symbol

Corrosion allowance 1.5 mm C

83
 Allowable stress 1400 Kg/cm2 S

Maximum allowable pressure 2.72 Kg/cm2 P

Modulus factor for mild steel sheet 2100000 Kg/cm2 Es

Modulus factor for brass sheet 1900000 Kg/cm2 Et

ID of the shell 6068 mm Di

Thickness of the shell 12 mm Ts

Thickness of tube 1.625 mm Tt

OD of the tube 102 mm Do

OD of the calandria sheet 6100 mm Do

Number of tubes 1297 Tubes Nt

a. Safety factor

( *

( *

d. Tube plate thickness

84
Power Requirements:

Where,

P = Power

=Torque

V = Velocity

m= mass

a = acceleration due to gravity

d= radial distance

Solving for torque,

m)(a) d)
23403.2kg (9.8 ) 0.15m
kg
34402.704

Solving for velocity,

Assume N = 1000 rpm

2 N
60
2 1000rpm 1.109358
60
116.1716

Power, P

( )( )

Material of Construction:

The continuous sugar centrifuge has proved capable of processing massecuite successfully
and producing good quality sugar. Its main advantages are steady power consumption, lower

85
 capital cost and installation due to simpler design, lower maintenance cost, and simple operability.
With this, a carbon steel is used.

5.2 Auxiliary Equipment Calculation

5.2.1 Condensate Receiving Tank
Energy Balance for Hot Water Imbibition

Given:

 Condensate 2
119531.1246 lb/hr
Volumetric Flow 212.5559 °F
Temperature 1.008 BTU/lb°F
Specific Heat, (Perry,2008)
 Condensate 3
127306.5678 lb/hr
Volumetric Flow 183.9918°F
Temperature
1.004 BTU/lb°F
Specific Heat, (Perry,2008)
 Condensate 4
134249.0705 lb/hr
Volumetric Flow 131 °F
Temperature 0.9998 BTU/lb°F
Specific Heat, (Perry,2008)
 Assumed Final Temperature 175.849 °F
1.003 BTU/lb°F
Specific Heat, (Perry,2008)

1st Iteration

( )

2nd Iteration

( )

Condensate Receiving Tank (Mound Calculation)

Given:

 Condensate Quantity 381086.7629 lb/hr

177.94 m3/hr
 Condensate Inlet Temperature 174.4701 °F
 Condensate Density 971.4299 kg/m3
 Condensate Outlet Temperature 171.4710 °F

86
  Condensate water outlet velocity from 0.5 m/sec (Peter Rein, 2017)
mound
 Flash vapour velocity in vent line or 50 m/sec (Peter Rein, 2017)
equalizing line
 Condensate water density 974.80 kg/m3 (Sugar ProcessTech)
 Flash vapour density 0.28 kg/m3 (Sugar ProcessTech)
 Coefficient 0.01 m/sec (Peter Rein, 2017)
 Latent heat of flash vapour 551.89 kcal/kg (Sugar ProcessTech)
 Specific volume of flash vapour 3.53 m3/kg (Sugar ProcessTech)

Assumptions:

 Generally the height of the condensate receiving tank required for 1.5 to 2.0 meters with the
calculated diameter.
 Provide partition plate in the middle of this condensate mound. Insert the condensate inlet line
in partitioned portion (opposite to the condensate outlet line).
 Bottom of the condensate line provide minimum 200mm gap from the bottom plate of
condensate mound. The partition plate height to be provide minimum 500mm less than the
total height of the condensate mound.

87
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

General conclusion is drawn from the above process equipment design. Since the
demand for sugar is increasing, we tried to develop a process for sugar manufacturing from
sugarcane.

The material balance, heat balance, and plant capacity was determined as the plant
needed 25 tonne of sugarcane per hour, large amount of water for different purposes, lime,
and other chemicals and utilities. The raw materials are supplied from different areas,
sugarcane from plantation near the plant and water from well. By using these raw materials,
the plant mainly produces unbleached sugar for the domestic market. And also the plant
produces by-products like bagasse, filter cake, final molasses and condensate water: these by-
products are used for producing different materials and utilities. This indicates that the plant
is more environmentally friendly since it uses all its waste as raw materials to produce other
useful materials.

Generally, sugar production process is a little bit complex and need sophisticated
equipment and technology, also large amount of water and energy is needed. So to effectively
produce sugar in this technology the plant need more skilled and unskilled manpower,
reliable energy and water resources. Thus, the sugar plant needs large amount of investment
and operation cost to purchase large amount and high technology equipment, installation and
maintenance of the equipment, raw materials, transportation and for the large amount of man
power.

88
 CHAPTER 7

REFERENCES

[1] Abulafia, D. (2011). The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean. London:
ISBN 978-0-7139-9934-1.

[2] Baikow, V. (1982). Manufacture and Refining of Raw Cane Sugar (Second Edition).
New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.

[3] Buchanan, E.J, Douwes-Dekker, K., Hengel, v., & A. (1965). Sugar-cane
Technologies. Proc. 12th Congregational International Society. Puerto Rico.

[4] Catala, R. (1971). Sugarcane Technology. 73-77.

