Meat Science 96 (2014) 675–681

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Meat Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci

Innovative food processing technology using ohmic heating and aseptic

packaging for meat
Ruri Ito a, Mika Fukuoka b, Naoko Hamada-Sato a,⁎
a
Course of Safety Management in Food Supply Chain, Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Konan 4-chome, Minato,
Tokyo 108–8477, Japan
b
Department of Food Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Konan 4-chome, Minato, Tokyo 108–8477, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Since the Tohoku earthquake, there is much interest in processed foods, which can be stored for long periods at
Received 21 January 2013 room temperature. Retort heating is one of the main technologies employed for producing it. We developed the
Received in revised form 31 August 2013 innovative food processing technology, which supersede retort, using ohmic heating and aseptic packaging.
Accepted 4 October 2013
Electrical heating involves the application of alternating voltage to food. Compared with retort heating, which
uses a heat transfer medium, ohmic heating allows for high heating efficiency and rapid heating. In this paper
Keywords:
Ohmic heating
we ohmically heated chicken breast samples and conducted various tests on the heated samples. The
Storage measurement results of water content, IMP, and glutamic acid suggest that the quality of the ohmically heated
Chicken samples was similar or superior to that of the retort-heated samples. Furthermore, based on the monitoring of
Emergency food these samples, it was observed that sample quality did not deteriorate during storage.
Sterilization © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Eating quality

1. Introduction
Currently, retort heating is one of the main technologies employed
for producing processed foods, which can be stored for long periods at
room temperature. There is a strong demand for retort food from
consumers as emergency food because of their long shelf life and ease
of consumption; furthermore, such foods are popular as everyday
food. However, retort sterilization relies on external heating, using hot
water or steam as a heat transfer medium; this results in poor heat
transfer efficiency and, consequently, considerable energy loss.
Ohmic heating is an emerging thermal process technology and
describes the process when an electrical current is passed directly
through a food and the resistance imposed by the food leads to the
generation of heat within the product. The basic principles as well as
the main factors influencing ohmic cooking have been explained by
Sastry (1992) and Ye, Ruan, Chen, and Doona (2004). Sastry and
Palaniappan (1992) reported that ohmic heating can be used in a
continuous flow mode to cook and sterilize liquid food and solid–liquid
mixtures. Huixian et al. (2007) reported that the microbial counts and
the calculated decimal reduction time resulting from ohmic heating
were superior to those resulting from conventional heating, and there
was no difference in the degree of protein denaturation between the
two methods. Nowadays ohmic heating is viewed as an alternative
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +81 3 5463 0389.
E-mail address: hsnaoko@kaiyodai.ac.jp (N. Hamada-Sato).
heating system for pumpable foods and there are currently a number
of commercial scale processing plants in various countries (UK, Italy,
Mexico) producing fruit and/or vegetables in sauces and also
pasteurized orange juice and liquid egg. Sarkis, Jaeschke, Tessaro, and
Marczak (2013), Mercali, Jaeschke, Tessaro, and Marczak (2013), and
Mercali, Jaeschke, Tessaro, and Marczak (2012), reported on the
denaturation of anthocyanins and vitamin C in acerola and blueberry
during ohmic heating compared to the denaturation of these during
conventional heating. Moreno, Pizzaro, Parada, Pinilla, and Reyes
(2012) reported that ohmic heating is the best dehydrating method.
And the color and the hardness of osmotically dehydrated strawberry
with ohmic heating and vacuum impregnation was superior to the
conventional method. The effect of ohmic heating and vacuum
impregnation changed the shelf-life from 12 days to 25 days. While a
number of the early patents in ohmic heating were in the area of meat
processing the amount of in depth research conducted to date has
been quite limited in spite of the fact that ohmic heating has the
potential to cook meat in a much shorter time than the conventional
cooking procedures. Shirsat, Brunton, Lyng, and Mckenna (2004) and
Piette et al. (2004) showed that it is possible to cook comminuted
meat emulsions ohmically to a comparable quality of the conventional
cooked samples. Dai et al. (2013) evaluated the color and sarcoplasmic
protein of pork following water bath and ohmic cooking at 10 °C to
80 °C. Ohmic heating of fluids, which may also contain solid foods, has
been thoroughly studied and reported in the literature. Bertlini and
Romagnoli (2012) showed that the process-target-cost of vegetable
soup was reduced with ohmic treatment and aseptic packaging.

