LESSON 6.
3
Key Objectives
6.3.1 DESCRIBE trends among elements for
atomic size.
6.3.2 EXPLAIN how ions form.
6.3.3 DESCRIBE trends for first ionization
energy, ionic size, and electronegativity.
Additional Resources
Reading and Study Workbook, Lesson 6.3
Available Online or on Digital Media:
• Teaching Resources, Lesson 6.3 Review
• Small-Scale Chemistry Laboratory Manual, Lab 9
Engage
& ionic size, and electronegativity?
CHEMISTRY Y
YO
YOU U Have students read the
opening paragraph. As a class, discuss the seasonal
trends in weather typical for your region of the
country. Ask How is knowing the trends in weather
for a specific region helpful? (Sample answer: It can
help in determining the type of plants that will grow
well in your yard.) Have students consider how
knowing trends in elemental properties might be
helpful to scientists.
Access Prior Knowledge
Ask student volunteers to summarize what they have
learned about the organization of the periodic table.
Have students compare and contrast properties and
characteristics of periods with those of groups.
National Science Education Standards
A-1, A-2, B-1, B-2, B-3
174 Chapter 6 • Lesson 3
6.3 Periodic Trends
CHEMISTRY &YOU
Y
Q: How are trends in the weather similar to trends in the properties of
elements? Although the weather changes from day to day. The weather
you experience is related to your location on the globe. For example,
Florida has an average temperature that is higher than Minnesota’s.
Similarly, a rain forest receives more rain than a desert. These differ-
ences are attributable to trends in the weather. In this lesson, you will
learn how a property such as atomic size is related to the location of
an element in the periodic table.
Key Questions Trends in Atomic Size
What are the trends among the What are the trends among the elements for atomic size?
elements for atomic size? One way to think about atomic size is to look at the units that form
How do ions form? when atoms of the same element are joined to one another. These
What are the trends among the
elements for first ionization energy,
units are called molecules. Figure 6.14 shows models of molecules
(molecular models) for seven nonmetals. Because the atoms in each
molecule are identical, the distance between the nuclei of these atoms
can be used to estimate the size of the atoms. This size is expressed
Vocabulary as an atomic radius. The atomic radius is one half of the distance
t
BUPNJD
SBEJVT between the nuclei of two atoms of the same element when the atoms
t
JPO are joined.
t
DBUJPO The distances between atoms in a molecule are extremely small.
t
BOJPO So the atomic radius is often measured in picometers (pm). Recall that
t
JPOJ[BUJPO
FOFSHZ there are one trillion, or 1012, picometers in a meter. The molecular
t
FMFDUSPOFHBUJWJUZ
model of iodine in Figure 6.14 is the largest. The distance between the
nuclei in an iodine molecule is 280 pm. Because the atomic radius is
one half the distance between the nuclei, a value of 140 pm (280/2) is
Figure 6.14 Atomic Radii assigned as the radius of the iodine atom. In general, atomic size
This diagram compares the atomic radii increases from top to bottom within a group and decreases from
of seven nonmetals. left to right across a period.
Distance between nuclei
Nucleus
Hydrogen (H2) Oxygen (O2) Nitrogen (N2)
30 pm 66 pm 70 pm
Atomic radius Fluorine (F2) Chlorine (Cl2) Bromine (Br2) Iodine (I2)
62 pm 102 pm 120 pm 140 pm
174 $IBQUFS

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Focus on ELL
1 CONTENT AND LANGUAGE Have students write the lesson title Periodic Trends in their
vocabulary notebook. Have students determine the common definitions of each word
and write them in their notebook. Have students predict the lesson content based on
these definitions and what they have learned previously about the periodic table.
2 FRONTLOAD THE LESSON Provide four sets of photos of fashion trends from the
1950s, the 1970s, the 1990s, and the current decade. Ask students to identify the
fashion trends for each decade. Explain that a trend is a pattern over time. Then ask
students if they notice any similarities between clothes in the pictures. Explain that in
fashion, and in element properties, trends repeat periodically.
3 COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT Play “The Elements” song written by Tom Lehler. Use
this as a tool for engaging students’ interest in the content. Point out that, even
though the element names are never repeated, sections of the music are repeated.
Similarly, trends in the periodic table are repeated in each period.
 LESSON 6.3
Interpret

(SBQIT
Foundations for Reading
Atomic Radius vs. Atomic Number Figure 6.15 This graph plots
300 atomic radius versus atomic BUILD VOCABULARY Have students‘ attention make
Period 4
Period 3
Period 5 Cs number for elements with a compare/contrast table for cation and anion, and
Period 2 Rb atomic numbers from 1 to 55.
250 K a. Read Graphs Which use the table to decide which type of ion an element
alkali metal has an atomic is likely to form.
Period 1

Na
Atomic radius (pm)

200 radius of 238 pm?