[5] Census, P. (2015). Total Population. Census of Population.

[6] Fedsteel. (2018, August 23). Federal Steel Supply Inc. Retrieved from
https://www.fedsteel.com/our-blogs/stainless-steel-sugar-industry

[7] Godshall, M., & Legendre, B. (2003). Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition
(Second Edition). Elsevier Science Ltd.

[8] Hugot, E. (1986). Handbook of Cane Sugar Engineering. Elsevier Science Publishers
B.V.

[9] Hugot, E. (1986). Handbook of Cane Sugar Engineering. New York: Elsevier Science
Publishing Company Inc.

[10] Jaffee, W. (2012, April). Sugar Tech. 87-94. Retrieved from Sugar Tech.

[11] McKillop, R. F., & Browing, J. (2000). Sugar Cane Transport. Light Railway
Research Society [of Australia Inc.

[12] Nash international. (1945). Cane Sugar Handbook. New York: John Wiley .

[13] Popkins, B. (2003). The Nutrition Transition in the Developing World. 581-
597.

[14] Ramirez, & Nazario. (1964). Sugar.

[15] Sato, T. (2015). Sugar in the Social Life of Medieval Islam.

89
[16] Schouten, A., Parashar, D., & Saxena, T. (1945). International Sugar Tech.
192.

[17] Sugar Processing. (2019). Sugar History. Retrieved from

http://www.sugarhistory.net/who-made-sugar/

[18] Werner Solken. (2008). Retrieved from

http://www.wermac.org/equipment/storage_tanks_vessels_general.html

90
 CHAPTER 8

APPENDICES

8.1 Overall Material Balance Calculations

8.1.1 Cane Preparation

Given:

Amount of feed sugarcane F1 = 25 ton/hr

Sugarcane content:
Water W = 70%
Sucrose S = 14%
Fiber F = 13%
Ash and Impurities AI = 2.5%
Non-sucrose NS = 0.5%
Amount of milk of lime L = 0.5 kg/ton
Amount of water imbibition on cane I = 25%
Sucrose recovery SR = 95%
Moisture content of bagasse F4M = 50%
Calculations:

Water Content = (%W) (F1) = (0.7) (25 ton/hr) = 17.5 ton/hr

Sucrose Content = (%S ) (F1) = (0.14)(25 ton/hr) = 3.5 ton/hr

Fiber Content = (%F) (F1) = (0.13) (25 ton/hr) = 3.25 ton/hr

Ash and Other Impurities = (%AI) (F1) = (0.025) (25 ton/hr) = 0.625 ton/hr

 kg lime   ton   ton 

Milk of Lime Needed =  0.5   25   = 0.0125 ton/hr
 ton cane   hr   1000 kg 

Imbibition water = (%F3) (F1) = (0.25) (25 ton/hr) = 6.25 ton/hr

Sucrose Extracted = (%sucrose recovery) (sucrose) = (0.95) (3.5 ton/hr) = 3.325

ton/hr

91
 Un-extracted sucrose = (Sucrose) – (Sucrose Extracted) = (3.5 ton/hr) – (3.325 ton/hr)
= 0.175 ton/hr

Bagasse w/ moisture content = (F1) + (Un-extracted sucrose) = (3.25 ton/hr) + (0.175

ton/hr)

Bagasse with moisture content = 3.425 ton/hr

Bagasse = (F1) + (Un-extracted sucrose) + (Bagasse with moisture content) = (3.25

ton/hr) + (0.175 ton/hr) + (3.425 ton/hr) = 6.85 ton/hr

Water = (Water content) + (Imbibition water) – (Bagasse with moisture content) =

(17.5 ton/hr) + (6.25 ton/hr) - (3.425 ton/hr) = 20.325 ton/hr

8.1.2 Milling

Given:

Amount of feed sugarcane F1 = 25 ton/hr

Amount of water imbibition on cane F2 = 6.25 ton/hr
Amount of bagasse on cane F4 = 6.85 ton/hr
Required:
Amount of extracted juice: F3
Assumption:

 The sugarcane is milled in mill tandem

 The milled cane sugar is screened for bagacillo
Calculations:

F2 = 6.25 tons/hr
tons/hour

F1 = 25 tons/hr MILL F3 = ?

F4 = 6.85 tons/hr

92
Overall Material Balance:

F1  F2  F3  F4
tons tons tons
25  6.25  6.85  F3
hr hr hr
tons
F3  24.4
hr

Results:

F2 = 6.25 tons/hr

MILL F3 = 24.4 tons/hr

F1 = 25 tons/hr

F4 = 6.85 tons/hour

8.1.3 Cold Liming

Given:

Amount of raw cane juice F3 = 24.4 ton/hr

Amount of milk of lime (CaO) F5 = 0.0125 ton/hr
Required:
Amount of limed juice: F6
Assumption:

 According to Hugot (1986), the milk of lime used per tonne of cane is about
0.5-0.8 kg. Assume that 0.5 kg of lime is used per tonne of sugarcane.

93
Calculation:

F5 = 0.0125 tons/hr

LIMING TANK
F3 = 24.4 tons/hr F6 = ?