0309-1740/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.10.012
676 R. Ito et al. / Meat Science 96 (2014) 675–681
However, these products represent a relatively small proportion of total
cooked meats and no results have yet been presented on the quality of
ohmically cooked noncomminuted meats. The direct application of
ohmic heating to solid food is limited (De Alwis & Fryer, 1992). There
are no studies on the production technology for solid food with
commercial-level sterility attained by heating at 100 °C or higher or by
ohmic heating without the use of conductive liquids.
The ohmic method requires uniform conductivity values within the
meat which means that a perfectly even distribution of injected salt or
brine solutions must be achieved in the case of non-comminuted
meats. A lot of research was done on electrical conductivity of foods
(Palaniappan & Sastry, 1991) and on the changes in electrical
conductivity of foods during ohmic heating (Halden, De Alwis, &
Fryer, 1990). Sanjay, Sudhir, and Lynn (2008) published a paper
about the change of electrical conductivity values over a special
temperature range in a very small unit. This research team looked
mainly into the electrical conductivity changes of fruits and also a
few details about the behavior of different meat pieces were
published but there is still a lack of research in the ohmic heating
of full meat products.
A novel cooking method such as ohmic heating may offer a number
of advantages, such as quicker cooking and less power consumption and
safer product, however, the important considerations for a food product
are its taste, quality, and customer satisfaction.
There have been no studies on ohmic heating combined with
aseptic packaging for meat nor on meat measured for one year
as shelf-stable food of meat. In this study, we developed novel
food processing technology, which supersedes retort processing,
using ohmic heating and aseptic packaging. Chicken cooked by
combined ohmic heating and aseptic packaging was tested and
compared with chicken heated by retort heating. We examined
the temperature history, electrical conductivity data and lethal
rate during current application. Additionally, we assess quality and
sensory tests on the sterilized packaged food heated by those two
methods.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Material
Chicken meat was purchased from Miyagawa Shokucho Keiran and
stored in a freezer at −80 °C until experimentation.
2.2. Equipment
We used a high-frequency power unit (HJU3000-HF-30, Hano
Manufacturing). The output voltage was 10–100 V, output frequency
was 20kHz, and maximum power output was 3kW. A polyphenylsulfone
(PPSU) container with an internal diameter of 3 cm and a length of 10 cm
(Sunny) was used as the heating cell. Titanium foils (30-μm thick) were
used as electrodes.
2.3. Preparation of samples
The stored meat was removed from the freezer and thawed in a
refrigerator at 5 °C. Then, the meat was shaped into a cylindrical form
(approximately 30 mm × 100 mm, 70 g ± 0.5 g) so that it could fit into
the heating cell, and was wrapped with polyvinylidene chloride film.
Wrapping the sample with the film made it easier to clean the cell and
prepare it for the next test.
The meat was inserted into the heating cell. Thereafter, silicone rings
and stainless caps, in that order, were attached to the cell, and the cell
was fixed using a stainless steel retainer. A type T thermocouple covered
with an insulator was inserted into the cell through a hole in one of the
stainless steel caps and fixed in place. Given that the pressure inside the
cell increases during heating, the cell was retained securely to prevent
steam leakage during heating. The electrodes of the high-frequency
power unit were connected to the stainless steel caps and an electric
current was then applied to the heating cell. The voltage was set at
the maximum, 100 V. The current was set to 5 A because the maximum
effective current is around 1.5 A for chicken breast when the measured
temperature is between 10 °C and 140 °C.