b. Draw Conclusions READING STRATEGY Tell students that they will
Li Sc
Cd Based on the data for alkali be learning about trends related to the location of
150
Zn metals and noble gases, how elements in the periodic table. Guide students to
does atomic size change within
Xe read the visuals throughout the lesson closely, as the
a group?
100 Kr
Ar c. Predict Is an atom of visuals summarize the trends described in the text.
barium, atomic number 56,
Ne smaller or larger than an atom
50 He
of cesium (Cs)?
Explain
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Atomic number
Trends in Atomic Size
USE VISUALS Guide students’ attention to Figure
Group Trends in Atomic Size Look at the data for the alkali metals and
noble gases in Figure 6.15. The atomic radius within these groups increases as 6.14. Ask What is the main reason why a scientist
the atomic number increases. This increase is an example of a trend. cannot measure the diameter of a single atom?
As the atomic number increases within a group, the charge on the (because an atom does not have a sharply defined
nucleus increases and the number of occupied energy levels increases. These
border) Discuss how measuring the distance
variables affect atomic size in opposite ways. The increase in positive charge
draws electrons closer to the nucleus. The increase in the number of occupied between nuclei solves this problem. (NOTE: In
orbitals shields electrons in the highest occupied energy level from the attrac- Chapter 8 there are formal definitions of molecule
tion of protons in the nucleus. The shielding effect is greater than the effect of and diatomic molecule. The operational definition
the increase in nuclear charge, so the atomic size increases.
of a molecule should be sufficient for a discussion
Period Trends in Atomic Size Look again at Figure 6.15. With increas- of atomic radii.)
ing atomic number, each element has one more proton and one more elec-
CRITICAL THINKING Emphasize the key roles
tron than the preceding element. Across a period, the electrons are added to
the same principal energy level. The shielding effect is constant for all the electrical attraction and repulsion play within atoms
elements in a period. The increasing nuclear charge pulls the electrons in and ions. Review the effects of increasing nuclear
the highest occupied energy level closer to the nucleus, and the atomic size charge and changes in the shielding effect of
decreases. Figure 6.16 summarizes the group and period trends in atomic size.
electrons on the size of an atom: nuclear charge
Size generally decreases
increases within groups and across periods; the
Figure 6.16 Trends in Atomic Size
The size of atoms tends to decrease
shielding effect increases within groups, but it is
Size generally increases

from left to right across a period and
increase from top to bottom within
a group.
Predict If a halogen and an alkali
metal are in the same period, which
one will have the larger radius?
ET
KIN IC
See periodic trends
animated online.
ART
5IF
1FSJPEJD
5BCMF
175
Elements and the Big Bang
constant across periods. Have students use these
effects to describe the trends for atomic size within
a period and within groups.
USE AN ANALOGY As an analogy to positions and
trends in properties of elements in the periodic
table, use seating charts and pricing data from
local theaters or sports venues to discover trends.
Instruct students to determine patterns that relate
the position of a seat to its price. Students should
discover that variables such as distance from the
stage or field, location relative to the center of the
action, and whether the view will be obstructed,
all affect price.

At the time of the Big Bang, the temperature was many billions of degrees.
Neutrons, protons, and electrons may have formed within 10–4 second after the Big
Bang, and the lightest nuclei formed within 3 minutes. Matter was in the form of
plasma, a sea of positive nuclei and negative electrons. It took an estimated 500,000
years for electrons and nuclei to cool enough to form atoms. According to the Big Answers
Bang theory, Earth, with its wealth of chemical elements, formed from the debris of FIGURE 6.15
supernova explosions. a. potassium
b. It increases with increasing atomic number.
c. smaller
FIGURE 6.16 the alkali metal

The Periodic Table 175

LESSON 6.3 Figure 6.17 Cation Formation
When a sodium atom loses an
Lose one electron
ź1eź
electron, it becomes a positively
Explore charged ion.

Ions
Class Activity
PURPOSE To give students practice identifying
positive and negative ions
PROCEDURE Give students a list of elements.
Ask them to locate each element in the periodic
table, and decide whether its atoms are likely to
form positive or negative ions. Have students make
a list of elements that are likely to form positive ions
and another list of elements that are likely to form
negative ions.
Misconception Alert
Many students will associate the words “losing” and
“gaining” with subtraction and addition, respectively.
Make sure they understand that when an atom loses
an electron, its charge becomes more positive, rather
than more negative. Similarly, when an element gains
an electron, it becomes more negative rather than
more positive. It may be helpful to remind students
that they are adding or subtracting the total charge
of the electrons gained or lost, rather than the total
number of electrons. For example, the elemental
form has a charge of 0, and it loses a single electron,
which has a charge of −1. The charge can be
calculated as 0 – (−1) = 0 + 1 = +1. For chlorine,
which gains an electron to become negative, the
calculation would be 0 + (−1) = −1.
Nucleus
11 pá
12 n0
Figure 6.18 Anion Formation
When a chlorine atom gains an
electron, it becomes a negatively
charged ion.
Interpret Diagrams What
happens to the protons and
neutrons during this change?
Nucleus
10 eź 11 pá
11 eź 12 n0
Sodium atom (Na) Sodium ion (Naá)
Ions
How do ions form?
Some compounds are composed of particles called ions. An ion is an atom
or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge. An atom is elec-
trically neutral because it has equal numbers of protons and electrons. For
example, an atom of sodium (Na) has 11 positively charged protons and
11 negatively charged electrons. The net charge on a sodium atom is zero
[(à11) à (Ź11) â 0].
Positive and negative ions form when electrons are transferred
between atoms. Atoms of metals, such as sodium, tend to form ions by losing
one or more electrons from their highest occupied energy levels. Figure 6.17
compares the atomic structure of a sodium atom and a sodium ion. In the
sodium ion, the number of electrons (10) is not equal to the number of pro-
tons (11). Because there are more positively charged protons than negatively
charged electrons, the sodium ion has a net positive charge. An ion with a
positive charge is called a cation. The charge for a cation is written as a num-
ber followed by a plus sign. If the charge is 1, the number in 1à is usually
omitted from the symbol for the ion. For example, Na1à is written as Naà.
Atoms of nonmetals, such as chlorine, tend to form ions by gaining one or
more electrons. Figure 6.18 compares the atomic structure of a chlorine atom
and a chloride ion. In a chloride ion, the number of electrons (18) is not equal
to the number of protons (17). Because there are more negatively charged
electrons than positively charged protons, the chloride ion has a net negative
charge. An ion with a negative charge is called an anion. The charge for an
anion is written as a number followed by a minus sign.
Gain one electron
á1eź