F3  F5  F6
tons tons
24.4  0.0125  F6
hr hr
tons
F6  24.4125
hr
Result:

F5 = 0.0125 tons/hr

LIMING TANK
F3 = 24.4 tons/hr F6 = 24.4125 tons/hr

8.1.4 Juice Heater

Given:
Target Values for Four-stage Juice Heating (Hugot E., 1986)

TARGET
Parameters Inlet Temp Outlet Temp
(˚F) (˚F)
1st Juice Heater 104 130
2nd Juice Heater 130 170
3rd Juice Heater 170 200
4th Juice Heater 200 220
Exhaust Steam Temperature 116 °C
Exhaust Steam Pressure 0.5-0.12-kg/cm2

94
 Amount of limed juice F6 = 24.4125 tons/hr
Required:
Amount of heated juice product: F7
Assumption:

 Assume the sucrose content of the mixed juice entering the juice heater is
14°Brix (14%w/w sucrose) (Hugot E. , 1986)

Calculations:

F6 =24.4125 Heater 1 Heater 2 Heater 3 Heater 4 F7

tons/hr
14° Brix

F6  F7 T1 = 130 ˚F T2 = 170 ˚F T3 = 200˚F T4 = 220˚F

tons
24.4125  F7
hr
tons
F7  24.4125
hr

Results:

F6 =24.4125 HEATER 1 HEATER 2 HEATER 3 HEATER 4

tons/hr F7 = 24.4125
14° Brix tons/hr
14° Brix

T1 = 130 ˚F T2 = 170 ˚F T3 = 200˚F T4 = 220˚F

8.1.5 Flash Tank

Given:
Amount of heated juice product F7 = 24.4125 tons/hr

Required:

Amount of incondensable gas: F8

95
 Amount of limed juice from the flash tank: F9

Calculation:

Assuming negligible amount of incondensable gas from the system.

Results:

F8 (negligible)

F7 = 24.4125tons/hr FLASH TANK

F9 = 24.4215 tons/hour
Tin = 220˚F Tout = 213˚F

8.1.6 Clarifier

Given:

Amount of limed juice from the flash tank F9 = 24.4215 tons/hr

Required:

Amount of clarified juice: F10

Amount of mud from the clarifier: F11
Assumption:

 Assume the sucrose content of the clarified juice is 16°Brix.

Calculation:

F9 = 24.4125tons/hr CLARIFIER F10 = ?

14˚Brix 16˚Brix

96
F11= ?
3% sucrose
Overall Material Balance:

F9  F10  F11
24.4125  F10  F11

Component Mass Balance:

F9 x F9  F10x F10  F11x F11

 tons 
 24.4125 0.14  0.16F10  0.03F11
 hr 

Substituting OMB to CMB:

tons
F10  20.6567
hr
tons
F11  3.7558
hr

Results:

F9 = 24.4125tons/hr CLARIFIER F10 = 20.6567 tons/hr

14˚Brix 16˚Brix
Tf = 213°F Tf = 213°F
(Assuming no heat losses)

F11= 3.7558 tons/hr

3% sucrose

8.1.7 Rotary Vacuum Filter

Given:

Amount of mud from the clarifier F11 = 3.7558 tons/hr

% sucrose of mud %sucrose = 3%

Required:

Amount of filtrate: F12

97
 Amount of filter cake: F13

Assumptions:

 Assume the sucrose content of the filter cake is 1%.

 Assume that 4% of mud is converted to filter cake.

 tons 
 0.04  0.1502
tons
F13   3.7558
 hr  hr

Calculations:

ROTARY
F11 = 3.7558 tons/hr VACUUM F12 = ?
% Sucrose = 3% FILTER % Sucrose = ?

F13 = 0.1502 tons/hr

% Sucrose = 1%

F11  F12  F13

 tons   tons 
 3.7558   F12   0.1502 
 hr   hr 
tons
F12  3.6056
hr

Component Mass Balance:

F11x F11  F12 x F12  F13x F13

 tons   tons   tons 
 3.7558  0.03   0.1502  0.01   3.6056  x F13
 hr   hr   hr 
x F13  0.0308 or 3.08% sucrose

98
Results:

ROTARY
F11 = 3.7558 tons/hr VACUUM F12 = 3.6056
% Sucrose = 3% FILTER % Sucrose = 3.08%

F13 = 0.1502 tons/hr

% Sucrose = 1%

8.1.8 Juice Holding Tank

Given:

Amount of clarified juice F10 = 20.6567 tons/hr

Amount of filtrate F12 = 3.6056 tons/hr

Sucrose content of clarified juice 16°Brix

Sucrose content of the filtrate 3.08°Brix

Required:

Amount of total juice: F14

Calculation:

F12 = 3.6056 tons/hour

3.08˚Brix

F10 = 20.6567 tons/hr

JUICE HOLDING TANK F14 = ?
16˚ Brix

99
 F10  F12  F14
 tons   tons 
 20.6567    3.6056   F14
 hr   hr 
tons
F14  24.2623
hr

Component Mass Balance:

F10x F10  F12 x F12  F14x F14

 tons   tons   tons 
 20.6567  0.16   3.6056  0.0308   24.2623  x F13
 hr   hr   hr 
x F13  0.1408 or 14.08Brix

Results:

F12 = 3.6056 tons/hour

3.08˚Brix

F10 = 20.6567 tons/hr

JUICE HOLDING TANK F14 = 24.2623 tons/hr
16˚ Brix
14.08°Brix

8.1.9 Evaporator

Given:

Temperature and pressure distribution in multiple-effect evaporator is given

by Hugot E. (1986). Since of the evaporator to be designed is a triple effect
evaporator, the pressure and temperature parameter of triple effect will be used.