The current application was stopped when the temperature of the
cold point exceeded 121 °C for four continuous minutes. When the
temperature decreased to below 100 °C, the sample was placed
aseptically in a sterilized retort pouch and was sealed using a heat sealer
(Ishizaki Electric MFG). Following cooling for 20 min under flowing
water, the sterilization-test sample was stored in an incubator at 35 °C
for 14 days; the quality-test sample, at 25 °C for 2, 14, 28, 56, 84, 112,
168, 224, 280, or 365 days; and the sensory-test sample, at 25 °C for
14 days.
In this study, the ohmically heated sample was compared with a
retort-heated sample in the quality and sensory tests. The retort-
heating sample was shaped into a cylindrical form with the same size
and weight as the ohmic-heating sample, frozen at −80 °C, and sent to
Nihon Senshoku, Fukuoka Prefecture (shipping temperature −20 °C),
where it was retort heated. The retort-heated sample was stored for 2,
14, 28, 56, 84, 112, 168, 224, 280, or 365days. Furthermore, prior to retort
heating, we ensured that the sample was stored at the same temperature
as the ohmically heated sample.
2.4. Temperature measurement at different locations
Every point was measured three times. The heating cell and the
locations of thermocouples placed on the cell for temperature
measurement are shown in Fig. 1. The thermocouples were placed at
five locations (A–E) (see Fig. 1) and temperature changes until 121 °C
were recorded.
2.5. Electrical conductivity calculation
Measurement was made five times. The distance between the
electrodes d [m], electrode contact area A [m2], applied voltage V [V],
and measured current I [A] were substituted in Eq. (1) below. This
equation was derived from Ohm's law, the relational expression
between electrical resistance and electrical resistivity, and the relational
expression between electrical resistivity and electrical conductivity, to
Fig. 1. Five locations of thermocouples for evaluation of temperature distribution during
heating. A: Center of the cell. B: Bottom center of the cell. C: Upper center of the cell.
D: Upper part of the cell near the electrode. E: Lower part of the cell near the electrode.
 R. Ito et al. / Meat Science 96 (2014) 675–681
calculate the electrical conductivity σ [S·m] of the sample under current
application.
σ ¼ ðI·dÞ=ðV·AÞ
2.6. Sterilization test
The sterilization test was conducted in accordance with the
constant-temperature test and the microbacterial test for retort
food stipulated in the Food Sanitation Act. The test was done five
times. The ohmically heated samples, held at 35 °C for 14 days,
were cooled to 20 °C before their morphology was observed. The
samples whose packaging containers were inflated or from which
there was content leakage were considered microorganism-positive.
The samples considered as microorganism-negative were subjected to
the microorganism test. A portion of each sample, 25 ± 0.1 g, was
collected aseptically and placed in a sterilized bag (PYXON-30, Elmex)
with 225 ml of sterilized water. This mixture was then ground in a
homogenizer (Stomacher 400-T, Organo) for 60 s to obtain a sample
extract; 9 ml of sterilized water was added to 1 ml of the sample extract
to make a 1:100 diluent. One milliliter of the 1:100 diluent was
dispensed in five tubes, each containing thioglycollate medium (Eiken
Chemical) heat-dissolved in distilled water and sterilized (hereinafter
referred to as the TGC liquid medium). Furthermore, one milliliter of
sterilized water was added to the TGC liquid medium as negative
control. Then, the sample and control solutions were incubated at
35 °C for 48 h to check for any microbial growth.
2.7. Temperature changes during retort heating
To monitor sample temperature during retort heating, a temperature
data logger (button-shaped, diameter 8.675mm, height 6.4mm) (Hyper
Thermochron, KN Laboratories) was inserted into the center of each
sample. The monitoring was done five times.
2.8. F0 measurement
F0 value was calculated as the accumulated thermal death effect on
the spores of Clostridium botulinum, one of the most common food
poisoning-causing bacteria. Lethal rate, L, was calculated using the
following equation:
L ¼ 10  ½ðT–121Þ=10
where T is temperature (C˚).
F0 is calculated using Eq. (2) as follows:
Z Z
F0 ¼ Ldt ¼ 10  ½ðT–121Þ=10dt:
Based on temperature history, F0 was calculated using (3) for ohmic
heating and retort heating.