Nucleus
17 pá 17 eź
18 n0 18 eź Nucleus
17 pá
18 n0
Chlorine atom (Cl) Chloride ion (Clź)

176 $IBQUFS

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Check for Understanding

How do ions form?
Assess students’ knowledge about the formation of ions by asking them the
following questions:
a. What occurs when an atom in Group 2 becomes an ion? (It loses two electrons.)
b. Is the ion that forms from a Group 2 atom called an anion or a cation? How do
you know? (It is a cation because it has a positive charge, +2.)
ADJUST INSTRUCTION If students are confused, have them use a copy of the
periodic table as a reference as they read the Ions lesson or as they review. Review
the information provided in the Misconception Alert with students and show them
how to use the group numbers shown in red in Figure 6.9 to help them determine
the number of electrons lost or gained in groups 1A–7A. Note that determining the
charge on transition metal ions will not be covered until Chapter 20.
176 Chapter 6 • Lesson 3
 LESSON 6.3
Trends in Ionization Energy
What are the trends among the elements for first ionization energy?
Recall that electrons can move to higher energy levels when atoms absorb
Explain
energy. Sometimes the electron has enough energy to overcome the attrac-
tion of the protons in the nucleus. The energy required to remove an electron Trends in Ionization Energy
from an atom is called ionization energy. This energy is measured when an
element is in its gaseous state. The energy required to remove the first elec- MAKE A CONNECTION Explain that ionization energy
tron from an atom is called the first ionization energy. The cation produced is a measure of the difficulty in removing an electron
has a 1à charge. First ionization energy tends to decrease from top to from the highest occupied energy level. Ask Why
bottom within a group and increase from left to right across a period. is the first ionization energy of a nonmetal much
Ionization energies can help you predict what ions an element will form.
Look at the data in Table 6.1 for lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K). higher than that of an alkali metal? (Because the
The increase in energy between the first and second ionization energies is nuclear charge increases from left to right across a
large. It is relatively easy to remove one electron from a Group 1A metal atom, period and the shielding effect stays the same, it is
but it is difficult to remove a second electron. This difference indicates that more difficult to remove an electron.)
Group 1A metals tend to form ions with a 1à charge.
Misconception Alert
Some students may be tempted to place a negative
sign on the ionization energy value. Students
Interpret Data may confuse the phrase “losing an electron”
Table 6.1 The table with a negative energy value. Explain that the
compares ionization energies ionization energy is the energy change associated
Ionization Energies of First 20 Elements (kJ/mol*)
for elements with atomic
numbers 1 through 20. with removing one electron from a neutral atom.
Symbol First Second Third
a. Read Tables What are Explain that this energy value is always a positive
H 1312
the values for the first, second, number since energy must be added to the atom
He (noble gas) 2372 5247 and third ionization energies
Li 520 7297 11,810 for sodium and aluminum? system to remove an electron. (NOTE: The unit for
Be 899 1757 14,840 b. Compare Is it easier to ionization energy is kJ/mol. The footnote in Table 6.1
remove an electron from a supplies an operational definition of mole, which is
B 801 2430 3659 sodium (Na) or aluminum (Al)
C 1086 2352 4619 atom? From Naá or Alá? From introduced in Lesson 10.1.)
N 1402 2857 4577 Na2á or Al2á?
O 1314 3391 5301 c. Draw Conclusions
F 1681 3375 6045
Which ion is more common—
Na3á or Al3á?
Explore
Ne (noble gas) 2080 3963 6276
Na
Mg
496
738
4565
1450
6912
7732
Teacher Demo
Note: The second
Al 578 1816 2744 ionization energy is the PURPOSE To help students understand the concepts
Si 786 1577 3229 energy needed to remove of effective nuclear charge and electron shielding
P 1012 1896 2910 an electron from an ion with
a 1à charge. This produces PURPOSE Choose four students to be “protons” and
S 999 2260 3380
an ion with a 2à charge. The four students to be “electrons.” Construct a lithium
Cl 1256 2297 3850 third ionization energy is the
Ar (noble gas) 1520 2665 3947 energy needed to remove an “nucleus” by having three protons stand together at
K 419 3069 4600 electron from an ion with a the front of the room. Note that for purposes of this
Ca 590 1146 4941 2à charge. This produces an demo, you are ignoring the neutrons.
ion with a 3à charge.
*An amount of matter equal to the atomic mass in grams
• Place two electrons together at a short distance
from the nucleus to represent the 1s electrons.
• Place the third electron a bit farther away to
The Periodic Table 177
represent the 2s electron. You should be able
to draw a line from the nucleus through the 1s
electrons to the 2s electron.
• Point out that there are no other electrons
Differentiated Instruction between the 1s electrons and the nucleus.
L1 LESS PROFICIENT READERS Have students refer back to their KWL charts to Explain that these electrons experience the full
review their notes on atomic structure. Have them use this information to identify impact of the 3+ charge because the third electron’s
three of the factors that affect ionization energy: nuclear charge, number of energy “view” of the nucleus is partially blocked. Convey
levels, and shielding. that this means the nucleus it is shielded somewhat
from the full force of the 3+ charge.
ELL ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS Use student volunteers to set up a tug-of-war

game that to demonstrate why the amount of energy needed to remove successive Answers
electrons increases. Assign one team to be “protons” and the other team to be
FIGURE 6.18 nothing
“electrons.” Show students how the amount of force exerted by the “protons” on
TABLE 6.1
the “electrons” increases as each “electron” is removed from the game, and that
a. sodium: 496, 4565, 6912 kJ/mol; aluminum:
the “electrons” then have to pull harder against the “protons.”
578, 1816, 2744 kJ/mol
L3 ADVANCED STUDENTS Have students create a three-dimensional tactile or b. Na; Al+; Al2+
technological model that depicts the energy needed to remove an atom from an c. Al3+
electron. The Periodic Table 177
LESSON 6.3 Interpret