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Steam
Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect
Triple Pressure 28.8 19 10.2 2.3
Effect Temperature 248 225 194 131
Quadruple Pressure 28.8 21.5 14.5 8.2 2.3
Effect Temperature 248 232 212 185 131
Quintuple Pressure 28.8 23 17.4 12.1 7 2.3

100
 Effect Temperature 248 235 221 203 175 131
Pressure and Temperature Drops in °F and psia

Amount of juice in the feed F14 = 24.2623 tons/hr

Temperature of the feed Tf = 213˚F
Brix of the feed xf = 0.1408
Brix of the product xP = 0.65

Assumptions:

 Assume no heat is lost in the production.

 Assume the feed temperature is 213˚F
 According to Hugot E. (1986), the required brix of the feed after passing to the
evaporator if 65°Brix.

Required:

Amount of vapour in the 1st effect: V1

Amount of vapour in the 2nd effect: V2
Amount of vapour in the 3rd effect: V3
Amount of product in the 1st effect: P1
Amount of product in the 2nd effect: P2
Amount of product in the 3rd effect: P3
Calculation:

V1 V2 V3
TS1 = 248˚F
PS1 = 28.8 psi
1st EFFECT 2nd EFFECT 3rd EFFECT Ts3 = 131˚F
EVAPORATOR EVAPORATOR EVAPORATOR
PS3=2.3 psi

F14 = 24.2623 tons/hr

Tf = 213˚F
xf = 0.1408

P1 P2
P3=
T3 =134.196℉
Xp = 0.65
101
Overall Brix Balance:

F14 x f  P3 x p
 tons 
 24.2623  0.1408  0.65P3
 hr 
tons
P3  5.2556
hr

Overall Material Balance:

F14  VT  P3
VT  F13  P3
tons tons
VT  24.2623 - 5.2556
hr hr
tons
VT  19.0067
hr

Assume that V1= V2= V3=V4,

tons
19.0067
V1  V2  V3  hr  6.3356 tons
3 hr

1st Effect Evaporator:

F14  V1  P1
tons tons
24.2623  6.3356  P1
hr hr
tons
P1  17.9267
hr

2nd Effect Evaporator:

P1  V2  P2
tons tons
17.9267  6.3356  P2
hr hr
tons
P2  11.5911
hr

102
 3rd Effect Evaporator:

P2  V3  P3
tons tons
11.5911  6.3356  P3
hr hr
tons
P3  5.2555
hr

Solid Balance:

1st Effect Evaporator:

F14 x f  P1 x P1

 24.2623
tons  
 0.1408  17.9267
tons 
 
 xP
 hr   hr  1
x P1  0.1906

2nd Effect Evaporator:

P1 x P1  P2 x P2

 x p2 
 tons   tons 
17.9267  0.1906  11.5911
 hr   hr 
x P2  0.2948

3rd Effect Evaporator:

P2 x P2  P3 x P3

 x p3 
 tons   tons 
11.5911  0.2948   5.2555
 hr   hr 
x P3  0.6502

103
 Result:

V1 V2 V3

TS1 = 248˚F
PS1 = 28.8 psi
1st EFFECT 2nd EFFECT 3rd EFFECT Ts4 = 131˚F
EVAPORATOR EVAPORATOR EVAPORATOR
PS4=2.3 psi

T3 =134.196℉
Xp = 0.65
F14 = 24.2623 tons/hr
Tf = 213˚F
xf = 0.1408

P1 = 17.9267tons/hr P2 = 11.5911tons/hr P3 = 5.2555tons/hr

Xp1 = 0.1906 Xp2 = 0.2948 Xp3 = 0.6502

8.1.10 Vacuum Pan

Given:

Amount of evaporated juice P3 = 5.2555 tons/hr

Sucrose content of P3 Xf = 0.65

Amount of seeding solution F15 = 0.00053 tons/hr

Required:

Amount of vapour: F16

Amount of massecuite produce: F17

Assumption:

 Assume that the sucrose content of the massecuite is 96°Brix.