2.9. Water content measurement
Five different samples were used for the measurements. Differences
between groups were evaluated using a two-sample t test. Five grams of
each sample was placed in an aluminum cup (Toyo Aluminum Ekco
Products) and was leveled using a medicine spoon. Following drying
by heating at 135 °C for 120 min, the water content of each sample
was measured using infrared moisture testers (FD-600, FD-620, Kett
Electric Laboratory).
677
2.10. Glutamic acid measurement
Five different samples were used for the measurements.
Differences between groups were evaluated using a two-sample t test.
ð1Þ
A YAMASA L-Glutamate Assay Kit II (Yamasa Corporation) was used
for this purpose.
2.11. Inosine monophosphate (IMP) measurement
Five different samples were used for the measurements. Differences
between groups were evaluated using a two-sample t test. High-speed
liquid chromatography was used for measuring IMP. We used a Shodex
Asahipak GS-320 HG column (φ7.6 mm × 300 mm, Showa Denko) at a
temperature of 30 °C. An 875-UV (JASCO) detector was used, and the
detection wavelength was 260 nm. As the mobile phase, we used
200 mM sodium dihydrogen phosphate (pH2.9) filtered through a
membrane filter (pore diameter 0.20 μm); its flow rate was 0.6 ml/min.
A portion of each sample, 2.0 ± 0.3 g, was homogenized in 5 ml of
chilled 10% perchloric acid. Then, the solution was centrifuged at
16,000 g using a centrifuge (CF15R, Hitachi Koki). The supernatant
was decanted; 5ml of 10% perchloric acid was then added to the residue
and mixed well. This mixture was centrifuged for collecting the
supernatant. The supernatant and the 10% perchloric acid were mixed
to obtain a 25-ml supernatant diluent. One milliliter of the diluent was
neutralized using 10 M KOH and 1 M KOH, and the neutralized diluent
was centrifuged at 14,000 g. The supernatant was decanted, and 1 ml
of Milli-Q was added to the residue and mixed well; the mixture was
then centrifuged at 14,000 g, and the supernatant was collected. The
supernatant was centrifuged again and decanted, and then, Milli-Q
was added to the decanted supernatant to prepare 10 ml of test liquid.
The test liquid was filtered through a syringe filter unit (pore diameter
0.20 μm), and 20 μl of the test liquid was injected into the sample for
measurement. An autosampler (Model 09, System Instruments) was
used for injection.
2.12. Sensory test
The sensory test was conducted on about thirty men and women. The
ohmically heated and retort-heated samples, each 2.0±0.1g, were placed
on separate trays and the subjects evaluated them in terms of appearance,
flavor, taste, tenderness, flavor in mouth, and comprehensive evaluation
(six items) on a five-point scale (−2 to 2). As for comprehensive
evaluation, a two-sample preference test was also conducted.
2.13. Statistical analysis
ð2Þ
The results were expressed as average ± standard deviation, and
a t-test was used for determining statistical significance. Microsoft
Excel was used for this analysis.
3. Results and discussion
ð3Þ
3.1. Cold point determination
The changes in temperature at locations A–E inside the cell are
shown in Fig. 2. The average time it took each of the five samples to
reach at 121 °C is shown in Fig. 3. The time taken to reach 121 °C was
the shortest at A, the center of the cell; the time taken was the longest
at D, the upper part of the cell near the electrode. The following reasons
were suggested for these results: temperature increase at A was the
fastest because it was farthest from the cell surface and was less affected
by heat transfer. In comparison, B, C, D, and E were closer to the cell
surface; D and E were closer to the stainless steel cap than B and C,
making D and E more susceptible to the effect of heat transfer. Thus,
the temperatures at these locations were lower. Furthermore, D was
located higher on the cell than E, thus releasing more heat than E. This
678 R. Ito et al. / Meat Science 96 (2014) 675–681
Fig. 2. The averages of times which the 5samples took to reach at 121 °C.
result was consistent with previous studies. Marra, Zell, Lyng, Morgan,
and Cronin (2009) reported that in ohmic heating mashed potato
each of the same positions showed similar results.