(SBQIT
Explain First Ionization Energy vs. Atomic Number Figure 6.19 This graph
2500 reveals group and period
He trends for ionization energy.
Trends in Ionization Energy Ne
a. Read Graphs Which

First ionization energy (kJ/mol)

2000 element in Period 2 has the
USE VISUALS Direct students to Table 6.1, lowest first ionization energy?
Figure 6.19, and their copy of the periodic table. Ar In Period 3?
1500 N Kr b. Describe What are
Show students how to use Table 6.1 and the
Xe the group trends for first
periodic table to create ordered pairs that are then H P ionization energy for noble
Be
plotted in the graph in Figure 6.19. Call out various 1000 Zn As Cd gases and alkali metals?
Mg
atomic numbers and have students estimate the c. Predict If you drew a
graph for second ionization
ionization energy, and vice versa. When students 500 energy, which element would
Li you have to omit? Explain.
are comfortable reading the graph, direct them to Na
K Rb
Cs
answer the questions.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
CRITICAL THINKING Challenge students to explain
Atomic number
why the portion of the graph for Periods 4 and 5 is
different from the portion of the graph for Periods
Group Trends in Ionization Energy Figure 6.19 is a graph of first ioniza-
2 and 3. (Periods 4 and 5 include transition metals,
tion energy versus atomic number. Look at the data for the noble gases and
whose atoms have electrons in d orbitals.) the alkali metals. In general, first ionization energy decreases from top to
bottom within a group. Recall that the atomic size increases as the atomic
number increases within a group. As the size of the atom increases, nuclear
Explore charge has a smaller effect on the electrons in the highest occupied energy
level. Less energy is required to remove an electron from this energy level,
and the first ionization energy is lower.

Teacher Demo
PURPOSE Students observe the relative reactivities
of magnesium and calcium and predict relative
reactivities for other pairs of elements.
MATERIALS 20 mL 1M HCl, two 50-mL beakers,
overhead projector, 20 cm magnesium ribbon,
1 g calcium
SAFETY Wear goggles for this demo.
PROCEDURE Pour 20 mL HCl into each beaker.
Set the beakers on an overhead projector. Coil the
magnesium ribbon and drop it into one beaker.
Drop 1 g calcium into the other beaker. Compare
the reaction rates in the two beakers. Point out
the positions of the two elements in the periodic
table, and relate the difference in reactivity to their
first and second ionization energies. Ask students
to predict the relative reactivities of other pairs of
elements in Groups 1A and 2A.
EXPECTED OUTCOME The calcium fizzes in the HCl.
The magnesium reacts more slowly with the HCl.
Period Trends in Ionization Energy In general, the first ionization energy
of representative elements tends to increase from left to right across a period.
This trend can be explained by the nuclear charge and the shielding effect.
The nuclear charge increases across the period, but the shielding effect
remains constant. As a result, there is an increase in the attraction of the
nucleus for an electron. Thus, it takes more energy to remove an electron
from an atom. Figure 6.20 summarizes the group and period trends for first
ionization energy.
Figure 6.20 Energy generally increases
Trends in First Ionization Energy
First ionization energy tends to
Energy generally decreases
increase from left to right across a
period and decrease from top to
bottom within a group.
Predict Which element would have
the larger first ionization energy—
an alkali metal in Period 2 or an
alkali metal in Period 4?
178 $IBQUFS

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Check for Understanding

What are the trends among the elements for first ionization energy
and ionic size and electronegativity?
Assess students’ knowledge about the trends among the elements for first ionization
energy by having students use arm gestures to answer the following questions.
Ask In which direction on the periodic table does the first ionization energy generally
increase in value? (Accept arm gestures from left to right, and upward.) Ask In which
direction on the periodic table does the first ionization energy generally decrease in
value? (Accept arm gestures downward and from right to left.)
ADJUST INSTRUCTION If students are having trouble answering, have them write
some of the values in Table 6.1 on the element squares in a copy of the periodic
table and examine their table for ionization patterns.