104
Calculation:

F16

P3 = 5.2555 tons/hour VACUUM

F15 = 0.00053 tons/hour
Xf = 0.65 PAN

F17
96˚Brix
Overall Material Balance:

P3  F15  F16  F17

5.2555  0.00053  F16  F17
5.25603  F16  F17

Component Mass Balance:

P3 x f  F15  F17 x p
 tons 
 0.65  0.00053
tons
 5.2555  0.96F17
 hr  hr
F17  3.55896 tons/hr

Solving for F16,

F16 = 1.69707 tons/hr

Result:

F16 = 1.69707 tons/hr

P3 = 5.2555 tons/hour VACUUM

F15 = 0.00053 tons/hour
Xf = 0.65 PAN

8.1.10 Centrifuge F17 = 3.55896 tons/hr

96˚Brix
105
Given:

Amount of massecuite F17 = 3.55896 tons/hr

Sucrose content of F17 xf = 0.96

Required:
Amount of molasses: F18

Amount of raw sugar produced: F19

Assumption:

 Assume that the percentage of massecuite converted to raw sugar is 42%.

Calculation:

F17 = 3.55896tons/hour CENTRIFUGE F18

xf = 0.96

F19
Overall Material Balance: xp = 0.96

F17  F18  F19

Solving for the amount of raw sugar,

F19  0.42F17
 tons 
F19  0.42 3.55896 
 hr 
tons
F19  1.49476
hr

Substituting F18 to solve for the amount of molasses,

F17  F18  F19

 tons   tons 
F18   3.55896   1.49476 
 hr   hr 
tons
F18  2.0642
hr

106
 Result:

F17 = 3.55896 tons/hour CENTRIFUGE F18 = 2.0642 tons/hr

xf = 0.96

F19 = 1.49476 tons/hr

xp = 0.96

8.2 HEAT BALANCE CALCULATIONS

8.2.1 Juice Heaters

EXHAUST STEAM
T sat = 116 °C

F6 =24.4125 F7 =24.4125
14° Brix 14° Brix
Tf= 104 ℉ 14° Brix 14° Brix 14° Brix T4 = 220 ℉
HEATER 1 HEATER 2 HEATER 3 HEATER 4

T1 = 130 ℉ T2 = 170 ℉ T3 = 200 ℉

Calculation:

F6  F7
24.4125 ton/hr  24.4125 ton/hr
53,820.2858 lbs/hr  53,820.2858 lbs/hr

First Heater:

Assume that the effective steam usage is 95%.

107
 Qgained  Qlost
Q juice  Qsteam
 
m j Cp jΔT  ε ms1 λ fg,s




m j Cp j T1  Tf 
ms1 
ελ fg,s

The saturation temperature of the steam is 116 °C and is equal to 240.8 °F, the value
of λ is

λ fg,s  h g  hf
Btu Btu
λ fg,s  1160.78  209.3012
lb lb
Btu
λ fg,s  951.48
lb

The heat capacity from Hugot E.,(1986) for mixed juice is calculated by,

Cp  1  0.006X

Solving for the heat capacity of the feed,

Cp  1  0.006 14
Btu
Cp  0.916
lbF

Therefore,




m j Cp j T1  Tf 
ms1 
ελfg,s
 lbs   Btu 
  53,820.285 8   0.916  130F  104F
 hr   lbF 
ms1 
 Btu 
0.95  951.48 
 lb 
 lbs
ms1  1,418.05
hr

Solving for the Log Mean Temperature Difference,

108
 ΔT1  ΔTf
ΔTlm 
 ΔT 
ln  1 
 ΔTf 
ΔTlm 
240.8F  130F  240.8F  104F
 240.8F  130F 
ln  
 240.8F  104F 
ΔTlm  123.344F

For a condensing liquid in the shell-side of shell and tube heat exchanger, correction
factor, F=1
Q  UATlm F
ms fg,s  UATlm F
The juice velocity is assumed to be V=6.5 ft/s (Hugot E., 1986). Solving for the heat
transfer coefficient U,

U  0.035T  3216.4  V
U  0.035240.8F  3216.4  6.5
Btu
U  167.3532 2
ft F

Solving for the heat transfer area,


ms1λ fg,s
A1 
UTlm F
 lbs  Btu 
1,418.05  951.48 
A1   hr  lb 
 Btu 
167.3532 123.344F1
 hr.ft2 F 
A1  6.3641ft2

Second Heater:

Solving for the mass flow rate of steam of the second heater:

109
 


m j Cp j T2  T1 
ms2 
ελfg,s
 lbs   Btu 
  53,820.285 8   0.916  170F  130F
 hr   lbF 
ms2 
 Btu 
0.95  951.48 
 lb 
 lbs
ms2  2,181.6154
hr

Solving for the Log Mean Temperature Difference of the second heater,

ΔT2  ΔT1
ΔTlm 
 ΔT 
ln  2 
 ΔT1 
ΔTlm 
240.8F  170F  240.8F  130F
 240.8F  170F 
ln  
 240.8F  130F 
ΔTlm  89.3121F

Solving for the heat transfer area of the second heater,


ms2λ fg,s
A2 
UTlm F
 lbs   Btu 
 2,181.6154   951.48 
A2  
hr   lb 
 Btu 
167.3532  89.3121F1
 hr.ft2 F 
A2  138.878 ft2

Third Heater:

Solving for the mass flow rate of steam of the third heater:

110
 


m j Cp j T3  T2 
ms3 
ελfg,s
 lbs   Btu 
  53,820.2858   0.916  200F  170F
 hr   lbF 
ms3 
 Btu 
0.95  951.48 
 lb 
 lbs
ms3  1,636.2116
hr