In retort heating, temperature is measured at the cold point in food
(region with the slowest temperature increases rate). In this study, it
was assumed that the ohmically heated samples would be stored
under the same conditions as the retort-heated samples; therefore,
temperature measurement at the cold point was essential. In this
study, we selected D as the temperature measurement point for
ohmic heating because it is the farthest from the cell center and releases
the most heat. In the following sections, temperature measurements
were made at D, unless specified otherwise.
3.2. Electrical conductivity
In Fig. 4, data are plotted with the cold point temperature on the x-axis
and the electrical conductivity, estimated from current and voltage values,
Fig. 3. Temperature history distribution during ohmic heating at the five locations of
thermocouples in the cell.
Fig. 4. Correlation of temperature and electrical conductivity. It show temperature
and calculated electrical conductivity using σ = (I·d)/(V·A). Solid line means y =
4E-05x2 + 0.001x + 0.369, R2 = 0.983.
on the y-axis. The temperature–electrical conductivity relationship is
given as y = 4E-05x2 + 0.001x + 0.369 with a contribution rate of
R2 = 0.983, showing high correlation. Based on these results, it was
shown that sample temperature could be estimated by calculating
electrical conductivity based on the applied current and voltage values.
3.3. Sterilization test
It was confirmed that the aseptic condition of the ohmically heated
samples could be maintained at 35 °C for 14 days. This implies that our
method conforms to the sterilization method stipulated in the Food
Sanitation Act. Thus, it was demonstrated that the reliability of foods
can be enhanced using our sterilization method.
3.4. Comparison of temperature history with retort heating
Temperature changes during processing were compared between
ohmic and retort heating (Fig. 5). Temperature increase from 14 °C to
121 °C was faster by approximately 15 min under ohmic heating than
retort heating. Under retort heating, initially, the temperature increased
quickly, but the time taken to reach 70 °C was almost the same as that
under ohmic heating. After reaching 70 °C, however, temperature
increased more rapidly under ohmic heating. Temperature history
during cooling was nearly the same for the two methods. Furthermore,
under retort heating, the temperature gradient between the hot water
and food, the two heat transfer media, serves as a driver of heating—
temperature increase is slower at higher food temperatures. Under
ohmic heating, however, electrical conductivity generally increases
with food temperature; therefore, temperature increase is quicker as
at higher food temperatures.
It has been reported that when food is sterilized by heating, quality
deterioration can be reduced by decreasing the heating time. Therefore,
it is expected that the shorter heating time under ohmic heating will
result in the production of higher-quality food.
3.5. F0 value
The changes in the lethal rate during ohmic heating and retort
heating, estimated based on temperature history at the cold point, are
 R. Ito et al. / Meat Science 96 (2014) 675–681 679

Fig. 7. Transition of water content rate of chicken processed by various heating methods
for 365 days.
Fig. 5. Evaluation of temperature during ohmic heating and retort. Temperature reached
121 °C faster by ohmic heating than by retort.

3.7. IMP content

shown in Fig. 6. The F0 values for ohmic heating and retort heating were
5.74 and 10.28, respectively (both exceeding 4). Therefore, it was
The changes in IMP concentration are shown in Fig. 8. ATP-related
suggested that in addition to satisfying the requirements of 121 °C and
compounds the samples stored for 14 days are shown in Fig. 9. During
4 min, ohmic heating reduces the quality deterioration of food caused
the storage period between two days and one year, the ohmically
by heating.
heated samples had significantly higher IMP concentration than the
retort-heated samples (p b 0.01). The x-axis represents the measured
sample, and the y-axis shows the content of ADP, AMP, ATP, and HxR.
3.6. Water content
ATP changes into ADP, ADP changes into AMP, AMP changes into IMP,
IMP changes into HxR, and HxR changes into Hx. The decreases in
The changes in water content are shown in Fig. 7.