178 Chapter 6 • Lesson 3

 LESSON 6.3
Trends in Ionic Size Figure 6.21
Comparing Atomic and Ionic Sizes
What are the trends among the elements for ionic size?
During reactions between metals and nonmetals, metal atoms
This diagram compares the relative sizes of
atoms and ions for selected alkali metals Explain
(Group 1A) and halogens (Group 7A). The
tend to lose electrons and nonmetal atoms tend to gain electrons. numbers are measurements of the radii
This transfer of electron has a predictable effect on the size of the given in picometers (pm). Trends in Ionic Size
ions that form. Cations are always smaller than the atoms from
which they form. Anions are always larger than the atoms from MAKING CONNECTIONS Relate the periodic trends
which they form. Ionic size tends to increase from top to Group 1A in ionic size to those discussed earlier for atomic
bottom within a group. Generally, the size of cations and anions eź size. Explain that the effective nuclear charge
Liá
decrease from left to right across a period. Li experienced by an electron in the highest occupied
60
Group Trends in Ionic Size Figure 6.21 compares the relative 156 orbital of an atom or ion is equal to the total
sizes of the atoms and ions for three metals in Group 1A—lithium eź nuclear charge (the number of protons) minus the
Naá
(Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K). For each of these elements,
Na shielding effect due to electrons in lower energy
the ion is much smaller than the atom. For example, the radius of
a sodium ion (95 pm) is about half the radius of a sodium atom 191
95 levels. Point out that the effective nuclear charge
(191 pm). When a sodium atom loses an electron, the attraction eź determines the atomic and ionic radii. Explain
Ká
between the remaining electrons and the nucleus is increased. As that as you proceed from left to right in any given
a result, the electrons are drawn closer to the nucleus. Metals that K
period, the principal quantum number, n, of the
are representative elements tend to lose all their outermost elec- 133
trons during ionization. Therefore, the ion has one fewer occupied 238 highest occupied energy level remains constant, but
energy level. the effective nuclear charge increases. Therefore,
The trend is the opposite for nonmetals, like the halogens in atomic and ionic radii decrease as you move to the
Group 7A. Look at Figure 6.21, and compare the relative sizes of Group 7A
eź
right in a period. Convey that in contrast, within
the atoms and ions for fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), and bromine F
(Br). For each of these elements, the ion is much larger than the Fź
any group, as you proceed from top to bottom, the
atom. For example, the radius of a fluoride ion (133 pm) is more 62
133
effective nuclear charge remains nearly constant,
than twice the radius of a fluorine atom (62 pm). As the number
eź
but the principal quantum number, n, increases.
of electrons increases, the attraction of the nucleus for any one Cl
Clź Consequently, point out that atomic and ionic radii
electron decreases.
102 increase from top to bottom within a group.
181
Period Trends in Ionic Size Look ahead at Figure 6.23. From left
to right across a period, two trends are visible—a gradual decrease eź Br
in the size of the positive ions (cations), followed by a gradual
decrease in the size of the negative ions (anions). Figure 6.22 sum- 120
Brź
Explore
marizes the group and period trends in ionic size. 196

Teacher Demo
PURPOSE Students observe an analogy for the effect
Size of cations decreases Size of anions decreases Figure 6.22 Trends in Ionic Size of adding or removing electrons from an atom.
The ionic radii for cations and
anions decrease from left to right
MATERIALS washers or other small circular items,
smaller item (such as a button) to represent the
Size generally increases

across periods and increase from

top to bottom within groups. nucleus, overhead projector
PROCEDURE On the overhead projector, make a
circle of washers to represent an electron cloud in
a neutral atom. The washers should be touching.
Place the “nucleus” in the center of the circle. Add
or subtract washers to mimic ion formation. With
each change, adjust the circle so that the washers
5IF
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5BCMF
179 are still touching. Explain that the change in the
diameter of the circle is analogous to the change
in the effective attraction of the nuclear charge for
electrons.
Differentiated Instruction
L1 LESS PROFICIENT READERS Have students examine Table 6.2. Act out the

meaning of electronegativity. Then have students predict if there are any elements
other than noble gases that do not have a value for electronegativity. Guide students
in researching their prediction. (Predictions will vary; students will most likely find
electronegativity tables lacking values for manmade elements with atomic numbers
greater than 102.) Note these elements rarely, if ever, have been demonstrated to Answers
form compounds because their atoms exist only momentarily due to their instability. FIGURE 6.19
a. lithium; sodium
ELL SPECIAL NEEDS STUDENTS Provide tactile spherical models of various atoms.
b. First ionization energy decreases as atomic
Have students arrange the models on a copy of the periodic table to visually convey number increases.
the trend in ionic size. c. Hydrogen; it has only one electron.
L3 ADVANCED STUDENTS Have students research and describe the phenomenon FIGURE 6.20 an alkali metal in Period 2
of the lanthanide contraction. Ask them to discuss how the lanthanide contraction
accounts for the fact that zirconium and hafnium have virtually the same atomic The Periodic Table 179
radius even though hafnium is below zirconium in Group 4B of the periodic table.
LESSON 6.3 Quick Lab
Explore Purpose To use a graph to iden- Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii
tify period and group trends
Trends in Ionic Size Materials Procedure
Use the data presented in Figure 6.23 to
r
graph paper
Quick Lab r
pencil
plot ionic radius versus atomic number.

OBJECTIVE AfAfter completing this activity, students Analyze and Conclude

will be able to identify periodic trends in ionic size. Ionic Radius vs.
Atomic Number 1. Compare How does the size change when an atom forms a cation
SKILLS FOCUS Using tables and graphs, predicting, 250 and when an atom forms an anion?
drawing conclusions 2. Describe How do the ionic radii vary within a group of metals?

Ionic radius (pm)

200
How do they vary within a group of nonmetals?
PREP TIME none 150 3. Describe What is the shape of a portion of the graph that corre-
CLASS TIME 40 minutes 100
sponds to one period?
4. Compare and Contrast Is the trend across a period similar or
TEACHING TIPS If time is too limited for students 50 different for Periods 2, 3, 4, and 5?
to make the graph, use Figure 6.23 to answer 0 5. Explain Propose explanations for the trends you have described for
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Questions 1, 2, 4, and 5. You may want to reference ionic radii within groups and across periods.
Atomic number
the radii diagrams in the Elements Handbook on R3,
R7, R11, R15, R21, R25, and R29.
EXPECTED OUTCOME Ionic radii increase from top Figure 6.23 Atomic and Ionic Radii
to bottom within a group. The radii of cations and Atomic and ionic radii are an 156 Atomic radius Metal atom
indication of the relative size of atoms Cation
anions decrease from left to right across a period. and ions. The data listed are reported Li Metalloid atom
Anion
in picometers (pm). 60 Ionic radius
ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE Nonmetal atom
1A 8A
1. Cations are smaller than their atoms; anions are 30 50
larger than their atoms.
H He
2. Ionic radii increase from top to bottom within 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
a group of metals or within a group of 156 113 83 77 70 66 62 70
nonmetals.
Li Be 2 B C N3 O2 F Ne
3. Two portions of the curve slope down from left 60
1á
44
á
23
3á
15
4á
146
ź
140
ź
133
1ź