Solving for the Log Mean Temperature Difference of the third heater,

ΔT3  ΔT2
ΔTlm 
 ΔT 
ln  3 
 ΔT2 
ΔTlm 
240.8F  200F  240.8F  170F
 240.8F  200F 
ln  
 240.8F  170F 
ΔTlm  54.4290F

Solving for the heat transfer area of the third heater,


ms3λ fg,s
A3 
UTlm F
 lbs   Btu 
1,636.2116   951.48 
A3  
hr   lb 
 Btu 
167.3532  54.4290F1
 hr.ft2 F 
A3  170.9129 ft2

Fourth Heater:

Solving for the mass flow rate of steam of the fourth heater:

111
 


m j Cp j T4  T3 
ms4 
ελ fg,s
 lbs   Btu 
  53,820.2858   0.916  220F  200F
 hr   lbF 
ms4 
 Btu 
0.95  951.48 
 lb 
 lbs
ms4  1,090.8077
hr

Solving for the Log Mean Temperature Difference of the fourth heater,

ΔT4  ΔT3
ΔTlm 
 ΔT 
ln  4 
 ΔT3 
ΔTlm 
240.8F  220F  240.8F  200F
 240.8F  220F 
ln  
 240.8F  200F 
ΔTlm  29.6855F

Solving for the heat transfer area of the fourth heater,


m λ
A4  s4 fg,s
UTlm F
 lbs   Btu 
1,090.8077   951.48 
A4   hr   lb 
 Btu 
167.3532  29.6855F1
 hr.ft2 F 
A4  208.9149 ft2

8.2.2 Juice Holding Tank

F12 = 3.6056 tons/hour
3.08˚Brix
Tf = 185°F

F10 = 20.6567 tons/hr

Assumption:
JUICE HOLDING TANK F14 = 24.2623 tons/hr
16˚ Brix
14.08°Brix
TCJ = 213°F

112
 Assume temperature of the filtrate to be 185°F, as its temperature upon entering the
rotary vacuum filter is 213°F.

Energy Balance:

mF10CpCJ (TCJ  Tref )  mF12CpF (Tf  Tref )  mF14CpTJ (TTJ  Tref )

CpCJ  1 - 0.006B Cpf  1 - 0.006B CpTJ  1 - 0.006B

CpCJ  1 - 0.006 (16) Cpf  1 - 0.006 (3.08) CpTJ  1 - 0.006 (14.08)
BTU BTU BTU
CpCJ  0.904 Cpf  0.9815 CpTJ  0.9155
lbm - F lbm - F lbm - F

tons 2204.62 lbm lbm

m F10  20.6567 x  45,540.174
hr 1 tonne hr
tons 2204.62 lbm lbm
m F12  3.6056 x  7,948.9779
hr 1 tonne hr
tons 2204.62 lbm lbm
m F14  24.2623 x  53,489.1518
hr 1 tonne hr

(45,540.174)(0.904)(213F - 77F)  (7,948.9779)(0.9815)(185F - 77F) 

(53,489.1518)(0.9155)(TTJ - 77F)
TTJ  208.5415F

8.2.3 Evaporator

TS1 = 248˚F
PS1 = 28.8 psi
1st EFFECT 2nd EFFECT 3rd EFFECT Ts4 = 131˚F
EVAPORATOR EVAPORATOR EVAPORATOR
PS4=2.3 psi

T3 =134.196℉
Xp = 0.65
F13 = 24.2623 tons/hr
Tf = 213˚F
xf = 0.1408

P1 = 17.9267tons/hr P2 = 11.5911tons/hr P3 = 5.2555tons/hr

Xp1 = 0.1906 Xp2 = 0.2948 Xp3 = 0.6502

113
 According to Hugot (1986), the specific heat of sucrose solution is given to a close
approximation by the equation

Cp  1  0.006B

Solving for the specific heat of the clarified juice:

Cpfeed  1  0.006(14.08) Cp1  1  0.006(19.06)

Btu Btu
Cpfeed  0.91552  Cp1  0.88564 
F lbm F lbm

Cp 2  1  0.006(29.48) Cp3  1  0.006(65.02)

Btu Btu
Cp2  0.82312  Cp3  0.60988 
F lbm F lbm

Boiling Point Rise in each effect,

3.6B 3.6B
BPR 1  BPR 2 
100  B 100  B
3.6 (14.08) 3.6 (29.48)
BPR 1  BPR 2 
100 - (14.08) 100 - (29.48)
BPR 1  0.5899F BPR 2  1.5049F

3.6B
BPR 3 
100  B
3.6 (65.02)
BPR 3 
100 - (65.02)
BPR 3  6.6916F

Solving for ΔTavailable,

ΔTavailable  TS1  T3  (BPR 1  BPR 2  BPR 3 )

ΔTavailable  248  131  (0.5899  1.5049  6.6916)
ΔTavailable  108.2136F

Table 16: Heat Transfer Coefficient Range for Triple Effect Evaporator (Hugot E. , 1986)
Apparent Heat
1st Vessel 2nd Vessel 3rd vessel
Transfer Coefficients
(BTU/ft2/°F/h) 400-500 300-375 150-200