ATP, ADP, and AMP lead to an increase in IMP content. Conversely,
For all storage periods, the ohmically heated samples had higher
increases in HxR and Hx lead to a decrease in IMP content. IMP
water content than the retort-heated samples; however, the differences
concentration changed to HxR, Hx and so on. IMP concentration in
were not statistically significant.
both the sample types remained nearly constant across storage periods.
This suggests that IMP concentration did not change during storage. IMP
is the main flavor-enhancing component of chicken and is an important

Fig. 6. Evaluation of Lethal rate during ohmic heating and retort. Temperature reached Fig. 8. Transition of IMP concentration of chicken processed by various heating methods
121 °C. for 365 days.
680 R. Ito et al. / Meat Science 96 (2014) 675–681
Fig. 9. ATP. ADP, AMP and HxR. Hx content of the samples stored for 14 days.
indicator of the quality of chicken products. The above results show that
the ohmically heated samples contained more IMP than retort-heated
samples, allowing for the preparation of higher-quality samples. This
is ascribed to the higher temperature increase rate under ohmic heating,
which restricts IMP reduction caused by heating.
3.8. Glutamic acid content
The changes in glutamic acid concentration are shown in Fig. 10. For
all storage periods, the ohmically heated samples had higher glutamic
acid concentration than the retort-heated samples. However, significant
differences were found only in the samples stored for 14, 84, 168, and
280 days (p b 0.05). Glutamic acid did not fluctuate greatly in both
sample types. Based on these findings, it was suggested that the
glutamic acid concentration did not change during storage.
Fig. 10. Transition of Glutamic acid concentration of chicken processed by various heating
methods for 365 days.
Fig. 11. The result of sensory test. The appearance of ohmically heated samples was
significantly better than that of retort-processed samples, and retort-processed samples
were significantly more tender than ohmically heated samples.
3.9. Sensory test
The results of the sensory test are shown in Fig. 11. On average,
between the two sample types, the ohmically heated samples received
higher points in terms of appearance, taste, tenderness, flavor in mouth,
and comprehensive evaluation; the retort-heated samples received
higher points in terms of flavor. However, significant differences were
not found in all of the items. Therefore, it was suggested that there
were no marked differences in sensory quality between the two sample
types.
4. Conclusion
In this study, we ohmically heated chicken breast samples and
conducted various tests on the heated samples. Our findings are as
follows:
1) Temperature changes during current application were monitored at
several locations inside the heating cell. Temperature increase was
the slowest in the upper part of the cell near the electrode. Therefore,
this location was selected as the temperature measurement location.
2) There was a high correlation between electrical conductivity
during current application and measured temperature (y = 4E-
05x2 + 0.0010x + 0.3690 with a contribution rate of R2 = 0.98).
Thus, we demonstrated that sample temperature could be estimated
with a certain level of confidence based on current and voltage
values.
3) A sterilization test was conducted on the prepared ohmically heated
samples. The samples conformed to the constant-temperature test
and the microbiological test for retort food stipulated under the
Food Sanitation Act. Therefore, it was suggested that the shelf life
of the ohmically heated samples was almost the same as that of
the retort-heated samples.
4) Temperature changes during heating were compared for the two
heating methods. Temperature increase was quicker under retort
heating immediately after the start of heating. However, both
sample types reached 70 °C at nearly the same time; thereafter,
temperature increase was quicker under ohmic heating. Thus, it
 R. Ito et al. / Meat Science 96 (2014) 675–681
was demonstrated that heating time could be reduced using ohmic
heating.
5) The measurement of water content, IMP, and glutamic acid suggests
that the quality of the ohmically heated samples was similar to that
of the retort-heated samples. Furthermore, based on the monitoring
of these samples, it was observed that sample quality did not
deteriorate during storage.
6) The sensory test did not yield significant differences in the tested
sensory qualities. It was suggested that the ohmically heated
samples had similar sensory qualities to the retort-heated samples.
Acknowledgments
This study was partially funded by Japanese Society of Taste
Technology. We are grateful to Mr. Toshio Nakai for providing technical
support for retort treatment and to Mr. Daiki Yokoyama for providing
technical support for ohmic heating.
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