to right. 191 160 143 109 109 105 102 94

4. The trend is similar for the periods. Na1 Mg2 Al 3 Si 4 P S Cl 1 Ar

á á á á 3ź 2ź ź
5. The radii increase within a group because the 95 66 51 41 212 184 181

number of occupied energy levels increases. 238 197 141 122 122 120 120 111

The radii of cations decrease across a period K 1á

Ca 2 á
Ga3 á
Ge 4 As 3 ź
Se 2 Br 1 Kr
because the nuclear charge increases, the 133 99 62 53
á
222 198
ź
196
ź

shielding effect is constant, and the number 255 215 166 139 137 139 140 130
of electrons decreases. (The effect is smaller Rb 1 Sr 2 In 3 Sn 4 Sb 5 Te 2 I Xe
with anions because the number of electrons 148
á
112
á
81
á
71
á
62
á
221
ź
220
1ź

increases.) 273 224 172 175 170 168 140 140

FOR ENRICHMENT Have students use the graph on Cs 1 á

Ba 2 á
Tl 3á
Pb 4 á
Bi 5 á
Po At Rn
page R37 to describe the periodic trend in atomic 169 134 95 84 74

size for transition metals. Have students examine

how the trend for transition metals compares to the 180 $IBQUFS

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trend for representative elements.

Focus on ELL
4 LANGUAGE PRODUCTION Have students work in groups or pairs to complete the
lab. Review plotting data on a coordinate grid with the class. Pair students with
higher proficiency in English with students of lower proficiency.
BEGINNING: LOW/HIGH Help students create a set of ordered pairs to plot on the
graph. Use gestures to visually show how to plot an ordered pair on a coordinate grid.
INTERMEDIATE: LOW/HIGH Paraphrase the questions in the Analyze and Conclude
section. Guide students to answer one question at a time.
ADVANCED: LOW/HIGH Direct students to read the graph aloud, pointing out trends
and making predictions prior to answering the questions.

180 Chapter 6 • Lesson 3

 LESSON 6.3
Trends in Electronegativity
What are the trends among the elements for electronegativity?
In Chapters 7 and 8, you will study two types of bonds that can exist in
Explore
compounds. Electrons are involved in both types of bonds. There is a prop-
erty that can be used to predict the type of bond that will form during a Trends in Electronegativity
reaction. This property is called electronegativity. Electronegativity is the
ability of an atom of an element to attract electrons when the atom is in a START A CONVERSATION Lead a class discussion
compound. Scientists use factors such as ionization energy to calculate values on periodic and group trends in electronegativities.
for electronegativity. Point out that electronegativity values help chemists
Table 6.2 lists electronegativity values for representative elements in predict the type of bonding that exists between
Groups 1A through 7A. The elements are arranged in the same order as in
the periodic table. The noble gases are omitted because they do not form atoms in compounds. Ask Why are the noble gases
many compounds. The data in Table 6.2 is expressed in Pauling units. Linus not included in a discussion on electronegativity?
Pauling won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on chemical bonds. He (because they form very few compounds) Ask
was the first to define electronegativity. Which element represented in Table 6.2 is the
In general, electronegativity values decrease from top to bottom
within a group. For representative elements, the values tend to increase most electronegative and which is the least
from left to right across a period. Metals at the far left of the periodic table electronegative? (fluorine; cesium) Stress that
have low values. By contrast, nonmetals at the far right (excluding noble electronegativity is a calculated value rather than a
gases) have high values. The electronegativity values among the transition measured quantity.
metals are not as regular.
The least electronegative element in the table is cesium, with an electro- APPLY CONCEPTS Explain that the values for
negativity value of 0.7. It has the least tendency to attract electrons. When it electronegativity are often based on values for
reacts, it tends to lose electrons and form cations. The most electronegative ionization energy and electron affinity. Explain that
element is fluorine, with a value of 4.0. Because fluorine has such a strong
tendency to attract electrons, when it is bonded to any other element it either ionization energy is a measure of an atom’s ability
attracts the shared electrons or forms an anion. to lose electrons and electron affinity is a measure
Figure 9.24, on the next page, summarizes several trends that exist of an atom’s ability to gain electrons.
among the elements. Refer to this figure as you study the periodic trends
presented in this chapter.
Misconception Alert
Students often confuse the meanings of
Table 6.2
electronegativity and ionization energy. As a
Electronegativity Values for Selected Elements class, brainstorm ideas for how to remember
H the meanings of each term. Then have students
2.1 pictorially illustrate both concepts.
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br
0.8 1.0 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I
0.8 1.0 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi
0.7 0.9 1.8 1.9 1.9

The Periodic Table 181

Focus on ELL
4 ENABLE LANGUAGE PRODUCTION Have students work in small groups to
complete the Small-Scale Lab on page 184. Make sure each group has ELLs of varied
language proficiencies, so that more proficient students can help less proficient ones.
Have students work according to their proficiency level.
BEGINNING
LOW Model the procedure and have students mimic you. Show students how to
read measures from measuring tools.
HIGH Rephrase steps 1 and 3 in the procedure as several single-direction steps.
INTERMEDIATE: LOW/HIGH Restate the Analyze and Conclude questions in simpler
terms. Allow students to orally respond to the Analyze and Conclude questions.
ADVANCED: LOW/HIGH Have students paraphrase the questions in Analyze and
Conclude and You’re the Chemist and read them aloud to students with lower
English proficiencies. The Periodic Table 181
LESSON 6.3 Atomic size decreases
Ionization energy increases

Ionization energy decreases

Electronegativity decreases
Explain

Nuclear charge increases

Electronegativity increases

Atomic size increases

Nuclear charge increases

Ionic size increases

Shielding increases
USE VISUALS Direct students’ attention to Figure Shielding is constant
6.24. Point out that this diagram incorporates 1A 8A
information from several diagrams earlier in the
chapter. Lead a discussion as to whether students 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A

find this or earlier diagrams more helpful, and why.