114
Assuming the heat transfer coefficient based from the table,
U1=450 BTU/ft·˚F·hr
U2=350 BTU/ft·˚F·hr
U3=175 BTU/ft·˚F·hr

Solving for ΔT,

 1 
 
ΔT1  ΣΔT  U1 
 1 1 1 
U U U 
 1 2 3 

 1 
 
ΔT1  108.2136  450 
 1  1  1 
 
 450 350 175 
ΔT1  22.2793F
 1 
 
ΔT2  ΣΔT  U2 
 1 1 1 
U U U 
 1 2 3 

 1 
 
ΔT2  108.2136  350 
 1  1  1 
 
 450 350 175 
ΔT2  28.6448F

 1 
 
ΔT3  ΣΔT  U3 
 1 1 1 
U U U 
 1 2 3 

 1 
 
ΔT3  108.2136  175 
 1  1  1 
 
 450 350 175 
ΔT3  57.2896F

Calculating the actual boiling point of the solution in each effect,

T1  Ts1  ΔT1 T2  T1  BPR1  ΔT2 Ts 2  T1  BPR1

T1  248  22.2793 T2  225.7207  0.5899  28.6448 Ts 2  225.7207  0.5899
T1  225.7207F T2  196.486F Ts 2  225.1308F
115
 T3  T2  BPR2  ΔT3 Ts3  T2  BPR2
T3  196.486  1.5049  57.2896 Ts3  196.486  1.5049
T3  137.6915F Ts3  194.9811F

The temperature in the triple effect evaporator are as follows:

1st Effect:
T1  225.7207F
Ts1  248F

2nd Effect:
T2  196.486F
Ts 2  225.1308F

3rd Effect:
T3  137.6915F
Ts 3  194.9811F

Condenser:
Ts 4  131F

tonne 2204.623 lbm

F13  24.2623 x
hr 1 tonne
lbm
F13  53,489.22461
hr
tonne 2204.623 lbm
P3  5.2555 x
hr 1 tonne
lbm
P3  11,586.39618
hr

V1  F1  P1 V3  P2  P3
V2  P1  P2
V1  53,489.22461  P1 V3  P2  11,586.39618

1st Effect:

FCpf (Tf  32)  ms1λfg  P1CP1 (T1  32)  V1 H1

From steam table and from Hugot‘s Calculation,

116
 λ fg @ Ts1  248F
BTU
λ fg  946.8
lb
H1  H g  0.45(BPR1 )
H g @ Ts 2  225.1308F
BTU
H g  1155.29578
lb
H1  1155.29578  0.45 (0.5899)
BTU
H1  1155.561235
lb

FCpf (Tf  32)  m s1λfg  P1C P1 (T1  32)  V1 H1

 lbm   BTU   BTU 
 53,489.22461   0.91552  213F - 32  ms1  946.8 
 hr   F lbm   lbm 

P1   0.88564 BTU  225.7207F - 32  53,489.22461 - P1  1,155.561235 BTU 

 F lbm   lbm 

946.8 m s1  983.9944343 P1  52,946,422.11 - - - - - - - Eq. (1)

2nd Effect:

P1Cp1 (T1  32)  V1λ fg,s2  P2 CP 2 (T2  32)  V2 H 2

From steam table and from Hugot‘s Calculation,

λ fg @ Ts 2  225.1308F
BTU
λ fg  961.86498
lb
H 2  H g  0.45(BPR 2 )
H g @ Ts 3  194.9811F
BTU
H g  1144.043385
lb
H 2  1144.043385  0.45 (1.5049)
BTU
H 2  11544.72059
lb

117
P1Cp1 (T1  32)  V1 λ fg,s2  P2 C P 2 (T2  32)  V2 H 2

P1   0.88564 BTU  

 225.7207F - 32   53,489.22461 - P1   961.86498
BTU 

 F lbm   lbm 

P2   0.82312 BTU  196.486F - 32  P1  P2  1,154.72059 BTU 

 F lbm   lbm 

1,945.018769 P1  1,019.328874 P2  51,449,411.96 - - - - - - - Eq. (2)

3rd Effect:

P2 Cp2 (T2  32)  V2 λ fg,s3  P3CP 3 (T3  32)  V3 H 3

From steam table and from Hugot‘s Calculation,

λ fg @ Ts 3  194.9811F
BTU
λ fg  981.01134
lb
H 3  H g  0.45(BPR 3 )
H g @ Ts 4  131F
BTU
H g  1118.2
lb
H 3  1118.2  0.45 (6.6916)
BTU
H 3  1,121.21122
lb

P2 Cp 2 (T2  32)  V2 λ fg,s3  P3C P 3 (T3  32)  V3 H 3

P2   0.82312
BTU  
 196.486F - 32   P1  P2   981.01134
BTU 

 F lbm   lbm 
 lbm   BTU   BTU 
11,586.39618   0.60988  137.6915F - 32  P2  11,586.39618 1,121.21122 
 hr   F lbm   lbm 

981.01134 P1  1,966.830844 P2  -12,243,948.36 - - - - - - - Eq. (3)

Solving for the unknowns,

118
 lbm
m s1  14,110.65224
hr
lbm
P1  40,230.36634
hr
lbm
P2  26,291.22586
hr

V1  53,489.22461  P1

V1  53,489.22461  40,230.36634
lbm
hr
lbm
V1  13,258.85818
hr

V2  P1  P2

V2  40,230.36634  26,291.22586
lbm
hr
lbm
V2  13,939.14048
hr

V3  P2  11,586.39618

V3  26,291.22586  11,586.39618
lbm
hr
lbm
V3  14,704.82968
hr

Solving for the heat gained,

Q1  m s λ fg,s1
 lbm   BTU 
Q1  14,110.65224   946.8 
 hr   lbm 
BTU
Q1  13,359,965.54
hr
Q 2  V1 λ fg,s2
 lbm   BTU 
Q 2  13,258.85818   961.86498 
 hr   lbm 
BTU
Q 2  12,753,231.36
hr

119
 Q 3  V2 λ fg,s3
 lbm   BTU 
Q 3  14,704.82968   981.01134 
 hr   lbm 
BTU
Q 3  14,425,604.67
hr

Solving for the heat transfer area,

BTU
13,359,965.54
Q1 hr
A1    1,332.573838 ft 2
U1ΔT1  BTU 
 450 2  22.2793F
 ft  F  hr 

BTU
12,753,231.36
Q2 hr
A2    1,272.056495 ft 2
U 2 ΔT2  BTU 
 350 2  28.6448F
 ft  F  hr 

BTU
14,425,604.67
Q3 hr
A3    1,438.86546 ft 2
U 3 ΔT3  BTU 
175 2  57.2896F
 ft  F  hr 

Solving for the average heating area,

A1  A 2  A 3 1,332.573838  1,272.056495  1,438.86546

A mean  
3 3
A mean  1,347.831931 ft 2

Solving for the %error of each area,

A1  A mean 1,332.573838  1,347.831931

A1  x 100  x 100  1.132%
A mean 1,347.831931

A 2  A mean 1,272.056495  1,347.831931

A2  x 100  x 100  5.622%
A mean 1,347.831931

A 3  A mean 1,438.86546  1,347.831931

A3  x 100  x 100  6.754%
A mean 1,347.831931

120
 Since the error computed is less than 10 , there‘s no need for
normalization.

Solving for the Steam Economy (E),

V1  V2  V3
E
ms
13,258.85818  13,939.14048  14,704.82968
E
14,110.65224
E  2.9696

8.2.4 Vacuum Pan

F16 = 1.69707 tons/hr

P3 = 5.2555 tons/hour
Xf = 0.65 VACUUM
F15 = 0.00053 tons/hour
PAN
Steam

F17 = 3.55896 tons/hr

96˚Brix

Solving for the boiling point rise at Pvac = 580 mmHg = 22.83465 inHg

Brix  30  Brix  0.54  Pvacuum 

BPR   1  
40  103.6  Brix  90  Pvacuum 
65  30  65  0.54  22.83465 
BPR   1  
40  103.6  65  90  22.83465 
BPR  3.2651C

Solving for Tp at Pvac = 22.83465 inHg; Tp = 61.42°C

Tp  TBP,H 2O  BPR
Tp  61.42C  3.2651C
Tp  64.6851C
Tp  148.43318F

121
 tonne 2204.623 lbm lbm
P3  5.2555 x  11,586.39618
hr 1 tonne hr
tonne 2204.623 lbm lbm
F15  0.00053 x  1.16845
hr 1 tonne hr
tonne 2204.623 lbm lbm
F16  1.69707 x  3,741.399555
hr 1 tonne hr
tonne 2204.623 lbm lbm
F17  3.55986 x  7,848.149233
hr 1 tonne hr

Solving for ms,

FCpf Tf  32  m s λ fg  PCp p Tp  32  Vλ fg

 lbm   BTU   BTU 
11,586.39618   0.61  131F - 32  m s  946.74 
 hr   F   lb 
 lbm   BTU   lbm   BTU 
 7,848.149233   0.424  148.43318F  32   3,741.399555  1,012.5664 
 hr   lbm   hr   lbm 
lbm
m s  3,671.713291
hr

Solving for the required heat,

Q  m s λ fg
 lb   Btu 
Q   3,671.712391   946.74 
 hr   lb 
Btu
Q  3,476,157.841
hr

8.5.5 Boiler
Given:
Temperature of feed water Tin = 194˚F

Enthalpy of water hw = 162.2 Btu/lb

Sucrose % bagasse S = 2%

Moisture % bagasse W = 48%

hs = 1189.952 @ 100 psig

BE = 0.8

122
Calculation:

According to Hugot, the formula in getting NCV of wet bagasse is given by,

NCV  7650  21.6S  87.3W

Where,

S = sucrose % bagasse

W = moisture % bagasse

Solving for NCV of Wet Bagasse,

NCV  7650  21.6S  87.3W

NCV  7650
BTU
 21.6
BTU
2  87.3 BTU 48
lbm lb lb
BTU
NCV  3,416.4
lb

123