CHEMISTRY & Y
YO
YOU U Trends in atomic size,
ionization energy, ionic size, and electronegativity
can be idendified with the help of the periodic table.

Evaluate
Informal Assessment
Assign each student two elements in the same group
and have the student compare the elements in terms
of atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, and
electronegativity. For successful students, repeat the
exercise with a metal and nonmetal from the same
period. Have students write general statements to
summarize the trends revealed by these comparisons.
Then, have students complete the 6.3 Lesson Check.
CHEMISTRY &YYOU
Q: You are familiar with using
a weather map to identify trends
in the weather. For example, cer-
tain areas are typically warmer
than other areas. What trends
in the properties of elements can
you identify with the help of the
periodic table?
Size of cations decreases Size of anions decreases
Figure 6.24 Summary of Periodic Trends
Trends for atomic size, ionization energy, ionic size, and electronegativity vary
within groups and across periods. The trends that exist among these properties
can be explained by variations in atomic structure. The increase in nuclear charge
within groups and across periods explains many trends. Within groups, an increase
in the number of occupied energy levels and an increase in shielding both have a
significant effect on each trend.
Interpret Diagrams Which properties tend to decrease across a period? Which
properties tend to decrease down a group?

Reteach
Review the terms used in Figure 6.24. Then, use the

6.3
periodic table and the terms to play a version of “I’m NLIN
O

thinking of . . . .” For example, choose fluorine and LessonCheck

PR

OBLE
M

say you are thinking of an element that has a very

small atomic size and a very high electronegativity. Let
students guess, and then discuss the correct answer.
Have students continue the game in small groups.
18. Review How does atomic size change 23. Explain In general, how can the periodic trends
within groups and across periods? displayed by elements be explained?
19. Explain When do ions form? 24. Sequence Arrange these elements in order of
decreasing atomic size: sulfur, chlorine, alu-
20. Summarize How do first ionization ener-
minum, and sodium. Does your arrangement
gies vary within groups and across periods?
demonstrate a periodic trend or a group trend?
21. Describe Compare the size of ions to the
25. Identify Which element in each pair has the
size of the atoms from which they form.
larger first ionization energy?
22. Review How do electronegativity values a. sodium, potassium
vary within groups and across periods? b. magnesium, phosphorus

182 $IBQUFS

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Lesson Check Answers

18. Atomic size generally increases 22. Electronegativity values generally
within a group and decreases from decrease from top to bottom within
left to right across a period. a group and increase from left to
19. Ions form when electrons are right across a period.
transferred between atoms. 23. The trends can be explained by
20. First ionization energy generally variations in atomic structure.
decreases within a group and 24. sodium, aluminum, sulfur, chlorine;
increases from left to right across a periodic trend
period. 25. a. sodium b. phosphorus
21. Anions are larger and cations are
smaller than the atoms from which
they form.

182 Chapter 6 • Lesson 3

 CHEMISTRY & YOU
CHEMISTRY
Y &YOU:
O EVERYDAY
YOU: V MATTER
CHEMISTRY & Y
YO
YOU U Have students look at
Elements of Life the photos and read about the Elements of Life.
Engage students in a conversation of ways the four
Like everything else in the universe, your body is made up of elements.
main elements of life—hydrogen, oxygen, carbon,
Your body uses these elements for different functions. Roughly
97 percent of the human body consists of just four elements: oxygen, and nitrogen—are a part of their everyday lives.
carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. The remaining 3 percent contains Students should realize that everything they do,
about 20 other elements that are essential to life. every moment of the day, involves these elements.
Pose the following question to students: How many
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM M Iro
Iron
on and different encounters have you had with these four
oxygen are critical to the circulatory
c elements today? You may need to assist students in
system—the system that
hat carries
caarries blood the following ways:
throughout the body. Iron, which is
contained in red blood cells,
od ce ells, helps • activities involving eating, drinking,
transport oxygen fromm the lungs to or performing personal hygiene tasks
other cells in your body.
dy. Two
Tw other • activities involved in getting to school
elements—copper and cobalt—are
d co balt—are
• activities the body carries out to live
necessary for the formation
matioon of red
blood cells. • objects encountered in nature

NERVOUS SYSTEM Sodium

and potassium are essential
Explain
to the nervous system, in START A CONVERSATION Explain to students that
particular the nerve cells. These about 97% of the atoms in the body are either
elements allow your brain to
communicate with other tissues
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, or nitrogen. Encourage
in your body. Other elements them to think about what properties might make
that are important for proper these elements so special. Explain that in later
nervous system function include chapters they will learn about how atoms combine
calcium, chlorine, zinc, and
magnesium.
by forming chemical bonds. Atoms of these four
elements are small and light. Also, the arrangement
of electrons in the atoms allows them to form
SKELETAL SYSTEM Your bones bonds in such a way that the atoms can combine
and teeth—two components
into the large, stable molecules necessary to carry
of the skeletal system—are
largely comprised of calcium out life functions.
and phosphorus, which
Take It Further
give bones and teeth their 1. Describe Use the information provided on
strength. Fluorine, boron,
magnesium, and silicon
page R1 to estimate the composition of the human
body in terms of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Extend
are also important 2. Predict The elements sodium, magnesium,
for bone growth and potassium, and calcium are the most abundant Connect to PHYSIOLOGY
for maintaining bone metals in the human body and are present as ions.
strength. What is the charge
g of each of these ions?
3. Sequence Use Figure 6.23 to list the ions in
Point out to students that even though hydrogen,
Question 2 from smallest to largest. oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen are by far the most
common atoms in organisms, they are not the only
atoms that are necessary for life. Have students
Chemistry & You 183
research the relative percentages of all the different
elements present in the human body and to present
their findings to the class.
Differentiated Instruction
L1 STRUGGLING STUDENTS Help students make a circle graph of the distribution of

elements in living organisms as a percentage of body weight. Write these numbers

on the board for them to use: oxygen, 61%; carbon, 23%; nitrogen, 2.6%;
hydrogen, 10%, and other elements, 3.4%. You may wish to have students use a Answers
graphing program to make the graphs, or have them make the graph on the board
as a class project. FIGURE 6.24 sizes of atoms and ions; ionization
energy and electronegativity
LPR LESS PROFICIENT READERS Have students read the feature together with a
TAKE IT FURTHER
partner. First, have students read a paragraph independently, and then have them
discuss what they have read with their partners. Afterwards, discuss the feature 1. metals: 2%; nonmetals: 98%; metalloids: 0%
together as a class. 2. sodium: 1+; magnesium: 2+; potassium: 1+;
calcium: 2+
L3 ADVANCED STUDENTS Ask students to research and write a report, including 3. magnesium, sodium, calcium, potassium
tables, that distinguishes between the percentages by mass and percentages by
number of atoms of each of the four main elements in the body. Chemistry & You 183
SMALL-SCALE LAB
Explore
Small-Scale Lab
OBJECTIVE Aft
After completing
l this activity, students
should be able to build concrete models to reinforce
periodic trends. They should also be able to apply a
procedure to a new variable and design a model on
their own.
PREP TIME 10 minutes
CLASS TIME 40 minutes
MATERIALS 96-well spot plates, straws, scissors,
metric rulers, permanent fine-line markers
ADVANCE PREPARATION Straws with a 1/4-inch
diameter fit snugly in the wells.
TEACHING TIPS Students can use colored straws to
color code groups or periods. If you do not have
spot plates, press a lump of clay the size of a golf
ball flat on a table with a block of wood. Students
can mark out a 1-cm square grid and insert the
straws in the clay.
EXPECTED OUTCOME Students produce 3-D models
for periodic trends.
ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE
1. fluorine
2. Electronegativity generally increases from left to
right along a period.
3. Metals, which are on the left side of the
table, have lower electronegativity values than
nonmetals, which are on the right.
4. Electronegativity generally increases from
bottom to top within a group. Except for boron,
the rest of Group 3A shows a reverse in this
trend.
5. Hydrogen is placed in Group 1A based on its
electron configuration, but is classified as a
nonmetal.
FOR ENRICHMENT Have students use the data on
page R37 to make a 3-D model of trends in atomic
size for transition metals.
YOU’RE THE CHEMIST
1. Students divide the values of first ionization
energies by 300 and measure the appropriate
length of straws.
2. Students must determine their own scale
before they begin. Students often use two
wells to represent both ionic and atomic radii.
Other students cut a straw to a length that
represents the larger radius of an atom and
mark the straw to show the smaller radius of
the corresponding cation.
3. The value for xenon is similar to iodine, which
is consistent with the general trend. Based on
this value, xenon appears to have the ability to
attract electrons and form compounds.
184 Chapter 6 • Small-Scale Lab
Small-Scale Lab
Periodicity in Three Dimensions
Purpose
To build three-dimensional models for
periodic trends
Materials
r
96-well spot plate r
metric ruler
r
straws r
permanent fine-line
marker
r
scissors
Procedure
1. Measure the depth of a well in the spot plate by
inserting a straw into a well and holding the straw
upright as shown in the photograph. Make a mark
on the straw at the point where the straw meets the
surface of the plate. Measure the distance from the
end of the straw to the mark in centimeters (cm).
Record this distance as well depth. 3. Interpret Diagrams Relate the trend in electro-
2. Cut the straw to a length that is 4.0 cm plus well negativity across a period to the location of metals
depth. The straw will extend exactly 4.0 cm above and nonmetals in the periodic table.
the surface of the plate. 4. Use Models Based on your model, what is the
3. Fluorine has an electronegativity value of 4.0. On general trend in electronegativity within a group?
a scale of 1.0 cm equals 1.0 unit of electronegativ- Are there any notable exceptions?
ity, the portion of the straw that extends above the 5. Explain Why do you think that the electronega-
surface of the plate represents the electronegativity tivity value for hydrogen is so high given its location
value for fluorine. Using the same scale, cut straws in the periodic table?
to represent the electronegativity values for all the
elements listed in Table 6.2. Remember to add the You’re the Chemist
well depth to the electronegativity value before cut- 1. Design an Experiment Construct a similar
ting a straw. As you cut the straws, mark each straw three-dimensional model for first ionization ener-
with the chemical symbol of the element that the gies. Use the data in Table 6.1 to construct the
straw represents. model. Use a scale of 1.0 cm equals 300 kJ/mol.
4. Arrange the straws in the spot plate in rows and 2. Design an Experiment Design and construct
columns to match the locations of the elements in a three-dimensional model that shows trends in
the periodic table. atomic and ionic radii for the elements in Groups 1A
and 7A. Devise a way to display both ionic and
Analyze and Conclude atomic radii in the same model.
1. Use Models Which element represented in your
3. Analyze Data Xenon has an electronegativ-
model is the most electronegative?
ity value of 2.6. Cut and place a straw in your first
2. Use Models Based on your model, what is the model to represent xenon. Does xenon support the
general trend in electronegativity from left to right trend for electronegativity across a period? Is xenon
across a period? likely to form compounds? Explain your answers.
184 $IBQUFS

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